Analysing technical tertiary training and education requirements for the South African explosives industry
WF Verster 23000554
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister in Business Administration at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North- West University
Supervisor: Prof CA Bisschoff
May 2014
ABSTRACT
South Africa is one of the largest producers of explosives in the world. The production of explosives is driven by the mines’ need for explosives to produce the commodities needed by the economy. South Africa used to offer a diploma in explosives technology, but this qualification was discontinued in 1996. Currently some qualifications in explosives management are being presented, but these qualifications do not fulfil the industry's need for technical education in explosives. The South African explosives industry reports that they need technical education in explosives.
Because the explosives industry is relatively small in terms of personnel numbers, tertiary educational institutions are hesitant to establish a degree in explosives engineering or a similar qualification. The aim of the research conducted was to try and quantify this need as well as to give guidance to the structure of the explosives engineering qualifications. During the study representatives from all the role-players in the industry were interviewed. Further information was gathered by means of a questionnaire.
This data were combined and analysed and it was found that there is a definite need for a diploma in explosives engineering, an undergraduate degree in explosives engineering as well as post graduate qualifications in this discipline. The research has shown that there is a good possibility that these qualifications would be sustainable considering the growth in the South African explosives industry, as well as the growth in the African mining market.
Key words: Explosives engineering, Explosives education, Explosives technical training
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 A historical view of the explosives technical training in South Africa...... 2 1.3 The South African education system ...... 6 1.4 Market growth indicators ...... 6 1.4.1 Manufactures of explosives ...... 6 1.4.2 Mining ...... 7 1.4.3 Defence explosives industry ...... 8 1.5 Research statement ...... 9 1.6 Study objectives ...... 10 1.6.1 Primary objective ...... 10 1.6.2 Secondary objectives ...... 10 1.6.3 Define the market ...... 10 1.6.4 Determine the market growth ...... 11 1.6.5 Determine the market demand...... 11 1.7 Research design and methodology...... 11 1.7.1 Scope of the research ...... 11 1.7.2 Geographical distribution ...... 11 1.7.3 Manufacturers ...... 11 1.7.4 Users ...... 12 1.7.5 Governance and support ...... 12 1.7.6 Training providers ...... 12 1.8 Research methodology ...... 12 1.8.1 Literature study ...... 13 1.8.2 Qualitative Research ...... 13 1.8.3 Interviews ...... 13 1.8.4 Use of questionnaires ...... 14 1.8.5 Data Analysis ...... 14 iii
1.9 Outcome ...... 14 1.10 Limitations ...... 14 1.11 Summary ...... 15 CHAPTER 2 ...... 17 THEORETICAL STUDY ...... 17 2.1 Introduction ...... 17 2.2 Orientation on explosives ...... 18 2.2.1 What is an explosive? ...... 18 2.2.2 Classification of explosives ...... 18 2.2.2.1 High Explosives (HE) ...... 18 2.2.2.2 Low explosives (LE) ...... 19 2.2.3 Commercial and military high explosives ...... 20 2.3 Description of the SA explosives industrial landscape ...... 21 2.3.1 Explosives manufacturing ...... 21 2.3.2 Users of explosives ...... 22 2.3.3 Construction and commercial industries ...... 24 2.3.4 Regulatory and enforcement agencies ...... 24 2.3.5 Test facilities ...... 25 2.3.6 Transportation and packaging ...... 25 2.3.7 The training and educational institutions ...... 26 2.3.7.1 University of South Africa (UNISA) ...... 26 2.3.7.2 Other universities ...... 26 2.3.7.3 BISRU ...... 27 2.3.7.4 SANDF, Explosives training facilities ...... 27 2.3.7.5 SAPS Explosives training section ...... 27 2.3.7.6 Mechem ...... 27 2.3.7.7 Rheinmetall Denel Munition – Ordnance Training Centre ...... 28 2.3.7.8 Explosives manufacturers training services ...... 28 2.3.7.9 Other training providers and consultants ...... 28 2.3.8 Governmental institutions with and explosive interface ...... 29 2.3.8.1 Armscor ...... 29 2.3.8.2 CSIR DPS ...... 29 iv
2.3.9 Explosives support service providers ...... 29 2.3.10 Interdisciplinary organisations ...... 30 2.3.10.1 NIXT ...... 30 2.3.10.2 SABO ...... 30 2.3.10.3 Chamber of Mines ...... 31 2.4 Size of the explosives market ...... 31 2.5 Market growth in the global commercial explosives industry ...... 32 2.6 Market growth in the SA commercial explosives industry ...... 34 2.7 The global mining industry ...... 35 2.8 Sustainability ...... 36 2.9 Growth in the SA mining sector ...... 37 2.10 Technology management model ...... 38 2.10.1 Critical systems exploration ...... 40 2.10.2 Visionary technological aspirations ...... 40 2.10.3 Insight and imagination synergistic with competitive strategies ...... 40 2.10.4 Technological Algorithms ...... 40 2.10.5 Core technological competencies ...... 41 2.10.6 Technological capabilities to compete ...... 41 2.10.7 Decision support and planning tools ...... 41 2.10.8 Environment ...... 41 2.10.9 Product development and product portfolio ...... 41 2.11 International training structures ...... 42 2.11.1 European Union ...... 42 2.11.2 EUExcert ...... 45 2.11.3 International providers of explosives related education ...... 45 2.12 Department of Higher Education and Training ...... 46 2.12.1 National Qualification Framework ...... 47 2.12.2 SAQA ...... 48 2.12.3 Council on Higher Education ...... 48 2.12.4 SETA ...... 50 2.12.5 The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations ...... 51 2.13 Engineering Council of South Africa ...... 51 v
2.13.1 Explosives engineering ...... 53 2.13.2 International recognition for explosives engineering ...... 54 2.13.3 Benefits of ECSA recognition for explosives engineering ...... 55 2.14 South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions ...... 56 2.15 Terminology and standards ...... 57 2.16 Summary ...... 58 CHAPTER 3 ...... 59 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND RESULTS ...... 59 3.1 Introduction ...... 59 3.2 Research methodology ...... 59 3.3 Research model ...... 59 3.3.1 Mapping the industry ...... 60 3.3.1.1 Mining sector ...... 60 3.3.1.2 Gun and rifle association ...... 60 3.3.2 Constructing a research framework ...... 61 3.4 Results ...... 63 3.4.1 Data validity ...... 63 3.4.2 Course content of the technical qualification ...... 65 3.4.2.1 Short courses ...... 66 3.4.2.2 Diploma in explosives engineering...... 66 3.4.2.3 Undergraduate qualification ...... 67 3.4.2.4 Post graduate qualification ...... 70 3.4.3 Growth in mining volumes ...... 72 3.4.4 Impact of technology ...... 73 3.4.5 Sustainability ...... 75 3.4.6 Establishment of an explosives technical qualification ...... 79 3.4.7 Standards ...... 79 3.4.8 Shortcomings of the research ...... 80 3.5 Summary ...... 81 CHAPTER 4 ...... 83 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 83 4.1 Introduction ...... 83 vi
4.2 Conclusions ...... 84 4.3 Recommendations ...... 86 4.4 Further Research ...... 88 4.5 Summary ...... 89 REFERENCES ...... 90 Annexure A ...... 102 Annexure B ...... 103 Annexure C ...... 104 Annexure D ...... 105 Annexure E ...... 106 Annexure F ...... 108 Annexure G ...... 115
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LIST OF GRAPHS
Figure 2.1 The classification of groups of explosives...... 20 Figure 2.2 The world’s consumption of commercial explosives for 2008...... 33 Figure 2.3 Production volume of SA mines...... 37 Figure 2.4 Visser’s Management of Technology Model ...... 39 Figure 3.2 The age distribution of the people employed in the explosives value chain. . 78
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Thirteen key roles for workers in the explosives sector...... 43 Table 2.2: Types of explosives substances and articles (ESA) organisations in the United Kingdom ...... 44 Table 3.1: The sectors that were identified in the SA explosives industry ...... 61 Table 3.2: Statistics of the data inputs...... 63 Table 3.3: Organisations that provided inputs for the research ...... 64 Table 3.4: List of subjects added by different respondents ...... 65 Table 3.5: The twenty most preferred subjects to be included in the diploma of an explosives engineering qualification ...... 67 Table 3.6: The 20 most preferred subjects to be included in the undergraduate program for explosives engineers...... 70 Table 3.7: The subjects for the post graduate degree in explosives engineering with the lowest scores ...... 71 Table 3.8: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African explosives industry...... 75 Table 3.9: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African military explosives industry...... 76 Table 3.10: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African Commercial explosives industry...... 76
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ABBREVIATIONS
AEL MS: AEL Mining Services Limited BME: Bulk Mining Explosives (Pty) Ltd CIE: Chief Inspector of Explosives of the SAPS CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States CHE: Council on Higher Education CSIR: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DMR: Department of Minerals Resources DOL: Department of Labour ECSA: Engineering Council of South Africa ECVET: European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (EU) EOD: Explosives Ordnance Disposal EU: European Union FET: Further Education and Training HE: High Explosives HEQC: Higher Education Quality Committee HEQSF: Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework LE: Low Explosives NIXT: National Institute of Explosives Technology NOS: National Operating Standards (UK) NQF: National Qualification Framework NVQ: National Vocational Qualifications (UK) OHS: Occupational Health and Safety OJT: On the Job Training OTR: Overberg Test Range PGM: Platinum Group Metals PMP: Pretoria Metal Pressings PWC: PricewaterhouseCoopers QF: Quick Fire QCTO: Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
x RDM: Rheinmetall Denel Munition RSA: Republic of South Africa SABO: South African Ballistics Organisation SACNASP: South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions SAGA: South African Gun Association SAQA: South African Qualifications Authority SAPS: South African Police Service SADF: South African Defence Force SANDF: South African National Defence Force SEMTA: Science, Engineering and Manufacturing Technologies (UK) SSB: Standards Setting Body (UK) TUT: Tshwane University of Technology UNISA: University of South Africa UK: United Kingdom US: United States of America
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CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Explosives are an indispensible component of industry and life in modern society. Explosives are diverse tools and their applications can range from being employed peacefully, to extracting vital minerals from the earth, or being the destructive tool of war. Explosives can even be employed in rescue- and other situations as an instrument to save lives, or as a source of entertainment. Explosives are chemical substances, which contain their own oxygen and have the ability to release its energy in a very short time, or create a physical effect. Fickett and Davis (2000:1) explain that during detonation process the explosives material is consumed 103 to 108 times faster than in a burning process. They continue to mention that the total amount of solar energy intercepted by the earth at a specific moment is 4 x 1016 watts which is comparable to a 20 m2 detonation wave that propagates through an explosive. The explosives scientists, engineers and technicians have the knowledge and skills, and sometimes the art, to utilise and apply the release of this energy. It will become evident during the course of this document, that there is a small group of people in South Africa who intimately understand explosives and can harvest the energy from this tool of modern industry.
Training and development are important as it improves the knowledge and skills of employees. It also improves safety and efficiencies, as well as motivates employees to perform. Having trained and educated employees can give a company a competitive advantage in the market.
The captains of the South African explosives industry obtained their explosives engineering knowledge mainly through attending internal company courses supported by on the job training (OJT), or through experience. There are a number of candidates who attended the Diploma in Explosives Technology course. However, the breadth of the technical tertiary 1 education in explosives has been eroded with the discontinuation of the Diploma at the Cape Technikon and the demise and closure of the Department of Explosives Technology at the TUT in 1996 (Coutts: 2013). Explosives related technical training is now done via company in-house training and various private training institutions providing niche training courses in specific disciplines of the explosives knowledge portfolio. It is needless to say that, because of this, there could be a difference in standards and terminology. According to UNISA (2014) explosives management qualifications are presented by UNISA.
1.2 A historical view of the explosives technical training in South Africa
The Republic of South Africa’s explosives history can be traced back to the arrival of the Dutch under Jan van Riebeek in 1652. He had to defend the settlement against intruders by the use of cannons and muskets. The explosives industry was limited to the use and storage of the gunpowder in the Castle of Good Hope. According to Liebenberg (2013:8), one Willem Willemsz, the constable of the Castle, declared on 16 March 1747 that a quantity of eight thousand pounds of gunpowder were found in the Company’s cellars, but due to the long time that the gunpowder was stored, the sulphur and saltpetre had gradually poured out. He also declared that the gunpowder was still reusable, but had to be sent to Batavia to be reground. Up to the mid nineteenth century gunpowder was the workhorse of the industry and the military.
The modern explosives era broke with the discovery of Nitro Glycerine by Sobrero in 1847. According to Hellberg and Jansson (1986:16), Alfred Nobel, a friend of Sobrero can be considered as the father of modern blasting explosives. Nobel was obsessed with research and not only continued to do research throughout his life, but ensured continued research by instructing in his will the creation of prizes for the discovery or inventions in physics/chemistry, medicine/physiology, as well as literature and peace (Hellberg & Jansson, 1986:130). This is today known as the Nobel Prize. Nobel can therefore be considered as one of the fathers of explosives training and education in the modern explosives era.
One of the earliest records of explosives manufacturing in South Africa dates back to President Paul Kruger who, in 1895, initiated the establishment of the “Zuid Afrikaansche 2 Fabrieken voor Ontplofbare Stoffen Beperk” at Modderfontein (AEL, 2012). This was the foundation of the modern explosives industry and the establishment of a pool of explosive knowledge in South Africa. The Modderfontein factory served the explosives needs of the gold mining industry. In 1906 Cecil John Rhodes was tasked by the De Beers Company to establish an explosives manufacturing company that could serve the needs of the diamond mining sector (Playne, 1910-1911). The Cape Explosives Company was established in Somerset West in the Cape and according to De Vos and Haaroff (1984:21), the first batch of 40 cases were shipped to Kimberley. Mr. K.B. Quinan, an American born, self taught chemical engineer who settled in South Africa to build the Cape Explosives Company, contributed significantly to the knowledge base of the South African explosive industry through his designs and by building efficient explosives factories (Cocroft, 2004:10).
The commercial explosives industry, driven by the mines’ demand for explosives, grew to where it is today, having four major bulk explosives manufacturers and various small scale explosives manufacturers. Very little is known about the training of explosives plant personnel. The training in explosives for military purposes and the commercial industry were mainly done in-house till the mid 1970’s.
The history of military explosives and ammunition technical training is not sufficiently documented. De Vos and Haaroff (1984:21) reported that Quinan was appointed during the World War 1 (WW1) as a consultant to build explosives factories worldwide on behalf of Britain. He used the knowledge and experienced gained in South Africa to build these factories. After the war, he resettled in South Africa where he continued to work.
Stocks of explosives manufactured at the Modderfontein, Somerset West and Umbogotwini plants, were stored at Lenz between WW1 and WW2. In 1936, the SA Army established the 3 SAI Bn at Lenz. The civilian explosives magazine masters known as “magasynbediendes”, were militarised in 1916 according to Bredenkamp (s.a.:71). He continues to state that only “in diens”, translated as “in service” training, was provided and that no formal technical training was conducted between 1923 and 1939.
With WW2 on the horison, the SA Government requested the industry “ICI - Modderfontein” to prepare for the production of ammunition. Although various studies were done, no 3 significant ammunition production took place. De Vos and Haaroff (1984:24) reported that the Graf Spee and the German submarine threat around the Cape sea routes changed the threat situation in South Africa with threats to destroy the Somerset West factory. This was supported by Bredenkamp (s.a.:72), who reported that the Union of South Africa’s armament production program had to be expanded as a matter of priority after the fall of France. In 1940 a handful of explosives specialists were sent from the UK to work with local engineers to establish the ammunition manufacturing capabilities. The knowledge to manufacture ammunition was brought to South Africa by these pioneers.
According to the Union of South Africa (1942:4), ammunition was manufactured in South Africa by factories situated at Modderfontein, Somerset West, Lentz and the South African Mint Loading Fields, with test facilities under the Director of Explosives, being the Small Arms Proofing Range in Pretoria, Q.F. Range Pretoria, Skurweberg Range to the west of Pretoria and the Potchefstroom Range. It is obvious that the military employees who operated these ranges and proofing facilities must have had explosives training due to the complexity of the tests that were done, such as the Abel Heat Test for the stability of propellants, pressure and velocity tests, to name but a few (Union of South Africa, 1942:14). Unfortunately no reference of training is made.
In 1967 the SA Army commenced with the recruitment of officers to be trained as Technical Munitions Officers. These officers were to be trained at the Pretoria Technical College (South African Defence Force, 1967a). This was a three year training course of which four and a half months would have been spent at the Pretoria Technical College studying general scientific subjects. This is the first record of explosives related technical training provided by a higher educational training institution in South Africa. The document lists subject that would be followed, training programme and salary structures for the recruits. The names of the first 19 candidates who attended this course are listed in the document. They subsequently became the leaders of the soon to be established SA Ammunition Core of the SA Army (South African Defence Force, 1967b).
Bredenkamp (s.a.:73) inferred that artisans were working at Ammunition Depots. He reports that the “SA Ammunisie Korps” was established on 1 April 1973. The SA Ammunition Core is to date staffed by highly trained Technical Munitions Officers and 4 Ammunition Fitters. It was under the leadership of these officers that the formal tertiary training in explosives was established.
According to Coutts (2013), a group of SADF Officers was sent to the Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, England, in the early 1970’s to receive training. Due to the arms embargo the SADF was not allowed to send more students. The SADF approached Technikon Pretoria’s (subsequently renamed to TUT) Chemistry Department in the mid 1970’s to create a Diploma in Explosives Technology. The diploma course increased in popularity. In approximately 1985 Technikon Pretoria established the Department of Explosives Technology. However, due to the transformation of the SADF to the SANDF in 1994, the defence force’s need for explosives technical training diminished. In 1995/96 the Department of Explosives Technology was closed down and the qualification was discontinued due to a lack of demand, as the demand for training was mainly driven by the military.
The closure left a void and in the late 1990’s, the Technikon RSA was approached by the commercial explosives industry to create a qualification that would meet the demand for tertiary explosives training. The Diploma in Explosives Management was established at the Technikon RSA and further developed to a B Tech Degree in Explosives Management (UNISA, 2014). With the integration of the Technikon RSA into UNISA, this qualification was hence forth presented by the College of Economic and Management Sciences. This qualification serves a valuable market sector such as the management of the explosives discipline, but falls short in serving the market need for technical explosives training and education.
In Europe Wallace et al. (2006:1), supported by Akhavan (2005), reported human failure as the main cause of explosives accidents and incidents in the UK and EU. They continued to attribute the human failure to the lack of competencies, skills and adequate training of employees. Akhavan (2005) stated that the UK, as well as the EU law relies on competent people to make decisions regarding the use and the safety of explosives. Akhavan (2005) continued that the pool of explosives expertise diminished substantially since the employees that entered the labour market in the 1960’s and 1970’s, are reaching retirement age. The end of the Cold War reduced the need for explosives workers, leading 5 to a decline in recruitment and training of new blood. The same trend was observed in the SA explosives industry, which lead to the demise of the educational qualifications at the Technikon Pretoria, as reported earlier.
1.3 The South African education system
The South African education system comprise of three bands of education referred to as General Education, Further Education and Training, and Higher Education (National Qualifications Framework Act, No. 67 of 2008). Firstly, General Education is the first nine years of school education. Secondly, Further Education and Training, or referred to as “post school” education, comprises of vocational and occupational education and training offered at colleges. It also includes the last three years of general school education. Finally, Higher Education is education offered by Universities and Universities of Technology. The levels of description for the training is classed from level 1 to 10 with level 10 being the most advance level attainable, being a Doctorate degree.
1.4 Market growth indicators
In the event that the South African explosives industry decides that a technical qualification in explosives is required, such a course will have to be established at a tertiary educational institution. It must be economically viable for such an institution to offer this qualification. Alternatively, the state could fully subsidise the costs of such a qualification, provided that the industry could convince the state that it is in the national interest of the country to have such a qualification. This is an unlikely event. In an effort to help establish an indication of the sustainability of such a qualification, a metric had to be found during the research. The growth of the explosives volumes and technology were used as indicators to determine the demand for training.
1.4.1 Manufactures of explosives
According to Flak and Motsoeneng (2013) and AECI (2013:6), AECI, AEL’s mother company’s earnings declined by 24% in 2012, due to the unrest in the mining industry. This interrupted a steady growth that has been maintained for the previous three years. 6 Despite the decline in earning though, there has been a steady growth in the technology and in volumes. This growth in volumes and technology could be used as an indicator for the necessity for training.
The Omnia Group reported an increase of 24% in earnings per share on 31 March 2012 (Omnia, 2012:4). The mining group of Omnia, represented by BME and Protea Chemical, reported a growth in revenue of 45.8% from 2011 to 2012. According to BME this was mainly due to growth in the West African operations. Considering the growth in technology, BME reported that its specialist blast consultancy services, software and the sales of electronic detonators, added value to its customers (Omnia, 2012:76).
The SASOL group reported in their annual report a 25% increase in headline earnings per share (SASOL, 2012:16). Through further analysis of SASOL (2012:113), SASOL Nitro Explosives reported a decrease in the sales volumes of the explosives business, due to safety stoppages and the strikes in the mining sector. They increased the supply of explosive accessories to Western Africa, invested in a third detonator production line and new automated production facilities of water-gel packaged explosives which contributed to the increase in sales volumes.
Maxam Dantex is a private company and no business information is available to the public. During the interview with Steyn (2013), it was reported that Maxam identified and is expanding into the greater African market.
It is therefore concluded that the increase in volumes and the investment in technology will be considered as an indicator for the need for explosives training.
1.4.2 Mining
The global mining sector will be influenced by changes in social, economic and political trends according to Deloitte and Touch (2012:3). Mines cannot only invest in plants and operations. They must invest in the local communities as well, namely providing railways, houses and education (Deloitte & Touch, 2012:4). Deloitte and Touch (2012:5) continue that cost reduction measures like automation and a reliance on technology to lower labour 7 cost, will play an important role in future mining operations. The report states that the industry has an acute shortage of skilled people to cope with the expansion required from a growing consumer demand (Deloitte &Touch, 2012:14).
Deloitte and Touch (2012:25) emphasise the role that carbon emission control will have on the mining industry. It is the author’s opinion that the explosives industry can play a leading role to reduce their own, and thus reducing the mining industry’s carbon footprint.
1.4.3 Defence explosives industry
Rheinmetall AG reported that the global defence spending for 2012 remains virtually unchanged from 2011 in the region of USD 1,590 billion calculated for 2012 (Rheinmetall, 2013a:12). Rheinmetall (2013a:13) reports figures from IHS Jane’s report, supported by Dowedy and Taylor (2013:2), indicating that the US and most European countries’ defence budgets were cut due to their withdrawal from Iraq and Afghanistan. However, their basic spending increased due to the need for the rejuvenation of defence material requirements. Dowedy and Taylor (2013: 2) reported significant increases in the Middle Eastern countries’ defence budgets. The Middle East is one of the major markets for the South African armament industry. IHS Jane’s report (as quoted by Rheinmetall, 2013b:76), stated that the top 65 of the world’s largest defence budgets will increase by 7% until 2015, with the procurement sector of the budget as high as 12%. Rheinmetall (2013b: 84) predicts a sharp increase in defence spending after 2015 due to the need to rejuvenate aging systems.
Rheinmetall Denel Munition (RDM), an associate of Denel is responsible for the manufacturing of ammunition and energetic materials. The company reported an increase in revenue of R332 million to R1295 Million for 2012 (Denel, 2013:51).
Denel (2013:37) reported a net profit of R71 million for 2013. Some major weapon related achievements were the signing of a missile contract worth R1.2 billion over 5 years, with a series of successful trials on the A-Darter missile program as well as an order for Umkhonto and Makopa missiles (Denel, 2013:45).
8 PMP, a business unit of Denel (2013:48) which manufactures small and medium calibre ammunition, had a revenue increase of R32 million for 2012. The company invested in new-technology manufacturing equipment. An amount of R18 million was spent in 2011 on the rejuvenation to a state-of-the-art modern primary explosives facility. Mechem a business unit of Denel Land Systems that specialises in clearing up the remnants of war, canine services, related skills development, landmine and ballistic protected vehicle design and manufacturing, amongst others, reported a turnover of R302 million. This is double the turnover achieved in 2011 (Denel, 2012:36). Denel Overberg Test Range (OTR) provides a testing capability for various weapon systems. The test range is situated on the coast in the Southern Cape. OTR experienced a decrease of R17 million in turnover for 2012 (Denel, 2013:50).
In summary, it can be said that the mining industry in South Africa is under pressure, however there are promising growth opportunities in the African mining sector for South African explosive products and intellectual capital. The military markets show a good growth despite the easing of tensions in conflict zones and a slowing in defence expenditures.
1.5 Research statement
There are no formal explosives technical/engineering qualifications presented at higher education training institutions in South Africa. The explosives industry made efforts under the patron ship of NIXT and UNISA to re-establish a technical tertiary qualification. The demand has not been satisfied and there is still a need for technical explosives training in the explosives industry. Companies now intend to develop their own internal courses to provide training for their employees. The NIXT meeting (NIXT, 2013) aims to address the need for training for military explosives specialists.
Every organisation trains the people in accordance with their internal needs. This leads to a disparity in course content and standards. Therefore must uncertainties be clarified such as course content and the National Qualification Framework (NQF) levels at which the training must be presented.
9 In summary, the increasing demand from the consumers of explosives is reflected in the demand of the producers of explosives. Technology and trained people are required to satisfy the demand. The ability to train people in the explosives industry is limited and because training is fragmented, the quality and standards of training differ.
1.6 Study objectives
The objectives of the research were to define the South African explosives industry’s need for “Explosives Engineering” qualifications and to make recommendations for the structure and contents of this education.
1.6.1 Primary objective
The primary objective was to analyse the need for explosives engineering education in the SA explosives industry.
1.6.2 Secondary objectives
The primary objective was accomplished by the following secondary objectives:
1.6.3 Define the market
The role-players and stakeholders in the industry were identified. This included Manufacturers; the Users; the Government agencies; Training providers and other stakeholders. Once the stakeholders were identified, the functional usage profile/requirement for explosives training and education was analysed.
10 1.6.4 Determine the market growth
The study aimed to explore the potential market growth for explosives. This information was used as a leading indicator to determine the growth in the future demand and type of explosives training required.
1.6.5 Determine the market demand
The information that was gathered was analysed to determine the demand for explosives engineering education. The market demand as well as the growth in the market demand was used as an indicator to the sustainability of explosives engineering qualifications.
1.7 Research design and methodology
1.7.1 Scope of the research
The focus of the research was constructed using the attributes mentioned below.
1.7.2 Geographical distribution
The study focused on the South African explosives market. However, the Sub-Saharan African countries were also considered due to the influence of the South African explosives manufacturers in these markets.
1.7.3 Manufacturers
There are four major commercial explosives manufacturers and various smaller manufacturers in the RSA as well as two military explosives manufacturers. The major role- players had been the prime focus, but the smaller suppliers were also considered.
11 1.7.4 Users
The three sectors of industry that are users of explosives are the Mining Industry, the Construction Industry and the Security services. All three of these sectors have been included in the research.
1.7.5 Governance and support
The role-, impact- , and training requirements of the Government have been included in the study.
1.7.6 Training providers
The study identified and considered the roles and functions of the existing training providers, considering the National Qualification Framework.
1.8 Research methodology
The diverse nature of the explosives industry and the limited number of participants in the different groups warranted a qualitative research approach to be followed. The total explosives industry was divided into the various disciplines, such as manufacturing, regulatory, and training providers.
An analysis was done on the information required from the participants to determine their training needs in terms of the type of training required and the quantity of trainees to be trained. The analysis determined the structure and content of the questions put to participants. The profiles of the participants were chosen to be representative of the organisation.
Unstructured interviews were arranged with the selected participants in the different disciplines. The interviews were recorded and analysed. The data were then interpreted and used to make recommendations. During the interviews it became apparent that not all
12 the intended participants would be interviewed due to the availability of key personnel and the geographical distribution of the organisations.
The research was structured utilising the process mentioned below.
1.8.1 Literature study
The literature searches showed that very little has been published on training and education in the explosives industry. However, the available literature was used to explore the concepts of training and to investigate international training in explosives. The literature study was used to identify the various role-players in the industry and to provide the information to be used during the interviews with the representatives.
1.8.2 Qualitative Research
The composition and nature of the explosives industry is such that it did not warrant a quantitative research approach. With four major commercial explosives manufacturers, two military explosives manufacturers, a limited amount of mining houses and commercial blasting firms, it was decided that a qualitative approach should be used for the research.
Statistical techniques were used to analyse data where applicable. A factor that had to be considered was that training needs are normally defined and coordinated centrally in the large companies.
1.8.3 Interviews
Unstructured interviews were done with key role-players in the industry. A list of the interviewees are shown in annexure G. A framework of questions was constructed in preparation for the different organisations in the different sectors. This framework is shown at annexure E. The first part of the framework assisted to gather general information on the interviewee and the organisation. The following section served as a guide to explore the type of qualification that the employees possess. This section also served as a guideline to explore the organisations requirement for training in terms of the area of training and 13 quantity of people that would require training. The last section of the framework was used to determine the production and growth of the organisation. Care has been taken to ensure that similar questions have been asked to different role-players in the same sector to obtain data that are comparable or synergistic.
1.8.4 Use of questionnaires
After it became apparent that not all the participants would be interviewed, a questionnaire was constructed and distributed to organisations where it was not practicable to conduct an interview. The questionnaire shown at annexure F is a derivative of the questioning framework used during the interviews and was designed to gather comparable data captured during the interviews. The list of organisations that were requested to complete the questionnaires can be found in annexure G.
1.8.5 Data Analysis
The data gathered during the interviews and the questionnaires have been interpreted and grouped. The data were studied and conclusions were made where applicable. The conclusions have been reported and recommendations made.
1.9 Outcome
The objectives were: firstly, to define the requirements for explosives engineering training, and the education needs of the industry; secondly, to indentify the type and structure of explosives engineering education required; thirdly, to provide guidelines for the content of the training and education; and fourthly to establish an indication of the sustainability of this qualification.
1.10 Limitations
The explosives industry in South Africa, with reference to training, is diverse. It ranges from scientific research in the explosives applications at universities, to the training of ammunition fitter and miners in the use of explosives. The users of explosive knowledge 14 range from scientists to Bisley shotists and from law enforcement officers to designers of control systems for explosives plants. Therefore due to the diversity of the need for explosives knowledge, the research focused on core explosives related engineering training and education, which could, or should be presented at tertiary training providers, such as universities or universities of technology.
The research has not focused on pedagogical models of current training.
A limiting factor was the willingness of companies to make information which may compromise their market position or strategies available.
1.11 Summary
South Africa has a well-developed explosives industry and its roots can be traced back to the beginning of the last century. Throughout its history training has been done in-house at the various explosives manufacturers. The establishment of the Diploma in Explosives Technology was driven by the military’s needs for explosives specialists. The attendance of this diploma boomed in the late 1980s but was discontinued in the mid-1990s due to a decrease in demand. Qualifications in explosives management were established at UNISA which partially satisfied the industry’s need for explosives training. However the need for explosives engineering or technical training had been lacking since the mid-1990s.
During the problem analysis process of the research problem a mind map of the industry was constructed which served as a very powerful tool that directed the approach and scope of the research. The mind map showed the extent and diversity of the explosives industry and it assisted in pegging the boundaries for the scope and depth of the research. A realisation of the scope of the industry and the scarcity of published information were the driving factors that influenced the decision to take a holistic approach to the research instead of a detailed analysis of a specific parameter.
The non availability of accurate explosives production data was the reason why alternative mechanisms had to be found to get an indication of the sustainability of training requirements in the explosives industry. The two main sectors in the industry namely the 15 commercial explosives and military explosives industry’s client’s production figures were interrogated. Analysis of the trends, such as the change in mineral production growth and changes in technology, were used as a typical indicator of the sustainability of an explosives engineering qualification. It was also reasoned that the age profile of the employees in the explosives industry could be used as an indicator for the sustainability of an explosives engineering degree.
The non availability of technical training in explosives at tertiary training institutions forced companies to conduct in house training for employees. This and the non existence of a independent body charged with the responsibility to set and regulate training standards for the explosives discipline raised a question to the standards and quality of the decentralised training in industry.
16 CHAPTER 2
2 THEORETICAL STUDY
2.1 Introduction
During the initial research it was observed that very little has been written about the training and education in the South African explosives industry. Some work has been done by Wallace, Akhavan and others (Wallace et al., 2006) and Akhavan (2005), on the development of the explosives training in Europe. Although this work is relevant, it is not applicable to the South African training educational environment.
It was necessary to follow a different approach. The remainder of this chapter will be dedicated to describing the aspects and functionalities that were required to conduct the research. This chapter will thus describe the context and environment in which the research was conducted, as well as to orientate the reader to understand the context of the research and the results that will be reported.
Considering the term “explosives engineer”, there are concepts which should be considered. The first that comes to mind is what the meaning of the term is. Once this has been determined, the attributes that this discipline requires should be considered. It is important to not only consider the educational program required to qualify explosives engineers, but also the sustainability of such a program.
It was required that the trends in the growth of the SA Explosives Industry, which includes both the commercial and military industries, be measured and compared to the other international explosives industries. To be able to interface with the international community, the SA Explosives industry must work from a basis that is recognised and understood by the international community. Two aspects that have a significant influence, are the terminology and the standards, with specific reference to the standards of training.
17 2.2 Orientation on explosives
The aim of this explanation is to orientate the reader in the classification of explosives used in the market. The explanation is not intended to educate the reader in the technical and scientific details of explosives, but to create a basic understanding of the differences in the characteristics of explosives, and how they are classified.
2.2.1 What is an explosive?
Broadly defined and adapted from Meyer et al. (2007:131), an “explosive” is a substance that contains its own fuel and oxidiser, which will react to produce a large amount of energy in the form of gas, heat and noise, when suitably ignited. The substance can be a homogeneous substance or a mixture of two or more substances. The decomposition rate, or reaction rate, of the explosion reaction is normally very fast - in the region of thousands of meters per second.
2.2.2 Classification of explosives
Explosions are classified in three main categories, namely chemical explosions caused by explosives substances, physical explosions (rupture of a steam vessel) and nuclear explosions, as shown in Figure 2.1. This document will only consider explosions caused by an explosives chemical substance.
Figure 2.1 is the authors own visual presentation of the classification of explosives which is an adaption of Akhavan (2008:25) and Meyer et al. (2007). Explosives are categorised in two main categories, being High explosives (HE) and Low Explosives (LE).
2.2.2.1 High Explosives (HE)
High Explosives are the workhorse of the mining industry and the military explosives. An explosive substance is classified as a high explosive when its decomposition reaction rate exceeds the speed of sound in that substance. The reaction is known as a detonation
18 reaction. According to Fickett and Davis (2000:1) detonation is normally associated with a shock wave (detonation wave) which breaks the chemical structure of the explosives. The subsequent decomposition of the explosives causes large amounts of gas, heat and noise to be released very rapidly. This effect is commonly referred to as the explosive blast.
High explosives are categorised as primary high explosives, secondary high explosives and tertiary high explosives. Primary high explosives are sensitive to specific stimuli such as heat, friction, impact, etc and will detonate upon being exposed to the stimuli (Meyer et al., 2007: 265; Akhavan, 2008:24). It is manufactured in small quantities and handled with extreme care. It is normally used as ignition systems for secondary and tertiary high explosives. Secondary high explosives are the workhorse of the explosives industry. It is less sensitive than primary high explosives. It can be moulded, pressed and worked with ease (Meyer et al., 2007: 277; Akhavan, 2008:26). Finally, according to Meyer et al. (2007: 277) tertiary high explosives are insensitive high explosives that require substantial stimuli to detonate; examples are ammonium nitrate and ammonium perchlorate.
2.2.2.2 Low explosives (LE)
Low explosives are mainly propellants, pyrotechnics and gunpowder (Akhavan, 2008:27). As mentioned above, a low explosive burns or deflagrates to produce gas and heat to do the work; for example, propel a projectile down a barrel, or a rocket motor for propelling a vehicle into space.
Pyrotechnics are low explosives which are designed to produce a specific effect, for example, a delayed element, coloured smoke, and fireworks, amongst others (Akhavan, 2008:157).
Low explosives are characterised by deflagration or a burning reaction that takes place on the surface of the substance after ignition by a heat source. Although the products of a low explosive can also produce large volumes of gas, heat and noise, the speed of the decomposition reaction is relatively slow, for instance less than the speed of sound in that medium.
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Figure 2.1 The classification of groups of explosives.
Source: Authors own adaption from Akhavan (2008:25)
2.2.3 Commercial and military high explosives
High explosives are broadly classified as commercial high explosives or military high explosives. Commercial high explosives tend to have a lower velocity of detonation, and are designed to generate large volumes of gas, in order to give a heaving effect in the rock. Military high explosives have high velocities of detonation, which have a larger shattering effect. Military high explosives are more expensive than commercial high explosives, and are designed to have a much longer shelf life than commercial explosives. Chemically, the main difference between military and commercial explosives is that the military explosives are a homogeneous explosive, where the oxygen and the fuel form an integral part of the molecule. With commercial high explosives the oxidiser and fuel are contained in two
20 different particles which are mixed together; an example is ammonium nitrate salt and fuel oil commonly referred to as ANFO (Akhavan, 2008:141).
2.3 Description of the SA explosives industrial landscape
The South African explosives market consists of various elements that will be described hereafter. The elements described are working with explosives, or have a direct role to play in the explosives industry. The aim is not to list every company or organisation, but to describe the industry so as to get a grasp of the size of the industry, as this industry will be the feeding grounds of future explosives qualifications.
2.3.1 Explosives manufacturing
The first to analyse are the manufacturers of explosives and explosive filled products. The explosives manufacturers are divided into two main categories, namely commercial explosives manufacturers and military explosives and ammunition manufacturers. There are four main commercial explosives manufacturers and two military explosives manufactures according to Coutinho (2013) and Ramabulana (2013). The four commercial explosives manufactures in alphabetical order, are AEL MS, BME Omnia, Maxam Dantex and Sasol Mining Services. Ramabulana (2013) mentioned that there are also a number of smaller producers of explosive components and products, serving niche markets, such as Eco Break, Green Break Technologies and Nxco, to name a few.
The military manufacturers are Rheinmetall Denel Munitions, PMP, Fuchs Electronics and Denel Dynamics. These companies either produce explosives or integrate explosives into ammunition components.
It is important to note that not all bulk explosives are manufactured in South Africa. Although there are explosives manufacturing plants that produce Ammonium Nitrate (AN), PETN and RDX, other explosives such as TNT are imported due to market conditions.
21 Commercial pyrotechnics for fireworks displays are imported by specialist companies. Smith (2013) reported that there are approximately 13,000 fireworks dealers registered in South Africa.
2.3.2 Users of explosives
The users of explosives range from the occasional hunter, the motor vehicle industry, the aviation industry and individuals using fireworks, to the mining and military industries. The two main users can be classified as being the Government and the commercial industry.
The Governmental users are the SANDF and the security forces, such as the SAPS and Correctional services according to Smith (2013). With the exception of the SAPS, the remainder of the security services and Governmental departments use small arms ammunition. These departments will not be considered further in this study due to the insignificant volumes of ammunition and explosives used.
Although the SANDF is structured across four Arms of Services and the Special Forces component, only the SA Army, SA Air Force, SA Navy and Special Forces are users of ammunition and explosives. According to Cronje (2013) and Steyn (2013) the SANDF has elaborate ammunition and explosives support structures that are staffed by well trained and competent personnel. The SANDF plays an important role in the SA explosives industry as a user and driver of technology. According to Apollis (2013) the School of Ammunition is the chief ammunition and explosives training facility, situated at De Aar in the Northern Cape Province, followed by the SA Engineering Core’s School of Engineering situated in Kroonstad (Manser, 2013).
The majority of SAPS members carry side arms and make use of small arms ammunition and pyrotechnics. The SAPS has two distinctive roles related to explosives: firstly as a user of ammunition, and secondly as a regulatory enforcer of the law. According to Smith (2013) the users of ammunition and explosives in the SAPS Bomb Disposal teams require an in- depth knowledge of ammunition and explosives. The SAPS Special task force is a highly trained unit that employs explosives to execute their functions. The SAPS forensic unit
22 requires in-depth knowledge of ammunition and explosives as to successfully conduct forensic investigations. Smith (2013) reports that all explosives related training of the SAPS, is done centrally by the explosives section under the Forensic Services.
The SA mining industry is the largest consumer of explosives in South Africa. Distinction is made between the use of explosives for underground mining, and that used for surface mining, due to the differences in mining techniques. There is an important difference between the explosives used in fiery mines, such as coal mines, and non-fiery mines, like gold or platinum mines, due to the risk of secondary explosions caused by gas captured in the minerals being mined.
The Department of Mineral Resources has 1,704 mining licenses registered at the department in 2013 (DMR, 2013). It is estimated that approximately 23%, equating to 384, of these mining license holders use explosives for their daily mining operations. The mining licenses vary from gold and chrome mining operations, to salt and sand mining as well as surface processing plants. The reason for the inaccuracy of the figure of (23%) is the following:
It was not possible to determine which coal mines make exclusive use of continuous mining techniques. It was also assumed that all shale, brick making clay, dimension stone, feldspar, fire clay and gypsum, salt, silica sand and aggregate mines as well as alluvial diamond mines do not make use of explosives on a continuous basis for their mining operations. A total amount of 77 surface works processing plants also hold mining licenses but do not use any explosives in their operations.
Smith (2013) mentions that production volumes in the manufacturing of detonators are estimated to be in excess of 2 million detonators per day. This need is driven by the introduction of shock tube initiating systems that replaced old capped fuse initiating systems used in the mines.
The blasting firms that work in the construction industry are also considered as a user of explosives during the study. The users of explosives are numerous. Smith (2013) reports
23 that the registered amount of users of high explosives in South Africa exceed 22,000 in number.
2.3.3 Construction and commercial industries
The last group of explosives users in South Africa is the construction blasting firms, that number in excess of 22,000, according to Smith (2013). Their usages of explosives are twofold, firstly for construction blasting, such as cutting of mountain passes, and secondly for demolition of civil structures, which is a specialised field in the demolition industry.
The motor vehicle industry installs air bags in vehicles. The air bags are explosives gas generation units which are imported from foreign manufacturers and fitted to vehicles in the RSA. Because these industries import the units and fit it, they will be grouped with the pyrotechnicians and fireworks importers and sellers, who mainly trade with the products. According to van Staaden (2013b) the fireworks dealers number in the region of 13,000 dealers, with a further 1,000 users of blank cartridges, and 25 companies registered to use gunpowder.
2.3.4 Regulatory and enforcement agencies
According to van Staaden (2103b), the SAPS’s Chief Inspector of Explosives (CIE) is the regulatory enforcing body, which controls the movement and storage above ground and usage of explosives in the commercial explosives industry, in accordance with the regulation. Their conduct is governed by the Explosives Act (No. 15 of 2003) and its regulations.
The enforcement of the Explosives Regulations to the Occupational Health and Safety Act (No. 85 of 1993), is the duty of the Department of Labour (DOL), that regulates the manufacturing of explosives and ammunition in South Africa. Ramabulana (2013) states that the DOL as a regulatory function, has unique training needs.
24 The Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) is the custodian of the Mining Act and the mining safety regulations contained in the Mine Health and Safety Act (No. 29 of 1996). These regulations govern the storage, handling, use and destruction of explosives in the mines (Coutinho, 2013).
2.3.5 Test facilities
All explosives manufacturers have their own test facilities at the manufacturing sites. The test facilities mentioned here are facilities that specialise only in the testing of explosives, ammunition, weapons or systems. The three main test ranges of ammunition and explosives are owned by Armscor (Alkantpan Test Range), Denel (Overberg Test Range,) CSIR (PDS test facility) at the Paardefontein range, and DMR test facility (Kloppersbos) that conducts safety tests in fiery mines.
Van Vuuren, (2013) reports that explosives are used and tested on these ranges and that the range’s management and personnel must have knowledge of the use, danger and regulation pertaining to explosives. The test ranges facilitate the execution of tests and trials. The user of the ranges is responsible for the test design. The user, assisted by the specialists from the test range, conducts the trials. The test facility takes the various measurements and records the data. The data are then provided to the user for further analysis.
It must be noted that the majority of manufacturers of explosives and ammunition have their own production related testing- and destruction facilities on site. These facilities are used for quality control purposes during the production processes as well as product development and optimisation.
2.3.6 Transportation and packaging
The majority of the explosives manufacturers have the capability to transport explosives. However, there are companies that specialise in the packaging and transportation of dangerous goods, with specific reference to explosives. Furthermore, there are companies
25 that conduct testing and qualification of ammunition and explosives packaging to ensure that it complies with the IMDG code, according to Van Vuuren (2013).
2.3.7 The training and educational institutions
The institutions that provide ammunition-, explosives-, and related training and education, are listed below.
2.3.7.1 University of South Africa (UNISA)
The School of Management at UNISA presents a National Diploma and a BTech Degree in Explosives Management, as well as various short learning programs, which can articulate into qualifications in explosives management at the Centre for Blended Learning, under the custodianship of the School of Management, according to Schenk et al. (2013). According to de Beer et al. (2005:123) the UNISA programmes combine the explosives sciences with operational management. The aim of the programmes is to provide the African sector with sufficient technological and managerial knowledge to make safe technical and managerial decisions in the explosives work related environment.
2.3.7.2 Other universities
Degrees in mining engineering and applied sciences are presented at the University of Pretoria, (De Graaf, 2013), the University of the Witwatersrand and the University of Johannesburg (Prout, 2013). All these qualifications encompass a single module on mining explosives or blast design, with the exception of the University of Pretoria who present a subject in explosives engineering. According to De Graaf (2013) the subjects are structured to focus on mining activities such as drilling and blasting operations, and limited explosives specific work is covered.
26 2.3.7.3 BISRU
The BISRU is an institute at the University of Cape Town that does post graduate research in the field of blast protection and the response of structure to blast loading (Nurick, 2013). The unit can fire small scale charges in their research facilities.
2.3.7.4 SANDF, Explosives training facilities
The SANDF have various facilities where the soldiers are trained in the use and maintenance of explosives. According to Apollis (2013), the School of Ammunition presents explosives, ammunition and related training to the SANDF and security forces’ personnel. The majority of military ammunition technical specialists are trained at this school. The School of Ammunition is in the process of accrediting their training courses. This school presents the foundation courses applicable to ammunition and explosives. Furthermore, specialised training in underwater demolitions is done at the SA Navy Diving School in Simon's Town according to Steyn (2013b), and at the School of Engineers situated in Kroonstad (Manser, 2013). The South African Special Forces have their own training institutions where demolition training, amongst others, is presented.
2.3.7.5 SAPS Explosives training section
This section of the SAPS trains all the explosives function for the SAPS, for example the Bomb Disposal squad, Explosives Inspectors, Crime scene investigators and the Special Task Force to name a few (Smith, 2013). The SAPS explosives training section is situated in Pretoria but uses various facilities throughout the country to present the training.
2.3.7.6 Mechem
According to Taljaard (2013), Mechem is a Denel affiliate which specialises in the construction of landmine protected vehicles, demining and the clearance of explosive remnants. Mechem presents accredited training to any person involved in mine clearance, EOD, explosives detection dog training, and other related training.
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2.3.7.7 Rheinmetall Denel Munition – Ordnance Training Centre
The Ordnance Training Centre (OTC) at RDM presents explosives and ammunition training to foreign trainees. The OTC is situated at the RDM Boskop site in Potchefstroom. The OTC is co-located on the ammunition manufacturing facility. This allows them to provide high quality theoretical training in the explosives and ammunition disciplines on various subjects, supported by practical training in the plants and on the test ranges available at the RDM facilities, which are located at Boskop, Somerset West, Wellington and Boksburg.
2.3.7.8 Explosives manufacturers training services
Explosives manufacturers provide training for their own personnel in the manufacturing of explosives. Tose (2013) reports that AEL MS presents an orientation program for middle management, an explosives handler’s course, and an internal explosives engineering course, with the duration of approximately one month. AEL MS offers some of the modules of the explosives engineering course to external clients.
According to Schalkwyk (2013), BME also provides accredited training to their own personnel.
2.3.7.9 Other training providers and consultants
According to MQA (2013) there are 129 registered training providers at the DMR, of which at least 48 are registered to provide at least one course in the mining training sector that involves training in the use of explosives in mines.
A comment on “blaster” trainee programs: There are no formal tertiary training courses available that will qualify an aspirant commercial blaster as a blaster. The training for blasters is prescribed in the Explosives Act. The summarised process according to van Staaden (2013a) is that a trainee blaster must first register at the SAPS, where the candidate writes an exam. After having passed the exam, the candidate has to work a
28 number of shifts under a qualified blaster. Hereafter the candidate is evaluated by the SAPS and certified competent, if considered so by the SAPS.
2.3.8 Governmental institutions with and explosive interface
2.3.8.1 Armscor
Armscor is the acquisition agency of the SANDF. Its mission is to meet the acquisition, maintenance and disposal needs for defence material of the South African Department of Defence (Armscor: 2013). Armscor has specialist divisions under the name of Armscor Defence Institutes, which are involved with research and development, shipping and support of ammunition and explosives, equipment disposal and other functions, on behalf of the SANDF.
2.3.8.2 CSIR DPS
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) have various units that conduct research. It is reported by Engels and Lotter (2013) that the Landwards research group (DPS) does research for military purposes, where various highly respected explosives researchers work on a variety of projects. The Paardefontein test facilities are managed and used by DPS for various explosives related research tasks.
2.3.9 Explosives support service providers
The industry requires the capability to monitor the effects of blasting operations, as well as the design of blasting operations to ensure compliance with the law and avoid expensive lawsuits. There are a number of companies that provide services from blast design to environmental monitoring services.
There are various other consultants and service providers, of which Blast Management & Consulting, Du Preez Munition Services and Detnet are but three examples of specialists and businesses that have niche skills, serving specific sectors in the industry.
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2.3.10 Interdisciplinary organisations
2.3.10.1 NIXT
The National Institute of Explosives Technology is an organisation with the aim to foster the interests of the commercial-, arms manufacturing-, military-, mining-, structural engineering- and educational sectors as well as other organisations related to the South African explosives and related industries (NIXT, 2010). Membership to the organisation is voluntary, but the organisation has proven since its inception in the 1980s that it adds value to the South African explosives industry, by serving as a communication forum for like- minded subject matter experts.
The National Institute of Explosives Technology (NIXT, 2013) is a non-profit organisation with the mission “To further the cause of the explosives industry in general, and its members in particular” (NIXT, 2013). One of the various aims of NIXT is to “assist with training actions”. The membership of NIXT is across the company as well as the commercial and military sectors, according to Tough (2013). NIXT provides access for its members to the international blasting organisations such as SAFEX.
NIXT established an advisory forum for training, to advise the industry on mechanisms and solutions to breach the gap in explosives and related training. The forum consists of representatives of industry, military and the Government.
2.3.10.2 SABO
The South African Ballistics Organisation (SABO) is a non-profit organisation with the aim to promote the interest of ballistics and the ballistic sciences in South Africa. As with NIXT, the membership is open to ballisticians and companies interested in ballistics, and thus not limited to a specific company. Van Niekerk (2013b) reported that SABO also enables access for its members to the International Ballistics Organisation and international conferences.
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2.3.10.3 Chamber of Mines
The Chamber of Mines plays a pivotal role in the structure and policies of the mines. Kruger (2013) reports that the Chamber of Mines is a lobbying organisation that seeks to promote the interests of its members through interaction with the role-players in industry and in Government.
2.4 Size of the explosives market
The two industries in the world that use the most explosives are the military and commercial/mining industries. Other industries such as the entertainment industry, vehicle industry, construction industry and space industry, to name but a few, also use explosives. However, in volume terms their usage is low.
It is difficult to find metrics that accurately report the annual consumption of explosives globally, or in South Africa. No production data of the quantities of military explosives or ammunition could be found. However, an order estimate on the relative size of the military explosives industry in relation to a sector of the commercial explosives industry, is done below.
Considering the 1991 Iraqi War, an estimated amount of 84,200 tons of bombs were dropped, and a further 120,000 tons of ammunition were used by the coalition forces over a period of 43 days (Sadiq & Mc Cain, 1993:75). Based on the characteristics, a fair estimate of the explosives weight as a percentage of an aircraft bomb’s weight is that it makes up approximately 50% of the bomb’s weight. This implies that an estimated 42,100 tons of explosives were deployed by aircraft. Applying the same ratio (although landward and naval ammunition have different explosives weight to ammunition weight ratios, the 50% ratio was chosen to demonstrate the point) to the rest of the ammunition, a further 60,000 tons of explosives were deployed during the conflict. This summates to a total of 102,100 tons of military explosives used during only this one intensive conflict.
31 During the Second World War an amount of 3.4 million tons of bombs were dropped by the allied forces for the entire war. Applying the 50% explosives to bomb weight ratio this equates to 1.7 million tons of explosives (Factmonsters, 2103).
In comparison to the commercial mining industry, 2 570 000 metric tons of commercial explosives were used in mines in the United States of America alone in the year 2000 (US Bureau of Mines, 2001:15).
Resultantly, it is clear from the comparison that the world’s commercial explosives industry is considerably larger than the military explosives industry. This is an important fact when considering the market and hence the production of explosives volumes.
2.5 Market growth in the global commercial explosives industry
The EU issued a Council Directive (93/15/EEC) in 1993, with the aim to regulate the civil explosives market in the EU (GHK Technopolis, 2007:5). The directive’s purpose is to develop a single market in explosives in Europe and enhance the security in the industry. The purpose of the report has little application to this study, however, the following facts are applicable: GHK Technopolis (2007:6) as well as Wallace et al. (2006:1) and Akhavan (2005) report that there have been a series of incidents at explosives factories leading to fatalities. Interestingly, the majority of them have been caused by either human error or plant equipment failures.
GHK Technopolis (2007:15) reports that the consumption of commercial explosives in the US has been 68% by the coal mines, quarrying and non-metals 13%, with metal mining 8%, construction 8%, while other industrial use has been 3%. GHK Technopolis (2007:16) states that in 2001 the continent of North America consumed 2.5 million tonnes of explosives. This is 39% of the world’s consumption. Africa consumed 9% of the world’s use and Europe 8%, equating to 524,000 tonnes in the same year. It must be noted that the confidence in any of the explosives production data are low due to the scarcity of accurate data on explosives production volumes.
32 IHS (2009) reports the following figures for 2008, based on data from the US Geological Surveys. The largest consumers of commercial explosives are the United States (31% of total), Socialist Asia (20%, with the majority of consumption accounted for by China), the Commonwealth of Independent States (14%), and Central and South America (9%). The largest growth potential is located in China, Southeast Asia, and Central and South America. Figure 2.2 shows the world’s consumption of explosives for 2008 (IHS, 2009). It is important to note that Europe’s gained market share over Africa, compared to the 2001 data. CIS is the acronym for the Commonwealth of Independent States which formed after the former USSR has dissolved.
Figure 2.2 The world’s consumption of commercial explosives for 2008.
Source: IHS chemical IHS (2009) continues that coal mining remains the largest consuming sector for commercial explosives by far, accounting for approximately 52% of the global consumption. Coal mining is followed by metal mining, which accounts for 29% of the global consumption. The article does not report the total quantity of explosives used in 2009.
33 2.6 Market growth in the SA commercial explosives industry
Considering the South African commercial explosives industry, AEL MS, has experienced increased revenues at 15% and volumes at 5% (AECI, 2013:6). This growth was attained mainly from businesses outside South Africa. The company further reports positive growth from the coal and open pit mining operations and a slump in the gold and platinum mining operations, mainly due to the mining strikes in this sector in the last part of 2012.
AEL MS has built an ammonium nitrate plant in Indonesia, and rejuvenated its initiating system plants with new technology to produce 90 million detonators and 24 million shock tube assemblies (AECI, 2013:6).
During the opening address of the 21st Annual BME Conference held on 7 November 2014 at the CSIR conference centre in Pretoria, the CEO, Mr François Hay, has reported that BME is growing and expanding its operations into Africa. He mentioned that the newly built nitric acid plant has increased its production capacity by 700 tons, and that a new explosives plant is being constructed in Dryden, Mpumalanga.
Sasol Nitro reports a total production volume of 1,278 metric tons for the year 2011 (SASOL, 2011). This is the combined production volumes for fertiliser and explosives products. They continue to report a growth in sales volumes. Sasol Nitro is expanding their business into Africa, having recently commissioned a third detonator manufacturing plant and installing a new production unit to manufacture packaged water-gel explosives (SASOL, 2012a:113).
There is solid growth in the local explosives manufacturing market. All the explosives manufacturing companies are expanding operations into Africa and globally. This expansion can be used as an indicator of the demand for competent technical explosives personnel.
34 2.7 The global mining industry
Alink (2012:3), supported by Deloitte & Touch (2012:3), state that there is a global slowdown in the mining industry, but a healthy demand for natural resources in India and China. Africa is seen as a growth point to satisfy this demand. Esterhuizen (2013), quoting Hein Boegman from PWC, confirms that the trend of slower growth in the international mining arena, has been expected to last for the remainder of 2013, with higher growth prospects expected from 2014 onwards.
According to Deloitte & Touch (2012:14), one of the reasons for the turmoil in the international mining sector is a shortage of skilled manpower. This manpower gap is widening due to insufficient trained personnel entering the market. Deloitte & Touch continues to state that technology is utilised to try and cope with the shortage of manpower. However, this technology places a high demand on highly skilled personnel, who will compel the mining sector to cooperate with universities to try and satisfy the demand.
It is further observed that safety concerns are mounting, as miners move to more remote locations, go deeper underground and try new exploration methods (Deloitte & Touch, 2012:23). These challenges are one of the drivers of new technology.
Alink (2012:3) supported by Esterhuizen (3013), attribute that the decline in performance of South African mines is due to the continuing labour unrest. They reported that investors are looking at mines elsewhere in Africa to invest in due to this risk. The divestment in the SA mines is expected to have a negative impact on the volumes of commercial explosives used locally, but will have a positive impact on the rest of the African volumes consumed.
It is not all negative. The Chamber of Mines (2012:4) reports that Africa’s spending maintains fourth place in the mining exploration with a spending of 15% of the total global budget. During 2011, South Africa was the top spender in Africa, followed by the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Although the exact figures have not been reported, this
35 serves as a positive indicator for future development that will have a knock-on effect on the explosives industry.
2.8 Sustainability
Training institutions in South Africa are compelled to be run as businesses. There must be financial benefit to establishing a non-existing educational program in the long run. Establishing an engineering or similar qualification is important, but the long-term sustainability of such an educational program is the key success factor here.
There is limited information available about the medium- or long-term requirements of an explosives engineering qualification program. Due to the scarcity of information, it is argued that the growth in the explosives industry, driven by the growth in the consumption of explosives, could be an indicator of the sustained requirement for an explosives engineering qualification. The literature indicates that there is growth in the explosives manufacturing industry in South Africa as well as in Africa. This growth could also be used as an indicator towards the sustainability of an explosives engineering qualification.
It has further been debated that the growth is due to a combination of two factors, namely the increase in explosives volumes consumed, and/or the impact of the development of technology. There may be other factors that will have an impact on the growth in mining volumes, which have not been considered in this research.
The replacement of the capped fuse initiation system with a shock tube and electronic detonator, is an example of how technology has changed the explosives landscape according to Steyn, A (2103), Tose (2013) and Schalkwyk (2013). The improvement in the timing accuracy of initiation systems, calls for a demand for sophisticated blast design software products. The electronic and software engineers who design these ignition systems have to be educated in the science of explosives. This is an example of how technology impacts on the explosives industry and can be used as an indicator of the demand for explosives related education.
36 2.9 Growth in the SA mining sector
Statistics SA (2013:3) reports for June 2013, a year on year decrease in mining production volumes of 6.2%. The main contributors were the PGM contribution at -4.6% and gold at - 2.3%. Iron ore had the largest positive contribution of +2%. In Figure 2.3, the mining volume index shows a downward trend in the production volumes.
Figure 2.3 Production volume of SA mines
(Base: 2010=100) Source: Statistics SA (2013:4)
There is a direct relationship between the production volumes of mines and the consumption of explosives. However, this relationship is difficult to quantify due to the different mining technologies and mining methods employed in the different sectors - coal can be mined using continuous mining techniques as well as the traditional drill and blast methods. The downward trend in mining production volumes implies that there could be a proportional decrease in the demand for explosives.
It would be premature to assume that the SA Explosives industry is following the slight downward trend of the SA mining industry. In the personal interviews with Speteri (2013), 37 Steyn (2013a), Els (2013), Tose (2013) and Schalkwyk (2013), it have been reported that the African mining market is growing, especially the West African markets. The SA explosives companies are expanding into Africa. This expansion will not only increase the demand for explosives but also create an increased demand for explosives specialists. It is not in the scope of this research to further investigate and analyse the African demand.
Finally it can be concluded that due to the expansion of the African mining market, the growth of volumes can be anticipated. The growth in volumes implies that more personnel will be required in the production and distribution of the explosives as well as additional intellectual capital to be distributed into the African market.
2.10 Technology management model
One of the primary roles of universities is to do research. As the development of technology will be used as an indicator for the sustainability of an explosives engineering qualification, the introduction of a technology management model can serve as a framework to put the development of technology in the explosives industry in perspective.
Considering the efficacy of the South African technology policies, Visser (2000:2) draws a parallel between technology and intellectual capital. Visser also summarises the definitions of technology as the following: “technology is foremost a human capability that has the purpose to manipulate artefacts”.
A definition for the management of technology according to Price as quoted by Visser (2000:2), is “Management of technology links science, marketing, operations, human resources, and other management disciplines to formulate strategy, develop technological capabilities, and use them to achieve strategic objectives”.
From the reasoning above, it is concluded that due to the direct correlation between technology and intellectual capital, the development of people through education and training is a key concept for the development of technology.
38 He continues to develop a model, originally proposed by Grobbelaar, for the management of technology which is shown in Figure 2.4 below. Visser (2000:3) describes the model as the management of technology that consist of two major domains, namely the strategic trajectory and the operational trajectory, which have to operate in the contextual environment. A brief discussion of the elements follows below. These elements are interrelated in the understanding and purpose of the interplay between them providing coherence in the model.
Figure 2.4 Visser’s Management of Technology Model
Source: Adapted from of original proposed by Grobbelaar as cited in Visser (2000:4)
39 2.10.1 Critical systems exploration
According to Visser (2000:3), at a strategic level, managers have to effectively appreciate and criticise the normative contents of strategic planning by reflective problem solving, to contribute to the exploration, discovering and unfolding of strategically important problem areas. This is necessary to avoid that problem areas may go unnoticed due to rapid change, complexity and the contextual environment. Critical systems exploration is used for the development of conceptual approaches at the strategic level of the management of technology that should lead to the successful development of technological aspirations.
2.10.2 Visionary technological aspirations
The statement of the agreed upon strategic technological aspirations of the organisation, presents the visionary future in terms of technological intent. Focusing on the SA explosives industry, this vision should serve as a futuristic guide for activities, including the role that education and research must play.
2.10.3 Insight and imagination synergistic with competitive strategies
According to Visser (2000:4), the strategic visionary technological aspirations need to develop to a level where the specific technological stratagems have emerged as a result of human insight and imagination. Concerned with the organisation’s competitive strategies and technological capabilities, this will lead to product development and a product portfolio.
2.10.4 Technological Algorithms
The operational counterpart of critical systems exploration is the understanding of the management of technology and technological algorithms (Visser, 2000:3). At the operational level, it is embodied in product, process and information technologies and leads to the availability of technological competencies that can be practically exploited in products and processes.
40 2.10.5 Core technological competencies
An organisation’s core technological competencies are, in terms of product and process technologies, those inclusive of human competencies in the field of technological knowledge, skills, behaviour and experience, that could provide a competitive and sustained advantage (Visser, 2000:4).
2.10.6 Technological capabilities to compete
The strategic decisions give impetus at organisational level to utilise the technological capabilities of the organisation to produce material artefacts that are the organisation’s product and will lead to a product portfolio (Visser, 2000:4).
2.10.7 Decision support and planning tools
Visser (2000:4) continues that the forgoing discussion of the components of the model indicates that there is a strong interdependence between them. This interdependence should be developed and understood by using the various tools described in the literature.
2.10.8 Environment
The model also indicates that the management of technology happens within the context of the organisation’s external and internal environmental imperatives that shape both the strategic and organisational trajectories.
2.10.9 Product development and product portfolio
The strategic and operational trajectories culminate in the development or procurement of products and systems. The development of the products and systems should also expand the intellectual capital of the organisation and industry.
41 It is concluded that the management of technology model, described by Visser, is well suited to be applied to the future structure of explosives training and education. Parallels are drawn between the strategic trajectory and a graduate and post graduate qualification in explosives engineering or explosives sciences. Similarly is the operational trajectory compared to the characteristics of an engineering degree and a diploma in explosives engineering or explosives sciences.
2.11 International training structures
2.11.1 European Union
In the UK as well as the rest of the EU, the explosives industry came to realise that the workforce is ageing and that there are insufficient new entrants to replace the ageing workforce timeously. Wallace et al. (2006:1) supported by Akhavan (2005) state that the UK and the EU realised the problem and through the Leonardo Da Vinci Program set an action plan in place which is briefly described below.
The program called “EUExcert” is aimed at replenishing explosives expertise. This will be achieved through vocational training and education across the EU with the aim to set up an European qualifications framework in order to award European certificates to workers in the explosives industry.
The key aims of EUExcert are (Akhavan, 2005):
• Identify the competencies required to sustain a safe and competitive explosives industry in the EU; • Establish the current and future needs for these competencies in the EU; • Develop training and educational programs designed to develop this range of competencies; • Develop a range of novel education and training packages that form part of the program;
42 • Develop explosives qualifications which will be recognized and accepted across Europe; • Reverse the decline in expertise, knowledge and skills in European explosives business.
The leaders of the program approached the United Kingdom’s council for Science, Engineering and Manufacturing Technologies (SEMTA), in order to develop National Occupational Standards (NOS) for military personnel engaged in explosives search and clearance activities. SEMTA established a Standards Setting Body (SSB) to develop occupational standards. The standards define the knowledge and skills required to be competent in any one of the occupations.
Table 2.1: Thirteen key roles for workers in the explosives sector. Key Role of the explosives sector in the United Kingdom 1 Research, design and develop explosive substances and articles 2 Develop and manage explosives safety 3 Test and evaluate explosive substances and articles in field trials 4 Manufacture explosive substances and articles 5 Maintain and repair explosive substances and articles 6 Procure explosive substances and articles 7 Store and move explosive substances and articles 8 Transport of explosive substances and articles 9 Manage explosive facilities 10 Prepare and use explosive substances and articles for engineering and entertainment purposes 11 Disposal of explosive substances and articles 12 Enable the public and armed services to continue their regular activities in peace and war by controlling and removing munition threats 13 Support the explosive substances and articles function Source: Wallace et al. (2006)
43 According to Clark (2010:2) the key outcomes of the project were, firstly, to compile an Occupational Map which is a descriptive report on main employers and stakeholders, the numbers employed in the various sub-sectors, career progression and development for selected job roles which is listed in Table 2.1, key trends and drivers for change within the sector and key characteristics of employment in the sector. The second was a Functional Map which describes the explosives specific functions carried out in the explosives industry concerned. Thirdly, approximately 450 National Operating Standards (NOS), which measure an individual’s performance, descriptions of performance and competence, and the minimum knowledge and understanding required to fulfil the performance criteria, have been documented. Finally, National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) designs were defined from the various NOS’s for the explosives workers. A total of 35 NVQ designs defining key roles have been compiled utilising the +450 NOS.
Table 2.2 shows the principal employment organisations in the UK (Wallace et al., 2006:3). It was found after the plotting of various role-players from the South African explosives industry in a mind map, that there are similarities between the South African industry and the UK industry, as listed in Table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Types of explosives substances and articles (ESA) organisations in the United Kingdom Commercial Industries Public Organisations Military Special effects & fireworks Transport & logistics Royal Air Force Quarrying, mining, demolition & Police construction Fire prevention & fire fighting Royal Navy Oil & gas escape mechanisms MoD Seismology Training & education Army Motor industry Research, testing & disposal Defence manufacturing Source: Wallace et al. (2006)
44 2.11.2 EUExcert
EUExcert aims to establish a training and education program aimed at restoring and maintaining the competence of workers engaged in the European explosives business. The program places emphasis on improving the quality of the educational material and improving access to training through the use of workplace and e-learning. Improvement in competence and skills will enhance the status of explosives workers, improve worker and public safety, and improve European industrial competitiveness though greater worker mobility and the ability to react rapidly to a fast changing economic- and industrial environment.
According to EUExcert (2013a) the overall goal for the EUExcert project is that through certifying professional knowledge in the explosives industry it will: • Ensure necessary expertise in the profession; • Increase the status and mobility through a certification system based on the internationally recognised UK Professional Standards and ECVET principles; • Bring together industry expertise to develop appropriate control systems in safety and risk assessments; • Underpin European competitiveness in the explosives industry built on safety, security and knowledge.
The EUExcert partner countries are the UK, Sweden, Finland, Italy, Germany, Czech Republic, Estonia, Portugal and Lithuania.
2.11.3 International providers of explosives related education
There are various universities that present degrees in mining engineering. Blasting is covered in most of the curricula of these universities. However, there are only a few universities and schools which present courses or degrees in explosives, whether military or commercially orientated programs. According to NPS (2013), the Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey Bay in the United States of America presents courses in physics, with
45 a research group in Energetic Materials and Explosives Research, and Physics of Explosives.
Cranfield University offers full-time, part-time and modular Explosives Ordnance Engineering, MSc/PgDip and Doctoral programs in explosives and munitions (Cranfield University, 2013). Cranfield Defence and Security is a Cranfield School, based at the Ministry of Defence establishment situated at Shrivenham in the UK.
Missouri S&T is an academic institution which offers training and educating in explosives engineering. Current courses include graduate and undergraduate explosives certificates, explosives engineering degrees, and master’s degrees. The programs focuse on the broad industry and cover the use of explosives, propellants and pyrotechnics in different fields including mining, construction, defence, homeland security, demolition, oil recovery, fireworks and special effects, amongst others (Missouri S&T, 2013).
2.12 Department of Higher Education and Training
The Department of Higher Education and Training is a department of the South African Government that oversees universities and other post-secondary education facilities in South Africa.
The Department of Higher Education and Training (2013) mission statement is:
It is the mission of the Department of Higher Education and Training to develop capable, well-educated and skilled citizens that are able to compete in a sustainable, diversified and knowledge-intensive international economy, which meets the developmental goals of our country. The department will undertake this mission by reducing the skills bottlenecks, especially in priority and scarce skills areas; improving low participation rates in the post- school system; correcting distortions in the shape, size and distribution of access to post- school education and training; and improving the quality and efficiency in the system, its sub-systems and its institutions.
46 2.12.1 National Qualification Framework
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) is a framework which provides a vision, a philosophical base, and sets the boundaries, principles, guidelines and an organisational structure, for the construction of a qualifications system and the regulation thereof. The development and implementation of qualifications are carried out within these boundaries. All education and training in South Africa have to fit within the NQF framework.
The objectives of the NQF as outlined in the National Qualifications Framework Act (No. 67 of 2008) are as follows:
• To create a single integrated national framework for learning achievements; • To facilitate access to, and mobility of and progression within education, training and career paths; • To enhance the quality of education and training; • To accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities.
The objectives of the NQF are designed to contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large.
The advancement and recognition of learning as a cornerstone for a free and democratic society is executed through the National Qualification Framework Act (No. 67 of 2008). Article 4 of the Act states that the NQF is a comprehensive system for the classification, registration and articulation of quality assured national qualifications. Chapter 4 of the Act gives substance and authority to the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) that is charged with the execution and development of the NQF. Chapter 5 of the Act describes the quality functions of the different training quality councils, namely Umalusi, the QC council for Further education and Training, the Council for Higher Education and the QC Council for Trades and Occupations (QTCO).
47 The NQF consists of 10 levels divided into three bands: levels 1 to 4 equate to high school grades 9 to 12 or vocational training, levels 5 to 7 are college diplomas and technical qualifications, and 7 to 10 are university degrees. The diploma, degree or post graduate degree in explosives engineering has to be presented at level 6 and above. The short courses should fall typically between levels 5 to 7.
Therefore, any educational program or qualification that is established for the explosives industry must comply with the appropriate councils’ regulations.
2.12.2 SAQA
SAQA is the custodian of the National Qualifications Framework Act no. 67 of 2008 (SAQA 2013a). It is made up of 29 members appointed by the Minister of Education in consultation with the Minister of Labour. The SAQA executive office has ten directorates who are responsible for the management of SAQA. SAQA is mandated by legislation to oversee the development and implementation of NQF, and is charged with the following responsibilities:
• To advance the objectives of the NQF; • To oversee the further development of the NQF; and • To co-ordinate the sub-frameworks.
2.12.3 Council on Higher Education
The Council on Higher Education (CHE) is an independent statutory body established in terms of the Higher Education Act (Act No 101 of 1997), and as amended, it functions as the Quality Council for Higher Education in terms of the National Qualifications Framework Act (Act No 67 0f 2008;CHE, 2013).
The functions of the council are summarised below (CHE, 2013):
48 • Provide advice to the Minister of Higher Education and Training on aspects of higher education policies; • Develop and implement a system of quality assurance for higher education, including program accreditation, institutional audits, quality promotion, capacity development, standards development and the implementation of the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF); • Monitor and report on the state of the higher education system; • Contribute to the development of higher education through intellectual engagement with key national and systemic issues.
The quality assurance function of the CHE is executed by the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC).
The CHE is responsible for the accreditation of public and private higher education institutions' learning programs, leading to qualifications registered with the NQF and by the Department of Higher Education and Training.
Therefore, any qualification for explosives engineering will have to be registered at the Department of Higher Education and Training, and will be subject to the scrutiny of the HEQC.
According to CHE (2013) the HEQC takes various imperatives into account while developing a new program, of which the following two aspects are of importance:
• Partnerships in the higher education provision, which include collaboration between and among institutions on a regional basis, between public and private provider sectors, between universities and universities of technology, between higher education institutions and the business sector, and between institutions across national borders; • Increasing instances of cross-border provision by foreign and South African higher education institutions, as well as the use of new modes of provision.
49 The following points must be emphasised, according to CHE (2013): • Collaboration between the institutions providing related training; • Collaboration between educational providers and industry; • Collaboration between institutions across national borders
CHE’s (2013) position on training standards is that the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) assigns to the CHE the responsibility for developing standards for all higher education qualifications. These qualifications have to meet the criteria of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) for registration with the NQF. The HEQSF has various requirements for educational standards, but the following points are worth mentioning:
• Qualifications must have legitimacy, credibility and a common, well-understood meaning. The standards must provide benchmarks to guide the development, implementation and quality assurance of programs leading to qualifications;
• The CHE will rely to a great extent on academic expertise in the relevant fields or disciplines, since the focus is on the purpose, outcomes and graduate attributes that characterise specific knowledge fields and disciplines.
The HEQSF will have to set the standards for the explosives engineering qualifications. Industry will have to advise the HEQSF on the appropriate standards applicable to the explosives industry.
2.12.4 SETA
The Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA), is a vocational skills training organisation under SAQA. There are 21 different SETAs (SAQA, 2013b). Every SETA is responsible for the management and establishment of unit-based skills programs, learner- ships, and apprenticeships within its sector.
50 The different role-players in the South African explosives industry falls under different SETAs. This implies that there are different training programs registered at various SETAs. There is no single organisation that is responsible for the setting of training standards for the South African explosives industry.
2.12.5 The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
The QCTO was established under the Skills Development Act. The QTCO is a council with a quality function in terms of the act, and is responsible for the development, maintenance and quality assurance of occupational qualifications within its sub-framework.
It has been reported by Smith (2013), that the SAPS intends to have their qualifications accredited by the QTCO and it is reported by Coutinho (2013) that the mining sector is in the process of having the mining qualifications accredited through the QTCO as well.
2.13 Engineering Council of South Africa
Engineering is a regulated activity encompassing initiatives, services and the solution of problems that are of importance to society and the economy (ECSA, 2013a:1). The engineering discipline has five characteristics (ECSA, 2005a:4):
Characteristic 1: It encompasses initiatives, services and the solution of problems that are important to society and the economy.
Characteristic 2: It has one or more of the following activities: (a) exploitation of natural resources; (b) harnessing of energy for useful purposes; (c) use of materials and substances with useful physical or chemical properties; (d) use of machinery and equipment; (e) transfer, storage and processing of information; (f) construction, maintenance, refurbishment and deconstruction of buildings and engineering infrastructure; and
51 (g) organisation and control of systems or processes.
Characteristic 3: Engineering involves one or more of the following functions: (a) design of materials, components, systems, plants or processes; (b) planning the capacity and location of infrastructure; (c) investigating, advising, costing and reporting on engineering problems; (d) improvement or optimisation of materials, components, systems or processes; (e) management of, procurement within or the implementation of engineering projects and the maintenance of engineering infrastructure; (f) implementation of engineering designs and solutions; (g) research, development and commercialisation of projects and products other than those relating to business aspects, such as marketing, branding and sales; (h) management of risks associated with engineering processes, systems, equipment, plants and infrastructure; (i) effective communication with a wide range of stakeholders; and (j) the educating, training and mentoring of engineering personnel, including candidates and students at higher education institutions in programs that have been accredited by ECSA.
Characteristic 4: The engineering discipline divides into the following categories with a brief description of distinctive characteristics between the classifications: (a) Professional Engineer – is associated with activities and problem solving that are described as complex; (b) Professional Engineering Technologist - is associated with activities and problem solving that are described as broadly defined; (c) Professional Certificated Engineer - is associated with activities and problem solving and is described as broadly defined with some specific legal aspects; (d) Professional Engineering Technician - is associated with activities and problem solving and is described as well defined; (e) specific categories identified by ECSA.
52 Characteristic 5: Engineering requires distinctive competencies to perform work associated with a category that includes: (a) investigating and solving engineering problems and designing solutions; (b) applying knowledge and technology based on mathematics, basic sciences and engineering sciences, information technology as well as specialist and contextual knowledge; (c) managing engineering activities and communicating effectively within such activities; (d) addressing the impacts of engineering work, meeting legal, financial and regulatory requirements; and (e) acting ethically, exercising judgment and taking responsibility.
The Engineering Profession Act (46 of 2000) provides the legal framework for the establishment of the Engineering Council for South Africa (ECSA), which must provide for the registration of the engineering profession, the regulation of relationships with the Council for the Built Environment and matters connected herewith.
2.13.1 Explosives engineering
ECSA classifies engineering into eight main engineering disciplines (ECSA, 2005b:13): (a) Mechanical/Aeronautical; (b) Agriculture; (c) Chemical; (d) Civil; (e) Electrical/Electronic; (f) Industrial; (g) Metallurgical; and (h) Mining.
The discipline of explosives engineering is not provided for by ECSA. However, ECSA (2005b:31) makes specific reference to Regulations 5 and 8 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (no. 85 of 1993), where duties of professional engineers are stated in terms of explosives facility designs and explosives environments.
53
Because there is no registered profession such as an Explosives Engineer, this title can be claimed by any person, some of whom are questionable in their competency and training. This creates doubt in the professionalism of the engineers in the explosives industry. Conversely, there are many highly professional people in the explosives industry who conduct the work of an explosives engineer without claiming this title and who should be eligible to claim the title of “professional explosives engineer”.
Coetzee (2013) states that explosives engineers should be afforded professional status, and as such have to be registered with ECSA. He continues to underline the importance of good leadership in a successful explosives industry.
South Africa has a functioning structure that provides substance to the training presented by means of accreditation. The structure is given legal substance via the National Qualifications Framework Act (No. 67 of 2008). However, South Africa is part of the global community. Any future engineering qualification or short course should articulate towards a higher qualification. It will be sensible to ensure that these courses are recognised by the international community.
International accreditation for the South African engineering profession is established via the Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA). ECSA sets the goal for the engineering profession to promote a high level of education and training of engineers to ensure recognition of professionalism in the engineering profession, both locally and abroad (ECSA, 2013a).
2.13.2 International recognition for explosives engineering
Article 13 of the Engineering Profession Act (No. 46 of 2000) describes the powers of ECSA to influence the education and accreditation of SA Engineers. The article describes the duties and powers in terms of accreditation, education and recognition of engineers.
54 South African engineers are recognised by the major western countries that are signatories of three different accords via ECSA (ECSA, 2013b). These accords are the Washington Accord for Engineers, which recognises the substantial equivalency of programs accredited by those bodies, and recommends that graduates of programs be accredited by any of the signatory bodies and be recognised by the other bodies as having met the academic requirements for entry into the practice of engineering; the Sydney Accord, that affords international recognition to Engineering Technologists or Incorporated Engineers; and the Dublin Accord, which affords international recognition to Engineering Technicians.
It would be in the interest of South Africa to assist the engineering Council of South Africa to obtain international recognition for an explosives engineering- or similar qualification. International recognition would not only attract foreign students to attend the educational institutions that present the training, but would also provide benefits as described below.
2.13.3 Benefits of ECSA recognition for explosives engineering
ECSA (2013c) lists the following advantages to having accredited engineers. In the event that the explosives engineering discipline can be registered at ECSA, the advantages listed below can be extended to the explosives engineering fraternity:
• Individual Peer recognition of qualifications and experience;
Public confidence in professional competence;
Eligibility for membership of certain voluntary associations;
International recognition,
• Lifestyle benefits Marketability in the employment market;
Exclusive use of reserved names;
Statutory empowerment.
55 • Employers Confidence in the professionalism of staff;
Recourse in the event of improper conduct;
Marketability of the firm or organisation;
Compliance with statutory requirements.
• Profession Recognition amongst others;
Public recognition of competence and adherence to minimum standards.
• Country Safety, health and interests of society protected;
Preservation of professional standards;
International recognition.
It is recommended that a profession in explosives engineering must be registered at ECSA and that ECSA must ensure international recognition of this engineering discipline.
2.14 South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions
NIXT, according to Cronje (2013), is investigating an alternative mechanism to establish recognition for the explosives technical fraternity via the South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions. The Natural Scientific Professions Act (27 of 2003) makes provision for the professional registrations listed below. Becker (2013:4) reports that the Act states that a person must be registered at the South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions (SACNASP) to practice or perform consultation work in the scientific field: • Certificated Natural Scientist (Cert.Sci.Nat.); • Trainee Certificated Natural Scientist; • Candidate Natural Scientist (Cand.Sci.Nat.); • Professional Natural Scientist (Pr.Sci.Nat.); • Associate Natural Scientist (Assoc.Sci.Nat.) • Trainee Associate Natural Scientist.
56 The functions of the SACNASP, according to Becker (2013:9) are: • To register natural scientists; • To hold the registered persons to a Code of Conduct; • To represent the practitioners of the natural sciences, and to campaign on their behalf; • To ensure maintenance of acceptable standards of training; • To advise the Minister on matters relating to the natural scientific professions; • To ensure safe and responsible practices by registered scientists.
International recognition is possible via the SACNASP, provided that there is an appropriate council abroad in the respective scientific disciplines. Further to this, Becker (2013:6) reports that Explosives Technology is not a registered field of practice at the SACNASP.
2.15 Terminology and standards
The term “Explosives Engineer” is used freely throughout the explosives industry as reported by Speteri (2013) and Tose (2013) and many others. Because the discipline of Explosives Engineering is not a registered professional qualification either at ECSA or as a technologist at SACNASP, anybody can claim this title. Titles such as blasting engineer, blasting technician, explosives technician, and EOD technician, are used in a similar way. The roles, responsibilities, capabilities, and most importantly, the training standards of these titles are poorly defined.
There is no doubt that the South African explosives industry has many competent people that have earned and deserves the title of “explosives engineer”, however there are people claiming it, who neither deserve, nor are qualified, to use this title.
The reason for the indiscriminate claiming of the title is a lack of formal qualifications and a lack of recognition at a statutory council, for example ECSA, and a lack of educational standards for explosives engineering in the explosives industry.
57 Various respondents Speteri (2013), Cronje (2013), Tose (2013), and many others, agreed that there is a need to have a registered profession for explosives practitioners and that there must be standards for the qualification of such practitioners in the South African explosives industry.
2.16 Summary
After a brief explanation of what explosives are and how it is classified, it was concluded that the commercial explosives industry are much larger than the military explosives industry in terms of volumes of explosives produced. The lack of data on the explosives production volumes and the limited amount of literature of explosives related training available compelled the approach of the research to be re-evaluated. It was decided to use other metrics to access the sustainability of an engineering qualification.
Literature shown there is positive growth in the explosives manufacturing industry especially the commercial explosives industry. The South African commercial explosives industry is expanding into Africa and the rest of the world. This is a positive indicator for the need of intellectual capital in this sector. Analysis of the mineral and resources production in South Africa indicates a product positive growth in mining production. This, combined with changes in technology both in the mining sector as well as in the explosives industry underscores the need for an engineering qualification in explosives.
A summary of the South African higher education system and the roles and functions of the Engineering Council of South Africa underscored the need that any qualification in explosives engineering should be accredited through the normal educational channels as well as through the engineering Council of South Africa, to afford it international accreditation.
58 CHAPTER 3
3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND RESULTS
3.1 Introduction
It was clear from the literature studied that the outcome of this research will not produce a set of numbers that tertiary training institutions can use to exactly quantify and build a business case for the establishment of a qualification in explosives engineering.
The outcome of this research will produce a good indication of the structure of explosives engineering qualifications as well as an indication as to the need in the market for such a qualification, and furthermore an indication of the sustainability of such qualifications.
3.2 Research methodology
In Chapter 1 it has been proposed that the qualitative research approach would be taken to gather information during this research. The driving factors for the qualitative approach are: firstly, the decision to gather information from the entire explosives fraternity; secondly, the number of role-players in the different disciplines of the explosives industry did not justify a quantitative research approach; and finally, different approaches to gather comparable data have been required while approaching the various role-players in the different sectors of the explosives industry.
3.3 Research model
The research model that was used commenced with the analysis of the research objective; “to define the South African explosives industry’s need for an Explosives Engineering qualification and to make recommendations for the structure and contents of this education”. This was followed by the compilation of a map of all the known role-players in the South African explosives industry, using mind mapping software to assist with the
59 process. The next step was to arrange interviews with the selected and willing role-players. It was also decided to compile a basic questionnaire with the aim to gather specific data from the role-players in the industry where it did not justify or allow an interview due to time constraints. The mixed method of data gathering was applied to data collected by means of the questionnaire, as well as data gathered during the interviews. These were combined, analysed and reported on.
3.3.1 Mapping the industry
The author used this knowledge and experience to construct a mind-map of the different sectors in the SA explosives industry that is listed in Table 3.1. The mind-map was further populated by listing and grouping as many role-players in the industry as possible. The Internet was used to identify other role-players and to obtain their contact information. The list was further expanded by consulting various key role-players who provided additional information, such as NIXT. Finally, during the research, the list was updated continuously with the information of emerging companies, or those that closed down. The following sectors were not listed in detail:
3.3.1.1 Mining sector
None of the individual mines were included in the qualitative research. The Chamber of Mines, the SA Institute of Quarrying, Anglo American, and Mponeng Mine were consulted to include the mining sector’s inputs.
3.3.1.2 Gun and rifle association
The South African Gun Association (SAGA), as well as the South African Professional Hunters Association were approached for information. After a discussion, it proved impractical to contact every member of these organisations as the contribution of the individuals to the research is questionable.
60 Table 3.1: The sectors that were identified in the SA explosives industry Identified sectors of the SA explosives industry No Sector Examples of role-players 1 Government Department of Labour, DMR, SAPS Explosives 4 main commercial manufacturers, small commercial 2 manufacturers manufactures and the military manufacturers Users of explosives The mines, military, security services, blasters, motor 3 vehicle industry, gun clubs, pyrotechnicians, to name but a few. Training and Universities, explosives manufacturers, military-, SAPS and 4 education private training providers. Importers of Explosives manufactures, pyrotechnicians, the Rocketstore 5 explosives and others Others NIXT, SABO, and specialist consultants that conduct blast monitoring services, blast designs and other consultancy 6 services and private interests such as the Cape Rocket Society, Amateur Rocketry Club in South Africa, to name but a few. Foreign interest The African explosives consumers, interested parties in 7 South African training
3.3.2 Constructing a research framework
Hereafter, an analysis was done of the requirements for a qualification to comply with the explosives engineering discipline and a list of explosives and related study areas/subjects was included in a questioning framework shown in annexure E. These fields of study were classified into short courses, a diploma course, a graduate course and a post graduate course. This framework was used as a guideline during the interviews with the different role-players.
A list of typical explosives related subjects was used as a basis to obtain the interviewee’s (listed in annexure G) perception of an explosives engineering qualification. The list
61 excluded general engineering subjects, such as mathematics and physics. The respondents’ attention was drawn to these exclusions in the general information provided in the questionnaire.
However some general subjects were included in the questionnaire. These general subjects were those that were considered to be important to the discipline of explosives engineering and the industry’s affinity for these subjects were tested. For this reason, subjects such as fluid dynamics and chemistry were included in the list to test the respondents’ requirements for these subjects.
Other questions enabled the interviewee to elaborate on the nature of the business/organisation and the composition of the workforce, focussing on explosives workers. The qualification and age profile of the workforce was of interest. This information, as well as the direct questions on the projected requirements for training, was used as indicators of the sustainability of the qualifications.
It was further postulated that the growth, whether positive or negative, in the explosives sector should be a leading indicator for the sustained requirement of explosives engineering education. However due to the scarcity of information on the explosives production volumes in the S.A. explosives industry, it was decided to use the production figures of minerals produced, as a leading indicator.
The time it took to conduct the interviews and the availability of the appropriate personnel for the interviews, were constraints to the conducting of the qualitative interviews. Hence it was decided to construct a questionnaire, seeking information on the preferred composition of engineering qualifications included at annexure F, by allowing the respondents to select the various subjects that they considered important to be included in the qualification. Information regarding the levels of qualification of the employees, and questions structured to assess the sustainability of such qualifications was included in the questionnaire. These questionnaires were distributed to 44 companies and organisations for completion after a telephonic discussion with the incumbent. The list of organisations that was requested to complete the questionnaires can be found in annexure G. The incumbent that completed
62 the questionnaire is also listed. The term “no reply” indicates that no reply was received from the organisation. The results were analysed and reported.
3.4 Results
3.4.1 Data validity
The departure point of the study was to identify as many role-players in the South African explosives industry as possible, and to try and include as many of these role-players’ inputs into this study as possible. Considering the decision not to interview every mine and quarry, fireworks dealer, motor vehicle manufacturer and other small role-player, a total number of 58 inputs were obtained from a cross-section of the explosives industry. This in its essence implies that there is a bias in the research. The data were collected over a period of five months. A summary of the feedback received is listed in Table 3.2. Data were collected from all the different sectors in the industry that were identified to provide data. The majority of the companies that did not respond were from the commercial blasting industry, where 3 out of 7 respondents provided inputs.
Table 3.2: Statistics of the data inputs.
Number of questionnaires distributed 44 Number of questionnaires returned 31 % Questionnaires returned 70.5% Interviews 27 Amount of interviews and questionnaires distributed 71 Total respondents 58 Total % respondents 81.7%
Not all the questionnaires were completed in full. These questionnaires were not rejected, as the data provided were valid for the specific category where information was provided.
The reader is reminded that the questionnaire had to cater for the needs of the different role-players in the South African explosives industry. This “one shoe fits all” approach had
63 to be followed due to the relatively small sub-populations of the different role-players in the South African explosives industry. An example of the diverse population which the questionnaire had to serve, was that from an individual blaster to an ammunition manufacturer having thousands of employees.
Table 3.3: Organisations that provided inputs for the research
Organisations that provided inputs for the research Universities UNISA, UP, WITS, BISRU Government SAPS, Dept Minerals Resources, Department of Labour DOD D Technology, SA Navy, SA Air Force, School of SANDF Ammo, Special Forces, Engineering Formation, Ammunition Core
Parastatal Organisations Armscor, Armscor Flamengro, Explosives Board, CSIR DPS Test ranges Alkantpan test range, Overberg Test Range RDM, PMP, DLS, Denel Dynamics, Fuchs Electronics, Military manufacturing Mechem Commercial AEL MS, Sasol Nitro, Maxam Dantex, BME, Nxco, manufacturers Greenbreak Technologies, Eco break Mines Chamber of Mines, Mponeng Mine, Anglo American Blaster African Blasting, Jet Demolition, Domino Blasting Explosive transportation Dangerous Good Packers for Air, Bidvest Panalpina, GAC companies laser logistics Blast Monitoring and consulting Blast Management & Consulting, Blast Analysis Africa Consulting Du Preez Munition Services Consulting and training Eagle Explosives Management Systems Inter disciplinary organisations NIXT, SABO, SAFEX, Institute for Security Studies
The organisations that responded are listed in Table 3.3. In some instances more than one person in an organisation were interviewed, due to their expertise.
64 The questioning framework was used as a guideline to address all the relevant issues during the interviews. The majority of the interviews lasted in excess of one hour. All the interviews were recorded with the consent of the respondent.
3.4.2 Course content of the technical qualification
The questionnaire was constructed in such a way that the respondents had the option to select a variety of subjects for different qualifications. Although the focus was to gather information on diplomas, graduate and post graduate qualifications, it was necessary that the option was available to express a requirement for short courses as well. Respondents were invited to add additional subjects which they deemed to be important to their field of business. Two respondents added to this subject list. These subjects were listed in Table 3.4. It did not make sense to add these subjects to the courses, as the other respondents did not have the opportunity to indicate their opinions on or preference for these subjects.
Table 3.4: List of subjects added by different respondents
Demilitarisation of ammunition Process and environmental control Proofing of ammunition Electrical/Electronic basic Principles of engineering design Project management Blast design principles surface/UG Communication
The proposed subject “Demilitarisation of ammunition”, is covered by the subject “Explosives destruction and recycling”, similarly is the subject “Proofing of ammunition” covered by “Explosives testing and evaluation”. The same is true for the subject “Blast design principles surface/UG” that is covered by the two subjects, “Surface blasting
65 technology” and “Subsurface blasting technology”. The other subjects that were listed by these respondents was considered to be part of the foundation training of an engineer.
The reader is reminded that none of the general scientific subjects were included in the questionnaire. It was stated in the questionnaire that these subjects are proposed for technical qualifications.
3.4.2.1 Short courses
Analysis of the results indicate a definite and strong need for short courses in the South African explosives industry. The largest requirement for short courses is to service the need for explosives and the detonics related technical courses as well as explosives application courses such as doing a course to achieve a Blasting Ticket. It is the author's opinion that the need for these courses is driven by the inability of the training system to include it in the current training offered to the market.
However, the focus of this research was to determine the requirements for explosives engineering education and not to analyse the requirements for short courses. No further analysis of the short courses was done and it will thus not be discussed further.
3.4.2.2 Diploma in explosives engineering
The need for a technical diploma was strongly emphasised by role-players in the industry (Steyn, 2013b; Schalkwyk, 2013). Annexure A lists the subjects of all the proposed programs. The figure in Annexure A shows the relative demand volume for the different subjects. Considering the selection of subjects chosen for a diploma, the majority of respondents chose the explosives technical subjects listed in Annexure B. The top 20 list of subjects are shown in Table 3.5 as the main priority for this qualification.
66 Table 3.5: The twenty most preferred subjects to be included in the diploma of an explosives engineering qualification Top 20 subjects for the Diploma in explosives engineering No No Subject Value Subject Value cont Explosives destruction and 1 High and low explosives 18 11 16 recycling Law and regulations 2 Propellants 18 12 16 applicable to explosives Explosives practical training - 3 Pyrotechnics 18 13 15 chemical & physical tests Explosives storage and 4 18 14 Quality management 15 transportation Statistics (test design & data 5 Explosives chemistry 17 15 14 assessment) 6 Explosives physical properties 17 16 Terminal ballistics 13 Ammunition principals and 7 Detonics 17 17 13 design 8 Explosives applications/uses 17 18 Internal ballistics 12 9 Explosives testing & evaluation 16 19 External ballistics 12 10 Explosives manufacturing 16 20 System engineering 12
It is proposed that the training institutions that intend to present a diploma in explosives engineering, carefully consider the choice of subjects to be included in the curriculum. It may be required that some of the subjects be combined to cover the required knowledge areas.
3.4.2.3 Undergraduate qualification
While conducting the interviews, it became apparent that there are two schools of thought in the explosives community on how to train suitably qualified explosives engineers. The one camp is of the opinion that candidates should study any of the existing mechanical,
67 chemical or production engineering degrees (Nurick, 2013; Visser, 2013). The explosives specific knowledge can be attained through short courses or via a post graduate diploma or master’s degree in explosives engineering.
The second camp holds the position that there is a place for an undergraduate qualification in explosives engineering, similar to aeronautical or metallurgical engineering that serves a niche market. Greef and Harrison (2013) state that there may be a need for explosives engineers on South African mines. Provided that these people have the appropriate knowledge and qualifications, they could add value to the planning of blasting operations and the application of explosives in South African mines. Schalkwyk (2013) states that there is a definite need for graduated explosives engineers in the explosives manufacturing sector. This view has been supported by Tose (2013), and confirmed by Greef and Harrison's (2013) position that explosives engineers have a role to play as a start member on a mine.
Unfortunately there is a connotation to the term “explosives engineer” which has been created due to a lack of formalisation of the professional qualification. The impression has been created that the explosives engineer is a glorified blaster. During the interviews, it became apparent that this profile of an explosives engineer will have to be changed to portray the highly qualified and capable engineering discipline that it should be.
In the answer to the question on who signs off the designs of explosives manufacturing processes, explosives or the designs of a new explosive, all the respondents replied that the designs are signed off by personnel who are qualified in disciplines other than the explosives. There is also no standard for the training that the engineers should have when they sign off these designs. The point being made is that there is no standard of explosives training for new entrants in the explosives market, who will take over the responsibilities from the current personnel, who are very knowledgeable and qualified by experience, but on the brink of retirement.
A key success factor, which should be the first step to establish the discipline of explosives engineering, is the registration of an explosives engineering discipline at the Engineering
68 Council of South Africa. The Engineering Council of South Africa should then ensure that there is acknowledgment for an explosives engineer, explosives engineering technologists and the explosives technicians in the international community through the Washington, Sydney and Dublin accords.
When reviewing the data analysed in annexure C, there is an even balance in the requirements for technical- versus general subjects, and engineering- and analytical subjects. Table 3.6 list the 20 most preferred subjects to be included in an undergraduate degree in explosives engineering. The value columns indicate the amount of interviewees that selected those subjects with a value of 12 being the most preferred subject.
What is surprising is that the need for the detail of explosives knowledge that is required creates surprisingly little interest in the application of explosives in the mining industry. However from the discussions with Tose (2013), Steyn (2013b), Speteri (2013), Prout (2013), De Graaf (2013), as well as Kruger (2013), the point was emphasised that any engineer working in the commercial explosives field, must have a solid understanding of how mines work and the characteristics of rocks and how to break these rocks.
It is concluded that any undergraduate explosives engineering qualification, including the diploma, should strike a balance between the military orientated and commercial orientated explosives subjects. In the end, the engineers and technicians must study the science of the explosives and the medium in which they want to work, to ensure that they can achieve their objective as cost-effective as possible. If there is a balanced qualification, there will be a greater chance that people can move between the military and commercial industries. This transfer of intellectual capital could be to the benefit of both industries.
69 Table 3.6: The 20 most preferred subjects to be included in the undergraduate program for explosives engineers. Top 20 subjects for the degree in explosives engineering No No Subject Value Subject Value cont 1 Explosives chemistry 12 11 Terminal ballistics 10 2 Detonics 12 12 System engineering 10 Computer programming & 3 Material sciences 12 13 10 simulation 4 Explosives testing & evaluation 11 14 Thermo dynamics 10 5 Explosives manufacturing 11 15 Strengths of materials 10 Statistics (test design and 6 High and low explosives 10 16 10 data assessment) Explosives physical 7 Propellants 10 17 9 properties 8 Pyrotechnics 10 18 Process engineering 9 9 Internal ballistics 10 19 Engineering management 9 Explosives 10 External ballistics 10 20 8 applications/uses
3.4.2.4 Post graduate qualification Considering the data gathered by the research, there is insufficient data to extract a trend into an area of interest where a post graduate qualification could be presented. Table 3.7 indicates the subjects that were least recommended to be included in a post graduate qualification for explosives engineering with values ranging between 1 and 3. The analysis of the data is further complicated by the relative small number of respondents stating their needs to study a form of post graduate qualification. The entire list of preferred subjects can be viewed in Annexure D.
However, considering the position of Nurick (2013), Visser (2013), Steyn (2013b) and others, there is a definite need to do research to resolve explosives and related problems in society. The structure and type of post graduate qualification will greatly depend on the course of action, followed by educational institutions with regard to undergraduate degrees.
70 Should no undergraduate degree in explosives engineering be presented, the structure of the post graduate qualification will most probably have to be subject based. Should there be an explosives engineering undergraduate course, the post graduate qualification could be research-based.
Table 3.7: The subjects for the post graduate degree in explosives engineering with the lowest scores Subjects with the lowest scores: Post Graduate Degree No Subject Value 1 Surface blasting technology 3 2 Subsurface blasting technology 3 3 Rock mechanics 3 4 Mining technology 3 5 Process engineering 3 6 Quality management 2 7 Quality control 2 8 Blasting Certificate (Ticket) 1
From the technology management model by Visser, as described in Chapter 2, it is recommended that an opportunity be created to do fundamental research in the explosives discipline. This will be done best through research on a master’s or doctorate program.
Considering the training that was available in South Africa historically, such as the National Diploma in Explosives Technology and the Diploma in Explosives Management that is being presented, it is recommended that a postgraduate diploma be presented to ensure that the people in possession of these qualifications could articulate their qualifications into a post graduate qualification.
It is recommended, as with the diploma in explosives engineering, that the training institution that intends to present a post graduate qualification, carefully considers and analyses the market needs before a decision is made on the structure of such a qualification.
71
3.4.3 Growth in mining volumes
In order to determine growth in an industry, the baseline that you are working from must be known. To answer this, the question was posed “how big is the explosives industry in the world?”, and compared to that, “how big is the South African explosives industry?”. It must regrettably be reported that there is no accurate data available to answer these questions. During discussions with Tose (2013), De Graaf (2013), Schalkwyk (2013), Steyn (2013a), Speteri (2013), and Prout (2013), it has been stated that there is an extreme sensitivity in the industry to promulgate any production figures due to the fear of being in contravention of the Competitions Act (No. 89 of 1998).
Considering that the growth in the production of minerals in South Africa was slowing down according to Alink (2012:3), and supported by Deloitte & Touch (2012:3), there should be a worldwide increase in the demand for mineral resources to cope with the economic growth. Although the current South African mining industry’s growth is flat, it is expected to show a moderate growth in the near future.
Statistics SA (2013) published the volumes of minerals produced, and it is theoretically possible to calculate the amount of explosives required to produce the quantity of minerals. The figures from Statistics SA can be compared with international mineral production figures.
However, during discussions with Steyn (2103a) and Tose (2013), it has been learned that the overburdened ratios of the different countries differ vastly. Overburden ratios are the amount of waste material that has to be removed before the mineral can be mined in relation to the amount of minerals mined. The biggest users of explosives volumes are the open cast mines. In South Africa, the minerals are much deeper than in Europe, Canada and Australia, and thus SA has a high overburdened ratio. Although the overburden ratios are known throughout the world, there is a huge difference in the amount of explosives required to remove the overburdened of the minerals. Therefore, because the minerals in South Africa are deeper, the amount of explosives required per ton of minerals recovered,
72 differs vastly from that of the other countries. This is the reason why it is not possible to make a comparison of the size of the South African explosives industry in terms of explosives volumes versus the rest of the world.
What is true though is that, with an increase in mineral volume produced, which is driven by the demand for consumer goods, it would lead to an increase in the demand for explosives.
All the explosives manufacturers are expanding their businesses into Africa and the world (AEL, 2012:56). It has been reported by Schalkwyk (2013), Tose (2013), Hay (2013), Steyn (2013a), and Speteri (2013), that the intellectual capital is distributed into the African market with the expansion of the industry into this market. This dilution of the pool of intellectual capital generates a demand for trained and competent people to restore the balance. It has also been reported that there are locals from the African countries who will fulfil positions in the explosives factories in Africa, who will need training and education in explosives production and explosives application in their mining sectors. The availability of a qualification in explosives engineering should draw the students from these countries.
3.4.4 Impact of technology
Technology has changed the explosives landscape quite significantly over the past few years. Capped fuse are something of the past and has been replaced by shock tube initiation systems, according to Speteri (2013), and supported by Steyn (2013a), Schalkwyk (2013), and Tose (2013). The introduction of electronic detonators has a big impact on initiation systems and it is said that it could replace electrical initiating systems according to Tose (2013). There are many more examples of the impact of technology on the explosives product systems.
The Mponeng mine is the deepest mine in the world at just under 4,000 meters deep. According to Greef and Harrison (2013), the conditions below ground is such that it will challenge the use of explosives and demand new mining techniques to extract the gold ore. They report that the rock face temperature increases by 15°C for every thousand
73 meters below the surface. This implies that the explosives and the initiating systems must be able to work safely and reliably at elevated temperatures of between 70°C and 80°C in the near future. Mines are also investigating alternative mining methods which may drastically reduce the need for explosives below ground. However Schalkwyk (2013) and Omnia (2012:76) report that it is not likely that explosives would be phased out in the mining industry in the near to medium future, the demand will actually increase.
The use of non-detonating explosive rock breaking cartridges in the SA mines is a technology that is being rejuvenated. Therefore there is a growth in small companies that start to manufacture these non-detonating charges.
Van Jaarsveld and van Greunen (2013), report that reactive ground poses a challenge for the current design of commercial explosives. Reactive ground is a chemical reaction that is induced by the chemicals in the rock reacting with the explosives’ compositions to generate large amounts of heat and toxic fumes. This may cause malfunction in the ignition system of the explosives and may lead to catastrophic failure and the loss of life. The problem has not yet been solved, and requires further research and product development.
An example of the impact of technology on the military explosives industry, is the desire to have insensitive munitions, according to Niemand (2013) and Steyn (2013b). This places a demand on the innovation and knowledge to redesign ammunition and to find alternative explosives that are less sensitive to undesired methods of initiation. Large amounts of money and energy are expended to find the answer to this problem.
Finally, the desire to manufacture explosives at a cheaper cost and to make it safer to work with will always place a demand on trained people to work in the explosives industry. Various explosives manufacturers have and will install automated production machines. The impact on personnel is that fewer employees are required to manufacture explosives, however the profile of people that will operate these automated processes, is changing to more technically competent people. These prospective employees will have to be trained in the explosives discipline.
74 3.4.5 Sustainability
In order to determine the sustainability of engineering qualifications in the South African explosives industry, two indicators were used to predict the growth in demand for these qualifications. These indicators were, the growth in mining production, and the development of technology in the mining and explosives industries. From the literature and the data gathered during the interviews, the evidence is clear that there is sustainable growth in the mining and explosives markets in the short- to medium terms.
Analysing the data from the questionnaires as shown in Table 3.8, it can be noted that there is a significant increase in the need for these qualifications. The figures that impress are the immediate need for a diploma in explosives engineering as well as an undergraduate qualification in explosives engineering. Considering the medium-term needs, there is a positive indication that these qualifications will be sustainable. The medium-term growth requirement for post graduate qualifications is encouraging. What would be interesting is how these qualifications would attract interest from Africa and the rest of the world.
Table 3.8: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African explosives industry.
Amount of people to be trained in the SA explosives industry. In the next In 3 to 5 After 5 Summarised data from all the respondents two years years years
On the job training 1089 566 344
Diploma in Explosives Engineering 52 70 66
Degree in Explosives Engineering 28 45 51
Post graduate qualification in the explosives discipline 3 12 25
By analysing the data in Table 3.9 and Table 3.10, it can be seen that there is a satisfactory balance between the sustainability indicators from the military as well as the commercial explosives industry. This is considered to be a positive indicator, as it implies
75 that an academic institution that will present a course will not have to cater for a specific discipline, but can focus on the science of explosives. It can be argued that this balance will imply that there can be cross-pollination amongst the students from the military and commercial explosives environments.
Table 3.9: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African military explosives industry.
Amount of people to be trained in the SA military explosives industry
In the next In 3 to 5 After 5 Military Explosives Industry respondents two years years years
On the job training 330 459 234
Diploma in Explosives Engineering 27 36 27
Degree in Explosives Engineering 14 21 17
Post graduate qualification in the explosives discipline 0 9 12
Table 3.10: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African Commercial explosives industry.
Amount of people to be trained in the SA commercial explosives industry
In the next In 3 to 5 After 5 Commercial Explosives Industry respondents two years years years
On the job training 759 107 110
Diploma in Explosives Engineering 25 34 39
Degree in Explosives Engineering 14 24 34
Post graduate qualification in the explosives discipline 3 3 13
Considering the military data in Table 3.9, the demand for a diploma as well as a degree in explosives engineering, after five years, is less than the requirements of the commercial 76 sector shown in Table 3.10. The stabilising of the military demand is not surprising. The military demand is related to the force level structures and not related to economic growth in the commercial sector.
Based on the data presented, it is recommended that a diploma in explosives engineering, an undergraduate qualification in explosives engineering as well as post graduate qualifications in explosives engineering, be established to satisfy the market demand. During further analysis of the data, it was established that there is an amount of at least 14,083 people employed in the industries of the sample population. An amount of 2,629 people that equates to 18,7%, works directly with explosives or in the explosives value chain. It must be noted that this figure is a representative of the sample of respondents and not of the entire South African explosives industry.
In Figure 3.1, the profile of the training of the people who is directly involved in the explosives value chain, is shown. There is a significant difference in the amount of people who have done short courses and those with educational qualifications. The exact reason for this disparity could not be determined from the data gathered by the questionnaire.
Figure 3.1 The graph showing the qualification profile for people employed in the direct explosives value chain
77
It could only be speculated that one of the contributing factors to this is the non-availability of technical explosives education in the South African industry over the past 18 years. The only technical training available has been short courses and on the job training. Further, it can only be speculated why there are 12 people directly involved in the explosives value chain who have no training.
Figure 3.2 The age distribution of the people employed in the explosives value chain.
Considering the age distribution of the personnel employed in the South African explosives industry as shown in Figure 3.2, there is a healthy spread of personnel throughout the age groups 20 to 60 years old. Yet, even though there is a satisfactory distribution of people through the different age groups, it does not mean that all is going well. Considering the age group of older than 50, industries will lose in excess of 500 people within the next 10 to 15 years due to retirement. Out of these 57 (60+ years old) should retire in the next five years. The most intellectual capital is vested in this section of the workforce.
78 Considering that the last technical diploma in explosives technology was issued about 18 years ago, it must be noted that the age group 18 to 29 years old, and 32 to 39 years old did not have an opportunity to study explosives at a formal educational institution, except for the explosives management education presented at UNISA.
3.4.6 Establishment of an explosives technical qualification
It will be naïve to think that the explosives industry will have a demand for similar quantities of engineers and scientists in comparison to other industries, such as to the mechanical engineering industry. Taking into account the figures mentioned above, a university will find it difficult to establish the infrastructure to present such a qualification with only internal funding and a subsidy from the state. If an industry is serious about their requirements to have explosives technical knowledgeable people working for them, they will have to invest in a university to establish the necessary laboratories, testing facilities and requirement for research, in this field.
3.4.7 Standards
Considering the arbitrary use of the title explosives engineer, various interviewees were questioned about the standards of explosives and explosives application training in the South African industry. Various authors such as Prout, (2013), De Graaf (2013), Speteri (2013), and Tose (2013), have confirmed that there is no common agreed standard to which training is done. This problem is applicable to South Africa only, as reported by Wallace et al. (2006:1), stating that the United Kingdom and the European Union have created the EUExcert organisation in an effort to train all explosives workers in the EU to the same standard.
The question must be posed, who must set the standard and who must ensure that the standards be maintained? There are various organisations that can be considered as candidates to set the standards or contribute to the setting of standards, these being NIXT, SABO, the Explosive Council and the Explosives Board.
79 Paragraph 5.3.6 of the SABO report states that one of their activities is that of furthering the course of ballistics in South Africa (van Niekerk, 2013a:3). If it is argued that ballistics should be an integral part of the knowledge base of an explosives engineer, then SABO should be represented on a standards setting body.
NIXT (2010) lists that one of the aims of NIXT is to assist with training actions. NIXT is executing this function by having a committee overseeing the training requirements and the arranging of workshops on training in the industry. Tough (2013) reported that NIXT would be willing to set standards for explosives and related training, but they would have to be initiated by a working group, drawn from the companies in the industry. He continued that thereafter NIXT would be prepared to act as a standard setting and verification body.
According to Niemand (2013), paragraph 4.6 of the Constitution of the SA Armaments Explosives Board, states that the Board shall endeavour to identify specialist and training needs for the industry and shall undertake relevant actions to satisfy such specific needs.
According to the Department of Labour (2005), the principles of the National Explosives Council, paragraph 6a, state that the National Explosive Council must advise the Chief Inspector of Occupational Health and Safety on explosives codes, standards and training requirements.
It is clear from the above that there are various organisations that are mandated and willing to further the training in the South African explosives industry. These organisations have different mandates and different aims. It is recommended that these organisations work together to form one unified body that will set the standards for training in the South African explosives industry. This body will have to advise ECSA and HEQSF on the requirements structure and the standards of training to be presented for the industry.
3.4.8 Shortcomings of the research
Very little research has been done in the field of education in explosives engineering. In an effort to focus this research, it was decided to limit the scope of the study to the South
80 African explosives industry by focusing the need on an explosives engineering or similar type qualification. However, the author came to realise that this is too wide a field of study and therefore some of the areas may not have been interrogated properly to form a true scientific opinion. An example would be, the lack of knowledge to accurately recommend the structure of subjects relating to the commercial explosives industry.
Due to the number of respondents who indicated a requirement for a post graduate qualification, there was insufficient data to recommend the content of a postgraduate program. Further research will be required to clarify this requirement.
The number of role-players in the explosives industry was grossly underestimated, such as 23,000 commercial blasters and 15,000 holders of fireworks licenses. Had these figures been known beforehand, the structure of the research may have been amended.
3.5 Summary
There is a definite need in the South African explosives industry for trained explosives technicians with a diploma or an equivalent qualification, and explosives engineers with a graduate and a postgraduate qualification. Although these qualifications will have to be presented at different NQF levels, the content of the qualifications must strike a balance between commercial and military orientated subjects. The exact composition of these qualifications will have to be agreed upon by a panel of subject matter experts representing the various sectors in the South African explosives industry.
This collective effort will have to be coordinated under, and agreed to, by an accepted body that is authorised and mandated to set and maintain these training standards. Organisation such as ECSA, SABO, NIXT and the Explosives Councils will have to recommend suitable standards to the department of Higher Education who should enforce the training standards for all explosive technical training.
81 A key success factor is that the Engineering Council of South Africa must register the explosives engineering discipline and ensure international recognition for this qualification via the various accords.
82 CHAPTER 4
4 RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Introduction
The South African explosives industry is one of the largest explosives industries in the world. Thus the question arises; why are there no technical education and training available in South Africa to train the people working in this industry? Next question that should be posed is, why are there so little institutions presenting explosives and related training in the world? The answers to these questions are worth investigating, but it is more important to look ahead and decide on how the industry is going to address the needs of the growing explosives industry.
Since the demise of the national diploma in explosives technology presented by the Universities of Technology in the mid 1990’s, a void of about 20 years in the technical competence base of the people working in the explosives industry has been created. Industry boldly admits that their internal training programs are inadequate to fill this void. Industry voiced the need for a technical educational program in the explosives industry, focusing on the intricacies of explosives and its applications. Efforts by the training institutions in South Africa to address this need have been partially successful, and credit must be given to UNISA and other smaller training companies for the programs that were presented to date.
It is trusted that the outcome of this research will culminate in a higher educational training institution to commit to the South African explosives industry and establish an engineering diploma and/or degree with additional post graduate study opportunities. Similarly, the explosives industry must commit and support the training institutions by providing them with students, financial support, and research opportunities.
83 Although the South African explosives industry is one of the biggest in the world, the local industry is too small for the role-players to be in conflict with each other. Considering the guidelines of the Competition Act (89 of 1998), industry must find ways to cooperate to establish a credible world class explosives training institution. Further, the commercial explosives industry and the military industry have more in common than what is realised. Only by studying the characteristics that makes these industries unique will they find the commonality and the opportunity to learn from each other.
In unity there is strength. Only by working together will the South African explosives industry and its training institutions make South Africa the leader in explosives training and education as well as explosives production.
4.2 Conclusions
In an effort to find the answer to the research question; to define the South African explosives industry’s need for “Explosives Engineering” qualifications and to make recommendations for the structure and contents of this education, the following conclusions are made:
When comparing the relative sizes of the different explosives industries, it is the commercial explosives industry that is considerably larger than the military explosives industry, considering the production of explosives volumes. The research done in the commercial explosives industry have focused mainly on product optimisation, and to lower the production costs of explosives. In contrast, the military explosives industry tends to focus not only on product optimisation, but also on fundamental research.
In an effort to define indicators that could be used to determine the sustainability of an explosives technical qualification, it was determined that due to an expansion in the African mining market, a growth of the explosives volumes can be anticipated. The growth in volumes implies that more intellectual capital will be required in the production and distribution of the explosives into the market, as well as additional intellectual capital to be
84 distributed into the African market to establish and operate explosives production facilities. This will cause a demand to educate new explosives technicians and engineers.
It was further confirmed that there is a direct correlation between technology and intellectual capital in the development of people through education, and that training is a key concept for the development of technology.
Regarding the management of the technology model described by Visser, this model can be applied to the future structure of explosives training and education. Parallels are drawn between the strategic trajectory (fundamental research) and a graduate and post graduate qualification in explosives engineering or explosive sciences. Similarly, the operational trajectory (product system development) compares with the characteristics of an engineering degree and diploma in explosives engineering or explosives sciences.
The HEQSF have to set the standards for the explosives engineering qualifications. Industry, via organisations such as NIXT and SABO amongst others, have to advise the HEQSF on the appropriate standards applicable to the explosives industry.
The key success factor is that an “explosives engineer” must be afforded professional status. This can only be achieved by registering an explosives engineering discipline at ECSA. ECSA must attain recognition for this profession under the established international accords. The South African explosives fraternity must also maintain a working relationship with the EUExcert program to ensure recognition of each other's qualifications.
It is concluded that any undergraduate explosives engineering qualification, including a diploma in explosives engineering, or some other qualifications should strike a balance between the military orientated and commercially orientated explosives subjects. The attainment of this qualification must allow for the migration of experts across the disciplines.
85 Therefore, any technical explosives qualification for explosives engineering will have to be registered at the Department of Higher Education and Training and will be subject to the scrutiny of the HEQSF.
4.3 Recommendations
The following is recommended:
From the theory
The profession of explosives engineering must be registered at ECSA. ECSA is supported by the explosives industry and must ensure international recognition of this engineering discipline.
The South African explosives fraternity must establish a working relationship with the EUExcert program in order to ensure recognition of each other's qualifications.
As soon as an explosives engineering discipline has been registered at the Engineering Council of South Africa, a mechanism must be found for individuals wishing to claim this title as to receive acknowledgement for their qualifications and competencies.
During the process of the registration of explosives related technical education, it is recommended that the three points mentioned below be addressed to satisfy the conditions of the HEQC:
• Collaboration between the institutions providing explosives related training; • Collaboration between educational providers and the explosives industry; • Collaboration between institutions across national borders.
86 From the research
Based on the recommendations of various respondents, there is a strong requirement to establish educational programs in explosives engineering or similar explosives qualifications.
It is recommended that a diploma in explosives engineering, an undergraduate qualification in explosives engineering, a postgraduate certificate in explosives engineering and the masters and doctorate degrees of explosives engineering be established at a higher educational institution in South Africa.
It is further recommended that a postgraduate diploma should be presented to ensure that the people in possession of historic qualifications could articulate their qualifications into a post graduate qualification.
The Industry must support training institutions that wishes to establish a qualification in explosives engineering or some other scientific qualification in explosives by means of financial support, the establishment of facilities, creating research opportunities and providing students to follow these courses.
A qualification in explosives engineering should strike a balance between the variety of commercial orientated explosives subjects and military orientated explosives subjects.
From the interviews All the personnel interviewed supported the need to establish explosives engineering education, albeit at diploma, graduate and post graduate level. There are differences of opinion as to the structure of the proposed degree programme such as following an existing degree programme with supporting explosives courses, or a establish a dedicated explosive engineering degree and diploma programme.
It is proposed that the training institution that intends to present a diploma in explosives engineering carefully consider the choice of subjects to be included in the curriculum. It
87 may require that some of the subjects are combined to cover the required knowledge areas. The same holds true for the proposed graduate and post graduate programs.
It is recommended that organisations such as NIXT, SABO, the Explosives Board and Explosives Council join forces to create a unified body which can set goals, drive and monitor a joint effort to establish explosive qualifications for the South African explosives industry. This must be done in support of ECSA and the HEQSF.
It is recommended that the profile of an explosives engineer will have to be changed to portray the highly qualified and capable engineering discipline that it should be.
The sustainability of explosives engineering qualifications in the South African explosives industry is viable. This recommendation is supported by the data collected by this research, as well as the growth in the African explosives market and the possibility to attract students from the international market to attend these courses.
It is further recommended that the research in explosives is one of the cornerstones of the sustainability of this educational qualification program.
4.4 Further Research
The impact of the growth of the mining business in Africa, in terms of explosives and the impact thereof on the South African explosives industry should be explored to enable the sector to develop this emerging market.
The composition and structure of explosives engineering qualifications should be an area of research for a person with an educational background. Consideration must be given to dedicated explosives engineering programmes versus programmes that follows a existing engineering courses supplemented with explosives related subjects or short courses.
Due to the lack of sufficient data locally, no guidelines could be provided for the structure and composition of a post graduate qualification in explosives engineering. Educational
88 institutions that wish to present such qualifications will have to conduct research to resolve this problem.
The baseline of effective explosives control is that the amount of explosives manufactured or imported must be compared to the amount consumed and destroyed. Any deviations must be investigated and explained. Explosives are not controlled properly in the South African explosives industry. The size and growth of the South African explosives industry warrants further investigation. It is understood that the commercial explosives industries are faced with the Competitions Act (no. 89 of 1998) and industries are discouraged to make known the amount of explosives being produced. This is a shortcoming in the control of explosives and it must be considered what the impact is on the safety and security of South Africa.
4.5 Summary
There is a strong need for a qualification in explosives engineering in the South African explosives industry. This need is driven by a void left due to the demise of previous qualifications as well as the growth in the South African explosives industry and the development of technology in the sector.
A course in explosives engineering must strike a balance between the commercial and military orientated subjects, but focus on the fundamental sciences of explosives. The explosives industry will have to support the higher training institutions to establish and present these qualifications.
Fundamental research should be one of the cornerstones of the sustainability of such a qualification. The research should strike a balance between commercial and military orientated needs and the application of the explosives sciences.
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101 6 Annexure A Explosives Engineering: Combined Subject Preferences
102 7 Annexure B Subject preference for the Diploma in Explosives Engineering
103 8 Annexure C Subject preference for the Degree in Explosives Engineering
104 9 Annexure D Subject preference for the Post Graduate Degree in Explosives Engineering
105 10 Annexure E The framework of questions used during unstructured interviews
QUESTIONING FRAMEWORK: THE REQUIREMENT FOR HIGHER TRAINING EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN EXPLOSIVES INDUSTRY Permission to record the interview Date of Interview: GENERAL INFORMATION 1. Interviewee: Name: Position:
Contact details: Email Address Mobile 2. Company:
Nature of the business: Products: Amount of employees: Number involved with Explosives: Management: Technical: Labour: Number required that have higher educational qualification: Degrees Diploma Course OJT Employee turnover rate: How are employees trained?:
106 DEMAND FOR TRAINING 3. Requirement for Explosives Training: Type of training Qty p/a Details/Comments
On the Job Training
Short courses
Diploma
Degree
Post Graduate
4. Training Area/Discipline
Discipline requirement for Explosives Training:
Discipline Required (y/n)
Regulatory
Managerial
Technical
Storage and handling
Effects and testing
Destruction
Engineering or technical qualification: Suggested subjects
If there are educational programmes available would you be willing to send employees?
PRODUCTION INDICATORS (SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS) 5. Volumes of explosives produced 6. Volumes of rock blasted 7. Volumes of products produced
107 Annexure F The Questionnaire used to gather additional data
Research Questionnaire: Analysing the technical tertiary training and education requirement for the South African explosives industry
Forward Thank You very much for taking the time to complete this questionnaire.
This research is done through the Potchefstroom Business School at the North West University. This research forms part of the mini dissertation for the MBA programme of Mr Willie Verster.
The purpose of the research is to try and quantify the requirement for explosives and explosives related training. There is specific interest in the demand and content for an explosives engineering or a similar technical education. This analysis is based on the needs expressed by the industry through forums like NIXT.
This questionnaire consists of two sheets. If you are completing the document electronically you are kindly requested to complete this sheet and the sheet "Training Requirement" at the tab below.
You are kindly requested to send the completed questionnaire to me via email: [email protected]
General Information
Company/Organisation's Name:
Respondent's name: Respondent's
position/appointment: Contact Details
Mobile Number:
Email Address:
Date:
108
Confidentiality
The data provided by your company or organisation will be analysed and reported on in the sector that your company is doing business, e.g. explosive manufacturers. There is no intent to report the data on a company specific basis. The data that you will provide will not be made available to any third party, except the North West University's Study Leader. If there is a need to report company specific data, you express permission will be obtained before the publication of the information.
My contact details: Willie Verster Mobile: 082 940 6627 Email: [email protected]
109 Training and education requirement for the South African explosives industry:
You are requested to consider the applicability of different subjects as below to your field of business.
The listed subjects were taken from existing engineering courses and as recommended by different explosives subject matter experts based on their day to day work. The list of subjects is not an exhaustive list. The list also does not contain general engineering subjects that would form the foundation of an engineering qualification.
Guidelines for completing the questionnaire The future training can be presented by means of short courses, diploma, or degree programmes, or a combination of these. It is requested that you indicate your company/organisations requirement for these different programmes as explained below.
Short Courses: Should your organisation have a requirement for a short course in a specific subject you are kindly requested to indicate the estimated amount of attendees per year, e.g. for the subject “Quality Control” indicated in line 3 is 2 persons per year.
Should the requirement be less or less frequent, you are requested to indicate it by means of a fraction e.g. ½ indicating one candidate every second year, or 5/3 indicating five candidates every three years shown in line 2 for the subject “Ballistics”. You are further requested to indicate the duration of the short course in days. The duration will be an indication of the level of the course and the time that your
Other Educational Programmes: If you do not consider a subject as important, leave it unmarked, or strike it through. Should you consider the subject as important, please indicate by placing an X in the appropriate block corresponding to the level of education that your organisation’s requirement. You may also have more than one choice per subject e.g. line 37 "Ballistics" to be presented at post graduate level but there might also be a need for short courses.
You are encouraged to add subjects that you consider important and applicable to the explosives discipline at the bottom of the list and please remember to indicate the level it should be presented at.
Please see the example below:
Short Course Post No Subject Recommended Diploma Degree Amount of Graduate duration in people /year days 1 Chemistry X X X 2 Terminal Ballistics 5/3 1/2 X 3 Quality control 2 5 X X 4 Fluid dynamics X
110 Short Course Post No Subject Recommended Diploma Degree Amount of Graduate duration in people /year days 1 Explosives chemistry 2 Explosives physical properties 3 High and low explosives 4 Propellants 5 Pyrotechnics 6 Detonics 7 Explosives testing & evaluation 8 Explosives manufacturing 9 Internal Ballistics 10 External Ballistics 11 Terminal Ballistics 12 Explosives applications/uses 13 Explosives practical training (Chemical lab and physical tests) 14 Ammunition principals and design 15 Explosives storage and transportation 16 Explosives destruction and recycling 17 Law and regulations applicable to explosives 18 Surface blasting technology 19 Subsurface blasting technology 20 Blasting Certificate (Ticket) 21 Geology 22 Rock mechanics 23 Mining technology 24 System engineering 25 Process engineering 26 Engineering management 27 Computer programming & simulation 28 Control systems
111 Short Course Post No Subject Recommended Diploma Degree Amount of Graduate duration in people /year days 29 Fluid dynamics 30 Thermo dynamics 31 Material sciences 32 Strengths of materials 33 Quality management 34 Quality control 35 Mathematics 36 Statistics (test design and data assessment) 37 Physics 38 Chemistry
General Comment : If you have any general comment to be considered please list it below.
112
Requirement for Explosives Engineering Education
It is requested to indicate the company/organisation's estimated demand for explosives engineering qualifications i.e. diploma, degree or post graduate qualification in this section. It is a requirement to determine the immediate requirement for an explosives engineering education as well as the sustained requirement for such this education.
Guidelines for completing the table It is requested that you complete every block.
Please write the amount of candidates that could be enrolled for a qualification. If you have no requirement please indicate it with 0.
Considering the sustained (long term) requirement are kindly requested to indicate the estimated amount of attendees per year. Should the requirement be less than one per year or less frequent, you are requested to indicate it by means of a fraction e.g. ½ indicating one candidate every second year, or 2/4 indicating two candidates every four years.
Type of education
In the next two In 3 to 5 years After 5 years It is requested that you indicate your company's years predicted/estimated future explosives related training requirement.
Please complete every block with an estimated figure.
1 On the Job Training
2 Diploma in Explosives Engineering
3 Degree in Explosives Engineering
4 Post graduate degree in the explosives discipline The Short courses data will be deduced from the data supplied above.
Personnel data 5 How many employees does your company/organisation have?
How many of these employees are working with explosives, or are involved with the 6 explosive value chain?
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Post On the job Diploma/ No training Short courses Degree graduate training certificate degree
7 Referring to the employees in question 6 above, Please indicate the nature of their highest explosives related training or qualifications. It would be appreciated if you
could complete the data by providing a cumulative figure per category. The sum of all the employees must correspond to the answer provided in question 6.
18 to 29 years 30 to 39 years 40 to 49 years 50 to 59 years +60 years
8 What is the age profile of these employees? It would be appreciated if you could
complete the data by providing a figure per category.
Thank You, This is the end of the Questionnaire. Please email the completed questionnaire to Willie Verster
114 Annexure G List of participant in the research Interview were conducted and captured on audio with consent of the interviewee. The questioning framework listed in annexure E was used to conduct the interview.
List of Interviewees Organisation Interviewee 1 AEL MS Mr S. Tose 2 African Blasting Mr H. van Staaden 3 Alkantpan Test Range Mr H. van Vuuren 4 Armscor - Flamengro Mr A. Steenkamp 5 Chamber of Mines Mr D. Kruger 6 CSIR DPSS Mr D. Engels & Mr J. Lotter 7 Department of Labour Mr R. Ramabulana 8 Department of Minerals Resources Mr A. Coutinho 9 SA Armaments Explosives Board Mr J. Niemand 10 Institute for Security Studies Mr W. Els 11 MAXAM Dantex Mr A. Steyn 12 Mponeng Mine Mr H. Greef & Mr G. Harrison 13 NIXT Mr E. Stadler 14 Omnia - BME Ms H. Schalkwyk 15 SABO Mr N. van Niekerk 16 SAFEX Dr B. Coetzee 17 SANDF - Chief of Acquisition R Adm (JG) C. J. Visser 18 SANDF - Inspectorate of Naval Ordnance Capt (SAN) N.P.J. Steyn 19 SANDF - Logistic Support Formation Col B. Cronje 20 SANDF - School of Ammunition Lt Col R. Appolis 21 SAPS Chief Inspector of Explosives Col J. van Staaden & WO L. Smith 22 SASOL Nitro Dr W. Spiteri 23 University of Cape Town - BISRU Prof G. Nurick 24 UNISA Prof H. Schenk, Mr A. de Beer & Mr H.N. P. Pieterse 25 University of Pretoria Mr W. De Graaf 27 University of the Witwatersrand Mr B. Prout
Distribution of the questionnaires shown in annexure F No Organisation Respondent No Organisation Respondent 1 Anglo American Group Mr L. Dippenaar 23 Jet Demolition Mr J.R. Brinkmann 2 Armscor Mr C. Brijraj 24 Mr L. du Plessis Mr L. du Plessis 3 Bivest Paniltina Mr D. van Niekerk 25 Orepass & Mining Technology No reply 4 Blast Analysis Africa Mr K. Burrows 26 Orica Mining No reply 5 Blast Design TLC Engineering Solutions No reply 27 PJ Deysel industrial cartridge No reply 6 Blast Management & Consulting Mr D. Zeeman 28 RDM Boskop Mr J. De Waal 7 Blast Quest No reply 29 RDM Kranskop No reply 8 C4 logistics No reply 30 RDM Plant Engineering Mr J. Du Toit 9 Dangerous good packers for air Ms A. van den Dool 31 RDM Product Development Mr R. Keyser 10 Denel - Overberg Test Range Mr J. Nel 32 RDM Quality Department No reply 11 Denel - PMP Ms B. Fourie 33 RDM Somerset West Mr L. Minaar 12 Denel Dynamics Mr C. De Kock 34 SA Demolishers No reply 13 Denel Land Systems Mr B. Van der Linde 35 SA Professional hunters Association Ms A. Kitshoff 14 Denel Land Systems - Mechem Mr T. Taljaard 36 SAGA Ms S. de Beer 15 Detnet Dr G. Landman 37 SANDF - Engineering Formation Col P.C. Manser 16 Domino Blasting Mr N. Du Plessis 38 SANDF - SA Air Force Lt Col G. Ferris 17 DU Preez Munitions Services Mr P.S. C. Du Preez 39 SANDF - Special Forces Available on request 18 Eagle Explosives Management Systems Mr G. Barnard 40 SANDF SA Navy - Diving school No reply 19 Eco break Mr J. Van Staaden 41 SAPS Bomb Disposal WO L. Smith 20 Fuchs Electronics Mr M. Tucker 42 SAPS Forensics No reply 21 GAC laser logistics Mr D. Rohrbeck 43 Taurus Demolition No reply 22 Greenbreak Technologies Mr R. Muller 44 Total Demolition No reply
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