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Helminth Parasites in the New Zealand Meat & Wool

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Helminth Parasites in the New Zealand Meat & Wool THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATION LTD F I N A L R E P O R T Helminth Parasites in the New Zealand Meat & Wool Pastoral Industries : A Review of Current Issues P.V. Rattray September 2003 THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATIOIN LTD 5/08/04 CONTENTS Page No. 1.0 POPULAR SUMMARY 5 2.0 INTRODUCTION 8 3.0 REVIEW: CONTROL OF HELMINTH PARASITES IN THE NZ MEAT 11 & WOOL PASTORAL INDUSTRIES 3.1 Introduction 11 3.2 Internal Helminth Parasites of NZ Ruminants 13 3.3 Life Cycles 14 3.3.1 Nematodes 14 3.3.2 Trematodes 16 3.3.3 Cestodes 17 3.4 Epidemiology of the Helminths 17 3.4.1 Nematodes 17 3.4.2 Trematodes 29 3.4.3 Cestodes 31 3.5 Host-Parasite Interactions 31 3.5.1 Parasite Damage to Hosts 31 3.5.2 Host Responses to Helminth Parasites 38 3.6 Diagnostic Procedures to Assist Control Programmes 50 3.6.1 Worm Counts 51 3.6.2 Faecal Egg Counts 53 3.6.3 Faecal Egg Counts as a Guide for Drench Use 56 3.6.4 Improved Faecal Diagnostic Techniques 57 3.6.5 Biochemical & Other Aids 57 3.6.6 Larval Counts 58 3.6.7 The Detection of Anthelmintic Resistance 59 3.7 Anthelmintics & Their Use 63 3.7.1 The Anthelmintics 63 3.7.2 How Anthelmintics Work in the Host 70 3.7.3 Anthelmintic Performance 70 3.7.4 Practices That Improve the Effectiveness of a Drench 70 3.7.5 Persistent Anthelmintics 71 3.7.6 The Changing Scene of Drench Recommendations in NZ 74 3.7.7 Dosing Procedures & The Use of Drenches 79 3.7.8 Current Sheep Recommendations 80 3.7.9 Recommendations for Cattle 83 3.7.10 Goats 84 3.7.11 Deer 84 THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATION LTD PAGE 2 3.8 Internal Parasite Resistance to Anthelmintics 85 3.8.1 What is Anthelmintic Resistance? 86 3.8.2 Types of Resistance 87 3.8.3 Drench Families & Anthelmintic Resistance 88 3.8.4 History of Resistance in NZ 90 3.8.5 Prevalence 92 3.8.6 Genetics of Resistance 94 3.8.7 Reversion 95 3.8.8 Drenching Frequency 96 3.8.9 Persistent Anthelmintics Resistance 96 3.8.10 Effects of Host Immunity 102 3.8.11 Key Points on Anthelmintic Resistance 103 3.9 Integrated & Planned Control Programmes for the Management of Internal Parasites 103 3.9.1 Ratio of Stock Classes 106 3.9.2 Level of Feeding 107 3.9.3 Provision of “Safer” Pasture 107 3.9.4 Rotational Grazing 111 3.9.5 Spelling Intervals to Produce Safe Pasture 113 3.9.6 The Role of Pasture Species & Specialised Forages 114 3.10 Breeding for Host Resistance or Resilience 117 3.10.1 Sheep Breed Differences 118 3.10.2 Sheep Breeding Objectives: “Resistance” vs. “Resilience” 119 3.10.3 Breeding Nematode Resistant Sheep 123 3.10.4 Resistance in Dual Purpose Sheep Breeds 125 3.10.5 Breeding Nematode “Resilient” Sheep 129 3.10.6 Resilience to Nematodes in Dual-Purpose Sheep Breeds 133 3.10.7 Blood Antibody Levels - The Use of the Host Resistance Test 134 3.10.8 Genetic Markers & Marker Assisted Selection 135 3.10.9 Relationship Between Resistance to Worms & Lice in Sheep 137 3.10.10 Genetic Research With Other Farmed Ruminants 138 3.11 Potential Future/Novel Control Methods 138 3.11.1 Vaccines 138 3.11.2 Modulation of The Host Immune Reactions 144 3.11.3 Gene Silencing 145 3.11.4 Biological Anthelmintics 145 3.11.5 Biological Control of Nematode Larvae 146 3.11.6 Use of Models for Internal Parasite Control 151 4.0 DISCUSSIONS WITH INDUSTRY PEOPLE 154 4.1 Farmers 154 4.2 Researchers 160 4.3 Commercial 184 4.4 Other 193 THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATION LTD PAGE 3 5.0 REFERENCES 195 6.0 CONTACTS FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 228 THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATION LTD PAGE 4 1.0 POPULAR SUMMARY · Internal parasites have been the major animal health problem on NZ farms for over 100 years. The round worms are the most important. · Twenty-nine species were inadvertently introduced to NZ and the most important are Nematodirus, Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus, Ostertagia and Cooperia. · Internal parasites cost the sheep industry approximately $300m annually in lost production and drench use, while the cattle industries spend about $50m on drench per annum. · Parasite resistance to drenches cost an estimated additional $20m per year and this is predicted to rise to $60m per year by 2022. · A knowledge of some aspects of the internal parasites’ life cycles and epidemiology is useful in devising control programmes. · Over 90% of the population of various stages of roundworm parasites live outside the animal on the pasture and soil. · Throughout NZ the roundworm parasite numbers appear to have a reasonably characteristic annual pattern of faecal egg counts, which generally parallels infective larvae numbers on pasture, reaching a major peak in autumn, and a variable or minor peak in spring. Some exceptions to the general pattern may be occurring. · Drenching has been the major control method for roundworms for over 40 years. · The main aim of the drenching programme is to prevent the autumn rise in pasture contamination. · Parasite drench resistance has developed dramatically in the last 20 years. · Alternative control procedures to drenching are used in planned or integrated control programmes. · Each control programme is specific to each farm. · It is now recommended that each farm should monitor the parasite status of stock classes and drench resistance status of the farm (i.e. which worm species are resistant to which drench types). · FEC (faecal egg counts) are the most commonly used diagnostic aid to measure parasite status of animals. Variability has been a problem, but a new, accurate validated test is now available. THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATION LTD PAGE 5 · Previously FECs from cattle were considered questionable value but they were of some use in diagnosing parasite status. A new more sophisticated technique with much greater accuracy are now available. · Assays for drench resistance, are usually based on faecal egg count reduction (FECR) and larval culture is required to identify the resistant species of worms. “DrenchTest” and the less accurate “DrenchCheck” are routine in NZ. · Drench resistance is encouraged by persistent anthelmintics or boluses as they give the resistant worms a much longer time to breed and contaminate pastures. The use of CRCs, especially with adult ewes, is no longer considered prudent. The problem is exacerbated when CRCs are used to create “safe” pasture. · Rotation of drenches families was previously recommended to slow the development of drench resistance. This is no longer considered the case and combination drenches are now recommended, as the chances of worms having resistance to two or three of the drench families is quite remote, because of the different modes of killing action of the active ingredients. · Animals develop immunity to the various roundworms, and need periodic or continual larval challenges to maintain this immunity. · This develops in young stock by 8-10 months of age even under a preventative drenching programme. · Adult ewes are generally immune to worms, but under stress this immunity can break down. This often occurs after lambing for a short period (four weeks approx.) and leads to a periparturient rise in FEC and pasture contamination until immunity is regained. · The periparturient rise is due to the additional nutrient demand or stress in late pregnancy and early lactation and is most obvious in ewes with multiples or ewes in poor condition. · Improved levels of nutrition, especially protein levels, have improved the immune response in young sheep and periparturient ewes. · The detrimental effects seen in the animal from most non-blood sucking roundworm infections are due to the immune reaction and a subsequent sequence of events, rather than direct damage caused by the parasite. · Loss of appetite and protein loss from the damaged gut are the main consequences. The gut needs to replace lost protein and this takes priority over liveweight gain, wool growth and lactation. This explains why additional protein is very important in reducing the damage and lost production caused by worms. · Integrated and planned control programmes, in addition to preventative drenching, emphasise optimal feeding; the use of pasture species of forages (e.g. chicory, legumes) that reduce parasite survival or reduce larval migration up the plant; and THIS REPORT WAS COMMISSIONED BY MEAT & WOOL INNOVATION LTD PAGE 6 plants containing condensed tannins (e.g. Lotus or Sulla). These tannins protect dietary protein from rumen degradation and also may have a direct anthelmintic effect. · Such programmes also emphasise the use of safe pasture from newly sown areas or hay/silage regrowth (although there can be some risk with the latter) , or forage crops. · The use of a different species of ruminant (e.g. cattle in a sheep system or vice versa) to graze areas in preparation for susceptible young stock is a key element of these programmes, as worms rarely transmit from one species to the other and the alternative ruminant species can “vacuum” up infective larvae from the pasture. · Immune adults of the same species can also be used for this purpose, but there is still some risk of contamination, especially if their immunity breaks down. · Animals can be bred that have either a high immunity (resistant animals) or a high tolerance (resilient animals) to worms.
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