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2.3. Transformer Sites Encoded Knowledge in Oral Traditions: Skwxwú7mesh Transformer Sites and their Relationship with Landscape Perception and Use by Andrew Latimer B.A. (Archaeology), Simon Fraser University, 2017 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology Faculty of Environment © Andrew Latimer 2020 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2020 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Declaration of Committee Name: Andrew Latimer Degree: Master of Arts (Archaeology) Thesis title: Encoded Knowledge in Oral Traditions: Skwxwú7mesh Transformer Sites and their Relationship with Landscape Perception and Use Committee: Chair: Christina Giovas Assistant Professor, Archaeology Rudy Reimer/Yumks Supervisor Associate Professor, Archaeology Bill Angelbeck Committee Member Assistant Professor, Anthropology, Douglas College Terence Clarke Examiner Assistant Professor, Archaeology and Anthropology University of Saskatchewan ii Abstract This research studies the characteristics and roles of Transformer sites in daily life of people journeying through Skwxwú7mesh territory and the transmission of environmental knowledge through the Skwxwú7mesh oral tradition. Transformer sites are culturally significant places for numerous Indigenous groups in the Pacific Northwest and are so named for their narrative association with supernatural figures from the culture’s oral traditions that could transform themselves and the landscape. Skwxwú7mesh Transformer sites are associated with the journey of four brothers, Xaay Xays, and are located throughout Skwxwú7mesh territory. Many Transformer sites are important for their history and place within a community’s cultural landscape even without human modification. While archaeological sites generally refer to locations where there are material signs of past human activity, that definition does not include places where ephemeral activities took place, or places of cultural significance that were not directly modified by human behavior. Approaches within landscape archaeology provide a lens through which to effectively view and study places where the archaeological record is silent. Visibility, proximity to recorded archaeological sites, and ethnographic analysis, when taken together, can make a strong intersecting argument for how people in the past interacted with specific places and the landscape as a whole. This thesis recorded the physical characteristics of Skwxwú7mesh Transformer sites associated with Xaay Xays, evaluated the visibility of Skwxwú7mesh Transformer sites from water routes through Skwxwú7mesh territory, and compared the environmental and land use messaging from the names and stories of each site to the archaeological, ecological, and ethnographic information of that location. The results showed that the majority of Transformer sites were locations either used directly for resources described in the Xaay Xays narrative or were associated with active archaeological areas, suggesting that Transformer sites were an ever present part of daily life, and that the stories that describe and connect these locations hold information about the environment that was transmitted through generations by telling and retelling these stories. Despite the cultural significance of Transformer sites to Indigenous communities and their potential for archaeological investigation, they are not guaranteed protection under provincial or federal heritage legislation. There is much more that can be learned from Transformer sites and other natural places about people’s interactions with the landscape through time, but first those places must be acknowledged and protected for generations to come. iii Keywords: Pacific Northwest Coast archaeology; landscape archaeology; oral traditions; spiritual sites; visibility iv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish), Xʷməθkʷəy̓ əm (Musqueam), and Səlil̓ ilw̓ ətaɬ (Tsleil-Waututh) Nations, whose traditional and unceded territories I have had the honour to live, work, and learn upon. While I do not identify as Indigenous, I promise to continue to learn from your knowledge with humility, and act as an advocate for an inclusive and reconciliatory future. This work would not have been possible without the support and interest of the Sḵwx̱ wú7mesh Úxwumixw (Squamish Nation), and I only hope that this work does justice to the rich heritage and ancestral land which I have had the privilege to work on. Great thanks to Ray Natraoro for taking us out onto the water around Burrard Inlet. I am also indebted to Peter Baker and Paul Wick for guiding me through the Nation’s permitting process and helping me to make it beneficial and meaningful to the community. I was very fortunate to have Dr. Rudy Reimer as my senior supervisor. His enthusiasm for this topic fueled my own interest and passion for this project and helped to overcome the obstacles we faced along the way. He opened my eyes to new ways of looking at archaeology and looking at the world, and always challenged me to be and do better, getting me to present at conferences and consider new angles to research and discuss. Whether it was providing vital editing feedback, overcoming logistical challenges, or liaising with the Sḵwx̱ wú7mesh Nation on my behalf, Rudy was always there when I really needed him. I am also grateful to Dr. Bill Angelbeck, who provided excellent insight into how to improve the research each step of the way. His breadth of knowledge was evident when he consistently recommended the exact source I needed to fill out the chapter I was working on. I very much appreciate his patience and flexibility keeping up with my quickly scheduled field trips and meetings. There are many other people who I need to thank for helping me start and shape my research. Dr. Francesco Berna and Dr. Mike Wilson were extremely helpful in getting me on track studying Transformer sites and getting me in touch with Rudy. Dr. Dana v Lepofsky forced me to ask all the hard questions that needed to be asked to have my work make sense and be consistent. Last but certainly not least, thank you to my friends and family who provided emotional support and inspiration through my long journey. Thank you Mom, for always catching my grammar mistakes, and Dad, for talking with me constantly about whatever question I was wrestling with over dinner. Thank you to Pablo Clairmont, for being a good friend and good company on long logging roads. And my amazing Sophie, who was with me every step of the way, you never doubted me even when I doubted myself. vi Table of Contents Declaration of Committee ................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. v Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. vii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... x Preface................................................................................................................................ xi 1. Introduction to Transformer Sites ........................................................................ 1 2. Background ........................................................................................................... 10 2.1. Geological History .................................................................................................. 10 2.2. History of Archaeological and Ethnographic Work in the Pacific Central Coast concerning the Sḵwx̱ wú7mesh People ................................................................... 11 2.3. Transformer Sites .................................................................................................... 14 3. Theory of Landscape Archaeology and the Study of Natural Places............... 20 3.1. Landscape Archaeology .......................................................................................... 20 3.2. Natural places ......................................................................................................... 22 3.3. Visibility ................................................................................................................. 25 3.4. Oral Traditions ........................................................................................................ 27 4. Methods and Results ............................................................................................. 29 4.1. Methods .................................................................................................................. 29 4.1.1. Survey ....................................................................................................... 33 4.1.2. Viewshed................................................................................................... 37 4.1.3. Landscape Associations ............................................................................ 40 4.2. Results ....................................................................................................................
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