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The Peopling of New Zealand, 1840&1914

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The Peopling of New Zealand, 1840&1914 The Peopling of New Zealand, 1840-1914 Geo¤ Brooke Preliminary Draft Abstract This paper examines the migration from the United Kingdom to New Zealand between 1840 and 1914. New Zealand was colonised during the mass migration from Europe that began during the nineteenth century. Migrants from the UK were the main source of New Zealand’s population. These migrants faced alternative destinations that could be reached more quickly, at lower cost, and with a corresponding lower cost of return. Approximately half of the migrants from the U.K. were o¤ered an inducement to migrate. The inducements took the form of discounted and free passages, employment guarantees, and land grants. Beginning with the insights of Hatton and Williamson into the general characteristics of the migration, this paper considers the role of the assisted passages in explaining the decision of migrants to choose New Zealand as a destination. More generally, this paper highlights the role of organisations and bodies external to the family in starting and sustaining migrant ‡ows. 1 Introduction The colonial settlement of New Zealand took place during the mass migration from Europe that began in the nineteenth century. Approximately 412,000 people migrated from the UK and Ireland to New Zealand between 1840 and 1914, and these migrants were the main source of increase in the European population until the late 1870s. This paper investigates the causes of the decision by these mainly British and Irish migrants to move to New Zealand between 1839, when New Zealand became part of the British Empire, and 1914. The central question is not why the migrants preferred New Zealand to the UK, but why they preferred New Zealand to the well established alternatives, Australia, Canada, South Africa, or, most importantly, the USA? Of the migrants who arrived in New Zealand from the UK between 1858 and 1914, approxi- mately 47% received some form of inducement to migrate. The data for 1840-1957 are of poorer quality, but the proportion assisted was at least as large. For the majority the assistance took the form of a free or discounted passage, frequently with a loan for part of the balance. For a minority the inducement took the form of a free grant of land, calculated to be equal in value to the total cost of the passage. Assistance within families, an important part of the North-Atlantic University of Auckland, [email protected]. I would like to thank Tony Endres and Alan Rogers for reading and commenting on earlier drafts of the paper. 1 migration, was channeled through these schemes. Nominated family members were typically given preference in the allocation of assisted passages. The …rst discounted passages were o¤ered by the New Zealand Company as part of Edward Gibbon Wake…eld’splan for colonization. The discounted passages were o¤ered in the belief that the presence of a large stock of labour would result in a more than o¤setting increase in value of the Company’s land holdings. The passages were tied to the sale of land, and ultimately the New Zealand Company and its a¢ liates failed as a result of poor land sales. The provinces took control over migration policy in 1852. The three largest provinces by population all engaged in large scale schemes of assistance to attract migrants. The central government became involved in assisting migrants to New Zealand in 1870, taking sole respon- sibility in 1872, and continued with schemes for assisting migrants to New Zealand. In total, inducements to migrate were available in 62 of the 75 years between 1840 and 1914. Twelve of the thirteen years when assisted passages were not available was the period from 1892 to 1903, a response to the Long Depression. After 1852 the o¤ers of assistance were the result of a democratic political process. New Zealand had a restricted franchise, but the restrictions were some of the lightest in the world. From the early 1860s, gold-miners were able to purchase the right to vote for £ 1, less than a third of a week’s wages. While rates of political involvement were low, the assistance to New Zealand appears to be of very di¤erent character to the assistance to Brazil. The migrants assisted to New Zealand did not face any labour indenture, and in many years the right to nominate family and friends was universal. In both the importance of the assisted passages and the political environment in which they were o¤ered New Zealand was very similar to the colonies of Australia (Haines and Shlomowitz 1991). Our understanding of the forces underlying the nineteenth century mass migration have recently improved following Je¤rey Williamson’sand Timothy Hatton’sresearch project. Based on a set of consistent cross-country real wage series (Williamson 1995) and a choice-based model of the migration decision (Hatton 1995), they are able to explain a large part of the migration from Europe. The results of the project are summarized in Hatton and Williamson (1998). They …nd that more than 70% of the decade-average rate of migration from Europe can be explained by relative wages, the stock of previous migrants, the lagged migration and birth rate, and the share of labour in agriculture (Hatton and Williamson 1994). Similarly, more than 80% of the annual rate of migration from the UK can be explained by lags and rates of change of relative wages, unemployment in the sending and receiving country, the stock of previous migrants, and the lagged rate of migration (Hatton 1995). This paper employs Hatton’s(1995) model to examine the time-series properties of the decade- average aggregate ‡ow, and annual aggregate, assisted, and unassisted ‡ows. At least some dif- ferences between the time-series properties of the assisted and unassisted migration are expected to follow from the fact that the o¤ers of assistance depended mainly on labour market conditions in New Zealand, and were independent of labour market conditions in the UK. While the Hatton and Williamson research project was successful at explaining the migration from Europe, it had less to say about the choice of destination. In computing the relative-wage ratio they use the weighted average destination choice as measured after the fact. This assumes away the problem of explaining why, given the dominance of North America as a destination, 2 approximately 16% of the migrants went to Australasia. This point has been raised as a criticism of econometric studies of migration by a number of writers (Gould 1979, McKeown 2004, Baines 1994). Baines concludes that a greater understanding of migration can only be gained from family level studies. Inducements to migrate have, until recently, received little attention in the history of the nine- teenth century mass migration from Europe. Numerous bodies and organizations were involved in promoting migration generally, and particular destinations in some cases. These included the Church, landowners facing increasing poor rates, trades unions negotiating for higher wages in the face of blackballing and lockouts, and for-pro…t colonizing companies in the sending coun- try (see for example Gould 1979 p. 617 and Erickson 1949). In the receiving countries these included industries targeting skilled labourers and governments. In response to Baine’s call for more family level studies, this paper draws attention to the role of bodies external to the family that encouraged and assisted the migrants. Migration is a highly path dependent process. Un- derstanding why migrants began to migrate to a particular destination may explain a large part of the subsequent ‡ow. In the case of New Zealand, the original impetus came from a company, and the ‡ow of migrants was sustained by successive governments that promoted and …nanced assisted passages. The paper is structured as follows. In the next section I brie‡y describe the main features of the migration to New Zealand and the characteristics of the inducements to migrate. In section three I discuss the relevant prior literature. The model, data, and results are presented in section four. In section …ve I consider the role of the assisted passages in in‡uencing the choice of destination, and in the recent history of migration generally. The paper concludes in section …ve. 2 The Migration to New Zealand If we consider the nineteenth migration in terms of systems, or groups of countries, rather than direct source-destination connections, then New Zealand formed part of the migration system that included the UK and Australia. For both Australia and New Zealand this constituted their dominant migration system. The UK’smigration experience was dominated by the North Atlantic system, connecting the UK with Canada and the USA. Migration within the UK- Australasia migration system, from a New Zealand perspective, was characterized by large net in‡ows from the UK and large gross but small net ‡ows with respect to Australia. The net migration to New Zealand with respect to Australia, the UK, and all other destina- tions is shown in Figure {see end}. The data are from the Statistics of New Zealand. In the statistics Australia is grouped with all other destinations within the British Empire from 1853 to 1874 and with Hawaii and the South Sea islands from 1875 to1879. Assuming that all of these migrants travelled to and from Australia overstates the total, but the error is not believed to be large. The major source of net immigration, accounting for more than 75% of the total, was the UK. The ratio of arrivals to departures for the full period is 5.4. That is, 5.4 migrants arrived from the UK for every migrant who departed for the UK.
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