Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Martin House Formation, Mackenzie Corridor, Northwest Territories, Canada

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2011 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Martin House Formation, Mackenzie Corridor, Northwest Territories, Canada

Davison, Julia Elizabeth Aidan

Davison, J. E. (2011). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Martin House Formation, Mackenzie Corridor, Northwest Territories, Canada (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/11347 http://hdl.handle.net/1880/48777 master thesis

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UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Martin House Formation,

Mackenzie Corridor, Northwest Territories, Canada

Julia Elizabeth Aidan Davison

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCE

CALGARY, ALBERTA

September, 2011

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ii ABSTRACT

Outcrop sections, wire-line logs, drill core, palynology, seismic data, and petrographic analyses are utilized to better constrain the paleogeographic setting of Lower Cretaceous strata in the Mackenzie Corridor of northern Canada. Twelve lithofacies and four facies associations are interpreted across the study area. Earliest Albian floodplain (FA1) deposits were overlain by estuarine (FA2), shallow marine (FA3) and offshore (FA4) strata deposited during a major Albian transgression. During the Lower Cretaceous, the Mackenzie Corridor was on the eastern side of a foreland basin and the Keele Arch formed a north-south trending highland. Facies maps show that basin paleotopography imparted significant control on the distribution and lateral continuity of stratigraphic units. Facies associations one, two and three are the most prospective for hydrocarbons, with the best porosity and permeability observed in FA1. Lower Cretaceous basin-fill deposits of the Mackenzie Corridor share characteristics with those in Northern Alberta. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was primarily sponsored by the financial generosity and technical partnership of Devon Canada, with additional technical support and funding from the Northwest Territories Geoscience Office and the Geological Survey of Canada MADACOR GEM project. I am most grateful to the technical discussions, advice and time donated by supervisor Dr. Stephen Hubbard at the University of Calgary. This ongoing support was invaluable to the successful outcome of this thesis. Contributions in the field and ongoing discussions with Dr. Thomas Hadlari of the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) formed an important and very much appreciated understanding of the study area. I am very grateful to the geologists, Paddy Chesterman of Chesterco Inc., Shannon Acton of Devon, and Dr. Melissa Giovanni of the University of Calgary, who agreed to venture into the wilds of the study area and fly about searching for elusive Lower Cretaceous outcrops. Thanks to Dr. Dennis Johnston, Paddy Chesterman, Reigh MacPherson and Dr. Dennis Meloche at Devon Canada for their assistance in creating this project and maintaining industry support. The field tips and project suggestions by Dr. Cook, Dr. MacLean, and Dr. Dixon at the GSC were helpful when creating this project. I really appreciate the assistance by Rick Fontaine and team in the GSC core lab and palynology expertise from Dr. Art Sweet, Dr. James White and Linda Dancey. Thank you to Dr. Andrew Leier, Dr. Giovanni, and Lynne Maillet at the University of Calgary for assistance with microscope challenges. Thanks to Dustin Bauer for his time reviewing, discussing and helping me improve my thesis drafts. I appreciate the reviews by CABS students Kaylee Anderson, Kevin Jackson, Keegan Raines and Ross Kukulski. Finally, I would like to thank my defense committee, Dr. Hubbard, Dr. Leier, and Dr. Gates for taking the time to read and provide useful suggestions for enhancing the final thesis. iv DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my family, boyfriend, close friends and geo-colleagues who were supportive throughout my thesis journey and made life fantastic by sharing a chat, a mountain adventure, or dinner. Merci mille fois! v Table of ConTenTs ApprovAl pAge ...... i AbstrAct ...... ii Acknowledgements ...... iii dedicAtion ...... iv tAble of contents...... v list of tAbles ...... vii list of figures ...... viii

INTRODUCTION...... 1

BACKGROUND ...... 3 study AreA ...... 3 previous works ...... 3 regionAl tectonic setting ...... 5 bAsin setting...... 7

STRATIGRAPHIC CONTEXT ...... 12

METHODOLOGY ...... 17

FACIES ...... 19 fAcies 1: chert pebble to cobble conglomerAte ...... 19 fAcies 2: cross-strAtified very coArse grAined sAndstone...... 23 fAcies 3: trough-cross strAtified fine to medium grAined sAndstone ...... 24 fAcies 4: orgAnic-rich fine grAined sAndstone to mudstone with roots ...... 26 fAcies 5: soft-sediment deformed heterolithic sAndstone And mudstone ...... 31 fAcies 6: fine grAined sAndstone with mudstone couplets And drAped ripples...... 33 fAcies 7: AbundAntly bioturbAted heterolithic sAndy mudstone ...... 35 fAcies 8: sAndstone interbedded with moderAtely to highly bioturbAted mudstone .36 fAcies 9: hummocky cross-strAtified moderAtely bioturbAted sAndstone...... 38 fAcies 10: cross-strAtified spArsely bioturbAted sAndstone...... 39 fAcies 11: pArAllel-lAminAted or mAssive sAndstone...... 40 fAcies 12: mudstone ...... 41

FACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND DEPOSITIONAL CONTEXT...... 45 fAcies AssociAtion 1: non-mArine deposits...... 45 fAcies AssociAtion 2: estuArine deposits...... 52 fAcies AssociAtion 3: shAllow mArine sAndstone ...... 61 fAcies AssociAtion 4: offshore mudstone ...... 63

PETROGRAPHY ...... 68

BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY...... 73 bAsin physiogrAphy ...... 73 depositionAl history...... 77 vi DISCUSSION ...... 84 pAleogeogrAphic reconstruction...... 84 impAct of the keele Arch on the distribution And definition of the mArtin house formAtion ...... 85 distribution of the mArtin house formAtion ...... 85 definition of the mArtin house formAtion...... 87 regionAl implicAtions...... 91 western cAnAdA sedimentAry bAsin ...... 100 hydrocArbon potentiAl...... 105

CONCLUSIONS ...... 109

REFERENCES...... 110

APPENDICES...... 143 summAry of biostrAtigrAphy in the study AreA...... 143 summAry of pAlynologicAl AnAlyses in the study AreA ...... 144 summAry of hydrocArbon resources ...... 146 vii

lisT of Tables tAble 1 – lithofAcies of the mArtin house formAtion ...... 20 tAble 2 – fAcies AssociAtions of the mArtin house formAtion ...... 46 tAble 3 – minerAlogy of the mArtin house formAtion...... 69 viii lisT of figures figure 1 – study AreA mAp ...... 2 figure 2 –study AreA during the lower cretAceous (mAp) ...... 4

figure 3 – study AreA during the lower cretAceous (cross-section) ...... 8

figure 4 – subcrop of the pAleozoic ...... 10 figure 5 – strAtigrAphic column ...... 13

figure 6 –type log from well i-66...... 15

figure 7 –fAcies 1: chert pebble to cobble conglomerAte ...... 25 figure 8 – fAcies AssociAtion 1: non-mArine deposits ...... 27

figure 9 – ternAry diAgrAms of petrogrAphy results...... 29

figure 10 – petrogrAphy of fA1 ...... 30 figure 11 – fAcies AssociAtion 2: estuArine deposits ...... 34 figure 12 – petrogrAphy of fA2 And fA3 ...... 42

figure 13 – fAcies AssociAtion 4: offshore mudstone...... 43 figure 14 – fAcies AssociAtion 3: shAllow mArine sAndstone ...... 44 figure 15 –fAcies schemAtic cross-section...... 47 figure 16 –distribution of fA1 ...... 50 figure 17 –distribution of fA2 And fA3 ...... 51

figure 18 –lithostrAtigrAphic cross-section from the peel trough...... 53

figure 19 – lithostrAtigrAphic cross-section from the keele Arch AreA...... 54 figure 20 – lithostrAtigrAphic cross-section from greAt beAr bAsin...... 56

figure 21 – mAp of the wells And seismic line locAtions in the study AreA ...... 59 figure 22 – cross-section b-b’ from west to eAst Across the study AreA...... 64 figure 23 – cross-section c-c’ from north to south in the peel trough...... 66 figure 24 – cross-section d-d’ from north to south in greAt beAr bAsin ...... 67

figure 25 – seismic trAnsects e-e’ And f-f’ Across the southwest flAnk of the keele Arch...... 75

figure 26 – seismic trAnsect g-g’ Across the northeAst flAnk of the keele Arch ..... 76 figure 27 – pAleogeogrAphy during event 1...... 80 figure 28 – pAleogeogrAphy during event 2...... 82 figure 29 – structurAl elements Affecting lower cretAceous sedimentAry deposition in the western cAnAdA ...... 92 figure 30 – mAp of the wcsb pAleogeogrAphy during the eArly bAsin-fill event 1 ... 93 ix figure 31 – mAp of the wcsb pAleogeogrAphy during bAsin-fill event 2...... 94 figure 32 – pAleomodel of the relAtive seA-level chAnges from the AptiAn to the cenomAniAn within western cAnAdA ...... 97 figure 33 – AlbertA wcsb pAleozoic subcrop ...... 101

figure 34 – lithostrAtigrAphic cross-sections in the AlbertA, liArd And mAckenzie corridor bAsins during eArly bAsin-fill (h-h’, i-i’, J-J’)...... 102 1

INTRODUCTION

The Mackenzie Corridor is one of Canada’s “last frontiers” with only a few small communities scattered along the major rivers. Despite the limited number of drilled wells, significant hydrocarbon discoveries have been made, with established production from Paleozoic strata (Osadetz et al., 2005). The Lower Cretaceous Martin House Formation in the Mackenzie Corridor represents a potential up-hole hydrocarbon exploration target relatively close to the Mackenzie River, the Enbridge (fluids) pipeline and the proposed Mackenzie Valley (gas) pipeline (Fig.1) (NEB 2004; Osadetz et al., 2005; Dixon et al., 2007; NEB, 2010). The long-discussed Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Project (gas) was approved in 2010 to extend 1196 km from the Beaufort Sea, through the Mackenzie Corridor to Northern Alberta, which could provide 34.3 million cubic meters of gas capacity (Fig. 1) (NEB, 2010). As the infrastructure in the Mackenzie Corridor develops, understanding the geological features that control the potential reservoirs in the area will be vital to enhance hydrocarbon recovery.

Overall, Cretaceous strata in the Mackenzie Corridor are understudied and underexplored and therefore the stratigraphic and structural complexity of associated units, including potential hydrocarbon-bearing zones, are under-appreciated. Few wells are cored through Cretaceous strata, making the integration of outcrop data particularly significant for understanding the nature of potential reservoirs in the subsurface. Previous studies have demonstrated widespread distribution of potentially hydrocarbon-bearing Cretaceous sandstone facies overlying Paleozoic carbonate units across a basin-wide unconformity (Aitken et al., 1969; Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1994; Dixon, 1997b; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Despite previous work on the Martin House Formation completed in the Mackenzie Corridor, the sediment source location, detailed biostratigraphy, depositional history and sediment distribution remains poorly constrained. 2

The primary objective of this study is to characterize the Lower Cretaceous Martin House Formation in greater detail than in previously published works; this is accomplished through the following analyses: 1) detailed sedimentological descriptions; 2) examination of stratigraphic relationships with respect to the Mackenzie Corridor foreland basin architecture; 3) construction of a general palaeogeographic model of the Martin House Formation; and 4) integration of the study area with the regional depositional setting of the adjacent sedimentary basins. These results contribute to a more developed understanding of potential hydrocarbon-bearing Lower Cretaceous strata in the Mackenzie Corridor.

Anderson Plain D08 Colville Hills Fort Good Hope Peel Plain Peel Plateau Great Bear Lake

Franklin Mountains I66 N10 66’0’0” Mackenzie River G22 Legend N58 Cretaceous-aged Core Keele Arch Great Bear Plain Cretaceous-aged Outcrop M04 KL K76 Community or town H34 Norman Mackenzie Pipeline ML Wells IR Keele Arch axis C21 BT Mackenzie Mackenzie Plain Delta N30 BR Great Bear River 65’0’0” Anderson Tulita Plain Horton Plain MRS E30 SCC Colville Mackenzie Mountains Eagle Peel Hills TA Plain Great Bear Basin Mackenzie Mackenzie Franklin Mountains Plain M ountains Great Slave Plain Precambrian Liard Shield Basin Whitehorse Trough Bowser Western Basin Canada Cordillera Sedimentary Basin 64’0’0” N CANADA N 1000 km 50 km 500 mi 20 mi

-133’0’0” -132’0’0” -131’0’0” -130’0’0” -129’0’0” -128’0’0” -127’0’0” -126’0’0” -125’0’0” -124’0’0” -123’0’0”

Figure 1. Overview of Mackenzie Corridor, Northwest Territories study area including main physiographic elements and the distribution of pertinent cores and outcrop sections utilized. Outcrop sections were measured at Imperial River (IR), Mackenzie River South (MRS), Bear Rock (BR), Tulita Anticline (TA), St. Charles Creek (SCC), Brackett River (BT), Kelly Lake (KL), and Mahoney Lake (ML). The Keele Arch is a reactivated fault structure, interpreted as a paleotopographic high during the deposition of the Martin House Formation (Cook, 1975). Modified from Bostock (1970) and the Department of Natural Resources Canada (2010). 3

BACKGROUND

STUDY AREA

The study area is centered around Norman Wells in the Canadian Northwest Territories, extending from the Peel Plain at 133’20’0” W and 67’20”0 N to Great Bear Basin at 122’0’0” W and 63’30’0”N (Fig. 1). The study area is constrained by the erosional edge of Lower Cretaceous strata to the north in Colville Hills, to the west by the Mackenzie Mountains, and to the south by the Root Basin (Figs. 1 and 2). Numerous geological studies in the Mackenzie Corridor are used as a basis for the present study and are briefly outlined in the following section.

PREVIOUS WORK

First recorded as a fuel source for the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1872, the oil and gas seeps along the Mackenzie Valley were well known by traders and first nations communities in the region (Hume, 1954). The first producing well was drilled into Devonian-aged strata at Norman Wells in 1920, generating interest in exploration of the Mackenzie Corridor (Hume, 1954). The Cretaceous-aged sediments of this study area were first described by Ogilvie (1889) and McConnell (1890), followed by surveys completed by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) between 1899 and 1907, the 1940’s ‘Canol Project’ (Hume, 1954), and regional outcrop mapping projects in the 1960’s and 1970’s (e.g., Stott, 1960; Douglas et al., 1963; Tassonyi, 1969; Bostock, 1970; Norris, 1973; Cook, 1975; Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Aitken et al., 1982; Williams, 1989). Reports that summarize regional outcrop mapping projects by the Geological Survey of Canada in the 1960’s and 1970’s were expanded more recently to include well log and core data (e.g., Dixon, 1992b; Dixon, 1997b; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a), seismic data (e.g., MacLean and Cook, 1999; MacLean, 2006), geochemical analyses (e.g., Snowdon, 1990; Feinstein et al., 1991; 4

A D08 Carnwath Platform Cap Fault Fort Good Hope Peel Trough Great Bear Lake

I66 A’ F47 N10 66’0’0” Keele Arch G22 N58 iver M ackenzie R (undeterminedMackenzie distance Fold Belt M04 KL K76 H34 Norman Wells ML Great Bear westward) IR C21 Basin BT

K03 BR N30 65’0’0” CA Tulita Great Bear River MD AB MRS K14 SCC CP CM TA E30 EP PT Precambrian Legend Shield Present-day BR GB Mackenzie MountainsBrackett Cretaceous-aged Core Study Great Bear Lake Area Cordillera GS Basin Cretaceous-aged Outcrop WT LB Community or town N A-A’ Cross-section BW 64’0’0”

N 0 50 km 1000 km WCSB Root Basin 20 mi 0 500 mi -133’0’0” -132’0’0” -131’0’0” -130’0’0” -129’0’0” -128’0’0” -127’0’0” -126’0’0” -125’0’0” -124’0’0” -123’0’0”

Figure 2. Geographic features of the study area associated with Lower Cretaceous strata. With an inset regional map of: Eagle Plain (EP), Mackenzie Delta (MD), Anderson Basin (AB), Coppermine Arch (CA), Coppermine Anticline (CM), Peel Trough (PT), Brackett and Root basins, GS- Great Slave Plain, LB- Liard Basin, WT-Whitehorse Trough, BW-Bowser Basin (BR), Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). The location of cross-section A-A’ is indicated (Fig. 3). The Keele Arch, Carnwath Platform and the Mackenzie Fold Belt were paleotopographic highs during the deposition of Lower Cretaceous strata (modified from Cook, 1975; Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Aitken et al., 1982; Norris et al., 1983; Williams, 1989; Dixon, 1996, 1997a, 1999; and Department of Natural Resources Canada, 2010).

Issler et al., 2005), biostratigraphic characterizations (e.g., Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969; Jeletzky, 1971; Jeletzky et al., 1973; Barnes et al. 1974; Jeletzky, 1974; Brideaux et al., 1975; Sweet et al., 1989; McNeil, 2007; White, 2009a, b; Sweet, 2010; White, 2010a, b; Thomson et al., 2011) (Appendix 1 and 2) and geochronological provenance assessment (Hadlari et al., 2009b). The Peel Project (2005-2009) and Mackenzie Delta and Corridor Mapping for Energy (MADACOR) project (2009-2013) represent further research initiatives by the Government of Canada to better constrain the geological history and resource potential of the study area (c.f., Taborda, and Spratt, 2008; Pyle and Jones, 2009; Fallas et al., 2010). 5

REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTING

The Mackenzie Corridor study area is interpreted as a northward extension of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB), which extends over Alberta, northeastern British Columbia and the southern Northwest Territories; this basin was linked in the Late Albian to the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico by a broad, shallow intracontinental seaway (Williams and Stelck, 1975). It is therefore likely that there were some similarities in the tectonic processes acting upon the Mackenzie Corridor study area to those that influenced the better-documented parts of the WCSB (cf., Price, 1994). The tectonic events associated with the formation of the Cordillera corresponded to concurrent variations in subsidence and sediment accumulation in the WCSB (Porter et al., 1982; Cant and Stockmal, 1989). During the formation of the WCSB, the convergence and subduction of the Kula-Farallon plate under the North American plate occurred in two major episodes (Monger, 1981; Monger et al., 1982). First, the collision of the Intermontane Superterrane with the miogeocline occurred between 187-164 Ma, which resulted in the Colombian Orogeny (Monger et al., 1982; Archibald et al., 1983; Colpron et al., 1996). Evidence for this tectonic event includes Middle Jurassic plutonic intrusions (165 Ma), metamorphism (180-160 Ma), and crustal shortening (Archibald et al., 1983; Brown et al., 1986, Colpron et al., 1996). The first evidence of westerly-derived sediments in the Alberta and British Columbia portions of the WCSB are sandstones of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Passage Beds, the Nikinassin Group and Minnes Group (Hamblin and Walker, 1979; Poulton, 1984; Miles, 2010). The second episode of convergence was related to the oblique collision of the Insular Superterrane (Alexander and Wrangell terranes) with the Cordilleran margin, between 100- 40 Ma in the mid-Cretaceous to Tertiary (Engebretson et al., 1985; Journeay and Friedman, 1993). The Laramide Orogeny, associated with this collision, produced renewed crustal shortening, metamorphism and volcanic activity (Stott, 1984). 6

Northerly extensions of the Intermontane and Insular superterranes collided with the western margin of the North American Plate west of the Mackenzie Corridor (Douglas et al., 1963; Norris, 1973, Aitken et al., 1982; Engebretson et al., 1985). By the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, the Columbian Orogeny had affected the study area and initiated uplift of the Mackenzie Mountains (Douglas et al., 1963; Norris, 1973). With respect to the Mackenzie Mountains region, the front of the Cordilleran fold-thrust belt was located to the southwest of the present-day erosional edge of Cretaceous strata (Norris, 1973; Jeletzky, 1974; Yorath and Cook, 1981). Granitoid magmatism in the Selwyn Basin of the Northwest Territories and Yukon in the latest Early Cretaceous and Middle-Cretaceous has been shown to be associated with syn-collisional to post-collisional tectonism in the Cordillera (Mortensen et al., 2000; Hart et al., 2004, Mair et al., 2006, Ramussen et al., 2010).

The study area was located in the Cordilleran foreland basin during the Cretaceous, situated behind a magmatic arc on continental crust between a contractional orogenic belt and the adjacent craton (cf., Douglas et al., 1970; Beaumont, 1981; Jordan, 1981; DeCelles and Giles, 1996). The distal edge of this Cordilleran foreland basin was eroded, and was likely situated east of Great Bear Lake where the Precambrian Shield is exposed (Bostock, 1970).

Previous work has led to the interpretation that the Martin House Formation records the first westerly derived sediments from the Cordillera; however, recent detrital zircon analysis from Martin House Formation outcrop samples in the Peel Plateau area showed that the zircons are characterized by crystallization ages consistent with Laurentian basement of the Canadian Shield (Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Hadlari et al., 2009b; Hadlari et al., in review). Possible interpretations of these data are numerous. (1) The sandstone was derived from a distal source associated with the Canadian Shield from the east, such as Cambrian quartz arenite east of Keele Arch (Hadlari et al., in review); 7

(2) the sand of the formation was brought into the area along a basin-axial drainage from the south (cf., Leckie and Smith, 1992); or (3) the sandstone was indeed westerly derived, recycled from orogenic material that comprised Paleozoic strata (recycled Laurentian Basement) uplifted in the Mackenzie Mountains. The later interpretation is not favoured since Proterozoic, Cambrian and Devonian sandstones from the Mackenzie Mountains have completely different detrital zircon ages (Rainbird et al., 1996; Hadlari et al., 2009b, Lemieux et al., 2011; Hadlari et al., in review). Upper Cretaceous Trevor Formation strata contain the first definitive evidence for westerly-derived detritus from the Cordillera (Hadlari et al., 2009b).

BASIN SETTING

During the Early Cretaceous, topographic highs, including the proto-Mackenzie Mountains and the Keele Arch, strongly influenced deposition of Martin House Formation sediments (Figs. 2 and 3) (Cook, 1975; Williams, 1989; MacLean and Cook, 1999). Paleotopographic highs partitioned the Peel Trough, Brackett Basin and the Great Bear Basin (Williams, 1989) (Fig. 2). The Great Bear Basin was much shallower and more expansive than the Brackett Basin or the Peel Trough (Williams, 1989) (Figs. 2 and 3). Facies distribution indicates that the foreland basin deepened to the northwest of the Peel Plateau throughout the time of deposition of the Martin House and Arctic Red formations; this deepening was associated with an overall decrease in grain-size (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Hadlari et al., 2009a). In fact, the only influence of the Paleo-Mackenzie Mountains that can be interpreted from facies maps of preserved Cretaceous strata is a westward deepening trend.

In studying the Canadian Cordilleran miogeocline, Cecile et al. (1997) suggested that the pattern of erosion and non-deposition in Paleozoic and younger strata is as much due to Paleozoic tectonics and paleogeography as it is due to younger tectonic events. Complicating 8 G-22 A’ NE M-04 H-34 Martin House Fm Tukweye mbr Tukweye Arctic Red Fm Arctic Red Fm E-30 Great Bear Basin Great ML C-21 K-14 Keele Arch Keele Arch KL K-03 K-03

50 km 20 mi

50 m Tukweye mbr Tukweye IR I-66 F-47

Peel Trough Trough Peel

Datum Datum Fm House Martin Slater River Fm River Fm Slater Fm Red Arctic Basement Basement Paleozoic Paleozoic A NW D-08 Figure 3. Cross-Section A-A’ depicting the stratigraphic architecture of Lower Cretaceous strata in Mackenzie Corridor study area. Location wells and A-A’ Figure 3. Cross-Section of the The mountain front and western margin The datum for the cross-section is base of Slater River Formation. are shown in Figure 2. A-A’ cores in foreland basin would have been significantly further west than t he present-day Mackenzie Mountains and the eastern edge of has suggested to be and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; MacLean, 2006; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Yorath and Stelck, 1975; Williams east of Great Bear Lake (based on 9 the Cretaceous strata are Paleozoic salt-related structures, wrench faulting and deep-seated thrust detachments (Davis and Willot, 1978; MacLean and Cook, 1999; MacLean, 2006). Northerly trending wrench faults are present in the Colville Hills and underlying the Franklin Mountains (Davis and Willot, 1978; Cook, 1983). During Cretaceous episodes of orogenic compression, older faults were reactivated and often reversed; faults that existed prior to the Cretaceous are dominantly normal (Aitken et al., 1982; MacLean and Cook, 1999; MacLean, 2006). The Keele Arch and Mahoney Arch are two such reactivated structures (Hume, 1954; Yorath and Cook, 1981), although The Mahoney Arch did not affect deposition during the Lower Cretaceous (Cook and MacLean, 1999).

Seismic and wireline log correlations by previous authors led to the interpretation of multiple episodes of tectonic movement for the Keele Arch, since at various times it acted as either an arch (periods of compression) or a basin depocenter (periods of extension), controlled by basement-seated faults (Cook, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Cook and MacLean, 1999; MacLean 2006; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Whereas there is consensus amongst previous workers that the Keele Arch was a paleotopographic high for a period of time between the Devonian and the Late Cretaceous, debate remains as to the timing and movement of the Keele Arch during the Lower Cretaceous (Cook, 1975; Aitken, 1982; Williams, 1989; Dixon, 1994; MacLean and Cook, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Progressively older Paleozoic strata underlie the sub-Cretaceous unconformity from the Mackenzie Mountains eastward toward Keele Arch (Fig. 4). Lower Cretaceous strata are present on both the western and eastern sides of the Keele Arch, but not overlying it (Fig. 3). On the western side of the Keele Arch, the Martin House and Arctic Red formations on- lap the Keele Arch and pinch-out beneath the sub-Slater River unconformity (Figs. 3 and 4) (Yorath & Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; MacLean and Cook, 1999). In question is whether: a) the Martin House Formation and subsequently the Arctic Red Formation were deposited across the Keele Arch, uplifted and eroded as a response to a series of tectonic uplift and 10 A’ NE G-22 Mahoney Arch Mahoney Arch M-04 H-34 Keele Arch Keele Arch E-30 ML C-21 K-14 K-14 KL K-03 K-03 IR Legend Proterozoic Proterozoic Kee Scarp Fm Kee Scarp Fm

P45 Mt Clark Fm. Clark Mt

I-66 Mt. Cap Fm. Fm. Cap Mt. Saline River Fm. Saline River Fm. Upper Devonian clastics (Canol-Imperial River Fm) clastics (Canol-Imperial Upper Devonian Middle-Upper (Hume-Hare Devonian Indian-Ramparts-Kee Scarp Fm) Bear (Delorme, Rock, carbonates Devonian Norman, Arnica, Ft. LandryLower-Middle Fm) carbonate Kindle Mt. Fm. Ordovician-Silurian carbonate Fm. Mt. Franklin Upper Cambrian-Ordovician salt Middle Saline Cambrian River Fm. shale Fm. Middle Cap Mt. Cambrian clastics Clark Mt. Fm Cambrian Lower Pre-Cambrian and Proterozoic Fault Cap F-47 Franklin Mt. Fm. Fm. Mt. Franklin Mt. Kindle Fm. KindleMt. Fm. Imperial-Canol Fm Bear Rock Fm etc etc Bear Rock Fm Hume-Hare Indian Fm etc Hume-Hare etc Indian Fm Mackenzie Arch D-08 A NW Figure 4. Three-dimensional reconstruction of the subcropping Paleozoic units which underlie Cretaceous strata in the Mackenzie Corridor study area. The Keele Three-dimensional reconstruction of the subcropping Paleozoic units which underlie Cretaceous strata in Mackenzie Corridor study area. Figure 4. Arch was reactivated several times forming either a structural high subjected to erosion and non-deposition (e.g., during the p re-Devonian, pre-Albian, pre- Arch plunges and thins to the north, The Keele Upper Cretaceous), or a depocenter recorded by thickened Paleozoic strata (e.g., Cambrian Mt Cap Formation). which is not depicted . Modified from Cook, (1975), Cook and Mac Lean (1999) MacLean (2006). 11 subsidence events (Dixon, 1997b; 1999), or b) deposition was limited to areas adjacent to the Keele Arch during the deposition of the Martin House Formation, but did not extend over the entire structure until emplacement of the Arctic Red Formation strata, which were subsequently uplifted and eroded prior to the deposition of the Cenomanian Slater River Formation (Cook, 1975; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The Slater River Formation is preserved across the Keele Arch and is associated with truncation of the Arctic Red Formation on the flanks of the Keele Arch (Cook, 1975; Hadlari et al., 2009a) (Fig 3).

Dixon (1994; 1999) interpreted a series of tectonic subsidence and uplift events that were coincident with the deposition and erosion of the Martin House Formation, and subsequently the Arctic Red Formation, over the Keele Arch prior to the deposition of the Slater River Formation. Cook (1975) interpreted that compressional stresses associated with the Columbian Orogeny resulted in the post-Devonian/pre-Lower Cretaceous uplift of the Keele Arch forming a wide, low positive topographic feature during deposition of the Martin House Formation. In this interpretation, the Keele Arch was not inundated by the intercontinental seaway until the deposition of the Arctic Red Formation, which overlay the arch until a second uplift, related to ongoing compressional stresses, eroded the Arctic Red Formation off the top of the arch (Cook, 1975; Hadlari et al., 2009a).

Similar to a foreland basin forebulge in the model of DeCelles and Giles (1996), the Keele Arch trends parallel to the orogenic belt with a deeper basin adjacent to the orogenic belt (Peel Trough and Brackett Basin) and a shallower basin on the eastern side further from the orogenic belt (Great Bear Basin). A forebulge model for the Keele Arch is not quite appropriate given the association with basement-seated faults rather than flexure, yet the control it imparted on sediment dispersion is comparable to that of a forebulge (Cook, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; MacLean and Cook, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). 12

STRATIGRAPHIC CONTEXT

The lithostratigraphy of the study area is broadly comparable with that of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin and the Liard Basin (Fig. 5). Cretaceous strata of the Mackenzie Corridor are divided into six formations: Martin House (with the informal Tukweye member), Arctic Red (with Mahoney Lake and Sans Sault members), Slater River, Little Bear (lower and upper members)/Trevor, East Fork, and Summit Creek formations (Stewart, 1945; Hume 1954; Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969; Tassonyi, 1969; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Aitken et al. 1982; Sweet et al., 1989; Williams, 1989; Dixon, 1994; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Cretaceous strata of the Mackenzie Corridor are associated with four erosional unconformities: 1) the Paleozoic-Cretaceous (Albian) contact, or sub- Cretaceous unconformity; 2) the Albian-Cenomanian contact at the base of the Slater River Formation, which overlies the Paleozoic in certain parts of the study area; 3) the contact between the lower and upper units of Little Bear Formation, which demarcates the Turonian-Santonian boundary; and 4) the Upper Maastrichtian contact, present within the Summit Creek Formation (Williams, 1989) (Fig. 5).

The Martin House and Arctic Red formations form an overall transgressive succession most likely Lower to Upper Albian age, with a possible range of Barremian to early Cenomanian (Yorath and Cook, 1981; McNeil, 2007; White, 2009a, b; White, 2010a, b; Sweet, 2010; Thomson et al., 2011). Non-marine strata are the oldest facies preserved in the Martin House Formation; the informal “Tukweye member” was proposed to define this facies association and lithostratigraphic division to discourage the use of the “Gilmore Lake Member” within the Martin House Formation (Hadlari et al., 2009a). This is consistent with the nomenclature applied in the Anderson Plain to the north of the study area (Yorath et al., 1975). The type log for the Martin House Formation has the Tukweye member at the 13 Legend Conglomerate/Breccia Non-marine strata Sandstone +/- minor shale and siltstone (estuarine and marine) Siltstone +/- mudstone and sandstone (marine) Mudstone +/- minor silt and sandstone (marine) No sediment preserved Conformable contact Unconformity Lithology change

Fishing Fishing Fm. Branch Upper Parkin mbr Lower Parkin Lower mbr Fm

Middle Parkin mbr Eagle Plain Ogilvie Mtns Gp. Plain Eagle (Dixon et al., 2007; et al., (Dixon 2010) Jackson et al., Mt. Mt. Goodenough Sharp Mountain Mountain Sharp Fm Whitestone River River Whitestone Fm

Fm Mt. Mt. Goodenough t. P

Rat River Fm Fm Rat River Arctic Red Fm Arctic Red Fm inson Atk Boundary Creek Fm. (Dixon, 1992b; (Dixon, 2007) et al., Dixon Mackenzie Delta Crossley Lakes Lakes Crossley Mbr.

Gilmore Lake Mbr. Mbr. Lake Gilmore Langton Bay Fm Fm Bay Langton (Yorath et al., 1975; et al., (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Yorath 1999) Dixon, Horton River Fm Horton Fm River Anderson Plain Plain Anderson Sans Sault Mbr Trevor Fm. Fm. Trevor Peel Plateau Peel Arctic Red Fm Arctic Red Fm Slater River Fm. River Slater Radioactive Shale (McNeil, (McNeil, 2007; Thomson 2011) et al., Martin Fm. House Lake Mbr Lake Mahoney Mahoney Tukweye Mbr. Mbr. Tukweye Study Area Area Study Little Bear Fm. Little Bear Fm. Arctic Red Fm Arctic Red Fm Radioactive Shale Martin Fm. House Slater River Fm. River Slater Sans Sault Mbr. Sans Sault Mbr. (Dixon, 1999; McNeil, 2007; 1999; McNeil, (Dixon, 2010; 2009b; Sweet, White, 2010a,b) White Mackenzie Corridor

Bulwell Mbr. Mbr. Bulwell Wildhorn Mbr. Mbr. Wildhorn Tussock Mbr. Mbr. Tussock S catter Fm. Fm. catter S Garbutt Fm. Lepine Fm. Lepine Sully Fm. Sikanni Fm. Sikanni Fm.

Chinkeh Fm. Fm. Chinkeh

xxxxxxxxxxxxx Liard Basin Liard Dunvegan Fm. Dunvegan (Leckie et al., 1998; (Leckie et al., 2007) et al., Jowett Group John St. t For Paddy Mbr. Mbr. Paddy Willrich Mbr. Mbr. Willrich Falher Mbr. Mbr. Falher Bluesky Fm. Bluesky Fm. P. Coupe Mbr. Mbr. Coupe P. 2nd White 2nd White Specks Mbr. Doe Creek Mbr. Mbr. Doe Creek Cadotte Mbr. Mbr. Cadotte Harmon Mbr. Harmon Mbr. Notikewin Mbr. Mbr. Notikewin

Shaftesbury Fm.

Howard Crk. Mbr. Mbr. Crk. Howard Dunvegan Fm. Fm. Dunvegan

xxxxxxxxxxxxx Gething Fm. Peace R iver Fm. Fm. iver R Peace Kapskapau Fm. Fm. Kapskapau Spirit River River Spirit Fm. Cadomin

(Hayes et al., 1994 et al., (Hayes Bhattacharya, 1994)

Bullhead Gr. Gr. Bullhead

Northern Alberta Group John St. t For

Middle Middle r Lowe Upper Upper

Aptian Aptian Barremian Barremian Cenomanian Cenomanian Turonian Turonian Albian Albian Time Time Ma 93.5 89.3 99.6 112.0 125.0 Figure 5. The lithology is simpli- Alberta, Liard Basin, Mackenzie Corridor study area, Peel Plateau, Delta and Eagle Plain. Stratigraphy of Northern fied into non-marine conglomerate (grey circles), continental sa ndstone, siltstone and coals (orange), marine sandstone (yellow ), shale (dark grey), The diachroneity within the Mackenzie Corridor formations is not depicted. Data was marine siltstone with minor fine-grained sandstone and shale (li ght gray). et al. (1975), Dixon (1992b), Bhattacharya (1994), Hayes Leckie Dixon, (1997b) and Potocki (1998), Yorath compiled from White (2010a,b), and White and Leckie (1999), Dixon et al. (2007), Jowett McNeil Jackson (2010), Sweet Dixon (1999), Thomson et al. (2011). 14 base overlain by marginal and marine Martin House Formation facies (Fig. 6).

The Arctic Red Formation conformably overlies the Martin House Formation, or unconformably overlies Paleozoic strata in areas where the Martin House Formation is absent (Fig. 3). The Arctic Red Formation comprises a succession of Albian-aged offshore mudstone and concretionary-silty shale with thinly interbedded fine grained sandstone and siltstone storm beds, as well as two sandstone members (Mountjoy and Chamney; 1969; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Mountjoy and Chamney (1969) described an overall fining upwards succession through the Arctic Red Formation, with smaller-scale coarsening upward cycles interpreted as relatively small-scale regressive packages. In the Mackenzie and Peel Trough areas, the sandstone-dominated Sans Sault Member is characterized by a north and westward transition to shale and is associated with a westward deepening basin (Hadlari et al., 2009a). On the eastern side of the Keele Arch, the bioturbated sandstone- dominated Mahoney Lake Member is much thicker than the Sans Sault Member and comprises five coarsening upwards successions (Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The Sans Sault and Mahoney Lake members can not be directly correlated due to an absence of preserved strata over the Keele Arch.

The Cenomanian-Turonian succession consists of the Slater River, Trevor and lowermost Little Bear formations (Williams, 1989; Hadlari et al., 2009a; Thomson et al., 2011). Maximum marine flooding is recorded at the base of the Cenomanian Slater River Formation and succeeded by strata that record an overall regression (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Hadlari et al., 2009a; Thomson et al., 2011). The Santonian to Campanian-aged upper member of the Little Bear Formation represents non-marine to brackish-water deposits (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Sweet et al., 1989; Dixon, 1999). Overlying the Little Bear Formation is the Campanian to early Maastrichtian shale-siltstone strata of the East Fork Formation. The upper East Fork Formation transitions into Maastrichtian to Paleocene marine and non- 15

Legend Trace Fossil Index Sandstone Siltstone As Asterosoma Pa Palaeophycus Mudstone Ar Arenicolites Ph Phycosiphon Limestone Dolostone Ch Chondrites Pl Planolites Coal bed Co Bentonite Cosmorhaphe Rz Rhizocorallium Missing Core Cy Rosselia Varied grain-sizes interbedded Cylindrichnus Ro lenses of m-cg sandstone Di Diplocraterion Si Siphonichnus forming a mottled texture Wavy mud laminae fu fugichnia Sk Skolithos Mud rip-up clasts H Coal fragments Helminthopsis Sh Schaub- cylindrichnus Low-angle laminae Ma Macaronichnus Wavy low-angle laminae Te Teichichnus Horizontal laminae Op Ophiomorpha Wavy horizontal laminae Z Zoophycos High-angle laminae Wavy, high-angle laminae Asymetrical ripples Symetrical ripples Bioturbation Index X-bedded laminae No evidence of bioturbation Swaley bedding 0 Soft-sediment deformed mudstone 1 Sparse bioturbation- mudstone lense bedding distinct, few discrete traces Flame structures Organic-rich couplets 2 Uncommon bioturbation- Graded bedding bedding distinct, low trace density Micro-faulting 3 Moderate bioturbation-bedding sharp, carbonate-filled fracture traces discrete with rare overlap Brecciated interval undulating coal laminae 4 Common bioturbation- bedding is Organic detritus rarely distinctive, high trace density Chert pebbles with common overlap gl Glauconite nodules sid 5 Abundant bioturbation- bedding is Siderite nodules or horizontal bed completely disturbed with abundant py Pyrite nodules overlap, Roots 6 Complete bioturbation- homogenization of bedding and abundant overlap limits identification of individual traces

Figure 6. Type log for the Mackenzie Corridor study area (next page), with legend (above) for well I-66 (next page). Well I-66 contains the most complete succession of Lower Cretaceous facies preserved in the study area. Non-marine units (FA1) directly overlie the Devonian Imperial Formation and are overlain by marine deposits (FA3 and FA4) that grade conformably into shale of the overlying Arctic Red Formation. The base of the core is on the right and the top on the left. 16

Gamma Ray (API) Top 470 Top of Core 2 483 0 75 150 F12

py F2 471 400m 484

472 py 485

py F7 425m 473 486 Top of Core 3 Arctic Red Fm 474 py 487 FA4 py

py 450m F8 F4 475 488

py py FA1 Martin House Fm 476 489

top FA1 (F2 or F3) py 477 top FA1 (F4) Core 1 490 Core 2 F1 F3 Core 3 Base Cretaceous 478 491 500m

py py

479 492

480 F4 F3 FA1 sid 525m 493

481 494 py

482 495 Base of Core 1 sid F1 Depth silt Depth silt f sst c sst shale f sst vf sst c sst (m) m sst sst vc Base shale vf sst m sst sst vc cobble cobble pebble (m) cobble cobble pebble granular granular Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Bioturbation Bioturbation Bioturbation Bioturbation

Figure 6. Continued from previous page. 17 marine sandstone, coal, and conglomerate beds of the Summit Creek Formation (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Sweet et al., 1989).

METHODOLOGY

The database for this study includes measured stratigraphic sections from outcrop (n = 12) and core (n = 11), petrographic thin sections (n = 80), wire-line log suites (n = 115), palynological assessments, and seismic reflection profiles. Helicopter-supported field work based out of Norman Wells was conducted in summer 2008, concentrating on outcrops east of the Peel Plateau. Locations were chosen based on regional Geological Survey of Canada maps (Yorath and Cook, 1981). In four outcrop locations, the Paleozoic contact with the sub-Cretaceous unconformity provided an indication of where the outcrop fits within the established Cretaceous lithostratigraphic framework. The Imperial River outcrop is considered as a “reference section” for the project because: a) the Paleozoic contact is exposed; b) the overlying Arctic Red Formation can be measured in outcrop downstream; and c) the bedding orientation allows access for a complete section to be measured from base to top. Sedimentological and stratigraphic characteristics were documented from core and outcrop by analyzing lithology, sedimentary structures, and biogenic structures. The bioturbation intensity was evaluated based on the bioturbation index scheme of MacEachern and Bann (2008). Existing porosity, permeability, and TOC data measured in cores were considered where available.

Palynology samples were obtained from all cores and outcrops. Consisting of approximately 15 g per sample, samples collected in this study were processed and analyzed by the Geological Survey of Canada Palynology lab in Calgary (White, 2009b; 2010a, b). A summary of the palynological observations and interpretations from the study area are present in the appendix of this thesis. 18

Thin sections were prepared from outcrop hand samples and from core. They were stained with sodium cobalt nitrite in order to highlight potassium feldspar and the epoxy was stained blue to highlight porosity. Gazzi-Dickinson point counting methodology was closely followed: a) variable grain-sizes were compared, b) diagenetically altered grains counted as their original mineral where possible, c) rock fragments were classified as the individual mineral type, d) polycrystalline quartz, chalcedony and chert were classified with monocrystalline quartz under “total quartz (Qt)” in the Q-F-L ternary plot, e) grains less than 0.03 mm were considered matrix and excluded from the total, f) 250 points/thin section were counted, and g) micas were excluded from the classification (Gazzi, 1966;

Dickinson, 1970; Ingersoll et al., 1984; Decker et al., 1985; Dickinson, 1985).

Formation tops were interpreted based on core and outcrop observations made in this study, previous subsurface work and well cuttings reports. The seismic data consists exclusively of 2-D seismic reflection profiles, of various vintages and qualities, and are migrated two- way travel time (Dixon, 1997b; MacLean 2006). The discussion of seismic data in this thesis is limited due to proprietary rights of the data.

A series of wireline log-based stratigraphic cross-sections were constructed. Three different stratigraphic datums were used in this study for correlations. As an unconformity, the base of the Slater River Formation is a poor datum for correlating Lower Cretaceous strata, but is useful for regional correlations (Datum 1) (Hadlari et al., 2009a). An alternative datum for basin-scale correlations is a shale flooding surface (gamma-ray kick) within the Arctic Red Formation, which was observed to be consistent throughout the study area except over the Keele Arch (Datum 2). The flooding surface that demarcates the top of the Martin House Formation (Datum 3) is useful for correlations over short distances, although it is limited for more regional correlations since it is a composite surface formed from at least two different flooding events across the study area. 19

FACIES

The Martin House Formation strata observed in core and outcrop are divided into twelve lithofacies. They are defined by physical characteristics including sediment composition, texture, physical sedimentary structures, trace fossil suites and bioturbation intensity (Table 1).

Facies 1: Chert pebble to cobble conglomerate

Description: Facies 1 (F1) is primarily composed of clast-supported chert pebble conglomerate; however the basal components of F1 are variable (Fig. 7). F1 is composed of poorly sorted medium grained quartzose sandstone to cobble-sized clasts (up to 20 cm) and is dominated by pebble-sized clasts (2 cm). Clasts are typically sub-rounded to rounded however, in rare instances clasts are angular to sub-angular (Fig. 7D). Chert clasts are most commonly white, grey or translucent, and rarely pink, green-grey, very dark grey or black. Clast composition varies between F1 beds directly on the sub-Cretaceous unconformity and higher in the succession (e.g., Figs. 7B and 7G). Clasts are randomly oriented in most instances, although imbrication is locally observed (Fig. 7G). Locally, where overlying Paleozoic carbonates, F1 is dominated by bioclastic debris, including rugose coral, bivalve, gastropod and stromatoporoid fragments (Figs. 7F and 7H). Where F1 directly overlies Paleozoic shale, reworked mudstone clasts are present (Fig. 7B). Coaly detritus and shale laminae are rarely preserved in F1 (Fig. 7E).

F1 ranges from 6 cm to 200 cm thick with a sharp, undulating basal contact. Where it directly overlies the Paleozoic, F1 forms an angular unconformity with up to 15 degrees dip. The underlying Paleozoic strata are commonly characterized by a calcareous rind at the sub-Cretaceous contact and by cavities that are in-filled by secondary mineralization 20 Processes high energy flows, bedload flows, high energy unidirectional currents, currents, unidirectional channel bedload transport, processes transport Periods of unidirectional Periods of unidirectional pebble currents (sandstone, slow deposition), of absence the in deposition beds of currents (massive sandstone, siltstone and with mudstone and beds in the roots), oscillations nodular water-table (coal, siderite and calcite concretions) currents, bedload transport currents, bedload Quiescent with periods of periods Quiescent with and currents unidirectional by sediments reworking of currents, and oscillatory slumping High energy unidirectional , wasp and ant , wasp and Planolites Trace Fossil Diversity none rare Locally roots, moderate sparse to uncommon Planolites burrows Asterosoma, Chondrites (?), Asterosoma, Chondrites fugichnia, Dipolocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Rosselia, Rhizocorallium, Teichichnus Skolithos, 0 0 none 0-3 0-1, 0-1, limited diversity Index and diminuitive diminuitive diminuitive, within a bed Relative Size Relative Size Bioturbation Material Accessory coaly coaly detritus, glauconite, bioclastic detritus, mudstone rip-up clasts coaly detritus, mudstone rip-up chert clasts, pebbles Sandstone: abundant laminae coal and detritus, rare chert pebbles; siltstone: nodular siderite, calcite concretions organic-rich beds, bioclasts, chert pebbles glauconite, glauconite, shell detritus, pyrite Structures Structures Physical Sedimentary Localized clast imbrication imbrication clast Localized trough-cross stratification, to high-angle planar cross- planar horizontal stratification, current ripples, normally graded, and massive bedding Sandstone: low angle to Sandstone: low cross- planar horizontal stratification, massive or bedding; normally graded planar horizontal Siltstone: stratification, massive or bedding Mudstone: structureless, to coal organic-rich planar low-angle to high- low-angle planar angle cross-stratification, and massive bedding starved asymmetrical planar low-angle ripples, and hummocky cross- within stratification sandstone lenses; and micro-faulting common soft-sediment deformation 2 8 12 2.5 (m) 0.5 - 0.3 – -ness 0.06 - 0.25 - 2 - 10 trough-cross stratification, Thick Grain size size Grain Clasts are are Clasts medium grained sandstone to cobble- the sized; is average pebble sized fine to coarse grained sandstone with rare coarser detritus to very fine fine grained sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and coal Very coarse Very to granular sandstone mudstone (70-90%) and very fine to medium grained sandstone grained Sparsely to coarse sediment to cobble with soft- mudstone mudstone sandstone sandstone with roots sandstone, to granular bioturbated interbedded interbedded fine grained fine grained deformation siltstone and Chert pebble Chert pebble stratified fine stratified fine conglomerate conglomerate Trough cross- Trough cross- stratified very stratified sandstone and coarse grained grained coarse 1 2 4 Organic-rich 3 5 Facies Facies Name Table 1. Lithofacies and the associated depositional processes interpreted for Martin House Formation (continued on following page). Table 21 Processes Unidirectional and and Unidirectional with processes oscillatory periods of high sedimentation Generally quiescent conditions with periodic and unidirectional currents oscillatory with currents unidirectional periods dominated by processes oscillatory Oscillatory currents, minor minor currents, Oscillatory currents, unidirectional rates aggradation variable and rare: Teichichnus Teichichnus Moderate: Diplocraterion, Diplocraterion, Helminthopsis, Helminthopsis, and Asterosoma, Trace Fossil Diversity Diplocraterion, fugichnia, Diplocraterion, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Skolithos Cosmonaphe, Helminthopsis, Phycosiphon, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Skolithos, Teichichnus; Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Rhizocorallium, Schaubcylindrichnus, Siphonichnus, Thalassinoides; Zoophycos Chondrites, Cylindrichnus, fugichnia, Diplocraterion, Helminthopsis, Ophiomorpha, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Rhizocorallium, Schaubcylindrichnus, Teichichnus, Skolithos, Zoophycos Thalassinoides, fugichnia, Rosselia, fugichnia, fugichnia, Ophiomorpha, Ophiomorpha, fugichnia, Skolithos, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Palaeophycus, and Schaubcylindrichnus Mudstone: Common: Sandstone: 0-2 3 to 5 2 to 4 Index and 0-2, robust Relative Size Relative Size Bioturbation Material Accessory glauconite, glauconite, siderite, organic detritus Common glauconite, sparse to uncommon siderite and pyrite glauconite, glauconite, shell pyrite, fragments and organics glauconite glauconite Structures Structures Physical Sedimentary mud couplets, low-angle to mud couplets, low-angle horizontal planar stratification, structureless beds, mud-draped and ripples asymmetrical locally climbing ripples, soft sediment deformation clasts and mud rip-up Sandstone: locally angle horizontal to low hummocky and planar cross-stratification; are and mudstone Siltstone structureless structureless with local cross- hummocky and stratification ripples asymmetrical hummocky cross- hummocky asymmetrical stratification, ripples, massive bedding 4 6 10 (m) -ness 0.25 - 0.25 - 0.25 - Thick 0.5 - 3 0.5 - low-angle, swaley and Grain size size Grain fine to medium sandstone, mudstone laminae, locally coarse sandstone mudstone with <50% siltstone and/or very fine to fine grained sandstone fine to medium sandstone with mudstone beds Very fine to Very medium sandstone with minor mudstone laminae with sandy cross- Sparsely stratified stratified mudstone mudstone mudstone sandstone sandstone commonly hummocky bioturbated bioturbated bioturbated bioturbated Moderately interbedded interbedded Abundantly couplets and Moderately to sandstone and draped ripples draped ripples 7 6 8 9 Facies Facies Name Table 1 (continued). Lithofacies and the associated depositional processes interpreted for Martin House Formation (continued on following page). Table 22 Processes Generally quiescent with rare conditions currents unidirectional Unidirectional, oscillating Unidirectional, currents flow and combined Quiescent conditions, sedimentation from suspension, oscillatory rare currents and unidirectional Skolithos Skolithos Trace Fossil Diversity Palaeophycus, Planolites, Palaeophycus, and Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Skolithos, Rhizocorallium, Teichichnus, Thalassinoides Helminthopsis, Phycosiphon, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Skolithos 0-2 0-1 0-1, Index and diminuitive diminuitive Relative Size Relative Size Bioturbation Material Accessory glauconite, glauconite, pyrite glauconite, siderite local pyrite, pyrite, local siderite, glauconite, bentonite Structures Structures Physical Sedimentary planar and hummocky and planar cross-stratification, rare and ripples symmetrical massive bedding to structureless, laminations ripples rare asymmetrical Horizontal parallel, low in locally laminations angle siltstone or the sandstone beds; mudstone is structureless horizontal to low-angle horizontal to low-angle 5 (m) -ness 1 - 10 0.25 - Thick 0.1 - 4 0.1 - Horizontal parallel Grain size size Grain Very fine to Very medium grained sandstone siltstone to fine very grained sandstone, thin mudstone beds with minor siltstone and/or very fine sandstone beds cross- massive siltstone stratified stratified sandstone bioturbated laminated or 10 Sparsely 11 Planar- 12 Mudstone mudstone Facies Facies Name Table 1 (continued). Lithofacies and the associated depositional processes interpreted for Martin House Formation. Table 23

(e.g., brown dolomite), or overlying sediment (Fig. 7C). The upper contact is commonly sharp and undulating although rarely there is a gradational upper contact with clasts from F1 incorporated into the lower few centimeters of the overlying facies.

Interpretation: F1 represents deposits accumulated on the widespread sub-Cretaceous unconformity, although it is sometimes present at the base of fining upwards successions. The well-rounded nature of most of the clasts is indicative of substantial reworking and local imbrication is indicative of bedload transport. The high energy flows responsible for clast transport were associated with significant erosion, as indicated by locally derived clasts from underlying Paleozoic strata, as well as the undulose nature of the basal contact.

With the significant time gap represented below the sub-Cretaceous unconformity, it is likely that underlying Paleozoic strata were subaerially exposed prior to the deposition of the Cretaceous units. The calcareous rind is consistent with subaerial exposure and weathering, possibly related to a paleokarst, or regolith (Taylor and Eggleton, 2001). The localized angular clasts and cavities could be associated with the dissolution of the underlying Paleozoic carbonate and chert layers, which are consistent with an interpretation of subaerial exposure (Fig. 7D).

Facies 2: Trough cross-stratified very coarse-grained to granular sandstone

Description: Facies 2 (F2) consists of very coarse-grained to granular cherty sandstone (Figs. 8, 9, and 10). Grains are poorly to moderately sorted and angular to sub-rounded. Relict carbonate textures are commonly preserved in chert grains and chert grains commonly exhibit secondary growth of coarser polycrystalline quartz along the grain edges (Fig. 10). Bioclasts (5% of the total detrital content) consist of dolomitized rock fragments and fossil 24 debris and are found within the basal few meters of the facies. F2 is characterized by low to high angle planar cross-stratification, trough-cross stratification, and massive bedding. Cross-stratified bed sets with lenticular geometry are 10-40 cm thick. Locally, organic-rich mudstone beds (<3 cm) and coals are interbedded with sandstone. Intervals of F2 range from 2 to 10 m thick with an erosive, undulating basal contact, and a sharp and flat upper contact.

Interpretation: F2 was deposited under the influence of high-energy unidirectional currents that scoured the underlying substrate. Massive sandstones are interpreted to be formed by rapid deposition; although these could also be related to: a) homogeneous grain size distribution leading to obscured bedding, b) seismically-induced liquefaction of previous physical structures, or c) the effects of cryptic bioturbation which homogenize bedding (Pemberton et al., 2008). Coal fragments are not in-situ and could have been sourced locally, or have travelled some distance. Bioclastic debris was most likely derived from underlying Paleozoic strata.

Facies 3: Trough-cross stratified fine to coarse-grained sandstone

Description: Facies 3 (F3) is composed of fine- to coarse-grained quartz arenite with local interbeds of conglomerate (<8 cm) (Figs. 8B, 8C, 8E, 9 and 10). The sandstone grains are moderately to well-sorted and sub-rounded to well-rounded. The conglomerate clasts are sub-angular to sub-rounded and poorly to moderately-sorted. Trough cross-stratification in the sandstone is commonly associated with bed-sets from 10-25 cm thick. Horizontal planar, low-angle and high angle cross-stratification in lenticular beds are locally preserved along with ripple- dominated and massive tabular bedding. Conglomerate beds have locally imbricated clasts, but are most commonly structureless. Locally, grain size shows repetitive, thinly 25

A E G

F2 F8

5 cm Paleozoic F1 B

F3 1 cm Paleozoic 1 cm

F H 1 cm 1 cm F1 C F3

F1 F10

5 cm

5 cm F3 D F1

F1 brecciated Paleozoic

50 cm

Figure 7. Facies 1 overview (chert pebble conglomerate); facies 1 is part of facies association 1. The red dashed line marks the top of the Paleozoic where present. A) Paleozoic strata unconformably overlain by facies 1 (F1) and facies 2 at the sub-Cretaceous contact (Mahoney Lake Outcrop 0.5 m). B) Weathered shale and chert pebble clasts (F1) at the sub-Cretaceous contact (core I-66 at 495.25 m). C) Sub-Cretaceous unconformity with sub-rounded, cobble-sized chert clasts (Kelly Lake Outcrop 1.2 m). D) Lower brecciated interval of F1 directly overlying Paleozoic deposits and an upper chert pebble conglomerate (F1) deposit (also in Part C). E) Sub-Cretaceous unconformity characterized by matrix-supported chert pebble conglomerate with large coal fragments (M-04 at 446.2 m). F) Bioclastic detritus (F1) supported by the same sandstone present in the overlying and underlying units (Bear Rock outcrop at 10.8 m). G) Chert pebble conglomerate bed at the contact with an overlying marine unit (F8) (I-66 at 477.3 m). H) Close-up image of the relatively unfragmented bioclasts in Part F. 26 interbedded (0.5 cm-scale) coarser and finer grained sandstones. Mudstone rip-up clasts are randomly oriented, internally laminated and sometimes characterized by relict bioturbation associated with diminutive Planolites, Chrondrites, and Phycosiphon. Chert pebbles are scattered throughout the sandstone. Organic detritus and woody fragments are commonly scattered, or concentrated along bedding planes, forming 1 to 7.5% of the bulk rock composition. F3 locally forms a lenticular geometry in outcrop, ranging from 0.3 m to 2.5 m thick. The base of the facies is sharply defined and undulating, while the upper contact is commonly gradational. Bioturbation is generally absent within the sandstone.

Interpretation: The physical sedimentary structures indicate that F3 was deposited by unidirectional currents. The bioturbation and lamination within the mudstone rip-up clasts do not record depositional conditions of Facies 3 due to the lack of bioturbation in the adjacent mud laminae within F3. The lenticular geometry and erosive bases of F3 are consistent with channelized flow processes.

Facies 4: Organic-rich fine grained sandstone, siltstone and mudstone with roots

Description: Facies 4 (F4) consists of fine-grained quartz arenite sandstone interbedded with siltstone, mudstone and coal (Figs. 8 D, 8E, 8F, 8G and 9). Roots are common in the sandstone and siltstone. Grains within F4 are moderately to well-sorted and sub-angular to sub-rounded. Coal fragments and organic detritus make up 5 to 21% of the bulk matrix. Chert pebbles and mudstone rip-up clasts are rare. The F4 sandstone is characterized by horizontal planar to low-angle planar laminations, or structureless tabular beds. Sandstone beds are 0.05-3 m thick. 27

A E

5 cm 1 cm

C 1 cm

D G 11 cm

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

Figure 8. Facies photographs of facies 2, 3 and 4; these facies are part of facies association 1 (FA1). A) Facies 2 trough cross-bedded very coarse-grained sandstone (Mahoney Lake outcrop at 3 m). B) Facies 3 trough cross-stratified, fine- to medium- grained sandstone (Kelly Lake outcrop at 4.8 m). C) Facies 3 low- angle cross-bedded fine- to medium- grained sandstone locally comprises rhythmic interbedding of different grain-sizes (M-04 at 442 m). D) Facies 4 silty, fine-grained sandstone with roots and abundant organic detritus (I-66 at 493 m). E) Facies 3 low-angle to high-angle cross-stratified medium- to coarse- grained sandstone interbedded with thin coal beds (I-66 at 478.8 m). F) Facies 4 structureless siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone with nodular siderite (N-10 at 820 m). G) Facies 4 structureless siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone with carbonaceous plant imprints (I-66 at 489.5 m). 28

Clay-rich siltstone beds of F4 are green or red in color, horizontal planar laminated or structureless, and locally characterized by nodular siderite and calcium carbonate. Typically, slickensides are present on the horizontal bases of siltstone beds. Calcite and illite cements and various clays are pervasive, significantly reducing the intergranular porosity. Siltstone beds have sharp-based contacts and range from 0.10-2 m thick.

Organic-rich mudstone and coal are interbedded with F4 sandstone and siltstone and are structureless. These thin coal beds (0.5-5 cm thick) are commonly undulating and are associated with vertical fractures that splay from beds. Locally, thicker organic-rich mudstone beds (0.25-1.2 m) are characterized by siderite at the base, increase in organic richness upwards, and are commonly capped with vitrinous coal deposits. Locally, a highly vitrinous coal bed of 1.2 m is present.

The basal contact of F4 is commonly gradational. The upper contact of F4 is commonly undulating and sharp due to the nature of the associated overlying facies. F4 is 0.25 to 8 m thick.

Bioturbation in F4 is locally abundant in the sandstone and siltstone beds (B.I. of 0-3) and is predominantly associated with roots. Roots increase in abundance with proximity to overlying organic-rich mudstone beds. Biogenic structures include roots, unlined horizontal passively-filled burrows (i.e.,Planolites ) and unidentified vertical and horizontal burrows with internally structured fill. Plant debris is present locally.

Interpretation: Sandstone beds of F4 were deposited by unidirectional currents. The tops of the roots in F4 are generally associated with structureless beds suggesting that substrates during plant growth were stable. Massive beds of siltstone were likely related to very slow deposition 29

Q LEGEND FA1 Peel Trough (I-66, N-10, N-58) FA1 Keele Arch (KL,ML,E-30) Qmu FA1 Great Bear Basin (M-04, G-22) 100 % FA2 Peel Trough (iR) FA2 Keele Arch (BR) FA2 Great Bear Basin (H-34,N-30,G-22)

FA3 Peel Trough (D-08, IR, I-66) F L

50 % 50 %

100 % Qms 50 % Qp+chert100 %

Figure 9. Ternary plot of petrographic elements grouped by facies association (shape) and location (color of the outcrop, or core name) (e.g., I-66 FA3 is a hollow, dark blue square). Facies association 1 (FA1) comprises facies 1, 2, 3 and 4. Facies association 2 (FA2) comprises facies 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, and 12. Facies association 3 (FA3) comprises facies 7, 8, 9, and 10. Facies association 4 (FA4) comprises facies 7, 11 and 12. The Gazzi-Dickinson quartz-lithics-feldspar classification method resulted in over 90% quartz almost exclusively across the study area (upper left ternary plot), which are classified as quartz arenites (c.f. Dott, 1964). Further dividing the quartz content into unstrained monocrystalline quartz (Qmu), strained monocrystalline quartz (Qs) and polycrystalline quartz (chert, strained and unstrained polycrystalline quartz) generated some trends (larger right ternary plot). Non-marine (FA1) samples from the Keele Arch are different with predominantly chert content (circled in red). Non-marine (FA1) and numerous estuarine deposits (FA2) from Great Bear Basin and from the Peel Trough follow a compositional trend (circled in yellow) of predominantly Qmu. Two FA3 samples from the Peel Trough (circled in blue) are high in polycrystalline quartz (macro) but very low in chert content, and are therefore not likely from the same source region as the Keele Arch FA1 samples. 30

A B CH CH

CL CL CH Q

100 um 100 um

Q C CH D Q CH

Q CH CH

CHma Q CH CHmi 500 um 500 um Q E

50 um

Figure 10. Photomicrographs of typical thin sections from facies 2 and 3 sampled from near the Keele Arch. Facies association 1 (FA1) comprises facies 1, 2, 3 and 4. A) Facies 3 from the Kelly Lake outcrop at 4.6 m in plane polarized light and in cross-polarized light (B) is chert-rich with minor chalcedony. Facies 2 from the Mahoney Lake outcrop at 4.2m in (C) and in cross-polarized light (D) is chert-rich with secondary quartz overgrowths on the chert grains. Note the relict carbonate texture within the chert grains (E). CH-chert, Q-quartz, CHmi-microcrystalline chert, CHma-macrocrystalline chert. CL-chalcedony, D-dolomite. 31 rates in the absence of currents, while massive beds of sandstone were deposited very rapidly, or were biogenically reworked (Pemberton et al., 2008). The transition from organic-rich mudstone to coal likely reflects an increase in the water saturation and increase in the groundwater table levels, since coal deposits are associated with anoxic or low-oxygenated waters, highly concentrated organics, low clastic input, and water saturation due to a high groundwater table (Mack et al., 1993; McCabe and Shanley, 1994; Boyd and Diessel, 1995). Compositional changes in the coals and paleosols (i.e. nodular siderite) reflect small oscillations in groundwater pH and redox potential, which are related to groundwater level fluctuations (Cecil et al., 1980; Flint et al., 1995). Abundant clay, pedogenic slickensides, roots, and nodular calcite and siderite locally in siltstone beds are characteristic of poorly developed paleosols associated with groundwater level fluctuations, such as those related to seasonal wetting and drying (Cecil et al., 1980; Mack et al., 1993; Flint et al., 1995; Bridge, 2006). Due to significant distances between wells, the coal beds could not be reliably correlated. Vertical fractures related to the coal beds (< 5 cm) formed due to pressure dissolution during compaction, due to the lower competency of organic- rich beds compared to the surrounding rock. The unidentified, internally structured trace fossils are generally consistent with chambered insect burrows such as those constructed by wasps or ants (Buatois et al., 2005)

Facies 5: Sparsely bioturbated interbedded sandstone and mudstone with soft-sediment deformation

Description: Facies 5 (F5) is comprised of mudstone (70-90%) interbedded with very fine- to medium- grained quartz arenite sandstone (10-30%) and siltstone (<10%) (Figs. 9 and 11). The sandstone grains are moderately to well sorted and moderately to well rounded. The sandstone is characterized by lenses of starved asymmetrical ripples, or beds characterized by low-angle planar cross-stratification or hummocky cross-stratification (HCS). Individual 32

lenses and beds are 2-15 cm thick. Micro-faulting and soft-sediment deformation, such as boudinage and convolute bedding, are common. Locally, the sandstone lenses are normally graded with shell fragments and coarse quartz grains at the base of the bed overlain by fining upward sandstone and a thin, undulating mudstone cap. Scattered quartzose coarse sand grains, mudstone rip-up clasts, disarticulated bivalve shells and rare disseminated pyrite are present in the sandstone beds. The basal contact of F5 is sharp and flat while the upper contact is gradational, coarsening upwards, and associated with an increase in bioturbation intensity and trace fossil diversity. F5 ranges from 0.5 m to 12 m thick with bed-sets from 2-50 cm thick.

Bioturbation is sparse, or absent throughout most of Facies 5 with a B.I. of 0 to 1. Trace fossils are commonly diminutive and monospecific within a given sandstone bed and locally robust within beds thicker than 5 cm. Ichnogenera present include Asterosoma, Chondrites, Diplocraterion, fugichnia, Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Rhizocorallium, Skolithos, Teichichnus, and rare Rosselia. Fugichnia are associated with the HCS-dominated sandstone beds. Bioturbation is absent in the mudstone beds and in the graded sandstone lenses.

Interpretation: F5 was deposited under generally quiescent conditions with periodic pulses of higher energy associated with the transport and reworking of coarse-grained sediment. Asymmetrical ripples and low-angle bedding were formed by unidirectional currents. HCS-dominated sandstone beds were deposited by oscillatory currents, likely related to storm events (e.g., Dott and Bourgeois, 1982). Micro-faulting and slump structures were most likely generated by the displacement of unconsolidated sediments on unstable slopes under the influence of gravity (Allen, 1982). Convoluted bedding is associated with rapid deposition, or syn- depositional partial liquification of sediments, and a negative gradient of bulk density in 33

the deposit (Dzulynski and Smith, 1963; Allen, 1977).

Low bioturbation intensity and diminutive trace fossil sizes are characteristic of stressed environmental conditions (Howard and Frey 1984; Pemberton and MacEachern 1997; Buatois et al. 2005). The biogenic activity was likely affected by both an unstable substrate and possibly fluctuating sedimentation levels with the frequent deposition of tempestite beds (HCS). Mud-lined vertical burrows, including Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Skolithos, and Teichichnus, are consistent with unstable substrates (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997).

Facies 6: Sparsely bioturbated sandstone with mudstone couplets and draped ripples

Description: Facies 6 (F6) consists of fine- to medium- grained quartz arenite (Figs. 9, 11C, 11D, 11E). Sandstone grains are moderately to well-sorted and moderately to well-rounded. Locally, mudstone laminae and thin, coarse grained sandstone (<2 cm) beds are interbedded. F6 is characterized by sandstone beds with variable sedimentary features including organic-rich mudstone couplets, massive bedding, low-angle planar lamination, and organic-draped asymmetrical and climbing ripples. Soft sediment deformation and mudstone rip-up clasts are present locally. Glauconite, siderite and organic-detritus is present locally. The basal contact of F6 is sharp, the upper contact gradational and the total thickness of F6 is 0.25 to 4 m. There is uncommon bioturbation (B.I. 0-2) with diminutive traces including Diplocraterion, fugichnia, Palaeophycus, Planolites, and Skolithos.

Interpretation: F6 was primarily deposited from unidirectional currents with periods of waning flow associated with mudstone drapes (Visser, 1980). Climbing ripples are indicative of a high sedimentation rate associated with unidirectional currents (Allen, 1973). Sandstone 34

A C fu

1 cm B

1 cm D

1 cm E

1 cm 1 cm

Figure 11. Photographs of facies 5 (F5) and 6 (F6), which are part of facies association 2 . A) F5 with the trace fossil fugichnia (fu), micro-faulting, soft-sediment deformation, thin mud laminae, and low-angle bedding (N-30 at 672.8 m). B) F5 characterized by soft-sediment deformation with interbedded rippled sandstone beds (N-30 at 677.5 m). C) F6 characterized by organic-detritus-rich sandstone with intervals of soft-sediment deformation (H-34 at 761.5 m); D) F6 sandstone with locally mudstone-draped climbing ripples and scattered mudstone rip-up clasts (H-34 at 755.5 m). E) Organic-rich laminae in fine to medium grained sandstone (F6). Double mud-drapes are interpreted as tidal indicators (H-34 at 759.8 m). 35 beds may appear massive due their well-sorted nature, due to discrete bioturbation, or due to very rapid sedimentation from suspension (Lowe, 1982; Pemberton et al., 2008). The diminuitive size and low diversity of trace fossils may be related to fluctuating salinity, although Diplocraterion is not a typical constituent in the brackish-water model (MacEachern and Pemberton, 1992; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997; Hubbard et al., 2004; MacEachern and Bann, 2008).

Facies 7: Abundantly bioturbated sandy mudstone

Description: Facies 7 (F7) comprises highly bioturbated mudstone (50-80%) interbedded with very fine- to fine- grained quartz arenite and minor siltstone (Figs. 9 and 12). The sandstone grains are moderately well-sorted and sub-rounded to rounded. Locally, sandstone beds are characterized by parallel lamination, low-angle planar cross-stratification, or hummocky cross-stratification, however, few physical sedimentary structures are preserved. The mudstone and siltstone beds are structureless. Detrital and authigenic glauconite are common (9% of the bulk composition), with pyrite nodules locally present (< 2 %). The basal contact of F7 is typically sharp. The upper contact commonly grades upwards into F8, associated with an increase in sandstone beds and greater preservation of sedimentary structures. F7 is 0.25 to 6 m thick.

Bioturbation is prevalent in F7 with a B.I. of 4 to 5. Traces are large, diverse and often difficult to identify due to biogenic homogenization. Abundant trace fossils include Asterosoma, Cosmorhaphe, Helminthopsis, Palaeophycus, Phycosiphon, Planolites, Skolithos, and Teichichnus (Fig. 11). Moderately abundant trace fossils include Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Rhizocorallium, Schaubcylindrichnus, Siphonichnus, and Thalassinoides. Fugichnia, Rosselia, and Zoophycos are rare. 36

Interpretation: F7 was deposited in generally quiescent conditions with periodic influence from unidirectional and oscillatory currents. The robust and complex trace fossils suggest that F7 was deposited in an environment with minimal physico-chemical stress, perhaps associated with low sedimentation rates, oxygenated waters, and consistent salinity (e.g., Pemberton and MacEachern, 1995; MacEachern et al., 2007). The trace fossil assemblage is consistent with the Cruziana Ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967; Pemberton and Frey, 1984; MacEachern and Pemberton, 1992). Sedimentation rates were low in order to permit the formation of in-

situ glauconite (Amorosi, 1995; Longuepee and Cousineau, 2006). Given the high intensity of bioturbation and rare, thin sandstone intervals with preserved HCS, it is most likely that F7 was deposited below fair-weather wave base yet in a storm-influenced environment where rare storm events reworked the seafloor (e.g., Dott and Bourgeois, 1982).

Facies 8: Moderately to commonly bioturbated interbedded sandstone and mudstone

Description: Facies 8 (F8) is primarily composed of bioturbated mud-rich, fine- to medium- grained quartz arenite (20-50 mudstone%) interbedded with low-angle cross-stratified quartz arenite (Figs. 9, 13 and 14). Sandstone grains are well-sorted and well-rounded to sub- rounded. Within the mud-rich, bioturbated sandstone beds, soft-sediment deformation is locally preserved. Glauconite, scattered pebbles, rare shell fragments, and organic detritus are present locally. These heterolithic beds commonly have an irregular base and top with a thickness of 10-50 cm. The bioturbation index is 3-5; the trace fossil assemblage is diverse and consists of robust forms including Chondrites, Cylindrichnus, Diplocraterion, fugichnia, Helminthopsis, Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Rhizocorallium, Schaubcylindrichnus, Skolithos, Teichichnus, Thalassinoides, and Zoophycos. 37

Interbedded with the glauconitic, muddy, bioturbated sandstone are sharp-based low-angle cross-stratified lenticular to planar laminated tabular sandstone beds. Sandstone grains in these beds are well-sorted and sub-rounded to well-rounded. Sandstone beds within F8 are typically 5-50 cm thick with an erosive base and sharp upper surface. Locally, these sandstone beds are characterized by hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) and asymmetrical ripples. Bioturbation is generally absent within these beds, except along the upper contact where vertical trace fossils are common including Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Skolithos, and Teichichnus.

F8 as a unit has gradational basal and upper contacts with F7 and F9 and sharp, flat contacts with other facies. F8 is 0.1 to 3 m thick.

Interpretation: F8 was deposited in low- to moderate- energy conditions. Periods of higher energy currents transported the chert pebbles. Sedimentation rates were sufficiently low at certain times such that glauconite formed although some of the glauconite is detrital in origin (Amorosi, 1995) and likely reworked from underlying deposits of F7. Hummocky cross-stratification is consistent with deposition between fair-weather wave base and storm-weather wave base (Dott and Bourgeois, 1982).

The trace fossil assemblage is consistent with the Cruziana Ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967; Pemberton and Frey, 1984; MacEachern and Pemberton, 1992). Fair-weather conditions are recorded by the bioturbated mudstone, which were deposited under the influence of oxygen levels and salinity that were sufficiently stable to permit extensive colonization (Howard, 1972). Shifting substrates, or high energy levels commonly result in the development of low or no bioturbation in shallow marine deposits (MacEachern and Pemberton, 1992) as is observed within HCS-dominated sandstone beds in F8. 38

Facies 9: Moderately bioturbated, hummocky cross-stratified sandstone

Description: Facies 9 (F9) is composed of very fine- to medium- grained quartz arenite with interbedded mudstone (Fig. 14). Sandstone grains are sub-rounded and moderately to well-sorted. Sandstone is characterized by low-angle cross-stratification, swaley cross-stratificaiton (SCS) and hummocky cross-stratification (HCS), with massive bedding and small asymmetrical ripples present locally. Cross-stratified units are 10-25 cm thick and massive beds 0.1- 1 m thick. The mudstone beds are structureless, or characterized by horizontal planar laminae. The basal contact of F9 is sharp and the upper contact is commonly gradational with F10. F9 has a total thickness of 0.5-3 m with individual bed-sets 3- 25 cm thick. Bioturbation is low to moderate with a BI of 0-3. Diminuitive horizontal trace fossils are associated with the thin mudstone beds (1-5 cm thick) whereas robust vertical traces are present within the sandstone beds. Diplocraterion, fugichnia, Ophiomorpha, Skolithos, and Teichichnus are common within sandstone beds, while Helminthopsis, Planolites, Palaeophycus, and Schaubcylindrichnus are present within the mudstone beds and at the tops of rippled sandstone beds.

Interpretation: F9 was deposited under the influence of oscillatory currents, variable aggradation rates and minor unidirectional currents. HCS is associated with oscillating currents, a very minor unidirectional flow component and high aggradation rates (Leckie and Walker, 1982; Dumas and Arnott, 2006). Swaley cross-stratification is developed under the influence of lower aggradation rates and erosion of hummocks and the preferential preservation of swales (Leckie and Walker 1982; Dumas and Arnott, 2006). Massive bedding is consistent with periods of rapid deposition, or cryptic bioturbation (Lowe, 1982; Pemberton et al., 2008). 39

Overall, the assemblage of trace fossils is indicative of fully marine conditions (Howard, 1972; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1992). Infaunal colonization was higher during periods of fairweather sedimentation and low or absent in high sedimentation periods (where HCS and SCS are preserved) (e.g. MacEachern and Bann, 2008). The trace fossil assemblages in the sandstone beds with HCS and SCS bedding are consistent with opportunistic suspension-feeding strategies (Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997); these sandstone beds are likely superimposed storm deposits with limited interbedded fair-weather mudstones. In the beds with interbedded mudstone, diverse ichnogenera that represent deposit feeding and grazing ethologies are present, recording fair-weather conditions (Pemberton et al., 2002).

Facies 10: Sparsely bioturbated cross-stratified sandstone

Description: Facies 10 (F10) consists of very fine- to medium- grained quartz arenite with rare mudstone laminae (Figs. 9 and 14E). Sandstone grains are sub-rounded and moderately sorted. Sandstone is characterized by parallel lamination, low-angle planar cross-stratification, or hummocky cross-stratification (HCS). Locally, massive bedding and symmetrical ripples are present. The grain-size is greatest in beds dominated by massive bedding and HCS. Detrital glauconite is present locally (5 %). F10 typically has a gradational basal contact with F9 and a gradational upper contact. F10 is 1-10 m thick with HCS beds 10-25 cm thick, massive beds 0.1- 1 m thick, and low-angle planar and horizontal planar cross-stratified beds 5-25 cm thick. Mudstone laminae are moderately to weakly bioturbated, with a BI of 0 to 2. Trace fossils present include Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Rhizocorallium, Skolithos, Teichichnus, and Thalassinoides. Sandstone and siltstone beds are not bioturbated. 40

Interpretation: Cross-stratification in F10 is the result of unidirectional, oscillatory, or combined flow currents. Bioturbation is limited to the mudstone laminae suggesting that the depositional conditions were more favorable for colonization over this interval than in the HCS- dominated sandstone beds (e.g. MacEachern and Pemberton, 1992).

Facies 11: Parallel-laminated or massive siltstone

Description: Facies 11 (F11) comprises gray siltstone with rare, interbedded thin mudstone (few millimeters to 3 cm thick) and very fine-grained sandstone (1- 5 cm thick) (Fig. 12C). Sandstone and siltstone grains are well-rounded and well-sorted. Horizontal parallel laminations and rare asymmetrical ripples are present in the sandstone beds. Glauconite and siderite are present locally. Interstitial porosity is very low due to the presence of clay and commonly secondary siderite and/or calcite cements. F11 commonly has sharp, flat basal and upper contacts and is 0.1 to 4 m thick. Bioturbation is low or absent (B.I. of 0 to 2). Trace fossils include diminutive and rare Palaeophycus, Planolites, and Skolithos.

Interpretation: F11 was deposited in a quiescent environment. Rare asymmetrical ripples suggest that there were periodic unidirectional currents. Low bioturbation and simplistic trace fossil forms in F11 are suggestive of stressful conditions such as lowered oxygen or fluctuating salinity levels (e.g., Pemberton and Wightman, 1992; MacEachern et al., 2007), however, it is possible that the limited trace fossil assemblage is more a function of the inherent difficulty in discerning features in relatively homogeneous siltstone. 41

Facies 12: Mudstone

Description: Facies 12 (F12) comprises light grey to dark gray mudstone interbedded with pale brown to white siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone beds (Figs. 12D and 12E). The sandstone grains are well-rounded and well-sorted and composed of pre-dominantly (85-90%) quartz (Fig. 9). Horizontal to low angle parallel laminations are commonly present within the sandstone or siltstone lenses; rarely, symmetrical ripples are present. The mudstone is generally structureless. Pyrite or siderite locally forms nodules, or passively in-fills trace fossils. Bentonite beds are locally present in this facies (Fig. 11E). Sandstone and siltstone units are less than 5 cm thick and most commonly 0.5-2 cm thick. F12 commonly fines upwards to very fissile mudstone with no silt or sand present. The basal contact is sharp and undulating where F12 overlies Paleozoic strata, or gradational above bioturbated sandstone. The upper contact is generally sharp and eroded when overlain by sandstone facies and gradational when overlain by F11 or the Arctic Red Formation. The thickness of F12 varies from 0.25-5 m. Bioturbation is low (B.I. is 0 to 2) and associated with diminutive traces. Trace fossils include rare Palaeophycus, Planolites, Skolithos, and local Helminthopsis and Phycosiphon.

Interpretation: F12 is associated with suspension settling in quiescent conditions. Sandstone records evidence for periodic oscillatory and unidirectional currents. Pyrite and siderite suggest low levels of oxygen. The ichnological assemblage may be associated with a stressed environment, and was most likely related to conditions of lowered oxygen if considered with the sedimentary characteristics present (e.g., MacEachern et al., 2007). However, it is plausible that the trace fossil assemblage is more diverse than observed due to the fine- grained nature of the facies. 42

A C

Ch Co As Th

Ph Co 5 cm D Pa

1 cm

B 1 cm E Pa

Sk Co Pl

1 cm Figure 12. Facies photos of facies 7, 11 and 12 within facies association 4 (FA4). A) F7 is characterized by thoroughly bioturbated muddy sandstone or sandy mudstone and a high diversity trace fossil suite that includes Asterosoma (As), Chondrites (Ch), Cosmorhaphe (Co), Palaeophycus (Pa), Phycosiphon (Ph), Rosselia (Ro), and Thalassinoides (Th) (core D-08 at 568.7 m). B) F12 consists of mudstone with sparse bioturbation, including the trace fossils Palaeophycus (Pa), Planolites (Pl), Cosmorhaphe (Co), and Skolithos (Sk) (core D-08 at 562.2 m). C) Structureless siltstone units of F11 (Bear Rock outcrop at 9 m). D) Interbedded shale, siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone that is characterized by planar or ripple cross-stratification (F12; core G-22 at 363.75 m). E) Siltstone (F11) with bentonite bed (red arrow) (Impe- rial River outcrop at 11.5 m). 43

A Q B

G G Q D

50 um 50 um

C Q D Q

Ca Ca

Q Q

Q Q 100 um 100 um

Figure 13. Thin section photomicrographs of facies 8 and 10 within facies association 3 (FA3). A) Fa- cies 8 from the Peel Trough (Imperial River outcrop at 1.2 m) in plain polarized light and B) in crossed polarized light. G-glauconite, Q-quartz, D-dolomite, Ca-calcite. Note the abundance of organic matter within the matrix. C) Facies 10 on the western flank of the Keele Arch (Bear Rock outcrop at 9.1 m) in plain polarized light and D) in cross polarized light. 44

A D Te

Pa Pl

Op fu

Ch Pl 1 cm As

B Th Ph Pa Te

Sk Rz

Rz 1 cm

C 1 cm

Di E

Sk Di

Pa 5 cm 1 cm

Figure 14. Photographs of facies 8, 9 and 10 within facies association 3 (shallow marine sandstone) .A) Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (F9) with robustOphiomorpha (Op) (Imperial River outcrop, sandstone two at 30.5 m). B) Wavy lamination associated with soft-sediment deformation in F9 (Imperial River outcrop, sandstone two at 30.8 m). C) Bioturbated siltstone (F8) characterized by large (up to 50 cm long) Diplocraterion (Di) and sandstone with hummocky cross-stratification and ripples (Imperial River outcrop, sandstone one at 2.1 m). D) Interbedded bioturbated muddy sandstone (F8) with Asterosoma (As), Chondrites (Ch), Cosmorhaphe (Co), fugichnica (fu), Palaeophycos (Pa), Phycosiphon (Ph), Planolites (Pl), Rhizocorallium (Rz), Skolithos (Sk), Teichichnus (Te), and Thalassinoides (Th) (core I-66 at 475 m). E) F10 Sparsely bioturbated interbedded mud laminae in planar bedded sandstone with Palaeophycos (Pa), Ophiomorpha (Op), and Thalassinoides (Th) (Imperial River outcrop at 35.5 m). 45

FACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND DEPOSITIONAL CONTEXT

Four facies associations are interpreted in the Martin House Formation based on genetic characteristics and lithological relationships (Table 1): floodplain deposits (FA1), estuarine sandstone and mudstone (FA2), shallow marine sandstone (FA3), and offshore siltstone and mudstone (FA4) (Table 2, Fig. 15). Well I66 contains the most complete stratigraphic succession in core with Paleozoic strata and the overlying unconformity, FA1, FA3, and FA4 all present (Fig. 6). The facies associations from the Martin House Formation locally comprise distinct wireline log signatures.

FA 1: NON-MARINE DEPOSITS

FA1 comprises chert pebble to cobble conglomerate (F1), trough cross-stratified very coarse grained to granular sandstone (F2), trough cross-stratified fine to medium-grained sandstone (F3), and organic-rich fine grained sandstone, siltstone and mudstone with roots (F4) (Fig. 8). These deposits are interpreted to record deposition in a floodplain environment including gravel-sand bed rivers (e.g., Levey 1978; Miall, 1978).

In the Peel Trough area, FA1 is typically associated with a basal lag (F1) overlain by organic-rich sandstone, siltstone and mudstone with roots (F4), and trough cross-stratified fine to coarse-grained sandstone (F3) (Fig. 6B). The succession is commonly capped by a transgressive chert pebble conglomerate lag (F1) and is 3-17 m thick. This succession represents subaerially exposed floodplains and marshland, with poorly developed paleosols and overbank deposits and cross-cutting fluvial channels. Fluvial channel deposits are not present in all localities. Commonly near the base of the FA1 succession are calcium carbonate nodules, chambered insect burrows and thin tabular sandstone beds. In other studies, these characteristics are typical of paleosols developed in a relatively well-drained 46 BR , G22 C21 H34, , N30, H34 Locations E30 I66, N10, N58, D08, IR,BR, I66, IR, I66, D08, C21, H34, N30, BR, IR, G22, M04, KL, ML, l Environmental Interpretation mature materia y Lower shoreface to offshore environment, below fairweather wave-base and mostly below storm-wave base. Low energy conditions with stable substrates such that significant bioturbation commonly overprints physical sedimentary structures. Estuary deposits with influences from both fluvial and marine processes characterized by a range of grain-sizes and sedimentary structures (physical biogenic). High energy shallow marine environment dominated by sandstone deposition,with short-lived periods of lower energy. Possible barrier bar or shoreface; deposition between fairweather and storm wave-base Flood plain deposits including interbedded coal, poorly developed paleosols and moderate to high energy fluvial deposits composed of immature moderatel F4, F12 F1, F7, F9, F10 F11, F12 F10, F11, F1, F3, F4, F5, F6, F9, F1, F2, F3, F1, F7, F8, Estuarine sandstone Shallow marine FA2 FA4 Offshore mudstone FA1 Non-marine FA3 Facies Association Name Facies Table 2. Facies associations of the Martin House Formation. Table 47 - Figure 15. Stratigraphic cross-section A-A` Figure 15. Stratigraphic cross-section showing the distribution of Martin House Formation facies associations and evolution of the study area in five events. During event were deposited 1, non-marine strata (FA1) onto the sub-Cretaceous unconformity within long, narrow trends interpreted as paleovalleys. During event 2a, estuarine and marine were deposited in the - FA4) strata (FA2 more marineward regions of the study area with continued deposition of non-marine Arch. During along the Keele strata (FA1) event 2b, sea-level fluctuations resulted in the incision and fill of paleovalleys into old er Martin House Formation strata, forming a complex incised valley-fill (IVF). Event 2c recorded multiple small relative transgres- pulses as estuarine and sive-regressive (T-R) were deposit- FA4) FA3, marine strata (FA2, ed as part of an overall transgression. During event 3a, continued sea-level rise resulted Arctic Red Forma- in the deposition of tion marine mudstone. During event 3b, the onset of an overall regression was recorded by the deposition of prograding shore- Arctic Red face sandstone members of the and Cook, 1981; Dixon, Formation (Yorath 1999; Hadlari et al. 2009a). During event 4, Arch resulted the relative uplift of Keele Arctic Red Formation in the erosion of Arch (Cook, 1975; strata across the Keele MacLean, 2006; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Dur- ing event 5, (depicted in figure 3), a marine incursion flooded the study area including Arch and the Slater River Forma- the Keele tion was deposited. 3 2 A’ Event Event East 50 km m and 2b G-22 Events1 0 30 10 20 40 M-04 Arctic Red Formation and 2b Events 1 H-34 Event 2b Base of the Arctic Red Fm Base of the Cretaceous E-30 Event 1 ML C-21 Events 1-2c Paleozoic K-14 Keele Arch Event 1-2c Mahoney Lake Mbr Sans Sault Mbr Arctic Red Fm KL Event 4: uplift and erosion K-03 Legend FA4, F7 & F11 & F12 FA3, F7 & F8 FA3, F9 & F10 Events 1 and 2b I-66 Arctic Red Formation F-47 FA2, F5 FA2, F6 Martin House Formation FA1, F3 FA1, F2 FA1, F4 Paleozoic D-08 A West 1 3 2 Event Event Event 48

floodplain environment (e.g.,Mack et al. 1993; Bridge, 2006). Coal-rich beds are generally poorly developed and change vertically over 5-30 cm from an organic-rich mudstone with increasing organics to a vitrinous coal; siderite is commonly associated with this mudstone to coal transition. A transition from mudstone to coal-rich beds in other studies is interpreted to record an increase in the groundwater table and relative sea level (e.g., McCabe and Shanley, 1994; Boyd and Diessel, 1995; Flint et al., 1995). Thin coal beds (mostly < 5 cm), which are interbedded within F3 in core, could represent concentrated organic matter, such as a piece of wood, and not necessarily record an in-situ coal-forming environment associated with changes in the groundwater levels (e.g., McCabe, 1984; Flint et al., 1995).

FA1 is overlain by marine or estuarine facies associations (FA2 and FA3).

Along the Keele Arch, the typical FA1 succession is 10- 40 m thick and consists of a basal chert pebble conglomerate lag (F1) overlain by sandstone with trough cross-stratified, low angle planar cross-stratified, or massive bedding (F2-F3) (Figs. 8 and 16). These physical characteristics are consistent with high energy unidirectional currents and periods of rapid deposition leading to poor sediment sorting and massive bedding. Although the Keele Arch has been interpreted as a relatively low-lying structure that contributed limited sediment to the basin, the depositional gradient associated with the flanks of the Keele Arch would have likely been steeper than the surrounding foreland basin paleotopography (Cook, 1975). Intervals of FA1 may be attributed to local sediment sources on the flanks of the Keele Arch (e.g., Allen, 1982).

In Great Bear Basin the typical FA1 succession comprises chert pebble conglomerate lag (F1) overlain by interbedded trough cross-stratified fine to medium-grained sandstone (F3) and organic-rich fine-grained units (F4) (Figs. 16 and 17). In this area, FA1 is dominated by fine- to coarse- grained sandstone with low- to high- angle planar stratification (F3), and structureless beds with local mudstone rip up clasts, organic detritus and organic-rich 49 laminae. Grain size profiles range from uniform to upward fining. Uniform to upward fining grain-size profile, trough cross-bedding and mudstone rip-ups are some ofthe characteristics established to define braided channel deposits, although the data present is not unique to this environment (Schumm and Khan, 1972; Allen, 1982). No extensive coal beds or roots were observed in Great Bear Basin, although common organic and coaly detritus are present. Mudstone couplets observed locally in F3 are possibly related to tidal influence (c.f., Smith, 1988); although dependent upon gradient, tidal currents are known to impact fluvial channels at distances greater than 100 km inland from the sea (Fig. 8) (Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009).

Wireline Log Signatures for FA1: FA1 is associated with a variable log response including blocky, fining upwards and coarsening upwards, as inferred from gamma radiation log profiles. A lower, more consistent gamma ray signature is typical of FA1, and distinguishes associated units from the sandstone facies in other facies associations. The sandy fluvial channel facies (F2 and F3) have low, consistent gamma ray signatures and are distinctive from finer units of F4. F4 is commonly characterized by high gamma radiation and low porosity values (e.g., core I-66 has 60-90 API, 30-60 ohms) (Fig. 6B). Coal beds in F4 are generally too thin to be resolved or correlated on wireline logs (Fig. 6B). The gamma ray signature of F4 is generally lower and more irregular than the shale of the heterolithic marine sandstone facies in FA4, and tends to be in contact with low radioactivity F3 strata.

FA1 Distribution FA1 is preserved, at least locally, on the eastern side of the Peel Trough, across the Keele Arch and in Great Bear Basin; it is absent in the Brackett and Root basins (Fig.18). The distribution of FA1 is limited to the eastern part of the Peel Trough and forms an 50

Northwest Northeast 35 km Mahoney 40 km 90 km Kelly Lake E-30 Lake M-04 10 253 9 F3

9 254 8 F1 F2 FA1 F3 8 255 7

440

7 256 6

441

6 257 5 FA1 442

5 258 4 F2

443

F3 4 FA1 259 3 F3 444

3 260 2 445 FA1 2 261 1 F1 F1 446 Paleozoic 1 262 0 Depth Depth Depth

(m) silt silt

silt (m) (m) fine fine fine shale shale v fine shale v fine v fine coarse coarse cobble coarse coarse pebble coarse coarse cobble pebble cobble pebble v. granular 0 Intensity medium v. granular Intensity v. Intensity medium granular medium Bioturbation Bioturbation Bioturbation Depth silt fine

(m) shale v fine coarse coarse cobble pebble v. granular medium Intensity Bioturbation

175 350

Figure 16. Stratigraphic sections through the Martin House Formation (FA1) proximal 200 to the Keele Arch (outcrops KL, ML, and 375 well E-30) and in the Great Bear Basin (well M-04). The blue boxes beside the gamma ray 225 logs represent the cored intervals. Lithologs 400 are aligned on the sub-Cretaceous unconformity. 250 Martin House Fm 425

275 Paleozoic Depth 0 (m) 150

Depth E-30 Gamma Ray (API) (m) 0 150 M-04 Gamma Ray (API) 51

Northeast Southwest South gl 665 F6 gl gl G-22 60 km H-34 50 km N-30 F12

666 sid

F6 667

667.0

668

669 362 py F6 py py FA2 670 363 754 py

671 364 F5 755 F12 py

py 365 756 672 py F6

366 FA2 757 673

py F3 FA2 367 F6 758 F5 674 F6 H-34 py 368 759 675 F5 675 N-30 575 369 760 676 py F6 py

py 700 F5

py 600 370 761 F3 FA1 677 F3 725 650 371 762 678 MH

750 F12 F12 675 372 763 679 py py Paleozoic py

Depth 775 py Depth shale silt (m) vf sst f sst m sst c sst sst vc cobble cobble

(m) shale pebble silt vf sst f sst m sst c sst sst vc 700 cobble cobble granular granular Depth Depth pebble

0 150 granular Intensity Intensity shale silt (m) vf sst f sst m sst c sst sst vc (m) Intensity Intensity cobble cobble Bioturbation Bioturbation pebble Gamma Ray (API) Bioturbation Bioturbation granular granular

Intensity Intensity 725

Bioturbation Bioturbation Depth 0 (m) 150 Gamma Ray (API)

Figure 17. Stratigraphic sections through Martin House Formation (FA1 – FA3) in the Great Bear Basin. Coarsening upwards and fining upwards cycles are present, which are similar to those observed in the Peel Trough (Figs. 6 and 18) and attributed to changes in relative sea-level. Chert pebble to cobble conglomerate (F1) commonly marks the base of a fining upward cycle. 52 approximately northeast-southwest trend (Fig. 18). The distribution of FA1 along this trend may be a result of deposition in northeast-southwest trending palaeovalleys (Hadlari et al., 2009a). The thickness of FA1 increases slightly to the north in the Peel Trough. On the northern edge of Brackett Basin, there is one outcrop with FA1 strata (Fig. 18, outcrop BR).

The coarsest grained, thickest FA1 strata are located adjacent to the Keele Arch (e.g., Mahoney Lake outcrop, well E-30). In Great Bear Basin, fluvial deposits form an approximately northeast-southwest trend with the thickest interval in the basin center (Figs. 16, 19, 20 and 21). The grain size of FA1 in Great Bear Basin is highly variable with the coarsest grained strata present in the northeast and on the Keele Arch.

FA 2: ESTUARINE SANDSTONE AND MUDSTONE

The estuarine facies association (FA2) is 2-15 m thick and comprises: chert pebble to cobble conglomerate (F1), trough-cross stratified fine to coarse-grained sandstone (F3), organic-rich fine grained sandstone, siltstone and mudstone with roots (F4), sparsely bioturbated interbedded sandstone and mudstone with soft-sediment deformation (F5), sparsely bioturbated sandstone with mudstone couplets and draped ripples (F6), moderately bioturbated hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (F9), sparsely bioturbated cross-stratified sandstone (F10), parallel-laminated or massive siltstone (F11), and mudstone (F12) (Fig. 11). These facies are interpreted to be associated with an estuarine environment influenced by tidal, wave and fluvial currents (e.g., Prichard, 1967; Pemberton and Frey, 1984; Dalrymple et al., 1992).

The observed succession in the Peel Trough (2 m thick) comprises unbioturbated sandstone channel deposits interbedded with moderately bioturbated sandstone units characterized by diminutive, monospecific trace fossil suites and oscillatory current structures (Fig. 22, Imperial River outcrop). It is plausible that this succession represents deposition in an 53

66’40’0” 67’0’0” 64’20’0” 64’40’0” 65’0’0” 65’20’0” 66’0’0” 64’0’0” 66’20’0” 65’40’0” 63’40’0” 67’20’0” F49 -122’0’0” O13 P14 M59 G52 I54 Great Bear Lake Great E11 -123’0’0” F62 G22 M07 N70 A12 M04 H61 -124’0’0” K44 N30 M20 D61 D65 SCC P78 M61 M43 C51 K76 J42 M48 I74 I46 L52 H34 N62 E30 L04 E19 B20 I01 TA J66 A28 ML C21 L66 L80 B76 B30 K14 G51 G18 B45 J65 D57 I55 B62 K29 A53 BT F01 I77 BR L21 O20 M17 A67 M47 K44 B44 L71 B23 A37 E44 A49 I70 O51 K71 C49 MRS -126’0’0” -125’0’0” O47 A37 K14 M39 E15 N37 O35 L23 K53 G78 M63 C12 50km 20mi Norman Wells Norman Wells G47 D04 O52 C11 D63 N30 A52 H55 J13 K03 N33 N J48 H71 G12 -127’0’0” G44 B46 H77 H40 O17 O41 J71 P45 IR N22 A16 F27 G56 F57 O65 O65 K68 A47 L47 B57 D05 J05 -128’0’0” N39 O25 H55 P75 D07 J27 G26 H48 P55 O74 P16 C31 H24 L61 L24 H79 O18 H47 D53 A53 MR D72 H73 E21 J42 N10 O62 South Charles Creek Shortcut Creek Mountain River From this study: Kelly Lake Imperial River Tulita Anticline Tulita Mahoney Lake (NW of) Bear Rock Brackett River Hadlari outcrops (2009a) Hume River Arctic Red River Flyaway Creek Mackenzie River (South) A23 N58 -129’0’0” I20 IR FC SC HR KL TA BT ML BR MR A37 P36 SCC ARR L09 D40 MRS Cretaceous-aged outcrops: outcrops: Cretaceous-aged SC I66 D69 K47 HR F46 L26 -130’0’0” A59 K04 A47 D07 J34 N32 ARR F47 I77 N73 D39 B10 Legend -131’0’0” C36 A22 Present-day Mackenzie Mountains Present-day I38 FC H38 H57 H34 O65 D64 -132’0’0” O27 F79 I06 G55 K15 K63 K28 A42 L50 Oldest Cretaceous strata preserved: No Cretaceous strata (well) Arctic Red Fm or younger Cretaceous (well) (well) FA4 FA3, Martin House Fm. FA2, (well) member FA1 Tukweye outcrop mbr. Tukweye Hadliari (2009) Arctic Red Fm, or younger outcrop This study This study Martin House Fm outcrop mbr outcrop Tukweye This study Community or town Martin House Fm. or younger strata Facies 2 trough cross-stratified very coarse to granular sandstone Facies 3 trough cross-stratified fine to coarse-grained sandstone Facies 4 very fine grained sandstone, siltstone, mudstone with roots Modern erosion resulting in exposed Paleozoic Hadlari (2009) Martin House Fm. outcrop Keele Arch Keele D08 -133’0’0” Figure 18 . FA1 distribution. Data from Hadlari et al. (2009a) are included from Shortcut Creek (SC), Mountain River (MR), Hume River (HR), Arctic Red River distribution. Data from Hadlari et al. (2009a) are included Shortcut Creek (SC), Mountain River (MR), Hume (HR), Figure 18 . FA1 Arch chert-rich sandstone (F2) was observed in outcrop and core proximity to the Keele coarse-grained to granular, Very (ARR), and Flyaway Creek (FC). of (e.g., KL, ML, E-30, C-21) and interpreted from wireline logs a nd cuttings to extend into Great Bear Basin D-61, G-22) along the western flank sandstone (F3) follows linear trends, which are associated with The deposition of medium-grained trough-cross stratified Arch (e.g., L-66 and L-04). the Keele Arch. the Keele Trough and Great Bear Basin approximately west-east off trending paleovalleys in the Peel fluvial channels that were present along NE-SW Arch, but not in flank of the Keele Trough and along the western sandstone to mudstone with roots was observed in the Peel very fine-grained The organic-rich, Great Bear Basin. 54

A P36 K47 D72 E44 D08 I38 L61 H48 N39 B Great Bear Lake P55 O65 N37 A53 66’0’0” N10 K15 D64 I20 I66 G26 G47 G22 D53 L23 O62 C31 A42 F46 H47 J05 F62 A23 H24 B K68 C O18 J27 K76 M04 F47 N58 O74 P16 F57 H34 A22 G56 H73 L24 D07 M07 65’30’0” O25 O65 O41 H71 A59 D05 O65 A16 H40 J48 KL I77 L09 F27 H55 I74 P45 O17 H77 N70 FC MR H55 D04 HR G44 ML ARR SC N22 J71 Norman Wells C21 D61 IR B46 B62 G12 A52 G78 BT N30 65’0’0” K03 A49 O20 B’ D K14 TA A37 A37 H61 N33 BR E30 SCC Legend M39 K71 A53 Wells MRS I77 L66 C’ I55 J’ L21 No Cretaceous well (no fill) Mackenzie Mountains K53 O51 B45 Present-day I70 F01 J66 Slater River Fm or younger well J B76 Arctic Red Fm well (dark fill) 64’30’0” G18 J65 L04 Martin House marine well (yellow) K44 N62 B44 L71 Tukweye member well (light fill) B30 I01 J42 Hadlari (2009) Martin House Fm outcrop D57 E19 Hadliari (2009) Tukweye mbr outcrop K29 P78 This study Upper Cretaceous outcrop A28 L52 64’0’0” B20 This study Martin House Fm outcrop D’ I46 D65 N M43 This study Tukweye mbr outcrop 50 km G51 Community or town Keele Arch 20 mi Wireline log cross-sections A12 63’30’0” -133’0’0” -132’0’0” -131’0’0” -130’0’0” -129’0’0” -128’0’0” -127’0’0” -126’0’0” -125’0’0” -124’0’0”

65’30’0” B KL Map B Legend ML Wells without Martin House Fm. FA1 well Norman Wells C21 Great Bear FA2, FA3, FA4 well Lake 65’0’0” Upper Cretaceous outcrop Present-day Mackenzie FA2, FA3, FA4 outcrop K71 FA1 outcrop Mountains Community or town Keele Arch 64’30’0” Seismic transect E-E` L04 Seismic transect F-F’ B30 Seismic transect G-G’ N 50 km 20 mi D57

-127’0’0” -126’0’0” -125’0’0” -124’0’0” -123’0’0”

Figure 19. A) Study area map with cross-section locations for B-B’ (Fig. 20), C-C’ (Fig. 21), D-D’ (Fig. 24). J-J’ (Fig. 34). B) Small map of seismic transects E-E’, F-F’ and G-G’ (Figs. 25 and 26). C) Map of cross-section J-J`in the Mackenzie Corridor study area and from the Liard and WCSB Alberta basins (Fig. 34). Part C of fi gure on following page. 55

C 140 130 120 110 66 Map C Legend 64 Cross-section H-H’ in WCSB J J’ Cross-section I-I’ in Liard Basin 62 Cross-section J-J’ in study area Precambrian Study Area 60 Shield I’ Keele Arch present-day extent of deformation 58 Present-day Mackenzie River I 56 Present-day Great Bear and H’ Great Slave Lakes 54 H N 52 Cordillera Alberta 50 0 100 300 km 48 0 200 mi

Figure 19, continued. C) Map of cross-section J-J`in the Mackenzie Corridor study area and from the Liard and WCSB Alberta basins (Fig. 34) 56 150 B’ SE API N-30 Gamma Ray 0 150 M-04 API Gamma Ray 0 150 API H-34 Gamma Ray 0 C-21 API 150 Gamma Ray 150 0 K-14 K-14 API Gamma Ray 0 Keele Arch Arch Keele K-03 K-03 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 150 API N-58 Gamma Ray 0 150 API N-10 Gamma Ray 0 150 I-66 API Gamma Ray 0 150 F-46 API Gamma Ray 0 F-47 API 150 A-22 A-22 Gamma Ray 0 150 D-08 B API NW Gamma Ray A 0 Datum 2 Datum Fm Arctic Red Fm Martin House Paleozoic Paleozoic oding surface within the Arctic Figure 20. East-west oriented cross-section (B-B`) through the Martin House Formation flattened on (A) a laterally extensive flo oding surface within The Red Formation and (B) the flooding surface at top of san d-rich portion Martin House (see Figure 19 for location section). sub-Cretaceous unconformity is marked by the undulating red line and blue boxes to left of gamma ray signature depict c ore locations. Part (B) useful for depiction of the lateral facies changes and thickness v ariations within Martin House Formation. Part B figure on following page. 57 B’ SE API 150 N-30 Gamma Ray 0 M-04 API 150 Gamma Ray H-34 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 C-21 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 Sub-Cretaceous Unconformity K-14 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 Keele Arch Arch Keele K-03 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 800 API 150 N-58 Gamma Ray 0 API 150 N-10 Gamma Ray 0 I-66 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 API 150 F-46 Legend Legend Gamma Ray 0 API 150 F-47 Gamma Ray 0 API 150 Gamma Ray 0 A-22 FA4 Offshore shale Offshore FA4 sandstone Shallowmarine FA3 mudstone and sandstone Estuarine FA2 sandstone conglomeratic to grained medium non-marine F3) or (F2 FA1 sandstone rooted grained fine siltstone, & coals non-marine (F4) FA1 API 150 D-08 Gamma Ray B 0 NW Datum 2 Figure 20. Continued from previous page. Fm B Paleozoic Arctic Red Fm Martin House 58 upper estuarine or bayhead delta environment. However, due to limited data, this strata is broadly considered to be associated with an estuary environment (e.g., Pritchard, 1967; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Boyd et al., 2006).

On the western side of the Keele Arch, an exposure of FA2 (12 m thick) consists of basal chert pebble conglomerate (F1), green-gray siltstone (F4), moderately bioturbated hummocky cross-stratified locally glauconitic sandstone (F9), sparsely bioturbated cross- stratified sandstone (F10), trough cross-stratified fine to medium grained sandstone (F3), bioclastic pebble conglomerate lag (F1) and parallel-laminated or massive siltstone (F11)

(Fig. 22, Bear Rock outcrop). Pollen in the basal siltstone (F4) is associated with a Lower Cretaceous continental environment (White, 2009b). Bioturbation in the sandstone units is typically characterized by a low-diversity suite of diminuitive trace fossils, consistent with a brackish-water setting (e.g., Pemberton et al., 1982; Gingras et al., 1999). Bioclastic lags (F1) are associated with erosion of subaerially exposed Paleozoic carbonates and limited fluvial transportation, since the bioclasts are generally unaltered yet are not in-situ. The current structures and massive bedding are associated with both oscillatory and uni-directional currents and rapid deposition (Allen, 1982; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Pemberton et al., 2008). Palynological components in the upper siltstone unit are interpreted to record marginal marine conditions, and this facies is associated with a quiescent environment (White, 2009b). The interbedded non-marine and marine succession is consistent with an estuary interpretation, with evidence for quiescent and high-energy processes (unidirectional and wave) and brackish water trace fossil assemblages (Fig. 11) (e.g., Allen, 1982; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Hubbard et al., 2004; Pemberton et al., 2008).

In Great Bear Basin, three common FA2 successions 6-15 m thick are present. Southern wells consist of F5, F6, and F12, dominated by mudstone interbedded with very fine-grained sandstone to siltstone. Soft-sediment deformation, starved ripples and low diversity trace 59 Figure 21. North-south oriented cross-section (C-C’) through Great Bear Basin ooding attened on the fl fl Arctic Red surface within the Formation (see Figure 19 for The location of the section). Martin House Formation is thickest in the center and to the north of Great Bear Basin, and facies are progressively shale-rich to the south and north. Core depths are indicated by rectangles next to the depth bar with the Cretaceous- lled in blue. aged interval fi 150 South C’ API Gamma Ray 0 H61 450 400 500 Depth (m) Legend 150 Arctic Red Fm Arctic Red Fm estuarine-marine deposits and FA3 FA2 non-marine deposits FA1 Unconformity API Gamma Ray 0 N30 650 600 700 Depth (m) 150 API Gamma Ray 0 D61 850 800 750 700 Depth (m) 150 API Gamma Ray 0 N70 650 600 550 500 Depth (m) 150 API Gamma Ray 0 M04 400 350 450 300 Depth (m) North C Datum 2 Datum Martin House Fm. FA1 Top Paleozoic Arctic Red Fm. Arctic Red Fm. 60 fossil suites attributed to brackish water conditions are also present (Figs. 11 and 17, N30). These characteristics are interpreted to record quiescent, salinity stressed depositional conditions with periodic exposure to wave-energy and sediment slumping or loading (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1991; Hubbard et al., 2004; Buatois et al. 2005; MacEachern et al., 2007). Possible interpretations of these strata include estuarine central basin and prodeltaic environments (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1991; Hubbard et al., 2004; Buatois et al. 2005; MacEachern et al., 2007). Interbedded weakly bioturbated sandstone beds (F6) with HCS, ripples or low angle planar stratification record high energy oscillatory currents, and are consistent with storm processes in shoreface or estuarine environments (Dott and

Beaugeois, 1982; Dalrymple et al., 1992).

In the northern part of Great Bear Basin, the succession comprises mudstone with thinly interbedded siltstone characterized by sparse, diminuitive, simple burrows (F12), mudstone characterized by soft sediment deformation (F5), current-structured, medium-grained sandstone (F3), sandstone with tidal couplets and mudstone-draped climbing ripples and sparsely bioturbated sandstone beds (F6), and moderately bioturbated sandstone with symmetrical ripples. The trace fossil assemblage is consistent with a brackish-water setting (e.g., Pemberton et al., 1982; Pemberton and Wightman, 1992; Gingras et al., 1999). Bedding structures associated with tidal, oscillatory and uni-directional currents are commonly characteristic of an estuary setting where fluvial, tidal, and wave currents influence sedimentation (e.g., Visser, 1980; Smith, 1988; Dalrymple et al., 1992). The stratigraphic succession records an overall transgression, possibly associated with the transition from a low-energy estuary central basin to tidal flats and outer estuary sandstone units (Figs. 11 and 17) (e.g., Visser, 1980; Smith, 1988; Pemberton and Frey, 1984; Dalrymple et al., 1992). Marine influence was apparently greater in northeastern Great Bear Basin, as supported by the increased preservation of HCS and greater bioturbation intensity and higher trace fossil diversity (Fig. 17, G-22). 61

Wireline Log Signatures of FA2: FA2 is associated with highly variable lithology, resulting in variable wireline log signatures; however, an overall fining upwards profile is typical (Fig. 17). Mudstone and siltstone dominated intervals of FA2 have a lower average gamma ray signature than comparable facies in FA4, and FA2 tends to have a higher and more irregular gamma ray signature than that of FA3 or FA1.

Distribution of FA2 FA2 has been recognized in core on the eastern side of the Keele Arch in Great Bear Basin, and in outcrops on the western flank of the Keele Arch and the eastern side of the Peel Trough (Figs.15, 20, 21, 22 and 23). In the southern part of Great Bear Basin, FA2 is increasingly mudstone-rich (Figs. 17 and 23).

FA 3: SHALLOW MARINE SANDSTONE

Facies association 3 (FA3) consists of marine sandstone deposits (5-10 m thick) which were highly influenced by storm-wave processes. This association consists of chert pebble to cobble conglomerate (F1), abundantly bioturbated sandy mudstone (F7), moderately to commonly bioturbated interbedded sandstone and mudstone (F8), moderately bioturbated hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (F9), and sparsely bioturbated cross-stratified sandstone (F10) (Fig. 14). These facies are interpreted as shoreface, or barrier bar deposits based on facies characteristics and grain size trends (e.g., Walker and Plint, 1992; Hampson et al., 2001). Sediments deposited above storm wavebase and below fair-weather wavebase include HCS and SCS and a trace fossil assemblage that is consistent with the Cruziana- Skolithos ichnofacies (e.g., Frey and Pemberton, 1985; Frey et al., 1990; Walker and Plint, 1992; Reading and Collinson, 1996; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997; Hampson, 2000; 62

Bann et al., 2004). Depositional processes from above fair-weather wavebase, perhaps associated with upper shoreface or barrier bar environments, are recorded by swaley cross-stratification, ripples and sparse to moderate bioturbation including elements of the Skolithos ichnofacies (e.g., Frey and Pemberton, 1985; Frey et al., 1990; Walker and Plint, 1992; Pemberton and MacEachern, 1997; Hampson, 2000; Bann et al., 2004). F1 is present at the sub-Cretaceous unconformity, at the basal contact where FA3 overlies FA1 and within FA3 at the base of a fining upwards cycle; F1 is interpreted as a transgressive lag deposit in each case (Fig. 6B).

In the Peel Trough, FA3 directly overlies the sub-Cretaceous unconformity or else deposits of FA1. FA3 generally comprises interbedded coarsening upwards and fining upwards successions associated with progradational or retrogradational shoreface deposits (c.f., Walker and Plint, 1992).

On the eastern side of the Peel Trough near the Keele Arch, FA3 strata consists of F8, F9 and F10, lacking the highly bioturbated, mudstone-rich F7 sandstone units characteristic of FA3 further west. FA3 characteristics and the coarsening upwards grain-size profile are consistent with a progradational shoreface or barrier bar environment (e.g., Walker and Plint, 1992).

Wireline Log Signatures of FA3: FA3 marine sandstone strata form interbedded, overall upwards coarsening or upwards fining profiles (Fig. 22). The gamma ray signature for FA3 is higher, with thinner sandstone beds than in FA1 (Fig. 20). The gamma-ray signature over sandstone-rich intervals in FA2 is more irregular than in similar intervals of FA3 (Figs. 20 and 24). FA3 has a much lower gamma-ray signature overall in comparison with FA4. 63

Facies Distribution of FA3 FA3 is present across much of the study area, except for the Brackett Basin and southern Great Bear Basin (Fig. 23). FA3 and FA4 are both gradationally and sharply interbedded locally.

FA 4: OFFSHORE MUDSTONE

Facies association 4 (FA4) commonly consists of an upwards fining succession, from base to top: a) chert pebble conglomerate (F1), b) abundantly bioturbated sandy mudstone (F7), c) parallel-laminated or massive siltstone (F11), and d) mudstone (F12) (Figs. 12 and 22). FA4 represents the distal-most expression of the marine Martin House Formation, and it is closely related to the gradational transition from the Martin House Formation to the more basin-ward Arctic Red Formation mudstone strata. FA4 is related to FA3, interpreted to represent slightly deeper deposition on the idealized shoreface profile (c.f., Walker and Plint, 1992).

Planar laminated mudstone and siltstone of FA4 record low-energy suspension settling with facies characteristic of an offshore shelf, or ramp environment (e.g., Walker and Plint, 1992; Suter, 2006). Sand was likely transported into the offshore by storm currents or hyperpycnal flows (Parsons et al., 2001). Locally thorough bioturbation associated with complex, marine-related trace fossil forms are consistent with distal offshore processes (Seilacher, 1967; Howard and Frey, 1984; Walker and Plint, 1992; MacEachern and Pemberton, 1992; Bann et al., 2004). Interbedding of FA4 and FA3 is interpreted to record shifts in the depth of fair-weather wave base as the shoreline profile shifted under the influence of fluctuating relative sea level, storm conditions, or sediment supply (Dott and Bougeois, 1982). FA4 is associated with sediments characteristic of a marine clastic 64

140 km 65 km D-08 Imperial River Bear Rock 555.0 Top 46 F7 18 F1 556.0 45 F12 FA 4 F12 FA 4 17

557.0 44 F10 16 F1 43 558.0 F8 F7 15

559.0 42 14 FA 3 FA 3 560.0 41 13 F10 561.0 40 No data 12 due to ground 39 562.0 cover from 11 11.0 to F12 F1 29.5 m 38 563.0 F12 FA 4 F11 FA 4 10 37 564.0 11 F12 9 FA4 F11 36 F10 565.0 10 8 F12 35 9 566.0 F10 FA 2 7 34 8 F7 567.0 F11 6 7 33 py F8 568.0 FA 3 F9 gl 5 6 gl gl 32 No data 569.0gl F1 due to gl 5 F9 4 ground cover F12 31 FA 3 from 3.5 to 4.5 m 570.0 gl F7 4 F6 3 F1 FA 2 30 Base Cretaceous gl F7 F12 571.0 3 F3 Depth

silt 2 f sst

(m) c sst vf sst vc sst vc m sst shale cobble cobble pebble granular gl gl F8 Intensity 572.0 2 Bioturbation F4 FA 1 FA 3 1 1 573.0 gl Base Cretaceous F1 gl 0 Base Cretaceous gl Depth silt f sst c sst vf sst vc sst vc m sst Base (m) shale cobble cobble Depth 0 pebble

Depth granular silt silt f sst

(m) c sst f sst vf sst c sst m sst shale shale

(m) sst vc vf sst m sst vc sst vc Intensity Intensity cobble cobble pebble cobble cobble pebble Bioturbation Bioturbation granular granular Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity Bioturbation Bioturbation Bioturbation Bioturbation

Figure 22. Stratigraphic sections through Martin House Formation (FA2 – FA4) in the Peel Trough. An overall fining upwards trend is apparent in outcrop and on wire-line logs, comprising three separate sandstone-rich intervals; these sandstone-rich units are attributed to small-scale transgressive-regressive cycles. 65

180 km D-08 K-03 675

700 750

750 750

750 775

775 800

800 850

850 Martin House Fm 875 FA3 875 FA4 FA3 900 FA3 FA4 FA4 FA3 900 FA4 FA2-FA3 925 FA2-FA3 Paleozoic Depth 925 (m) Depth 0 150 (m) Gamma Ray (API) 0 150 Gamma Ray (API)

Imperial River Outcrop

FA3 46m FA4

FA3

46m FA4

Martin House Fm FA3 FA2 FA3 Devonian

Figure 22. Continued from previous page. 66 Figure 23. FA2 and FA3 Figure 23. FA2 distribution preserved directly overlying the Paleozoic and interpreted as deposition during the onset of Albian transgression. Trough Strata in the Peel are characterized by FA3 interbedded FA2, in Great Bear and FA4; are and FA3 Basin, FA2 interbedded. This stratigraphy is associated with several small-scale transgressive-regressive During the cycles (T-R). latest deposition of the Martin House Forma- tion, the study area was fully marine with shallow marine strata deposited in Great (FA3) Bear Basin and offshore marine mudstone (FA4) deposited in the Peel Trough.

66’40’0” 67’0’0” 64’20’0” 64’40’0” 65’0’0” 65’20’0” 66’0’0” 64’0’0” 66’20’0” 65’40’0” 63’40’0” 67’20’0” F49 -122’0’0” O13 P14 M59 I54 G52 Great Bear Lake E11 -123’0’0” F62 G22 M07 N70 A12 M04 H61 -124’0’0” K44 N30 M20 D61 D65 SCC P78 M61 M43 C51 K76 J42 M48 I74 I46 L52 H34 N62 E30 L04 E19 B20 I01 TA J66 A28 ML C21 L66 L80 B76 B30 K14 G51 G18 B45 J65 D57 I55 B62 K29 A53 BT F01 I77 BR L21 O20 M17 A67 M47 K44 B44 L71 B23 A37 E44 A49 I70 O51 K71 C49 MRS -126’0’0” -125’0’0” O47 A37 K14 L21 M39 E15 N37 O35 L23 K53 G78 M63 C12 50km 20mi Norman Wells G47 D04 O52 C11 D63 N30 A52 H55 J13 K03 N33 N J48 H71 G12 -127’0’0” G44 B46 H77 H40 O17 O41 J71 P45 IR N22 A16 F27 G56 F57 O65 O65 K68 A47 L47 B57 D05 J05 -128’0’0” P16 N39 O25 H55 P75 D07 J27 G26 H48 P55 O74 P51 C31 H24 L61 L24 H79 O18 D53 H47 A53 MR D72 H73 E21 J42 N10 O62 A23 Mountain River Kelly Lake (NW of) Bear Rock Arctic Red River Flyaway Creek Mahoney Lake Mackenzie River (South) Shortcut Creek Hume River South Charles Creek Anticline Tulita Brackett River Imperial River From this study: Hadlari outcrops (2009) N58 -129’0’0” I11 I20 FC IR SC HR KL A37 TA BT P36 BR ML MR SCC MRS ARR L09 D40 Cretaceous-aged outcrops: SC I66 D69 K47 HR F46 L26 -130’0’0” A59 K04 A47 D07 J34 N32 ARR F47 I77 N73 D39 B10 Legend -131’0’0” C36 A22 Present-day Mackenzie Mountains I38 FC H38 H57 H34 O65 D64 -132’0’0” O27 F79 I06 G55 K15 K63 K28 A42 L50 Hadlari (2009) Martin House Fm. outcrop offshore shallow marine +/- minor FA4 FA3 This study Martin House Fm outcrop Oldest Cretaceous strata preserved: No Cretaceous strata (well) Arctic Red Fm or younger Cretaceous (well) (well) FA4 FA3, Martin House Fm. FA2, (well) member FA1 Tukweye outcrop mbr. Tukweye Hadliari (2009) Arctic Red Fm, or younger outcrop This study mbr outcrop Tukweye This study Community or town Arch Keele Arctic Red Fm. or younger marginal marine FA2 Paleozoic outcropping at the surface D08 -133’0’0” 67

D D’ North South 750 K03 250 M39 K53 B44 A28 650

300 800 300 Top Slater River Fm. 700 350 700 850 350

750

400 750 900 400

800

450 800 950 450

850

500 850 1000 500

900

550 900 1050 550

950

600 950 1100 600 sub-Cenomanian unconformity 1000 650 1000 1150 650

1050

700 1050 1200 700

1100

750 1100 1250 Arctic Red Fm. 750 Datum 2 1150 800 1150 1300 800

1200

850 1200 Depth 1350 0 (m) API 150 850 Gamma Ray

Martin House 1250 900 Fm. 1400 Depth 900 0 API 150 sub-Cretaceous (m) Gamma Ray 1300 unconformity Legend Depth (m) 0 API 150 Depth Arctic Red Fm Gamma Ray (m) 0 API 150 Gamma Ray FA3 and FA4marine deposits Depth 0 API 150 Unconformity (m) Gamma Ray

Figure 24. North-south oriented cross-section (D-D’) in the Peel Trough flattened on the flooding surface at the base of the Cenomanian within the Artic Red Formation (location shown in figure 19). Sandstone-rich strata of the Martin House Formation become progressively shalier from north to south; the sandstone-rich facies of the Martin House Formation are absent south of A-28. 68 offshore shelf or ramp, preserving only the distal expression of storm deposits within thin sandstone beds (e.g., Allen, 1982).

Wireline Log Signatures of FA4: The gamma ray signature of FA4 is characterized by higher values relative to the average signature for other facies associations; porosity log values are characterized by the lowest values observed in the study area (Fig. 22, D-08). There is no diagnostic grain size profile trend typical for FA4.

Distribution of FA4: Mudstone of FA4 is interpreted in logs and core across the study area. FA4 is particularly extensive in the northwestern and southern parts of the study area.

PETROGRAPHY

The mineral composition of sandstone units has been used to identify trends in sediment distribution, potential source regions and related tectonic events (c.f. Dickinson, 1970; Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Dickinson, 1985; Ingersoll et al., 1985; Dickinson, 1988; Ross et al., 2005). The Gazzi-Dickinson (1985) point-counting quartz-lithics- feldspar ternary classification method resulted in recognition of greater than 90% quartz across the study area; these sandstone samples are quartz arenites following the Dott classification (1964), or quartz arenites, subarkose and sublitharenites following the Folk (1974) classification (Fig. 9 and Table 3). Further dividing the quartz content into unstrained monocrystalline quartz (Qmu), strained monocrystalline quartz (Qs) and polycrystalline quartz (Qp = chert, strained and unstrained polycrystalline quartz) generated some trends. FA1 samples from the Keele Arch area are dominated by Qp (chert), have minimal Qs and are more angular than grains from other areas and facies Table 3A. Rock type key for point-counting results in Tables 3B, 3C, and 3D

Descriptor Description

Gazzi Gazzi-Dickinson methodology, Trad traditional methodology with chert included in Lt

Qt Gazzi total quartz = Qm+Qms+Qp+chert Qm monocrystalline quartz Qms strained monocrystalline quartz Qp polycrystalline quartz Ft Gazzi total feldspars including kaolonitized feldspars, Lt Gazzi total lithics including detrital glauconite, detrital organics, bioclasts, and rock fragments with grains too small to be identified clearly Matrix clays, cements, in-situ glauconite Authigenic micas, pyrite

69 Table 3B. Summary of petrography results from point-counting in this study – Part 1

Location D‐08 D‐08 I‐66 I‐66 I‐66 I‐66 IR IR N‐10 N‐10 Depth (m) 554.78 570.7 471 475.4 477.2 482.7 3.8 34.3 315.4 310.9 FA FA3 FA3 FA3 FA3 FA1 FA1 FA3 FA3 FA1 FA1 Facies F8 F7 F7 F8 F3 F4 F8 F9 F4 F4 Grain Size fine fine‐ fine‐med fine‐med med fine‐ fine‐med fine‐med fine‐vfine fine‐vfine vfine vfine Qt Gazzi (%) 98.7 99.1 83.9 90.6 95.1 90 88.3 95.1 88.5 79.3 Ft Gazzi (%) 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 3.6 1.9 1.6 1.2 1.4 0.0 Lt Gazzi (%) 1.3 0.9 14.7 9.4 1.2 8.1 10.1 3.7 10.1 20.7

Detrital (%) 91.6 90.8 89.6 84.8 98.8 83 98.8 98.9 87.2 86.8 Matrix (%) 7.6 8.8 10.4 15.6 1.2 15 1.2 1.1 12.0 10.4 Authigenic (%) 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0 0.8 2.8

Qt trad (%) 91.7 90.8 83.9 90.6 87.4 85 85.8 89.4 83.6 71.9 Ft trad (%) 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 3.6 1.9 1.6 1.2 1.4 0.0 Lt trad (%) 8.3 9.3 14.7 9.4 8.9 13.1 12.6 9.4 15.1 29.0

Qm (%) 81.0 43.6 42.6 100.0 73.6 76 83.5 86.0 77.7 69.2 Qms (%) 6.6 35.6 10.6 0.0 10.6 7 11.9 10.2 8.8 12.8 Qp 5.3 12.9 46.8 0.0 7.7 11.5 1.8 2.0 8.8 11.6 Chert 7.08 8 0 0 8.09 5.5 2.75 1.8 4.66 6.4 70 Table 3B. Summary of petrography results from point-counting in this study – Part 2

Location N-58 BR KL ML E-30 M-04 G-22 G-22 H-34 H-34 N-30 Depth (m) 845.3 9.1 4.5 3.2 256.08 445.25 361.55 368.58 754.15 762.5 666.15 FA FA1 FA2 FA1 FA1 FA1 FA1 FA1 FA2 FA2 FA2 FA2 Facies F4 F10 F3 F2 F2 F3 F3 F6 F6 F6 F5 Grain Size Fine to fine-med fine-med very coarse fine-med coarse fine-med fine-med fine-med fine-med very fine coarse Qt Gazzi (%) 94.8 86.6 92.8 97.8 89.2 94.0 88.4 93.2 99.6 87.4 95.5 Ft Gazzi (%) 0.5 7.0 2.2 0.0 1.2 1.4 8.0 2.0 0.0 2.9 2.2 Lt Gazzi (%) 4.7 6.5 5.0 2.2 9.6 4.6 3.6 4.9 0.4 9.7 2.2

Detrital (%) 85.2 74.4 89.5 92.4 100.0 97.0 90.0 82.0 94.8 95.2 71.6 Matrix (%) 12.8 21.6 9.0 7.6 0.0 3.0 9.2 14.8 5.2 4.8 22.8 Authigenic 2.0 1.6 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 3.2 0.0 0.0 5.2 (%)

Qt trad (%) 88.5 73.2 46.8 23.4 44.8 86.0 79.7 79.8 98.7 87.0 84.9 Ft trad (%) 0.5 7.0 2.2 0.0 1.2 1.4 8.0 2.0 0.0 2.9 2.2 Lt trad (%) 11.3 20.4 51.0 76.6 54.0 12.6 11.1 19.0 1.3 10.1 14.0

Qm (%) 80.2 71.4 39.0 22.6 43.9 84.5 78.4 59.2 91.9 76.0 66.7 Qms (%) 9.4 11.8 3.0 0.9 4.9 8.0 9.0 11.5 5.1 13.5 20.5 Qp 5.9 3.1 1.8 0.4 1.3 7.5 5.02 18.3 2.1 10.1 8.2 Chert 4.46 3.67 56.2 76.12 49.78 9.5 7.54 10.99 0.9 0.48 4.68 71

Table 3C. Summary of petrography by facies,

Facies Qt (%) Ft (%) Lt (%)

F2 93.5 0.6 3.6 F3 92.6 3.8 3.6 F4 87.5 0.6 4.8 F5 95.5 2.2 2.2 F6 96.4 1.0 2.6 F7 91.5 0.7 7.8 F8 93.5 0.8 5.4 F9 91.4 1.2 3.0 F10 86.6 7.0 6.5

Table 3D. Summary of petrography by location

Location Qt average Qt range Difference Ft average Ft range Difference Lt average Lt range Difference

Peel Trough 91.2 79.3 to 99.1 19.8 1.0 0 to 3.6 3.6 7.7 0.9 to 20.7 19.8

Keele Arch 89.7 86.6 to 92.8 6.2 1.1 2.2 to 7 4.8 5.7 5 to 6.5 1.5 (west) Keele Arch 93.5 89.2 to 97.8 8.6 1.3 0 to 1.2 1.2 5.9 2.2 to 9.6 7.4 (east) Great Bear 93.0 88.4 to 99.6 11.2 2.8 0 to 8 8 4.2 0.4 to 9.7 9.3

Basin 72

73 associations. Non-marine (FA1) samples from the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin plot closely together with a predominantly Qmu composition and approximately equal percentages (5-10% each) of Qms and Qp. Estuarine (FA2) samples from the Peel Trough, the Keele Arch and Great Bear Basin areas follow approximately the same compositional trend as the Peel Trough FA1 samples, although there are slightly higher Qp compositions in Great Bear Basin than along the Keele Arch or in the Peel Trough. FA3 samples from the Peel Trough showed some variability within a given well (e.g. Table 3 sample D-08 at 554 m and 570 m). Facies 7 within FA3 commonly has more mineralogic variability than other facies within FA3.

Interpretations: A lack of lithics and feldspar content indicates either a source region barren of these minerals, or significant reworking has removed all but the most resistant quartz grains. Qmu is generally an indication of significant reworking and compositional maturity since Qs and Qp are significantly less resistant to erosion (e.g., Blatt and Christie, 1963). Most of the samples are dominated by Qmu composition, which would also support highly reworked sediment. Two Peel Trough FA3 samples appear to have a similar high Qp composition in comparison to the Keele Arch FA1 samples. These samples are high in polycrystalline quartz (macro) but have very low chert content and are therefore not likely from the same source region as the Keele Arch FA1 samples. The Keele Arch FA1 samples are high in chert content and are characterized by angular grains, which are suggestive of limited detrital reworking and proximity to the source region. All other samples suggest reworking and mature mineralogy. Quartz arenites with mature texture, as observed in most of the samples, are associated with source regions from the stable craton (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979). 74

BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY

BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY

Based on the integration of outcrop and core observations and interpretations, a series of cross-sections and seismic correlations were constructed across the study area in order to understand facies association distribution and depositional patterns. Cretaceous strata thin from 1500-2180 m thick adjacent to the modern Mackenzie Mountains in the west up to 1750 m thick in the Mackenzie Plain and 300-800 m thick in Great Bear Basin to the east (Fig. 3). The Martin House Formation is characterized by four particularly thick locations:

a) Peel Trough/Peel Plain (isopach up to 42 m thick) , b) Peel Trough/Mackenzie Plain (isopach up to 39 m thick) , c) the Keele Arch area (isopach up to 46 m thick), and d) Great Bear Basin (isopach up to 36 m thick). The lithofacies distributions are consistent with changes in thickness of the Martin House Formation. The thickest intervals of the Martin House Formation are not necessarily composed of sandstone-dominated facies (e.g., F2, F3, F6, F8, F9, or F10). Generally, the Martin House Formation is characterized by the thickest sandstone where more than one of FA1, FA2 or FA3 strata are deposited (Fig. 15). To the northwest and the south of the study area the Martin House Formation increases in mudstone content however it does not decrease significantly in thickness within the study area (Figs. 15, 20 and 24). The Martin House Formation on-laps and pinches out onto the Keele Arch in Brackett Basin and decreases in thickness just west of Norman Wells (5.5 m thick). The lack of preservation of the Martin House Formation in the Brackett Basin area is most likely related to a lack of deposition on relative palaeotopographic highs southward and toward the Keele Arch (Figs.15, 23, and 24).

When the base of the Slater River Formation is used as a stratigraphic datum, the Lower Cretaceous strata of the Peel Trough apparently dip westwards, which is consistent with field observations at the Imperial River Outcrop (Fig. 22). The on-lap of Martin House and 75

A E E’ NW K-71 SE 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 km 5

Re flection Time (sec) Re flection 2.5 B K-71 Gambil Diapir Franklin Mountains 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 5 Re flection Time (sec) Re flection km C F F’ West B-30 L-04 East 0

0.5

1.0

1.5 Re flection Time (sec) Re flection 0 km 5 2.0

B-30 L-04 D Keele Arch 0

0.5

1.0

1.5 Re flection Time (sec) Re flection 0 km 5 2.0

Legend Little Bear Fm. top Ordovician and Upper Cambrian top Slater River Fm top Cambrian salts Martin House - Arctic Red Fm. top Lower Cambrian top Base Cretaceous Proterozoic top Devonian carbonates Fault Well Figure 25. Seismic profiles west of the Keele Arch. A) Uninterpreted and (B) interpreted cross-section E-E` (Line 105). Map of the transects E-E’ and F-F’ is in figure 19. The Lower Cretaceous Martin House and Arctic Red formations are penetrated in well K-71 and on-lap the western flank of the Keele Arch. Eastern structures resulted from post-Lower Cretaceous tectonism and were proposed as potential hydrocarbon targets (MacLean, 2006). C) Uninterpreted and (D) interpreted seismic reflection profile (F-F`; Line 52X) from the western flank of the Keele Arch where the Martin House Formation is absent (well B-30) and where an interval of sand-rich FA1 on-laps the Keele Arch (well L-04). The structure on the eastern side of L-04 is associated with pre-Devonian movements of salt-bearing Cambrian strata (evaporites in the Saline River and Mt Cap formations) that were eroded prior to the Cretaceous and stable during the Laramide compression; other structures present are related to Cretaceous compressional tectonics that post-date deposition of the Martin House Formation (modified from MacLean and Cook (1999)). 76

G G’ C-21 West East 0

0.5

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1.5 Re flection Time (sec)

2.0

0 km 5 Gamma Sonic Resistivity C-21 Ray 0

0 50

100 0.5 150

200 1

250

300 1.5 Re flection Time (sec) 350 0 150 500 100 0.2 2000 Depth API DT (usec/m) Ohm (m) 2.0

0 km 5

Legend Slater River Fm top Ordovician and Upper Cambrian top Martin House - Arctic Red Fm. top Cambrian salts Base Cretaceous Lower Cambrian top Devonian carbonates Proterozoic top Fault Well

Figure 26. Uninterpreted (A) and interpreted (B) seismic reflection profile east of the Keele Arch (G-G`; Line 85) and B). Lower Cretaceous strata on-laps the eastern flank of the Keele Arch (well C21) and is exposed at the surface (Kelly Lake outcrop) to the west. FA1 strata in well C-21 and at the Kelly Lake outcrop are similar. Map of transect G-G’ is in figure 19. 77

Arctic Red formations strata onto the western flank of the Keele Arch is evident on cross- sections and in seismic data (Figs. 20, 25 and 26). Faulting and folding observed on seismic are either pre-Lower Cretaceous, associated with Cambrian salt tectonics (e.g., Saline River and Mt Cap formations), or occurred after Lower Cretaceous deposition (Williams, 1990; Maclean and Cook, 1999; MacLean, 2006). The Cambrian and Silurian-aged strata outcropping to the west of C-21 form the axis of the Keele Arch (Fig. 26). The difference in dip between Paleozoic units and the Martin House Formation is 15 degrees at the Mahoney Lake outcrop. The thickest intervals of FA1 strata along the Keele Arch are coincident with areas of pre-Cretaceous salt tectonism (Fig. 25).

Lower Cretaceous strata are flat-lying and of approximately consistent thickness over the Mahoney and Mackenzie arches (Fig. 4) (Cook, 1975; Maclean and Cook, 1999), suggesting that these fault-bound structures did not have any significant paleotopographic expression at the time of deposition of the Martin House Formation. Of the reactivated tectonic structures in the study area, only the Keele Arch and Peel Trough, had an apparent effect on deposition (Fig. 2).

DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY

Facies distributions and stratigraphy of the Martin House Formation are used to interpret a generalized Lower Cretaceous paleogeographic history within the Mackenzie Corridor (Fig. 15). Deposition of the Martin House Formation strata occurred in multiple stages: 1) deposition of non-marine strata (FA1) in paleovalleys incised into the sub-Cretaceous unconformity surface; 2a) deposition of estuarine and marine strata (FA2, FA3, FA4) in the more marineward regions of the study area and continued deposition of non-marine (FA1) strata in areas of higher paleotopography (e.g., Keele Arch); 2b) sea-level fluctuations (i.e., transgressive-regressive cycles) and punctuated incision and fillof paleovalleys that eroded into marine strata (FA2-FA4) in areas of higher paleotopography; and 2c) an overall 78 transgressive shift characterized by the deposition of facies from estuarine deposits to offshore mudstone (FA2, FA3, FA4), except on the Keele Arch which remained subaerially exposed (FA1). Three subsequent stages of deposition during the Lower Cretaceous are interpreted for the Mackenzie Corridor based on previous work: 3a) deposition of the lower mudstone-rich marine strata associated with the Arctic Red Formation (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a); 3b) deposition of the sandstone-dominated marine strata associated with the Mahoney Lake and Sans Sault members of the Arctic Red Formation (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a); 4) depositional hiatus associated with a regolith at the sub-Slater River Formation unconformity (Hadlari et al., 2009a; Thomson et al., 2011); and 5) deposition of marine mudstone associated with the Slater River Formation (Yorath and Cook, 1981).

Pre-Martin House Formation Deposition The sub-Cretaceous surface forms an expansive unconformity across the study area and has characteristics consistent with subaerial exposure (Fig. 4). Cretaceous strata overlie Mississippian, or Devonian clastics in the Peel Trough region, Devonian clastics in Brackett Basin area, Ordovician-Silurian carbonates adjacent to the western flank of the Keele Arch and Devonian carbonates or Ordovician/Silurian cherty carbonates on the eastern flank of the Keele Arch in Great Bear Basin (Fig. 4) (Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969; Cook, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1992b; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The Keele Arch was the only significant structure in the study area that affected sediment distribution during the deposition of the Martin House Formation, since the orogenic belt was situated significantly westward of the study area (Williams, 1990; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; MacLean and Cook, 1999).

Event 1- Non-marine deposition (FA1, Martin House Formation) Event 1 is defined by the deposition of non-marine Cretaceous strata (FA1) directly onto 79 the sub-Cretaceous unconformity (Figs. 18 and 27). Palynological analysis of outcrop and core samples from FA1 in the Peel Trough and adjacent to the Keele Arch are of Early to Middle Cretaceous affinity and most likely Albian-aged (Appendix 2; White, 2009a,b; Sweet, 2010; White, 2010a, b). FA1 samples in Great Bear Basin are associated with Early Albian to Middle Albian ages (White, 2009b; 2010a, b). The distribution and composition of FA1 strata are consistent with floodplain depositional models that comprise fluvial deposits, vegetated over-bank deposits and low-lying mires where peat formed (Figs. 18 and 27) (e.g., Flint et al., 1995). Well-developed paleosols or coal beds are not observed in Great Bear Basin, however there is locally abundant coal detritus, which may have originated from local coal beds, or else been transported from the Peel Trough. Event 1 represents the initial episode of deposition of non-marine Martin House Formation strata into paleovalleys on or incised into the sub-Cretaceous unconformity surface. This is consistent with established incised valley models and observations in eastern regions of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (e.g., Smith, 1994; Zaitlin et al., 1994; Boyd et al., 2006).

The distribution of event 1 sediments was highly influenced by paleotopography. With the Keele Arch as a paleotopographic high throughout the deposition of the Martin House Formation strata, it is likely that paleo-drainage originated on the arch, and transported detritus to both the Peel Trough in the west and Great Bear Basin in the east; however, the lack of paleoflow indicators in the Keele Arch area makes paleo-drainage patterns speculative (Figs. 18 and 27). The general paleoflow on the western side of the Keele Arch would have likely been approximately south to northwest since the basin deepened to the northwest (Fig. 27) (Yorath and Cook, 1981). Drainage from Great Bear Basin directly westward was likely limited by the Keele Arch. The Keele Arch plunged to the north however, which may have permitted drainage pathways to develop from Great Bear Basin around the northern end of the Keele Arch and into the Peel Trough (Cook, 1975). 80

Carnwath Platform ? ?

AXIAL FLOW DIRECTION

Keele Arch

Possible paleogeography of the Cordillera Study Area at some distance west of the study area Legend Martin House Formation fluvial deposits (F2 and F3) N 50 km Town or community Martin House Formation floodplain deposits (F4) 20 mi Cored wells Cretaceous not preserved, only Paleozoic Wells Paleozoic Outcrops Paleoflow

Figure 27. Paleogeographic reconstruction for the time when non-marine (FA1) strata were deposited (event 1 and 2c undifferentiated). FA1 strata were preserved over a limited area. The primary axial fl ow in the Peele Trough was likely south to north since the basin deepened in that direction (Hadlari et al., 2009a). Drainage pathways sourced on the Keele Arch would have likely fl owed to both the east and west into larger drainage systems. Channels that originated from the Coppermine Arch and subsequently the Carnwath Platform fl owed north-northwestward into Anderson Basin, and southward into the Peel Trough (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981). Since the Keele Arch dipped northwards (Cook, 1975) and strata thickened northward in Great Bear Basin, then it is most likely that drainage from Great Bear Basin trended approximately north and then may have fl owed around one end of the Keele Arch to the northwest, or to the east. Subsequently uplifted and exposed Paleozoic strata limit the extent of Cretaceous data. 81

FA1 strata of Great Bear Basin thicken towards the north, suggesting that accommodation space increased in that direction (Fig. 21). The Martin House Formation thins southward in both the southern Great Bear Basin and the Brackett Basin, and the mudstone-rich strata preserved is consistent with FA4-dominated strata of the Martin House Formation. The lack of Martin House Formation sandstone preserved in the southern part of these basins may support the implication that these areas had slightly positive palaeotopography and deposition was minimal until late in event 2 when relative sea levels were higher.

Event 2- Estuarine and marine sedimentation (FA2-FA4, Martin House Formation)

The marine and estuarine strata (FA2, FA3, and FA4) of the Martin House Formation were deposited during an overall transgression of the intracontinental seaway into the study area; these units were deposited in the Lower to Middle Albian (Figs. 15, 23 and 28) (McNeil, 2007; White, 2009a, b; Sweet, 2010; White, 2010a, b; Thomson et al., 2011). Event two strata was deposited directly overlying the sub-Cretaceous unconformity surface over most of the study area. Estuarine units (FA2) were deposited on the western flank of the Keele Arch, the eastern side of the Peel Trough and across most of Great Bear Basin (Figs. 15, 23 and 28). Shallow marine units (FA3) are present across the Peel Trough, grading into offshore mudstone (FA4) to the northwest. This facies change is consistent with previous work, which interpreted that the Peel Trough deepened to the northwest (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). In most of Great Bear Basin, a transgression is recorded through the transition from non-marine (FA1), estuarine (FA2), and finally to fully marine deposits (FA3 and FA4).

Event two had multiple episodes with at least three transgressive-regressive events (T-R cycle) recorded within deposits of the Martin House Formation, as indicated by the interbedding of FA2, FA3 and FA4 in coarsening upwards and fining upwards successions in both the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin (Figs. 15, 17 and 22). Regional correlations 82

? ? ?

Keele Arch

Study Area

Possible paleogeography of the Cordillera at some distance west of the study area Legend Martin House Formation offshore marine (FA4) Town or community Martin House Formation shallow marine (FA3) Cored wells Martin House Formation estuarine (FA2) Wells Martin House Formation non-marine (FA1) N Outcrops Paleozoic 50 km Paleoflow 20 mi Direction of marine incursion

Figure 28. Paleogeographic reconstruction for the time when estuarine (FA2) and marine (FA3 and FA4) strata were deposited (event 2 undifferentiated). Because the Keele Arch was a high, it is likely that some small channels flowed off of the feature; the western and eastern basin margins would also have produced fluvial detritus and sediment within the associated estuarine deposits. The study area was likely inundated along the Peel Trough from the deepest part of the basin in the northwest. Facies associations (predominantly FA2) and structure in Great Bear Basin suggest that the marine incursion was significantly shallower than in the Peel Trough. The marine incursion may have advanced around the northern end of the Keele Arch, or from the north over the Carnwath Platform; the Carnwath Platform was submerged during an Albian marine transgression from the north (Yorath and Cook, 1981). 83 suggest a succession of depositional events: i) the deposition of estuarine and shallow marine strata (FA2 and FA3) across the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin; ii) periods of relative sea-level drop and fluvial incision into exisiting Martin House Formation strata; iii) subsequent deposition in paleovalleys of non-marine (FA1) and estuarine (FA2) strata (e.g., Figs. 15 and 22); iv) an overall relative increase in sea level and deposition of FA3 and FA4 in the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin.

Event 3- Deposition of the Arctic Red Formation Offshore mudstone and thin interbeds of very fine-grained sandstone to siltstone associated with the Arctic Red Formation were deposited over the Martin House Formation strata, and record continued sea level rise (Figs. 3 and 15). The deposition of the Arctic Red Formation was diachronous, flooding the study area from the northwest (Hadlari et al., 2009a). Within the Arctic Red Formation is a maximum flooding surface which represents a shift from a transgressive event to a regressive event (c.f. Posamentier and Vail, 1988). The progradation of the two marine sandstone-rich members of the Arctic Red Formation into the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin (Event 3b) record punctuated decreases in relative seal-level or increases in sediment supply (Figs. 3 and 15) (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999). The Mahoney Lake Member in Great Bear Basin comprises coarsening upwards, progradational shoreface or delta-front cycles, that are significantly thicker than similar cycles in the Sans Sault Member; progradation of the Sans Sault Member units took place westward of the Keele Arch (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The lack of preservation of these units over the Keele Arch limits the correlation of these two members, but it is suggested that they are related to the same regressive event as both contain the same Middle to Late Albian fauna (Dixon, 1999; White, 2009b; Sweet, 2010).

Event 4- Depositional hiatus and subsequent erosion 84

During event 4, a regolith surface preserved across much of the study area records renewed tectonic uplift and the subsequent subaerial exposure and erosion of the youngest Arctic Red Formation strata (Cook, 1975; Hadlari et al., 2009a; Thomson et al., 2011). This regolith forms the sub-Slater River Formation unconformity. The decrease in thickness of the Arctic Red Formation towards and over the axis of the Keele Arch is suggestive that the Arctic Red Formation was deposited over the Keele Arch and subsequently eroded post deposition (Hadlari et al., 2009a). Event four represents continued regression and the end of base level fall within a low-stand system (c.f. Posamentier and Vail, 1988).

Event 5- Transgression and deposition of the Slater River Formation The marine, mudstone-rich strata across the Keele Arch and the study area associated with the Slater River Formation record a renewed increase in relative sea level (Fig. 3) (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009). Samples just above the sub-Slater River Formation unconformity are latest Late Albian to early Cenomanian in age (Sweet, 2010; Thomson et al., 2011). Event 5 records a transgression, a return to high stand conditions and the maxium flooding event of the Lower Cretaceous (Yorath and Cook, 1981; c.f. Posamentier et al., 1988).

DISCUSSION

PALEOGEOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION

The stratigraphic architecture of the Martin House Formation is consistent with that of a low-accommodation setting (c.f. Boyd et al., 2000; Leckie et al., 2004). Notable characteristics of a low-accommodation setting include a thin sedimentary succession, deposition over a long period of time, numerous unconformities, as well as minimal coal accumulations and paleosols (c.f. Boyd et al., 2000; Leckie et al., 2004). The Martin House Formation is a relatively thin sedimentary succession, with a maximum thickness of the 85 sandstone-rich interval 46 m. The thrust belt was significantly to the west of the present- day Mackenzie Mountains, and therefore the foredeep, the region of greatest subsidence and accommodation space, would also have been situated to the west (c.f. Yorath and Cook, 1981; Jordan, 1981; DeCelles and Giles, 1996; Dixon, 1999). This paleogeography is suggestive that the Mackenzie Corridor study area is on the eastern side of the foreland basin, and is comparable to areas deemed to have been deposited under the influence of low-accommodation space, with resultant complex stratigraphy, present in Alberta and Saskatchewan (e.g., Lower Cretaceous Dina-Cummings, McMurray-Wabiskaw, Gething- Bluesky intervals) (c.f. Leckie et al., 2004). Limited by a scarcity of data in the MacKenzie

Corridor study area, the internal complexities of the Martin House Formation will hopefully become increasingly clear as additional subsurface data is collected in the future.

The presence of comparable T-R cycles in Great Bear Basin and the Peel Trough is suggestive of some level of marine communication between the two basins, influenced by similar fluctuations in relative sea-level. Relative sea-level changes were most likely related to local tectonism associated with the uplift of the Cordillera and a similar interpretation has been made for Cretaceous units in Alberta and the Yukon (Porter et al., 1982; Leckie et al., 1991; Dixon, 1992b; 1993; 1997b; 1999). The extensive distribution of FA2 and limited distribution of FA4 in Great Bear Basin is suggestive that the marine incursion was not as pervasive as on the western side of the Keele Arch until the deposition of the Arctic Red Formation strata.

IMPACT OF THE KEELE ARCH ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND DEFINITION OF THE MARTIN HOUSE FORMATION

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MARTIN HOUSE FORMATION

Facies distribution in the Martin House Formation was controlled by the regional basin 86 structure and associated paleotopography, which imparted a significant influence on sediment sources, drainage pathways and depo-zones. The Keele Arch has previously been discounted as a source of sediment due to the relatively low positive relief compared to adjacent areas (Yorath and Cook, 1981). However, the influence of the Keele Arch on non-marine strata (FA1) of the Martin House Formation is interpreted to have been more significant than previously suggested (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1997b and 1999).

The distribution of chert pebble conglomerate (F1) overlying the sub-Cretaceous unconformity is indicative that the distribution of chert pebble clasts was not limited to just one side of the Keele Arch; however, cobble-sized chert clasts at the sub-Cretaceous unconformity were only observed proximal to the Keele Arch (Fig. 7D). The Silurian Franklin Mountain Formation was suggested by previous authors as a source for the chert clasts, and this formation was subaerially exposed along both the Keele Arch and Carnwath Platform prior to the deposition of Albian-aged strata (Fig. 2) (Yorath et al., 1975; Cook, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981). Due to the clast size decrease with increasing distance from the Keele Arch, it is plausible that this feature was a source for the cobble-sized chert clasts. Chert pebbles scattered within other facies have comparable composition to those within clast-rich units (F1), suggesting that these may have been eroded from exposed, underlying F1 strata, or that they originated from the same source region as those clasts deposited directly on the unconformity in F1.

Non-marine (FA1) deposits along the Keele Arch, particularly those of F2, are significantly more chert-rich and characterized by lesser rounding and sorting than non-marine (FA1) deposits elsewhere in the study area (Figs. 9 and 10). The large size, lack of rounding, preservation of secondary growth structures and polycrystalline nature of clasts are indicative of limited transportation and reworking (Blatt and Christie, 1963; Scholle, 1979). 87

The Franklin Mountain Formation exposed along the Keele Arch may have been the source region for the angular, pebble to granular-sized chert clasts observed in these proximal non-marine (FA1) deposits. Depending on paleo-drainage patterns, the exposed Franklin Mountain Formation strata on the Carnwath Platform to the north of the Keele Arch may have also been a source region for chert clasts within the Martin House Formation strata (Figs. 2 and 27).

Estuarine and marine deposits (FA2 and FA3) of the Martin House Formation are characterized by mature sandstone mineralogy and texture, consisting of well-sorted, sub-rounded to well-rounded quartz arenites (Figs. 9 and 13, and Table 3). The quartz in FA2 and FA3 has significant textural diversity and characteristics that are associated with metamorphic (e.g., strained monocrystalline quartz, strained polycrystalline quartz, mineral inclusions), volcanic (e.g., straight extinction, vacuoles), plutonic (unstrained monocrystalline or sutured polycrystalline quartz) and sedimentary (unsutured polycrystalline, chert, or unstrained monocrystalline) rock sources (Blatt and Christie, 1963; Scholle, 1979; Adams et al., 1994). The low abundance of polycrystalline and strained monocrystalline quartz grains could indicate a higher degree of reworking since these grains are less stable and are selectively removed (Blatt and Christie, 1963). Quartz in FA2 and FA3 could have been sourced from locally exposed strata, transported from the Cordillera, derived from the south along basin axial channels, or from the eastern or northern basin margins. There is not a significant change in composition between the marine and estuarine facies, or any notable change in relation to the distance from the Keele Arch (Fig. 9); therefore, the Keele Arch is considered an unlikely source region of FA2 and FA3 detritus.

DEFINITION OF THE MARTIN HOUSE FORMATION

The observations and interpretations of non-marine (FA1) deposits over the Keele Arch and Great Bear Basin are consistent with those of Hadlari et al. (2009a), who assigned similar 88 units in the Peel Plain to the informal Tukweye member of the Martin House Formation and with Albian-aged Gilmore Lake Member strata of the Langton Formation on Carnwath Platform/Anderson Basin (Fig. 2). Cretaceous strata in the vicinity of the Keele Arch were classified differently in previous works and these differences, derived from the results of this study, require further discussion (e.g., E-30, Kelly Lake outcrop) (c.f., Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; MacLean and Cook, 1999).

The brecciated chert at the sub-Cretaceous contact of the Kelly Lake Outcrop has previously been considered as: a) part of the Upper Devonian Imperial Formation, b) part of the lower

Mississippian Tuttle Formation (Jeletzky, 1974), or c) part of the Martin House Formation (Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969). Yorath and Cook (1981) interpreted this brecciated chert as saprolitic in origin, developed from the leeching of the underlying, subaerially exposed, cherty Franklin Mountain Formation. The angular nature of the unconformable contact between the chert breccia and the overlying chert pebble conglomerate at the Kelly Lake Outcrop may have resulted from the infilling of a paleotopographic low in the Paleozoic landscape at a time after the Paleozoic landscape was subaerially exposed. The timing of breccia formation can only be constrained to a range of post-Devonian to Lower Cretaceous, during the period when the Keele Arch was subaerially exposed (Cook, 1975). The oldest preserved Cretaceous basin-fill in the study area is the Martin House Formation (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; McNeil, 2007; White, 2009b; White, 2010b). Since the chert breccia at the Kelly Lake Outcrop is associated with the initial, non-marine basin-fill overlying the Paleozoic angular unconformity and lacks an associated biostratigraphic age, it is herein considered as part of the Martin House Formation.

Adjacent to the Keele Arch, thick coarse-grained sandstone deposits are present in wells B-62, C-21, E-30, L-66, and L-04, and at the Kelly Lake and Mahoney Lake outcrops (Fig. 15). These deposits were termed, “Unnamed basal Cretaceous Sandstones” (Yorath and 89

Cook, 1981) and “Slater River basal sandstone member” (Dixon, 1999). They were defined as the basal sandstone of the Slater River Formation, or possibly an Upper Cretaceous sandstone unit. In this thesis, these Keele Arch Cretaceous sandstone deposits have been interpreted as non-marine (FA1) Martin House Formation strata due to sedimentological characteristics, stratigraphic position and new regional biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic correlations (Figs. 5 and 15, Appendix 1).

The sedimentological characteristics of these Cretaceous sandstone deposits along the Keele Arch differ significantly from sedimentological characteristics of the Arctic Red

Formation and Slater River Formation strata observed in this study and in the Peel region (c.f. Hadlari et al., 2009a; Thomson et al., 2011). The mineralogy is also inconsistent with the Upper Cretaceous Little Bear Formation arkosic sandstone units described in previous work (Yorath and Cook, 1981). The sedimentological characteristics and stratigraphic position of these deposits are most comparable to Gilmore Lake Member outcrops, which comprise similar chert-rich, poorly sorted, conglomeratic sandstone overlying the Franklin Mountain Formation saprolite and underlying transgressive marine shale (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981).

The Keele Arch Cretaceous sandstone deposits have a different stratagraphic position from other non-marine (FA1) Martin House Formation strata in that Ordovician or older Paleozoic strata directly underlie these deposits, and they are overlain by the Slater River Formation. The absence of marine Martin House Formation and Arctic Red Formation strata in the area is consistent with proposed Keele Arch tectonic interpretations that calls on Albian-aged uplift and erosion to remove part, or all, of the Arctic Red Formation strata prior to the inundation and deposition of the Slater River Formation (Cook, 1975; Hadlari et al., 2009a). 90

Previous biostratigraphic analyses had associated Keele Arch Cretaceous sandstone deposits with Upper Albian to Cenomanian ages and thereby part of the Slater River Formation, or the Little Bear Formation (Mountjoy and Chamney, 1969; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999). Palynological data in this study from the Kelly Lake and Mahoney Lake outcrops are interpreted as Albian, and most likely Middle Albian; this is consistent with results from palynological data in established Martin House and Arctic Red formation outcrops and cores, and Gilmore Lake Member outcrops (Appendix 2) (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; McNeil, 2007; White, 2009a, b; White, 2010a, b; Sweet, 2010; Thomson et al., 2011). Early Albian dinoflagellates within the organic-rich laminae at the base of the Mahoney Lake Outcrop (White, 2009b; White, 2010b) are consistent with an Albian interpretation and may represent an earlier local estuarine influence. However, it is plausible that palynomorphs are not in-situ. Coal-rich Gilmore Lake Member deposits on the Carnwath Platform are a possible source for these grains; this is in alignment with previous studies that interpreted southward paleodrainage (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981).

Non-marine (FA1) Martin House Formation strata across the study area, including the Keele Arch Cretaceous sandstone units, are interpreted as diachronous; they are postulated to be both older (event 1) and younger or equivalent in age (events 2a,c,d) to the Martin House Formation estuarine and marine strata (events 2a, 2d) in the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin (FA2 and FA3) (White, 2009b; 2010a,b; Thomson et al., 2011). Rivers that transported detritus eroded from the Keele Arch would have persisted as long as the Keele Arch remained a topographic high and FA1 on the Keele Arch could therefore have been deposited during the entire Albian period. Base-level fall and subaerial exposure associated with the relative uplift of the Keele Arch prior to the Albian transgression could have resulted in deeper incisions and hence greater accommodation space into the sub-Cretaceous unconformity surface in areas proximal to the Keele Arch. It is possible that within these 91 sandstone units there is a subtle contact between the non-marine strata equivalent to the Martin House Formation (FA1) and non-marine strata deposited in the Late Albian, after the Arctic Red Formation was eroded and prior to the marine incursion and deposition of the Slater River Formation. It is not possible to reliably determine whether some strata is as young as the upper Arctic Red Formation (event 3b), or if all of it is as old as the Martin House Formation (events 1 and 2). Observations of IVF elsewhere in the eastern WCSB are commonly complex and represent more than one period of incision and amalgamated fluvial fill (c.f. Zaitlin et al., 1994; Leckie et al., 2004; Bauer et al., 2009). At this point it is most consistent to assign all of these Keele Arch Cretaceous sandstone units to the Martin

House Formation.

REGIONAL IMPLICATIONS

It is important to put the Mackenzie Corridor study area data into context with the surrounding region (Figs. 5, 29, 30 and 31). During the Aptian, Eskimo Lakes Arch Complex to the northwest formed a northeast-trending structural high from the Yukon-Alaska border to east of the Mackenzie Delta; this arch both provided sediments and separated sedimentation between the Mackenzie Delta and Anderson Basin (Fig. 29) (Young et al., 1976; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1996). Barremian through Aptian marine strata were deposited in the northern Yukon; however, the Mackenzie Corridor study area remained isolated from the Boreal Sea and paleo-Pacific Ocean until the Early to Middle Albian, when the Eskimo Lakes Arch Complex was progressively submerged by marine waters associated with deposition of strata equivalent to the Martin House Formation (Figs. 5, 30 and 31) (Young et al., 1976; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1996). The timing of the marine incursion is supported by the Aptian to Early Albian microfossil assemblages from samples in the Mackenzie Corridor study area (Appendix 1 and 2), as well as biostratigraphic data from Alberta and the Arctic Islands, which were characterized by distinctive forms until the 92

70 150 140 130 120 110 100 CA Eskimo Lakes Arch MD AB CP 68 CM EP PT PrecambrianP Shield Romanzof Uplift BR GB Study Great Bear Lake Coppermine Area Cordillera GS 66 Cache Creek Arch WT LB Uplift Carnwath N BW Platform 64 0 Eagle Arch 1000 km WCSB 0 500 mi 62

Keele Arch Precambrian Shield Legend AB Anderson Basin 60 BW Bowser Basin BR Brackett Basin CA Coppermine Arch Tathlina High CM Coppermine Monocline 58 CP Carnwath Platform Celibeta High EP Eagle Basin GB Great Bear Basin 56 Bovie Fault GS Great Slave Plain Peace River Arch LB Liard Basin MD Mackenzie Delta 54 Aptian Archipelago PT Peel Trough WCSB Western Canada Sweetgrass Arch Sedimentary Basin 52 N Cordillera WT Whitehorse Trough Mackenzie Corridor Study Area 50 Positive Element Axis of positive element 0 100 300 km 48 Fault 0 200 mi Paleotopographic low 130 120 110 Present day: Limit of deformation Lakes Mackenzie river

Figure 29. Map of western Canada showing Lower Cretaceous paleographic highs in relation to the Mackenzie Corridor study area and map of Lower Cretaceous areas (compiled from Cook, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Williams, (1990), Meijer Drees (1993), Poulton et al. (1994), Dixon (1996, 1997a, 1999), Evenchick et al. (2007)). 93

70 150 140 130 120 110 100

66 Legend Paleochannels Non-marine deposits 64 Deltaic deposits Near-shore 62 Shallow/Inner shelf Mid-shelf 60 No preserved strata Non-deposition 58 Sedimentary volcanic deposits Paleo-drainage 56 Mackenzie Corridor Study Area

Lakes (present-day) 54 Mackenzie River (present-day)

52 N 50 0 100 300 km

48 0 200 mi

130 120 110

Figure 30. Map of Western Canada with approximate facies distributions for the Aptian-earliest Albian non-marine strata (event 1 and 2c undifferentiated), when non-marine strata were deposited in the Mack- enzie Corridor study area. In northern Alberta and the Liard Basin, non-marine sediments (e.g., Cadomin and Chinkeh formations) were overlain by estuarine and marine deposits. Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Bajocian to Barremian) fluvial sedimentation in the southern Yukon Whitehorse Trough (Tantalus Forma- tion) was followed by a period of erosion and subsequent Lower Cretaceous deposition was dominated by subaerial volcanism (Mount Nanasen Group). The Bowser Basin experienced a similar change from marine and then fluvial deposition during the Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous, followed by deposition of predominantly subaerial volcanic deposits by the Aptian (Compiled from Wheeler (1961), Young (1973), Cook (1975), Williams and Stelck (1975), Yorath et al. (1975), Yorath and Cook, (1981), Long (1986), Lowey and Hills (1988), Dixon (1993), Poulton et al. (1994), Leckie and Potocki (1998), Dixon (1996, 1997b, 1999), and Evenchick et al., (2007)). 94

70 150 140 130 120 110 100

66 Legend Paleochannels Non-marine deposits 64 Deltaic deposits Near-shore 62 Shallow/Inner shelf Mid-shelf 60 Slope to basin Submarine canyon/fan 58 No preserved strata Non-deposition 56 Sedimentary volcanic deposits Paleo-drainage Mackenzie Corridor Study Area 54

Lakes (present-day) 52 Mackenzie River (present-day) N 50 0 100 300 km

48 0 200 mi

130 120 110

Figure 31. Map of western Canada with approximate facies distributions for the Aptian-earliest Albian (event 2 equivalent), when predominantly estuarine and marine strata (FA2 and FA3) were deposited in the Mackenzie Corridor study area. The Eskimo Lakes Arch (Fig. 29) was no longer a positive topographic feature. The lithology and basin development to the west in the Peel Plain and Yukon support the Williams and Stelck (1975) model, which suggested a marine incursion from the Arctic, over the Mack- enzie Corridor to Alberta (Fig. 32). In northern Alberta and the Liard Basin, non-marine sediments (e.g., Cadomin and Chinkeh formations) were overlain by estuarine and marine strata. The Bowser Basin and Whitehorse Trough experienced continued volcanic sedimentation (compiled from Wheeler (1961), Young (1973), Cook (1975), Williams and Stelck (1975), Yorath et al. (1975), Yorath and Cook, (1981), Long (1986), Lowrey and Hills (1988), Dixon (1993), Poulton et al. (1994), Leckie and Potocki (1998), Dixon (1996, 1997a, 1999), and Evenchick et al., (2007)). 95

Early Albian (Jeletzsky, 1971; Jeletzky et al., 1973; McNeil, 2007; White, 2009a, b; Sweet, 2010; White, 2010a,b; Thomson et al., 2011).

To the north of the study area, the Carnwath Platform and Coppermine Arch formed subaerially exposed highlands, which were inundated during the Aptian-Albian; the Crossley Lakes Member of the Langdon Bay Formation was deposited over the Gilmore Lake Member in response to this inundation (Figs. 2, 29, 31) (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981). The non-marine Gilmore Lake Member is comparable in sedimentology and stratigraphy to the Mackenzie Corridor FA1, comprised of coal-rich floodplain and fluvial deposits that infilled paleovalleys incised into the Carnwath Platform; these paleovalleys drained both northward to the Boreal Sea and southward into the Peel Trough and Great Bear Basin (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981). Little is known of the Lower Cretaceous strata under Great Bear Lake, although, it has been suggested that a basin to the north of Great Bear Lake connected Great Bear Basin with the Arctic Ocean during the Lower Cretaceous (Cook, 1975).

South of the study area, to the north and east of the Liard Basin, the Tathlina High formed a broad positive topographic area until the Late Aptian to Early Albian, when long, broad estuaries formed in the area (Fig. 29) (Williams, 1990; Meijer Drees, 1993; Dixon, 1999). The Celibeta High and Bovie Fault were positive features during the deposition of the Chinkeh Formation (Figs. 5, 29 and 30) (Meijer Drees, 1993; Dixon, 1997a). Great Slave Plain was a positive paleotopographic area until the Early Albian, and could have limited earlier Cretaceous marine seaway connections directly south of the Mackenzie Corridor study area (Jeletzky, 1971; Williams and Stelck, 1975; Meijer Drees, 1993; Dixon, 1997a; Dixon, 1999). Previous studies based in Alberta led to speculation that northward paleodrainage conduits which intersected the B.C.-Alberta border area during the Lower Cretaceous continued northward following a trend approximately parallel to the present-day 96

Mackenzie River (Williams and Stelck, 1975; Smith et al., 1994; Hayes et al., 1994). The relative paleotopographic high of the Great Slave Plain and Tathlina High are inconsistent with a northward paleodrainage from Alberta, unless the drainage flowed to the west of these structural features (Dixon, 1997a).

Initial marine deposits in Alberta, the Yukon Eagle Plain and the Mackenzie Delta are possibly older than the earliest preserved marine basin-fill in the Mackenzie Corridor (Fig. 5) (Hayes et al., 1994; Leckie et al., 1994; Dixon, 1999; Dixon, 2007; McNeil, 2007; White, 2009a, b; Jackson et al., 2010; White 2010a, b; Thomson et al., 2011). The strata in the Whitehorse Trough in the southern Yukon record non-marine deposition during the earliest Cretaceous and periods of uplift, erosion and volcanic sediment deposition between the Barremian and end of the Albian (Lowey and Hills, 1988; Long, 1986; Lowey et al., 2009). The Bowser Basin in northern British Colombia and all but the northwestern part of Alberta transitioned to non-marine deposition in the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Figs. 5, 30 and 32) (ca. 145 Ma) (Hayes et al., 1994; Evenchick et al., 2001; Evenchick et al., 2007). The lack of Early Cretaceous marine strata preserved in the southern Yukon and northern British Columbia (Figs. 30 and 31) limits the potential to observe direct evidence

Figure 32 (following page). Paleogeographic evolution through relative sea-level changes from the Aptian to the Cenomanian across Western Canada. The estuarine and marine strata preserved in northwestern Alberta prior to the Albian may have been connected to the Pacific Ocean along a north-south-trending conduit which flooded the Mackenzie Corridor (A1), along a northwest-southeast-trending conduit that was present along the axis of the foredeep to the west of the study area (A2), or via an approximately west-east conduit (A3) (Williams and Stelck, 1975; Evenchick et al., 2007). The marine incursion during the early Albian (B) flooded the Mackenzie Corridor and deposited FA2-FA4 strata of the Martin House Formation and subsequently the deeper Arctic Red Formation facies (C). The relative decrease in sea-level and associated erosion in the Mackenzie Corridor study area post-deposition of the Arctic Red Formation (D) was not expressed as extensively in northern Alberta or the Yukon (Williams and Stelck, 1975; Poulton et al., 1994; Leckie and Potocki, 1998; Dixon, 1993). The Cenomanian marine incursion connected the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico and was associated with inundation of the Mackenzie Corridor study area (Williams and Stelck, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Thomson et al., 2011). Data outside the Mackenzie Corridor study area was modified from Young (1973), Cook (1975), Williams and Stelck (1975), Yorath (1976), Yorath and Cook, (1981), Dixon (1993), Poulton et al. (1994), Dixon (1996; 1997a; 1999), Evenchick et al., (2007), and Thomson et al. (2011). 97

A1 Aptian-Earliest Albian 70 N

Cordillera

A2 60 N 70 N

Cordillera

Cordillera 50 N 60 N N

140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W Cordillera

50 N A3 N 70 N 140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W Early Albian Cordillera 60 N B

Cordillera

70 N 50 N N Cordillera 140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W 60 N Mid-Late Albian Cordillera C

50 N N 70 N

140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W Late Albian Cordillera 60 N D

Cordillera

70 N 50 N N Cordillera

140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W 60 N Cenomanian

Cordillera E

50 N N 70 N

140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W Cordillera

Legend Study Area 60 N Non-marine strata

Marine strata (sandstone or mudstone) Cordillera Paleoflow Berriasian to early Aptian basin margin (Dixon, 1997) Keele Arch subaerially exposed 50 N Keele Arch innundated 1000 km N 500 mi 140 W 120 W 100 W 80 W 60 W 98 for a connection between the Pacific Ocean and Alberta either along a northwest-trending or west-east-trending orientation (Fig. 32).

Previous work has led to the conclusion that the Mackenzie Delta maintained a relatively undisturbed epicratonic position associated with approximately south-north drainage since the Cretaceous, with southern sediment drainage patterns controlled by tectonic movements of major structures such as the Eskimo Lakes Arch Complex, the Tathlina High, and the Peace River Arch (Stelck, 1975; Williams and Stelck, 1975; Williams, 1990; Meijer Drees, 1993; Dixon, 1993; Smith et al., 1994; Dixon, 1999). Non-marine Martin House

Formation strata was not modeled within the context of Western Canada over the Lower Cretaceous (e.g., Williams and Stelck, 1975; Dixon, 1992b; 1996; 1999). Although it is possible that marine strata was deposited over the study area during the Early Cretaceous and was later uplifted and eroded prior to the deposition of the non-marine (FA1) Martin House Formation strata, there is no direct evidence to support this model (Fig. 32 A1). Locally, areas of the Yukon (e.g., Cache Creek High) developed an erosional unconformity between the mid-Aptian and Early Albian, however there is no evidence of an extensive erosional surface (Dixon et al., 1992a). The timing of the pre-Martin House Formation uplift of the Keele Arch may correlate with the mid-Aptian tectonic uplift locally present in the northern Yukon and is consistent with the extent of uplift in the Yukon (Cook, 1975; Dixon, 1992a; 1996).

The structural features to the northwest, north, and south of the study area were interpreted as positive paleotopographic features at the time of deposition of the earliest Martin House Formation deposits (non-marine) therefore it is more plausible that Cretaceous-aged marine strata was not deposited in the Mackenzie Corridor study area until the Albian incursion (Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Williams, 1990; Meijer Drees, 1993; Dixon, 1996). There are two plausible models for a connection between Alberta and the paleo- 99

Pacific Ocean (Fig. 32, A2 and A3). Williams and Stelck (1975) proposed that Northern Alberta was connected to the Pacific Ocean via a passage associated with the Peace River Embayment during the Barremian-Aptian; drainage trended from Alberta westward into the Pacific Ocean via this passage until the uplift of the Omineca-Nelson batholiths prevented both paleodrainage and marine incursion (Fig. 32, A3). There is a lack of preserved strata westward over British Columbia where Williams and Stelck (1975) proposed the marine connection. Another plausible scenario is that both the Cordillera and the foredeep were situated significantly to the west of the present-day study area location, as is supported by the westward thickening of associated strata observed in this study and by previous authors

(Fig. 32 A2) (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). In this second model, the study area may have been located in a relatively high topographic area to the east of the foredeep (i.e., forebulge or distal foreland basin) and a marine transgression may have connected the Pacific Ocean to Northern Alberta along the paleo-foredeep without any deposition of marine strata in the Mackenzie Corridor study area (Fig. 32). There is evidence of Jurassic and Barremian-Aptian marine incursions adjacent to the Mackenzie Corridor study area in the Mackenzie Delta, Eagle Plain, the Mackenzie Mountains, and Northern Alberta Rocky Mountains (Figs. 30 and 31) (Jeletzky, 1971; Dixon, 1992a; Hayes et al., 1994; Dixon, 1996; Dixon, 1999; Dixon et al., 2007; Jackson et al., 2010). The areas some distance to the east of the paleo-foredeep, such as the Mackenzie Corridor study area, the Peel Plateau and the Liard and Anderson basins, lack Cretaceous marine deposits older than Late Aptian-Albian (Fig. 5) (Chamney, 1969; Yorath et al., 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Leckie et al., 1994; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a; Thomson et al., 2011).

The second model (Fig. 32 A2) with a foredeep along the edge of the Cordillera connecting with the Pacific to the northwest is most favored given the evidence from the study area and due to the preservation of Early Cretaceous marine strata in the Yukon and Northern Alberta where the deepest parts of the foredeep would have likely been situated. 100

Several transgressive-regressive cycles throughout the Albian, with a regionally extensive unconformity demarcating the end of the Albian/Cenomanian, have been identified throughout the WCSB (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1992b; Dixon, 1993, Hadlari et al., 2009a). The influence of tectonism versus global eustasy on sedimentary deposition in the foreland basin have been discussed in previous works and primarily favor Cordilleran tectonism as the primary influence on relative sea level (Dixon, 1993; Dixon, 1999; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The model by Williams and Stelck (1975) has been modified to indicate that the Keele Arch was not innundated during the deposition of the Martin House Formation

(Fig. 32 B) and that the subaerial exposure associated with relative uplift in the Late-Albian (Cook, 1975; Hadlari et al., 2009a) extended over the study area.

WESTERN CANADA SEDIMENTARY BASIN

The study area forms the northern extension of the extensively studied Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) (Williams and Stelck, 1975). Studies from Northern Alberta may provide reasonable analogous insight into the Mackenzie Corridor study area. The palaeogeographic position of the Keele Arch, as a north-south trending highland, and the northwestward deepening of the foreland basin in the Mackenzie Corridor study area, are both characteristics broadly comparable to palaeogeographic features mapped in northern Alberta from deposits of the Cadomin and Gething formations (Figs. 33 and 34) (e.g., Williams, 1958; Rudkin, 1964; Williams, 1963; McLean, 1977; Stott, 1982; Cant, 1984; Cant, 1988; Hayes et al, 1994; Poulton et al., 1994; Smith, 1994).

Similar to the Mackenzie Corridor study area, Bullhead and Mannville Group strata in Alberta overlie progressively older Paleozoic strata eastward, across the foreland basin (Figs. 4 and 30) (Williams, 1963; Cook, 1975; Cant and Abrahamson, 1996; Hayes et al., 101

62 Jurassic A Triassic Permian Carboniferous Devonian Lower Paleozoic 0 200 km Peace River Arch 0 200 mi

N Cordillera

49 49 126 96

Figure 33. Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) architecture during deposition of Lower Creta- ceous strata showing the Paleozoic sub-crop underlying the sub-Cretaceous unconformity surface (from Poulton et al., 1994). 102 I’ East H’ East 50 km 20 mi 0 0 150500 m ft 0 Liard Basin I West West B Northern Alberta Legend 150500 m ft 0 50 km 20 mi 0 0 H West West A Figure 34. East-west oriented lithostratigraphic correlation in northern Alberta (A), the Liard Basin (B) (from Hayes et al., 1994) and Mackenzie Corridor Figure 34. East-west oriented lithostratigraphic correlation in northern FA2/ FA1 and Alberta (Cadomin-Bluesky) and that of the study area (Martin House Formation There are similar trends in the initial basin-fill study area (C). The initial basin-fill in each area consisted of a basal conglomerate and sandstone deposited within flood plain environment, often with coal-rich FA3/FA4). An overall transgressive fining upwards succession was common to all three deposition in each basin. deposits. Highlands composed of Paleozoic strata affected basin fills, although not associated with the same biostratigrap hic ages (Fig. 5). Continued on following page. 103

C J 0 J’ West Keele Arch East

K53 M39 K71 1100 I77 K14 D61 H61

650

1150 Slater River Fm. 300 100 700

1200 400 350 150 750

350 50 450 400 200 1250 800

400 100 450 250 1300 500 850

450 150 500 300 1350 550 900

500 200

550 350 1400 600 950 550 250 sub-Cenomanian 600 400 1450 650 unconformity 1000 600 300 650 1500 500 450 Depth 1050 (m) 0 API 150 Gamma Ray Arctic Red Fm. 650 350 Depth 700 0 500 (m) API 150 1100 Gamma Ray

700 400 750 550 1150 750 450

800 600 1200

800 500

850 650 Depth 1250 (m) 0 API 150 Gamma Ray 850

Martin House Fm. 900 700 Depth 1300 (m) 0 API 150 Gamma Ray Paleozoic Depth 950 750 (m) 0 API 150 Depth (m) 0 150 Gamma Ray API Gamma Ray

Depth (m) 0 API 150 Gamma Ray Figure 34. Continued from previous Legend page. Offshore shale with minor silt and sandstone Marine interbedded shale, siltstone, and sandstone Marine and estuarine sandstone Unconformity 104

1994). Precambrian basement structures, such as the Peace River, Sweetgrass and West Alberta arches, exerted significant geographic control on the deposition of Cretaceous-aged sediments in Alberta (Williams, 1958; Stelck, 1975; O’Connell, 1994). In an analogous way, both the Keele Arch and Peace River Arch were interpreted by previous authors as reactivated basement-faulted structures, which formed topographic lows over certain time periods and topographic highs at others (Cook, 1975; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Cant, 1988; Poulton et al., 1994; MacLean and Cook, 1999; MacLean 2006). In contrast to the west- east trending Peace River Arch, the north-south trending Keele Arch formed a topographic high at the time of deposition of the earliest Cretaceous strata (Cook, 1975; Yorath and

Cook, 1981; Cant, 1988; O’Connell, 1994; Poulton et al., 1994; MacLean and Cook, 1999; Dixon, 1999; MacLean 2009). In terms of the impact on sediment sourcing and dispersal, a series of north-south trending highlands in Alberta, including the Fox Creek Escarpment and the ``Aptian Archipelago`` (c.f., Rudkin, 1964), possibly provided a more comparable influence on sedimentation as the Keele Arch (Fig. 29). The transport of sediment in the WCSB during the Lower Cretaceous was generally both from west to east off the uplifted Cordillera, and from south to north along major basin-axial drainage pathways (Rudkin, 1964; Leckie and Smith, 1992; O’Connell, 1994; Poulton et al., 1994; Cant and Abrahamson, 1996). North-south trending highlands (Aptian Archipelago) in the WCSB locally shed minor amounts of reworked Paleozoic sediment into the foreland basin (Figs. 30 and 31) (Hayes et al., 1994; Poulton et al., 1994; Ranger and Pemberton, 1997; Hubbard et al., 1999).

The foreland basin was inundated by the intra-continental sea from approximately the northwest in both the WCSB and the Mackenzie Corridor study area, preserving evidence for smaller scale transgressive-regressive cycles within an overall transgression (Yorath and Cook, 1981; Cant, 1984; Dixon, 1992b; Poulton et al., 1994; Cant and Abrahamson, 1996; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The timing of the seaway inundation into the WCSB and Liard Basin 105 is associated with different biostratigraphic ages (Fig. 5) (e.g., Hayes et al., 1994; White and Leckie, 1999; White, 2009a, b; White, 2010a, b; Sweet, 2010). The sub-Cenomanian interval in the study area at the base of the Slater River Formation shares characteristics with the Base of Fish Scales interval in the WCSB and the Sully Formation in the Liard Basin including: a) the interval is essentially barren of foram species; b) the interval is associated with anomalously high radioactivity; and c) the interval is regionally extensive (Dixon, 1992b; 1993; Schroeder-Adams et al., 1996; Thomson et al., 2011; White, 2010b) (Fig. 5).

Similar characteristics of the initial basin-fill in Alberta, the Liard Basin and the Mackenzie Corridor study area are notable. Firstly, in each area initial basin-fill consists of a basal conglomerate and sandstone deposited within a variety of non-marine sub-environments. Associated units include the Cadomin and Gething formations in Alberta, the Chinkeh Formation in the Liard Basin, and the Tukweye member (FA1) of the Martin House Formation in the study area (Hayes et al., 1994; Leckie et al., 1994, Leckie and Potocki, 1998; Dixon, 1999; Jowett et al., 2007; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The second similarity is that an overall transgressive cycle resulted in deposition of an overlying estuarine to offshore fining upwards succession common to all three basin fills (Leckie et al., 1994; Hubbard et al., 1999; Yorath and Cook, 1981). Notably, the Northern Alberta Cadomin- Gething-Bluesky, Liard Basin Chinkeh-Garbutt, and Mackenzie Corridor Martin House- Arctic Red formations are not associated with the same biostratigraphic ages; the oldest Cretaceous strata preserved in Alberta is older than that of similar units to the north (Fig. 5) (Bhattacharya, 1994; Hayes et al., 1994; Leckie et al., 1994; Dixon, 1999; White and Leckie, 1999; McNeil, 2007; Jowett et al., 2007; White, 2009a,b; Sweet 2010; White, 2010a,b; Thomson et al., 2011). 106

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL

Hydrocarbon exploration and development has persisted in the study area since 1920, with a total of 76 exploratory wells and 345 development wells across the Mackenzie Plain area (Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 2006). A detailed evaluation of the recoverable hydrocarbon reserves within the Lower Cretaceous strata is not publically available; a recent general evaluation of the total reserves within the study area has been generated based on unrisked and undiscovered resources (Appendix 3) (Drummond, 2009). In 2006 a significant discovery at well Stewart Creek D-57 registered the first flowof hydrocarbons from Cretaceous strata; an estimated 20-63 billion cubic feet of contingent recoverable gas is present (Fig. 19) (Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 2006). The lack of hydrocarbon production from Cretaceous strata has been related in part to infrastructure gaps, since the existing pipeline at Norman Wells transports only liquid hydrocarbon. In December 2010, the National Energy Board (NEB) approved the Mackenzie Gas Project and without doubt, new opportunities for gas production from Cretaceous strata will arise if this Mackenzie Valley Gas Project materializes as approved (NEB, 2010).

Four source rocks with hydrocarbon potential have previously been identified within the study area: a) algal-rich shale of the Cambrian Mount Clark/Mount Cap Formation; b) shale of the Devonian Hare Indian Bluefish Member; c) shale of the Devonian Canol Formation; and d) shale of the Slater River Formation (Feinstein et al., 1988; Feinstein et al., 1991; Wielens et al., 1990; Dixon and Stasiuk, 1998; Hadlari et al., 2009a). The thermal maturity of the source rocks is within the oil window, except in the deepest parts of the basin adjacent to the Mackenzie Mountains where source rocks are over-mature (Feinstein et al., 1988; Snowdon, 1990; Issler et al., 2005). There is increasing organic maturity for Devonian to Cretaceous strata westward from the Interior Platform to the Mackenzie Mountains and Liard Plateau, with higher stratigraphic levels exhibiting lower maturation (Stasiuk and 107

Fowler, 2002; Hannigan et al., 2006).

Cretaceous-aged units identified as potential conventional gas reservoirs include the Martin House Formation, the Sans Sault and Mahoney Lake members of the Arctic Red Formation, and sandstone units of the Little Bear Formation (Hume, 1954; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Dixon, 1999; Dixon et al., 2007; Hadlari et al., 2009a; Pyle and Jones, 2009; Pyle, 2010). Oil showings within the Martin House Formation are mentioned in some of the drilling reports of older wells that targeted Paleozoic strata. Tectonism and the resulting interplay of unconformities significantly affected the variability in source rock maturity, pool size and the juxtaposition of reservoir and source rock units (Feinstein et al., 1988; Feinstein et al., 1991; Earnshaw and Grant, 1992; Wielens et al., 1990; Dixon and Stasiuk, 1998; Stasiuk and Fowler, 2002; MacLean, 2006; Hannigan et al., 2006; Hadlari et al., 2009a; Hu and Hannigan, 2009). Stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps for the Martin House Formation could potentially be sealed by overlying low permeability strata (FA4), or the Arctic Red or Slater River formations. Five episodes of tectonism associated with movements along the underlying Cambrian evaporate formations generated a number of different structures in the study area, some of which could be associated with Lower Cretaceous reservoirs if juxtaposed with source rocks (Feinstein et al., 1991; Dixon, 1999; MacLean and Cook, 1999). It has been suggested that folding associated with Late Cretaceous tectonism resulted in the development of structural traps, with the Slater River Formation as a source and seal for Cretaceous and Paleozoic reservoirs , such as near the Gambil Diapir (Fig. 25) (MacLean and Cook, 1999).

There are several prospective lithofacies and lithofacies associations identified in this study that could represent potential conventional reservoir units. Non-marine deposits of the Martin House Formation (FA1) units sampled in core have up to 28% porosity and 200 mD permeability, and range in thickness from a few meters to over 40 m. Trough 108 cross-stratified, very coarse to granular cherty sandstone (Facies 2) strata have very high primary porosity and cements are generally absent. Facies 2 typically has a well-defined gamma ray log signature (Fig. 16) and is commonly associated with good permeability. The reservoir quality of Facies 3 strata is dependent on the secondary cement present, which is variable, even within individual wells. Thicker intervals of Facies 3 tend to be less cemented. Facies 3 has good primary porosity, characterized by moderately sorted, upper fine to lower coarse grained sandstone and commonly enhanced secondary porosity from altered and highly degraded detrital feldspar grains (Fig. 10). The organic-rich fine grained sandstone, siltstone or mudstone with roots (Facies 4) has very low porosity with a high degree of siderite and calcite cements. The coals within Facies 4 are low grade and typically very thin beds or laminae. The coal beds are not regionally mappable.

Estuarine (FA2) sandstone units may form good potential reservoirs if these are sufficiently thick, have limited interbedded shale, and are not highly cemented. Measurements in core from Great Bear Basin FA2 (H-34) were characterized by 50-200 mD permeability and 15- 16% porosity; the FA2 sandstone at the Imperial River outcrop has 58-96 mD permeability and 16-22% porosity (Hadlari et al., 2009a).

Shallow marine sandstone units (FA3) may also form potential reservoirs. The moderately bioturbated, hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (Facies 9) and sparsely bioturbated, cross-stratified sandstone (Facies 10) commonly have the highest porosity within the FA3 strata due to their well-sorted, fine- to medium- grained nature, and limited cements and clays. Shallow marine sandstone units (FA3) are more regionally extensive than the sandstone units of the other facies associations and are commonly located proximal to the Mackenzie River and other exploration infrastructure.

As marine mudstone (FA4) is characterized by fine-grained material with very low 109

porosity, FA4 does not represent a prospective conventional reservoir. The organic matter within the marine mudstone (FA4) has not been observed at concentrations sufficient for unconventional shale gas, or oil reservoirs to date.

In the Peel Trough region, non-marine (FA1) and shallow marine sandstone (FA3) strata form the best potential stratigraphic reservoirs. The Canol shale is the source rock for the highly productive Paleozoic reservoirs in the Norman Wells area and directly underlies the Martin House Formation on the flanks of the Keele Arch (Snowdon et al., 1987). Adjacent to the Keele Arch, non-marine strata (FA1) tends to overlie Ordovician-

Cambrian strata and underlie the Slater River Formation cap rock. Due to significant deformation in this area, non-marine strata (FA1) could form a potential reservoir with the underlying Paleozoic shale beds providing a hydrocarbon source and the overlying Arctic Red, or Slater River formations forming a seal. Depending on the juxtaposition of non-marine strata (FA1) in deformed regions adjacent to the Keele Arch, the Slater River Formation could also act as a hydrocarbon source rock. In Great Bear Basin, non-marine strata (FA1), estuarine sandstone (FA2) and shallow marine sandstone (FA3) form the most prospective reservoirs sealed by overlying Arctic Red Formation shale, although strata is generally less deformed than in the Peel Trough and there is no source rock directly underlying Martin House Formation strata. Structural traps related to post-Martin House Formation tectonism may permit communication between Paleozoic hydrocarbon sources and potential Martin House Formation reservoirs.

CONCLUSIONS

The range of lithofacies and stratigraphic relationships mapped across the Mackenzie Corridor study area show complicated vertical and lateral variation within the Martin House Formation. Several diachronous transgressive shorelines were present during the 110 deposition of the Martin House Formation and basin topography imparted a significant control on deposition. Sediment was sourced both locally from the Keele Arch and/or Carnwath Platform/Coppermine Arch, and regionally, likely from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin area to the south and/or from the Cordillera. Non-marine (FA1) Martin House Formation strata represent fluvial and floodplain deposits that were associated with linear paleovalleys on both the western and eastern sides of the Keele Arch (events 1 and 2c). Estuarine (FA2), shallow marine (FA3) and offshore (FA4) deposits in-filled the basin (events 2a and 2d), both overlying the non-marine strata and subsequently incised by non- marine strata (FA1) strata. Evidence for small-scale transgressive-regressive cycles is present on both sides of the Keele Arch suggesting some marine communication; however facies distributions indicate that Great Bear Basin remained shallower with less open marine influence than the Peel Trough. Basin-fill during the Early Albian transgression was most likely diachronous, from the northwest and north progressing south and eastward, based on previous studies from the Yukon, Peel Plateau and Basin/Carnwath Platform area (Chamney, 1969; Williams and Stelck, 1975; Yorath et al., 1975; Young et al., 1976; Aitken, 1982; Yorath and Cook, 1981; Hayes et al., 1994; Dixon, 1996; Hadlari et al., 2009a). Reservoir targets in the Martin House Formation could potentially include sandstone facies of non- marine (FA1), estuarine (FA2), or shallow marine (FA3) affinity. Non-marine (F2 and F3) strata have the best conventional reservoir properties. The Cadomin, Gething and Bluesky formations of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin may provide analogue insight for exploration in the Mackenzie Corridor based on comparable stratigraphy, sedimentology and foreland basin setting.

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APPENDICES 143 Haplophragmoides bonanzaense hastata Pseudoclavulina diagonis Trachammina gravenori Textularia stotti Gaudryina canadensis Verneuilinoides bowsheri Psamminopelta whitneyi Ammobaculoides gigas Haplophragmoides Haplophragmoides yukonensis Haplophragmoides tailleuri Gaudryina Valvulineria lotterlei albertensis Quadrimorphina eilete Trachammina projectura Saracenaria umiatensis Conorboides Species Species Textularia alcesensis species Albian most of Loss Gaudryina canadensis Gaudryina Gamma ray kick kick ray Gamma Quadrimorphina Quadrimorphina albertensis Zone Gaudryina irenensis irenensis Gaudryina irenensis Gaudryina debris marker fish Pseudoclavulina hastate hastate Pseudoclavulina Gaudryina canadensis canadensis Gaudryina Martin House & Lower & House Martin Red Arctic Formation Formation Slater River Slater River Trevor/ Bear Little Late Early Late and Middle and Late Red Arctic Age Cenomanian Cenomanian Cenomanian Albian Early Turonian Albian Appendix 1 - Summary of biostratigraphy in the study area Summary of biostratigraphy based on samples from the¬ Hume Rive r outcrop and Imperial River (see figure 13) (McNeil, Thomson et al., 2011). 2007; 144

Appendix 2- Summary of palynological analyses in the study area (A) Summary of the palynological analyses from outcrop and core samples in this study. Lo- cations of outcrops and core are depicted in Figure 2 (G-02 north of the study area). Davison Davison Davison Davison Davison Davison White, 2010a 2 White, 2009b Davison 2- to 3- 2 to 2+ White, 2009b Davison 2 to 2+ White, 2009b Davison 2 to 2+ White, 2009b Davison 2 to 2+ White, 2010b Hadlari 2- to 2+ White, 2010b Hadlari 2- to 2+ White, 2010b Hadlari 2+ to 3- White, 2010b Hadlari Age TAI Reference Collector Albian Turonian Cenomanian Cenomanian Ryazanian to Mid to Upper Valanginian to (contamination?) 2+ to 3- White, 2010a Species marine + marine + marine + marine + marine + marine + marine + marine + marine + marine + nearshore Cretaceous 2+ to 3- White, 2010a nearshore Albian-Cenomanian 2 to 2+ White, 2010a continental uncertain continental Early to Mid Albian continental continentalcontinental Albian continental Albian continental Mid Cretaceous continental continental Aptian to Senonian 2+ to 3-continental White, 2010a marine and marine and continental, continental, open marine Environment Facies Association Formation Depth (m) Location Bear Rock Bear Rock Martin House 2.0 Martin House 10.0 FA2 FA4 continental Albian to Turonian Kelly Lake Martin House 10.0 FA1 Imperial River Imperial River Martin House Imperial River 4.5 Martin House 12.0 Martin House FA3 15.0 FA4 FA4 Imperial River Martin House 1.0 FA2 Mahoney Lake Martin House 3.0 FA1 Hume River I-66 Hume River I-66 Martin House 455.5Hume River I-66 Martin House 477.1 FA4 Martin House 485.5 FA3 FA1 continental Mesozoic 2 to 2+ White, 2010a Sainville River D-08 Martin House 555.0 FA3 Sainville River D-08 Martin House Sainville River D-08 560.2 Martin House FA4 569.5 FA4 145

Appendix 2- continued... Davison Davison Davison Davison Davison Davison Davison Davison unknown Allen and Fraser Allen and Fraser Yorath and Cook, 1981 White, 2010a 2 2 to 3+ White, 2009a 1+ to 2 White, 2009b Davison 2 to 2+ Sweet, 2010 2 to 2+ Sweet, 2010 Hadlari Hadlari 2- to 2 White, 2009b Davison 2+ to 3- White, 2009a 2- to 2+ Sweet, 2010 Hadlari Age TAI Reference Collector Albian 2+ to 3- White, 2010a Albian 2 to 2+ White, 2010a Cretaceous 2 to 2+ White, 2010a Cenomanian Barremian to younger than Maastrichtian Campanian to Mid Albian to Carboniferous none White, 2010a Late Albian to Late Albian to Middle Albian 2 to 3- White, 2010a Early Cenomanian Early Cenomanian Barremian to Early marine marine continental Mid Albian n/a marine nearshore continental, some continental, some Facies Association Species Environment m n/a fully marine m n/a fully marine 335-341 FA1 unconfor unconfor Member 2.0 n/a marine + continental Albian to Senonian Member 8.0 n/a Member Formation Depth (m) Slater River Martin House 253.6 FA1 continental uncertain none White, 2010a Gilmore Lake Mahoney Lake Mahoney Lake E-30 Basin) Location Hume River White M-04 Martin House 445.0 FA1 Imperial River Slater River Losh Lake G-22 Martin House 365.5 FA2 Losh Lake G-22 Martin House 363.9 FA2 continental Cranswick A-42 Arctic Red 914.4 n/a marine + continental Albian St Charles Creek St Charles Creek Hume River N-10 Martin House 313.0 FA1 continental Cretaceous Brackett River (BT) Little Bear 1.0 n/a continental Shell Trail River H-37 Martin House 594.4 FA4 marine + continental Mid Albian Great Bear River N-30 Martin House 678.9 FA2 West Whitefish River H-34 Martin House 762.9 FA2 shallow marine Chevron Sperry Creek N-58 Martin House 846.1 FA1 continental Cretaceous none White, 2010a Horton River G-02 (Anderson 146 Gas (billion cubic feet) 15 15 0 486.7 486.7 00 16.33 16.33 22.53 22.53 0 832.4 1784.7 2086.1 1784.7 2918.5 0 34.41 34.410 0 742.6 742.6 Oil (million barrels) Discovered Undiscovered Ultimate Discovered Undiscovered Ultimate Basin Peel Mackenzie Plain Great Bear Plain Mackenzie Mountains Colville Hills 301.64Anderson/Horton 0 156.92 458.57 0.06 0.06 0 1832.1 0 1832.1 142.7 142.7 Appendix 3- Summary of hydrocarbon resources Appendix 3- Summary of hydrocarbon Area. Summary of the Recoverable (unrisked) Hydrocarbon Resources in Study (Drummond, 2009)