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Development of Tropical Freshwater Mussel Toxicity Tests and an Assessment of Key Contaminants from the Ranger Uranium Mine

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Development of Tropical Freshwater Mussel Toxicity Tests and an Assessment of Key Contaminants from the Ranger Uranium Mine Development of tropical freshwater mussel toxicity tests and an assessment of key contaminants from the Ranger uranium mine A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Linda Kleinhenz BSc (AppSc) (Hons) RMIT University School of Science College of Science, Engineering and Health RMIT University October 2019 Declaration I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program; any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed. I acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. Linda Kleinhenz 29/10/2019 ii Acknowledgements This research was made possible through a collaborative agreement between RMIT University and the Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist (eriss) in Darwin, NT, Australia, for which I am extremely grateful. Undertaking my PhD candidature at eriss exposed me to talented scientists in a working ecotoxicology laboratory, and made the whole experience unique and enjoyable. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to my primary supervisor, Prof. Dayanthi Nugegoda, who gave me the opportunity to pursue both my Honours and PhD studies under her supervision, and has demonstrated confidence and encouragement throughout my candidature. Thank you to my three great associate supervisors at eriss, Dr. Andrew Harford, Dr. Rick van Dam, and Dr. Melanie Trenfield, for supporting me throughout this project and providing valuable guidance and feedback. A special thank you to Dr. Chris Humphrey, who was a great collaborator and font of knowledge regarding all aspects of mussels. I am grateful for his many years of experience, advice and enthusiasm for the project. Thank you to Dr. Ceiwen Pease, Dr. Tom Mooney, Samantha Walker, Lisa Chandler, Claire Costello, and other staff in the Water and Sediment Quality team at eriss for their field and laboratory assistance, advice, friendship and moral support. Thank you to staff based at the Jabiru Field Station, including Mark Ellis, Michael Fromholtz, Royce Namarnyilk, Ian Douglass, Julie Hanley, Costi Buccella, and numerous other eriss staff who assisted with mussel collections in many challenging environments. Since relocating to Darwin to undertake my PhD, my life has changed so much for the better, and I am grateful for the continuing love and support of my family and friends, and in particular, my wonderful husband Dan. iii Table of contents Declaration............................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iii Table of contents .................................................................................................................. iv List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... ix Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... xi List of publications included in this thesis ........................................................................... xii Conference presentations during candidature ....................................................................... xii Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1: Introduction and review of the literature ......................................................... 4 1.1 Freshwater mussels ...................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Toxicity testing with freshwater mussels ...................................................................... 9 1.3 The Alligator Rivers Region ...................................................................................... 15 1.4 Freshwater mussels in the Alligator Rivers Region .................................................... 21 1.5 Thesis objectives........................................................................................................ 25 1.6 Structure and outline of thesis .................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER 2: Genetic identification of tropical freshwater mussel species for use in standardised toxicity testing. ............................................................................................... 27 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 27 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 28 2.2 Materials and methods ............................................................................................... 29 2.3 Results ....................................................................................................................... 33 2.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 35 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 36 CHAPTER 3: Acute ammonia toxicity to the larvae (glochidia) of the tropical Australian freshwater mussel Velesunio spp. using a modified toxicity test protocol ............................. 37 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 37 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 38 iv 3.2 Materials and methods ............................................................................................... 41 3.3 Results ....................................................................................................................... 50 3.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 59 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 65 Supplementary Data ........................................................................................................ 67 CHAPTER 4: Chronic ammonia toxicity to juveniles of 2 tropical Australian freshwater mussels (Velesunio spp.): Toxicity test optimisation and implications for water quality guideline values. ................................................................................................................. 81 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 81 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 82 4.2 Materials and methods ............................................................................................... 84 4.3 Results ....................................................................................................................... 90 4.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 99 4.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 104 Supplementary Data ...................................................................................................... 106 CHAPTER 5: Acute and chronic toxicity of magnesium to the early life stages of two tropical freshwater mussel species.................................................................................................. 119 Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 119 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 120 5.2 Materials and methods ............................................................................................. 123 5.3 Results and discussion ............................................................................................. 131 5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 147 Supplementary Data ...................................................................................................... 148 CHAPTER 6: Acute sensitivity of the glochidia of two tropical Australian freshwater mussel species to copper and uranium, and an investigation of interspecies variability in sensitivity to copper. .............................................................................................................................. 161 Abstract
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