Intermountain Region National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Resource Stewardship and Science

Crossroads in Science Where the Intermountain Region’s Resource Stewardship and Science Programs and Centers Meet

Fall 2015 Issue 3

In This Issue...

Refl ections and New Beginnings— the Associate Regional Director of Resource Stewardship and Science Feature Park – Valles Caldera National Preserve: Integrating Science with Resource Management Feature Program– Historic Preservation Plus— Candid Cameras Monitoring Whitebark Pine A Voyage on an Ancient Sand Sea Underwater Wonders in Yellowstone A Rare Amphibian and its Habitat Tribal Field School at Bighorn Canyon Chiricahua Data Recovery IMR Paleontological Resource Inventory Reading Desert Stones IMR Climate Change Strategy and Action Holistic Resource Management Editorial Director: Nida Shaheen, [email protected]

Editors: Nida Shaheen, [email protected] Brian Smith, [email protected] Lindy Allen, lindy_allen @nps.gov Tabitha Carver-Roberts

Visual Layout: Lori Kinser, [email protected]

Front Cover: Valles Caldera National Preserve See the feature park article on page 1. (Source: Don Usner, 2003) Contents

Associate Regional Director Refl ections and New Beginnings ...... i

NATURAL RESOURCES Feature Park — Valles Caldera National Preserve Integrating Science with Resource Management ...... 1

NATURAL RESOURCES Candid Cameras – Using Wildlife Cameras to Monitor Mammal Communities in Southwestern National Parks and Wildlife Refuges ...... 11

INVENTORY AND MONITORING What Can a Long-Term Monitoring Program Tell Us as a Forest Changes before Us? The Story of Monitoring Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem ...... 21

NATURAL RESOURCES A Paleontological Voyage on an Ancient Sand Sea: Discovering Past Life and Environments in the Fossilized Desert of the Nugget Sandstone in Dinosaur National Monument ...... 27

SUBMERGED RESOURCES Yellowstone’s Underwater Wonders ...... 37

NATURAL RESOURCES Desert Waters, Desert Frogs – Exploring the Natural Dynamics of a Rare Amphibian and Its Habitat ...... 41

CULTURAL RESOURCES Feature Program — Historic Preservation Preserving Active Agricultural Landscapes in Intermountain Region Parks: A Joint Cultural and Natural Resources Venture ...... 50

CULTURAL RESOURCES Building Common Ground: Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area Tribal Field School ...... 58 CULTURAL RESOURCES Border Archeology at Chiricahua National Monument: Data Recovery at CHIR00021 ...... 65

NATURAL RESOURCES Application of New Technologies Supporting Paleontological Resource Inventory and Monitoring in Intermountain Region Parks ...... 73

CULTURAL RESOURCES Reading Desert Stones: Archeology in Big Bend National Park ...... 82

LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE Intermountain Region Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan ...... 90

CULTURAL RESOURCES 100 Years: The Nature of Culture and the Culture of Nature: Toward Holistic Resource Management ...... 98 Crossroads in Science

Associate Regional Director Refl ections and New Beginnings

Three years ago, we began a new publication in the Intermountain Region Resource Stewardship and Science (RSS) Directorate. Our hope was that this publication could provide insight and knowledge as the scientifi c community came together to share ideas. Together, Crossroads in Science has become a premier scientifi c publication in the National Park Service. Although our original intent was to serve parks in the Intermountain Region, this publication has been widely recognized throughout the Service. This is due to RSS employees taking a collaborative approach and working with other offi ces, divisions, programs, parks, DOI bureaus, and universities.

I want to thank you for all of your incredible contributions both in the fi eld and in submitting engaging articles. Crossroads in Science would not be successful without the input and commitment of park and regional offi ce employees.

As I leave the Intermountain Region to take on a new role as the superintendent of Big Cypress National Preserve, I will take with me the broad knowledge and wisdom that I’ve gained from the great people of this region. You have been a joy to work with and I’m grateful for the nearly fi ve years I’ve spent here.

As I move on, I am confi dent that the tradition of excellence in Resource Stewardship and Science will continue. We have an amazing team and the right people are set in place to continue to move this Directorate forward.

This issue of Crossroads in Science highlights our newest addition to the National Park Service - Valles Caldera National Preserve. The article showcases the area’s vast cultural and natural resources. This issue also features articles on archeology, historic preservation, and management techniques of cultural resources and explores natural resource challenges involving paleontology, wildlife, and rare aquatic frog monitoring. Finally, the inventory and monitoring program within the Intermountain Region conveys the benefi ts of long-term monitoring and how it can help better manage our resources.

I hope you enjoy reading this issue and are inspired by the great work that is being done to enhance resource stewardship in the National Park Service.

Tammy Whittington Associate Regional Director Resource Stewardship and Science

i Valles Caldera National Preserve Crossroads in Science

—NATURAL RESOURCES—

Feature Park— Valles Caldera National Preserve

Source: Don Usner Valles Caldera National Preserve: Integrating Science with Resource Management By Robert R. Parmenter, Chief of Science and Resource Stewardship, Valles Caldera National Preserve, [email protected]; Martina Suazo, Plant Ecologist, Valles Caldera National Preserve; Mark Peyton, Wildlife Biologist, Valles Caldera National Preserve; Katherine Condon, Hydrologist/Water Quality Specialist, Valles Caldera National Preserve; Mark Ward, Entomologist (Pest and Benefi cial Insects), Valles Caldera National Preserve; Anastasia Steff en, Interdisciplinary Science Communicator, Valles Caldera National Preserve; Samantha Cordova, Biological Science Technician, Valles Caldera National Preserve

New Mexico’s “Super Volcano” he Valles Caldera National TPreserve in the Jemez Mountains of northern New Mexico is one of the newest units in the national park system. Located at the intersection of two major fault systems, the Rio Grande Rift Valley and the Jemez Lineament, the Jemez Mountains overlie a weak point in the Earth’s crust that has spawned volcanoes for the last 14 million years. The preserve contains the remnant caldera of a massive eruption 1.25 million years ago (figure 1). Since that time, more than 15 major eruptions have created Figure 1. Landsat image of the Jemez Mountains with the Valles Caldera National numerous volcanic domes Preserve (Source: Robert Parmenter, 2015)

1 Fall 2015

within the caldera, including the major resurgent dome, Redondo Peak (elevation 11,254 ft.). The 12–15 mile diameter caldera is presently dormant (but not extinct) and still displays signs of volcanic activity, with hot springs and sulfuric acid fumaroles (Goff 2009).

The current landscape is covered with high-elevation coniferous forests and meadows. The iconic features of the preserve are the large, grassy valleys (valles in Spanish) that today cover the rich soils of

ancient lakebeds. The numerous Figure 2. View of the Valle Grande from Redondo Peak (Source: Robert Parmenter, 2006) volcanic domes support extensive forests, with the lower aquatic invertebrates and trout period (10,000–1,500 years ago). slopes dominated by ponderosa fisheries. Evidence of ancient human use pine, the middle slopes is found in prehistoric quarries, composed of mixed-conifer Human History reduction sites, temporary species of White fir, Douglas fir, While prehistoric use of campsites, and seasonal villages. Colorado blue spruce, and the preserve by American Obsidian artifacts from around Southwestern white pine, and Indians included the usual the world can be analyzed the upper peaks cloaked in activities of hunting game and for site-specifi c chemical Engelmann spruce and gathering native plants for food, constituents, which allows the Corkbark fir; extensive aspen medicine, and ceremonies, original geologic source of stands are sprinkled throughout the signature resources for the each piece of obsidian to be (Muldavin et al. 2005; figure 2). indigenous peoples were the identifi ed, and many obsidian Overall, the preserve is home to extensive volcanic deposits of tools and other artifacts more than 750 species of obsidian for the manufacture found across the United vascular plants, mosses, and of tools and weapons. The States have their origins in the algae, along with a rich high quality, weapons-grade Jemez Mountains (fi gure 3), assemblage of vertebrate and obsidian quarries on and near illustrating extensive transport invertebrate wildlife. The the preserve yielded critical of these artifacts and providing preserve’s caldera is also the top materials for spear points, a testament to the high value of the watershed for the Jemez arrowheads, knives, and other placed on Jemez Mountains River, a tributary to the Rio tools. Obsidian artifacts dating obsidian. Grande. More than 76 miles of back nearly 12,000 years have In the 12th century, Pueblo perennial streams drain the been found in the caldera, tribes began immigrating to preserve’s watersheds, with prehistoric use increasing the Rio Grande Valley from supporting rich communities of steadily throughout the Archaic the Colorado Plateau, and 2 Crossroads in Science

activities had profound impacts on the landscape, with high stocking rates of livestock infl uencing stream channels, grassland productivity, forest structure, and fuel loads (fi gure 4). Fire regimes were dramatically altered by the livestock’s removal of grasses (fi ne fuels) on the forest fl oor, preventing the spread of low- intensity ground fi res (Allen 2002). Young sapling trees, previously killed by frequent ground fi res, quickly fi lled in the forest and increased both fuel Figure 3. Locations of Jemez Mountains obsidian artifacts; white square indicates loads and ladder fuels. Forest Valles Caldera National Preserve, New Mexico (Source: Anastasia Steffen, 2007) clear-cutting in the latter 20th several successfully established century created dense, second- extensive networks of villages growth pine and fi r forests, and farm fi elds in the Jemez exacerbating the landscape Mountains (Anschuetz and Merlan 2007). A small corner of the preserve, below 8,400 feet today, contains the remains of the uppermost-elevation fi eld houses and agricultural sites, delineating the altitudinal maximum for farming limited by the short growing season. The Jemez Mountains also are important for spiritual, cultural, and ceremonial reasons. The preserve continues to host American Indian religious and ceremonial sites and contains numerous areas considered sacred by several tribes.

Hispanic and Anglo use of the preserve during the 19th and 20th centuries was predominantly sheep and Figure 4. Top: Sheep herd crossing Jaramillo Creek in Valle Grande, circa 1935 (Source: T. Harmon Parkhurst; Museum of New Mexico image #51457); Bottom: Same location, cattle ranching and timber present day (Source: Steve Tharnstrom and John Hogan; USGS Jemez Mountains Field harvest (Martin 2003). These Station image #JMFS 306) 3 Fall 2015

fuel patterns and amounts (Balmat and Kupfer 2004). In recent years, large-scale uncharacteristic wildfi res, such as the 2011 Las Conchas fi re and the 2013 Thompson Ridge fi re, have burned more than 60% of the preserve to varying severities.

Today, most human activities on the preserve are recreational— hiking, mountain biking, equestrian, snowshoeing, cross-country skiing, hunting, fi shing, and night-sky events. The preserve is also a popular venue for fi lming TV shows and movies. In 2014, the preserve hosted nearly 120,000 visitors, and annual visitation has consistently increased since 2003. Landscape Restoration As a result of the existing ecosystem conditions at the time of federal acquisition, a major eff ort was initiated to restore the landscape to a more resilient condition and reinstate natural fi re regimes. The preserve formed a partnership with the Santa Fe National Forest, The Nature Conservancy, the Pueblo of Jemez, Bandelier National Monument, and more than 30 other agencies and organizations to develop and implement a landscape restoration strategy. Projects undertaken by the collaborative included forest thinning Figure 5A. Repeat photos of dense Ponderosa pine stand before thinning (top, spring 2010), after thinning (middle, fall 2010) and two years after burning (bottom, and prescribed burning, 2014). (Sources: top to bottom- Robert Parmenter, Rebecca Oertel, Martina Suazo) 4 Crossroads in Science

management of natural fi res, Science-Informed cultural resources, and an riparian restoration, species Management extensive geographic reintroductions, and road information system (GIS) was closures (fi gure 5A). Upon With the wide range of public developed; data layers include a completion in 2019, the activities, the preserve has high-resolution (2m-pixel) preserve’s ecosystems will be tasked the Scientifi c Services vegetation map, a new level-2 on the long-term successional Division to acquire the soils map (from the Natural trajectory to once again become necessary information to ensure Resources Conservation Service a mosaic of old-growth forests, that science-based adaptive and the Forest Service), a new lower-density second-growth management is realized in geology map, and data layers for forests, and montane meadows management decisions (fi gure topography, roads, streams, and grasslands with natural fi re- 6). Early eff orts were devoted to archaeological sites, and historic return intervals (fi gure 5B). inventories of natural and features. To date, nearly 20,000 acres have been inventoried for cultural resources—with documentation of 680 prehistoric and historic sites, Grass/forb cover and GIS data points for 65,800 100 artifacts.

80 Transect 1 A major component of the 60 Transect 2 preserve inventories was compiling species lists and 40 Transect 3 distributions of the fauna and 20 fl ora. Intensive fi eld sampling

Plant cover (%) (%) Plant cover campaigns, often coupled with 0 ongoing monitoring programs, 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 have led to the near-completion of species lists for vascular plants, mosses, algae, fungi Plant Diversity and lichens, mammals, birds, 2.5 reptiles, amphibians and fi sh, 2 and many taxa of aquatic and Transect 1 terrestrial invertebrates (thanks 1.5 Transect 2 to the eff orts of scientists from the Systematic Entomology 1 Transect 3 Laboratory / Smithsonian 0.5 Institution). Many archived voucher specimens have been 0

Shannon Index (H') placed in the national collection 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 at the Smithsonian Institution, the University of Wyoming’s Figure 5B. Monitoring data from sites in Figure 5A show increase in grass/forb cover and diversity after thinning and burning. (Source: Martina Suazo, 2015) herbarium, and the University of New Mexico’s Museum of Southwestern Biology. 5 Fall 2015

Figure 6. Map of Science Inventory and Monitoring Sites on the Valles Caldera National Preserve (Source: John Swigart, 2015)

6 Crossroads in Science

Inventories of remaining taxa Mean Annual Temperature, Jemez Springs, NM continue, with the goal of 1914-2014 55 completing an all taxa biological inventory mirroring that of 54 the Great Smoky Mountains 53 Long-term National Park. Given the average Û) Û F) documented climate change 52 in the preserve, coupled with 51 anticipated increased regional 50 temperatures and declining Temp = 0.018(Year) + 17.01 Temperature r² = 0.179, P << 0.01 precipitation in coming 49 decades, the preserve’s present- 48 day inventory will provide a 47 detailed benchmark to which 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 future generations of scientists can compare changes in Mean July Temperature, Jemez Springs, NM 1914-2014 biodiversity over centuries to 78 Temp = 0.039(Year) - 5.895 77 come. r² = 0.34, P<<0.01 76 Monitoring programs were 75

established in response to a Û) 74 73 number of issues. With ongoing Long-term 72 average climate change, the preserve Û F) 71 set up a network of weather 70

stations, including the preserve Temperature 69 offi ces in the town of Jemez 68 Springs. Data from the Jemez 67 Springs station, coupled with 66 comparable data since 1914, 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 show that annual temperatures Mean December Temperature, Jemez Springs, NM have risen 1.8˚ F over the past 1914-2014 44 Long-term 101 years, and that the most average Temp = -0.0077(Year) + 48.98 rapid increases are occurring 42 Û F) r² = 0.0046, P > 0.05

in the months of March, June, 40 July, and August; this fi nding 38 is important for anticipating Û) future snowmelt periods and 36 fi re seasons (fi gure 7). 34

32

At the time of acquisition, Temperature nearly all the streams on the 30 preserve were impaired for high 28 temperatures and turbidity, 26 a result of prior land-use Figure 7. Temperature increases in Jemez Springs, New Mexico, 1914–2014; note activities. Preserve streams that temperatures are increasing in midsummer (July), but not in midwinter (December) (Source: Robert Parmenter, 2015) 7 Fall 2015

have been monitored for preserve using fl umes and regime, the preserve supports water quality using automated stream gauges; these data will approximately 750 cow-calf instruments (sondes) for prove critical for determining pairs for 4 months/year. temperature, dissolved oxygen, if forest thinning increases Livestock are kept in upland pH, conductivity, and turbidity. net water yield during spring pastures, fenced away from These data inform management snowmelt, an important goal riparian zones. Vegetation on the success of watershed of watershed restoration monitoring provides forage restoration treatments (e.g., (Parmenter 2009). production and utilization planting willows to shade measures, along with plant stream channels and lower By congressional statute, the cover and diversity within and temperatures), as well as preserve conducts a livestock outside of livestock exclosures document impacts of wildfi res grazing program for regional to ensure compliance with upstream. Stream discharge ranchers. Based on forage National Environmental Policy is monitored on all 1st-, 2nd-, production models and a Act requirements. Livestock and 3rd-order streams on the designated light-grazing owners are charged market rates

Figure 8. Forest-fl oor herbaceous vegetation recovery in a mixed-conifer stand following the 2011 Las Conchas Fire. Top left: Immediately post-fi re, July 2011. Top right: 2012. Lower left: 2013. Lower right: 2014 (Source: Rebecca Oertel and Martina Suazo) 8 Crossroads in Science

for pasturage, and as a result, the preserve actually makes a small profi t from the program.

Vegetation monitoring also provides estimation of fuel loads for prescribed fi res, as well as tracking changes in plant communities following forest restoration and fi res (fi gure 8). During fi eldwork, preserve botanists document populations of invasive/nonnative plant species for subsequent removal; they also record locations of Figure 9. New Mexico State University graduate student Sarah Kindschuh administers sensitive and rare plants for a “wake-up” injection to anesthetized black bear with iridium GPS collar (Source: Mark Peyton, 2012) incorporation into future management planning for with long-term monitoring of following both wildfi res and public access and use. breeding birds. Fisheries across prescribed fi res, in areas with the preserve have been and without ungulate grazing Wildlife population monitoring monitored each spring and fall (elk and livestock). These results data are used in all aspects of since 2003, allowing evaluation are continuously contributing preserve management. of recreational fishing programs, to management understanding Information on the preserve’s as well as impacts of post-fire of the rates of successional elk herd is critical to monitoring flooding. Biologists also track changes following restoration of herd condition, demographics, the distributions of protected fi re regimes on the preserve. habitat use, migration corridors, species, such as the endemic and disease so that the preserve Jemez Mountains salamander, Science Education and can maintain a sustainable and have reintroduced other Interpretation population for recreationists species that were extirpated and hunters. Preserve biologists Virtually all of the data from decades ago, including the and collaborating scientists also the inventory and monitoring northern leopard frog, the Rio monitor other large mammals, programs, and from outside Grande chub, and the Rio including mule deer, black bear, research, are used in Grande sucker. mountain lions, and coyotes, interpretive and educational using GPS radio collars for In addition to vertebrate materials for the public and movements and habitat use, scat wildlife, preserve entomologists school groups visiting the analyses for diets, teeth and collaborating biologists preserve. Visitors learn the latest collections for age have monitored a wide variety information on the geology, determinations, and blood of pest and benefi cial insects, biology, archaeology, hydrology, samples for diseases (figure 9). spiders, and other invertebrates. fi re history, and climate of the Small mammal studies (rodents, Ongoing monitoring projects Jemez Mountains from the shrews, and bats) have been include post-fi re successional preserve’s interpretive staff . conducted for post-fire patterns of aquatic and Preserve education specialists successional patterns, along terrestrial invertebrates (including volunteer teachers)

9 Fall 2015

conduct hands-on fi eld natural and cultural resources, projects with outside funding exercises with school classes, provides information for of more than $5.2 million. This measuring vegetation, wildlife, management planning and amount exceeded the preserve’s and stream water quality in decision-making on all FY 2014 appropriated budget untreated control sites and areas programs and activities, informs and recreational revenues being restored. Multiple years restoration eff orts during the combined. The preserve of education programs’ data are planning, implementation provides an important outdoor being compiled into classroom and post-action evaluation laboratory and classroom; with activities involving not only monitoring phases, and increasing visitation, climate natural resource ecology, but transfers synthesized results change, and the expanding also mathematics and data to public education and programs for public access and analyses. interpretive programs. use, the science program will Visiting scientists to the continue to provide salient Future Science preserve contribute additional information to fulfi ll the goal The science program knowledge via their research of science-based adaptive contributes to the baseline studies; in 2014, the preserve management. knowledge of the preserve’s hosted 53 permitted research

References Allen, Craig D. 2002. “Lots of Lightning, Plenty of People: An Ecological History of Fire in the Upland Southwest.” In Vale, Thomas R. Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural Landscape. Island Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 143–193.

Anschuetz, Kurt F., and Thomas Merlan. 2007. More Than a Scenic Mountain Landscape: Valles Caldera National Preserve Land Use History. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-196. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Balmat, J., and J. Kupfer. 2004. Assessment of Timber Resources and Logging History of the Valles Caldera National Preserve. University of Arizona Technical Report VCT04011 for Valles Caldera Trust, Tucson, Arizona.

Goff , Fraser. 2009. Valles Caldera: A Geologic History. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Martin, Craig. 2003. Valle Grande: A History of Baca Location No. 1. All Seasons Publishing, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

Muldavin, E, P. Tonne, Charlie Jackson, and Teri Neville. 2005. A Vegetation Map of the Valles Caldera National Preserve, NM. Final Report for Cooperative Agreement No. 01CRAG0014, University of New Mexico, Natural Heritage Museum, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Parmenter, Robert R. 2009. “Applying Hydrology to Land Management on the Valles Caldera National Preserve.” Southwest Hydrology, March/April 2009: 22–23. 10 Crossroads in Science

—NATURAL RESOURCES— Candid Cameras – Using Wildlife Cameras to Monitor Mammal Communities in Southwestern National Parks and Wildlife Refuges By Don Swann, Biologist, Saguaro National Park, [email protected]; Nic Perkins, Biological Technician, Saguaro National Park, [email protected]; Jason Mateljak, Chief of Resource Management, Southeast Arizona Group, [email protected]; Amanda Selnick, Biological Science Technician, Southeast Arizona Group, [email protected]; Lacrecia Johnson, Zone Biologist, Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts US Fish and Wildlife Service, [email protected]

orldwide, mammals are shot by a gun just outside the is diffi cult to achieve. Twenty Wconsidered one of the park boundary by the park’s years ago, Newmark (1995) most threatened taxonomic caretaker, Don Egermayer, estimated that mammal species groups, with some estimates while he was off -duty in 1947. survivorship in the western that roughly one-fourth of all Bighorn sheep were illegally United States national parks species—some 1,130 total—are hunted in the park during the had declined since each in danger of extinction (Baillie 1940s and had completely park’s establishment, and that and Groombridge 1996). Many disappeared by the 1950s. The extirpation greatly exceeded consider national parks in the last confi rmed jaguar was shot colonization. Newmark’s United States as essential refugia by a hunter in 1932, and the last paper was controversial among for mammals, especially for grizzly bear was trapped in the National Park Service (NPS) unique and charismatic species early 1920s (Swann 2011). Park biologists because it was based such as American bison, grizzly staff routinely reported North on visitor and staff sightings, bears, and bighorn sheep. American porcupines in the which are often inaccurate. However, there is evidence that fi rst four decades of the park, However, it was diffi cult to mammals have declined and but none have been observed confi rm or deny the results become locally extirpated in since the 1990s and may also be because museum specimens, many parks, particularly low- extirpated. Similarly, Chiricahua the classical way of confi rming profi le species in smaller parks. National Monument and Fort species presence, are diffi cult to Bowie National Historic Site obtain in parks where collecting The Sky Island region of have 67 and 58 native mammal by shooting and trapping was the southwestern United species listed (Powell et al. discouraged. States, known for its very 2005, 2008), respectively, with high biodiversity, is one several species not documented Fortunately, camera traps area where mammals have in the last 10 years (common (also called wildlife cameras; declined. Saguaro National porcupines and raccoons) or fi gure 1) have become an Park, with approximately 70 considered extirpated from eff ective, inexpensive, and native mammals documented the parks (wolves, jaguars, widely available method for (Powell et al. 2006, 2007), has and grizzly bears [Hoff meister documenting the distribution lost several high profi le species 1986]). and relative abundance of since it was established in 1933. mammals. Camera traps can The last record of a Mexican Determining the status of sense infrared heat of a passing gray wolf is an individual mammals in national parks animal, capture the event

11 Fall 2015

They often produce high quality photos (fi gure 2) that can be used to interpret elusive wildlife to park visitors.

In the southern Arizona national parks, we’ve used camera traps to focus on mammal communities by documenting the presence and distribution of all species of medium and large mammals present in our parks. Many of these species, such as white-nosed coatis (fi gure 3) and collared peccaries, are only found in a few national parks. Others, such as ocelots

Figure 1. Setting a camera trap at Manning Camp during the 2011 BioBlitz at Saguaro and jaguars, are extremely National Park (Source: NPS, 2015) rare in the United States. One of our greatest fears is losing species without even knowing it is occurring; preserving them in the face of increasing human threats is important for protecting natural wilderness values and to achieve the NPS Organic Act goal to conserve “wild life” unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.

Figure 2. Gray fox photographed by camera trap at Chiricahua National Monument, January 2015 (Source: NPS, 2015)

in a digital photograph, and to study a host of wildlife take photos with no human management issues, including interaction. This is far more use of water developments, accurate than recording identifying animals digging into observations, and much archeological sites, studies of less intrusive and invasive habitat use and nest predation, than traditional methods for interactions between wildlife Figure 3. White-nosed coati photographed studying mammals. Camera and humans, and learning about by camera trap at Chiricahua National Monument, December 2015 traps are used in many parks rare and endangered species. (Source: NPS, 2015) 12 Crossroads in Science

From Field to Photos: sample of mammals, we used In the Southeast Arizona Group Four Camera Trap a randomized design and (SEAZ) parks of Coronado Surveys in Southern unbaited camera traps (fi gure National Memorial, Fort 4). Our goal was to develop a Bowie National Historic Site, Arizona comprehensive knowledge of and Chiricahua National In 2011–2012, as part of a major the distribution and presence of Monument, camera traps BioBlitz sponsored by the mammals, as well as to compare have been used for nearly NPS, the National Geographic our results with a similar two decades to document the Society, Friends of Saguaro randomized inventory in the presence of rare mammals, National Park, and many other early 2000s. We set more than interactions with border partners, Saguaro National 50 camera traps in both the east crossers, and use of water Park conducted an inventory (Rincon Mountain) and west developments (Swann et al. of medium and large mammals. (Tucson Mountain) districts of 2010; Powell et al. 2005, 2008). To achieve an unbiased the park. As part of an eff ort to test a

Figure 4. Map of Rincon Mountain District, Saguaro National Park, showing randomized locations of camera traps during mammal survey, 2011–2012. (Source: Nicholas Perkins, 2012) 13 Fall 2015

regional camera trap monitoring From Photos to Data: Adding metadata allows for protocol, in 2013–2014 we set Processing, Storage, simpler data management, out unbaited camera traps in and Analysis quality control for species three randomized designs at identifi cation, and ensures Fort Bowie and Chiricahua. Each sampling eff ort generates that information travels with At Fort Bowie, we set out 40 thousands of photographs, the photograph. Information cameras for six weeks, and which are sorted and identifi ed is easily extracted into data compared results from both by species for analysis. To formats recognizable by randomly generated locations complete this task, we employed common software used for and “biotech’s choice” two methods utilizing readily analyzing and summarizing locations. At Chiricahua, we set available software. For the data. out 45 cameras for eight weeks sampling from Saguaro, we in a stratifi ed random design used Photo Mechanic—this With the Chiricahua survey, (fi gure 5). software adds metadata to we utilized a software suite the photographs themselves developed by Sanderson using preset dropdown menus. (Sanderson and Harris 2013).

Figure 5. Map showing randomized locations of camera traps at Chiricahua National Monument during mammal survey, 2014–2015. (Source: Amanda Selnick, 2015) 14 Crossroads in Science

This software rapidly processes returning results for searches in At Saguaro, with randomly and analyzes wildlife photos English for certain fi elds, such placed cameras set for a total through iterative steps: batch as species identifi cation and of nearly 15,000 camera nights renaming photos by date, vice versa. Therefore, searching across 353 locations, during identifying species present in for “mountain lion” will return 2011–2012 we collected just photos, and placing photos the same results as searching for over 5,000 photos of medium accordingly in digital folders “puma.” and large mammals that could pre-named and organized by be identifi ed to species (Swann species and number of animals. Mammal and Perkins 2012). In total, The software uses the folder Communities in we detected 24 native species tree for performing a series of (as well as nonnative dogs, basic data analyses. However, Southern Arizona cows, and horses) at random unlike Photo Mechanic, it lacks Parks locations, and two others at the metadata editing features nonrandom sites, and estimated Photos from camera traps and enhanced ability for tagging species richness (the number of have provided a wealth of photos for interpretive use. To species in the park), wildlife photos analyze the Fort Bowie survey, to be 25 (+/- 1.79). and revealed an Camera survey we used both Photo Mechanic We detected large impressive variety and the Sanderson method for nights are equivalent numbers of coatis of mammals in comparison purposes. to 506,160 survey and mountain lions, our parks. Camera as well as one species traps from all hours, which would By using a diff erent software (Mexican opossum) four surveys take a team of 10 by Google called Picasa, we that had only been generated 21,266 can post-process the photos biological technicians documented once for easy searching, viewing, photographs that approximately 25 previously. and mapping the photo’s contained photos location. We can search by of medium and years to replicate... At Saguaro, we individual species, such as large mammals compared results “mountain lion,” and Picasa during a period of between the will return all of the mountain 21,090 survey nights. Camera two districts and compared lion photos located anywhere survey nights are equivalent results from each district with in the folder structure, then to 506,160 survey hours, similar surveys conducted in display on a map where each of which would take a team the early 2000s. Although we the photos were taken. These of 10 biological technicians photographed 26 native species two methods are not exclusive, approximately 25 years to in the park’s Rincon Mountain and migration between the replicate (assuming 8-hour District, we only documented methods can be done simply to work days and 260-day work 15 in the more western Tucson utilize the advantages of each. years). We estimated that, even Mountain District. The Rincon Furthermore, the systems are in very complex terrain, the Mountains are larger and have a being designed to facilitate number of hours that biological much greater elevational range, data sharing in the future. For technicians spent setting so more mammal species might instance, the new Spanish cameras and analyzing photo be expected there. However, templates for Photo Mechanic data was 1%–2% of the total we failed to photograph four enables data to be entered time the cameras were gathering species that had been previously in Spanish but is capable of data. photographed in the Tucson 15 Fall 2015

Mountains and, in general, coati) was documented only at Rincon Mountain District, obtained far fewer records of a random site. Gray fox photos we detected all of the species carnivores. The missing species comprised 45% of total photos, that had been recorded in included: raccoon, Western while the spotted skunk, cliff recent decades except for the spotted skunk, striped skunk, chipmunk, and hooded skunk American porcupine, which and Eastern hog-nosed skunk only appeared on camera 1–2 was also not detected at (fi gure 6); and species with very times. Chiricahua or Fort Bowie. We few photos included: American photographed 22 of the 24 large badger, ringtail, mountain lion, At Chiricahua, 45 cameras were mammal species previously kit fox, and hooded skunk. deployed for 78 days (3,510 total documented at Chiricahua and survey nights) and captured documented a species (mule 3,956 photos identifi able to deer) that has likely long been species. We photographed present but never documented. a total of 22 medium and We are still uncertain of the large mammal species, which status of several species at included most of the species Fort Bowie and plan on doing that could be detected with additional work in the next wildlife cameras. We failed to several years to determine detect two habitat specialists, whether they still occur at this American badger and raccoon, small historic site. but did detect mule deer for the fi rst time. Species photographed However, in Saguaro’s Tucson Figure 6. Eastern hog-nosed skunk (one of four species of skunks in Saguaro ranged in size from American Mountain District, the fact that National Park) photographed in the black bears to small rock we did not fi nd species that Tucson Mountains in 2009 during a squirrels. Photos composed had been documented only a University of Arizona research project (Source: University of Arizona, 2009) mainly of unknown cottontails, decade before was concerning gray foxes, and white-tailed to us. Small carnivores such as At Fort Bowie, cameras were deer, with mule deer and skunks often experience large deployed for 42 days or 1680 collared peccary captured only fl uctuations in population size total survey nights, yielding once each. due to rabies and other diseases, more than 12,000 wildlife but we worry that these photos (7,202 “biotech choice” Species Changes in processes may be interacting and 4,984 random). We Southern Arizona with the increased loss of documented 16 species within Parks connectivity of the Tucson this 1,000-acre park, but failed Mountains as it becomes Our results reveal that to detect four species that had surrounded with housing, the species richness and been previously documented; highways, canals, and other composition of the mammal possibly due to seasonal developments. In response, community in the two larger timing or inadequate sampling since the inventory ended park units, Chiricahua National eff ort. Comparing methods, in 2012 we have continued Monument and Saguaro we photographed eight more searching for these species, National Park’s Rincon species with the biotech’s including setting camera traps Mountain District, are very choice than at completely in locations where the three similar to previous inventories random sites (15 versus 7), missing skunks had been in the early 2000s. In Saguaro’s but one species (white-nosed detected in the past. 16 Crossroads in Science

Developing a Regional Monitoring Partnership Seeing the value of using camera traps to monitor changes in the mammal community on a landscape scale, we have been working closely with the NPS Sonoran Desert Inventory and Monitoring program, the US Fish and Wildlife Service monitoring program, and nonprofi t groups such as the Sky Island Alliance to increase our knowledge of mammals in the desert Southwest and help set regional monitoring priorities. We have developed Figure 7. Setting a camera trap at Ajos-Bavispe National Forest Reserve in Sonora, a draft camera trap protocol Mexico (sister park for Southeast Arizona Group parks), during International Parks for parks and refuges inspired, Visit and Tracking Workshop with Sky Island Alliance in August 2014 (Source: NPS, Don Swann, 2014) in part, by international eff orts such as the Tropical Ecology One organization that has (fi gure 7). In February 2015, Assessment and Monitoring been instrumental in this eff ort we hosted a camera trapping network (TEAM) and the is the Sky Island Alliance, a workshop as part of a visit to Wildlife Picture Index (WPI). nongovernmental organization southern Arizona by biologists Both partnerships have well- dedicated to a bi-national from eight Mexican national developed protocols and conservation and protecting parks, where we discussed the methods for data management the native species and habitat common problem of managing and analysis (Ahumada et al. in southwestern United States the huge amounts of photo data 2011; O’Brien et al. 2010). and northwestern Mexico. that can lead to backlogs and The camera trap survey Biologists from the alliance lost data. Many parks in Mexico at Chiricahua National are helping develop a regional are also using camera traps, and Monument was a fi rst test of partnership with Mexican in general, we can all do a better this collaborative eff ort and was national parks and other job in organizing, sharing, and successful at detecting most protected areas. We’ve shared using data from camera traps to of the species believed to be visits among parks, including develop a greater understanding present. Over the next year, Saguaro’s sister parks Parque of the status of diff erent species we hope to continue to test Nacional Constitución de 1857 on a local and regional scale. In the protocol in other refuges, and Parque Nacional Sierra the long run, we believe this is parks, and protected areas and de San Pedro Mártir in Baja essential for helping to evaluate involve other agencies and California, and SEAZ’s sister diff erent threats and provide organizations. park Ajos-Bavispe National opportunities for making Forest Reserve in Sonora wildlife conservation eff orts

17 Fall 2015

more effi cient and eff ective, not only in our parks, but throughout the region. Using Wildlife Cameras in Education and Interpretation During Saguaro’s BioBlitz, which was held on October 21–22, 2011, we worked closely with youth groups from high schools who learned to set Figure 8. Mountain lion captured by camera trap by high school students from camera traps, and students Arizona College Prep Academy during the Saguaro National Park BioBlitz, October 2011 (Source: NPS, 2011) from middle schools were led on a wildlife tracking and camera program in the fi eld (and acquired amazing photos; see fi gure 8). In addition, the park now has a wildlife educational program called the Lost Carnivore program, where middle and high school students set out camera traps and learn about wildlife tracking, then download photographs from camera traps set by previous students. More than 200 students participated in 2014–2015. One middle school student, Ava Galbraith, developed an independent project by setting up cameras where the lost carnivores had been previously detected. Although we still have not photographed the three missing skunk species, the science fair student photographed a raccoon (the fi rst record since 2005) and won a series of awards at the regional science Figure 9. Screen shot from Friends of Saguaro National Park Shutterfl y Site fair. for camera trap photos taken at Saguaro National Park (Source: https:// saguwildcams.shutterfl y.com/, 2015) 18 Crossroads in Science

In all of the parks, we’ve worked 9), and other platforms. Some of Saguaro’s mountain lion with interpretive staff and of the videos and photos videos has generated hundreds friends groups to upload and from these camera traps of thousands of views on share wildlife photos with the are stunning and have great Facebook. With added context public through visitor center value in giving visitors an and interpretation, these photos exhibits, the park’s Facebook appreciation for seeing unusual provide great opportunities for pages, iNaturalist, the Friends mammals in their natural building support for long-term of Saguaro National Park’s habitat that they may never conservation and stewardship Shutterfl y wildlife page (fi gure be able to see otherwise. One for wildlife in our parks.

For Additional Information Please Visit: Saguaro’s Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/saguaronationalpark?fref=ts

Mountain Lion Video: https://www.facebook.com/saguaronationalpark/videos/vb.425305310356/10155 028170435357/?type=1&theater

Friends of Saguaro National Park Shutterfl y Wildlife Page: https://saguwildcams.shutterfl y.com/

Sky Island Alliance: http://www.skyislandalliance.org/

References Ahumada, Jorge A., Carlos E. F. Silva, Krisna Gajapersad, Chris Hallam, Johanna Hurtado, Emanuel Martin, Alex McWilliam, Badru Mugerwa, Tim O’Brien, Francesco Rovero, Douglas Sheil, Wilson R. Spironello, Nurul Winarni, and Sandy J. Andelman. 2011. “Community Structure and Diversity of Tropical Forest Mammals: Data from a Global Camera Trap Network.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 66: 2703–2711.

O’Brien, Timothy G., J. E. Baillie, L. Krueger, and M. Cuke. 2010. “The Wildlife Picture Index: Monitoring Top Trophic Levels”. Animal Conservation 13: 335–343. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.201000357.x.

Baillie, Jonathan and Brian Groombridge. 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 378 p.

Hoff meister, Donald F. 1986. Mammals of Arizona. Tucson: University of Arizona Press and Arizona Game and Fish Department.

Newmark, William D. 1995. “Extinction of Mammal Populations in Western American National Parks.” Conservation Biology 9: 512–526.

19 Fall 2015

Powell, Brian F., Cecilia A. Schmidt, and William L. Halvorson, eds. 2005. Vascular Plant and Vertebrate Inventory of Saguaro National Park, Rincon Mountain District. Open-File Report 2005-1167, US Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Sonoran Desert Research Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.

Powell, Brian F., William L. Halvorson, and Cecilia A. Schmidt, eds. 2006. Vascular Plant and Vertebrate Inventory of Saguaro National Park, Rincon Mountain District. Open-File Report 2006-1075, US Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Sonoran Desert Research Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.

Powell, Brian F., William L. Halvorson, and Cecilia A. Schmidt, eds. 2007. Vascular Plant and Vertebrate Inventory of Saguaro National Park, Rincon Mountain District. Open-File Report 2007-1296, US Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Sonoran Desert Research Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.

Powell, Brian F., Cecilia A. Schmidt, William L. Halvorson, and Pamela Anning, eds. 2008. Vascular Plant and Vertebrate Inventory of Chiricahua National Monument. Open-File Report 2008-1023, US Geological Survey, Southwest Biological Science Center, Sonoran Desert Research Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.

Sanderson, Jim and Grant Harris. 2013. “Automatic Data Organization, Storage, and Analysis of Camera Trap Pictures.” Journal of Indonesian Natural History 1: 6–14.

Swann, Don E., Melanie Bucci, Amy J. Kuenzi, Barbara N. Alberti, and Cecil R. Schwalbe. 2010. “Challenges to Natural Resources Monitoring in a Small Border Park: Terrestrial Mammals at Coronado National Memorial, Cochise County, Arizona.” Pp 225–239 in Halvorson, William, Cecil R Schwalbe, and Charles van Riper, III, eds. Southwestern Desert Resources. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Swann, Don E. 2011. Mammals of Rincon Mountain District, Saguaro National Park. National Park Service Natural Resource Report NPS/SODN/NRR—2011/437. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Swann, Don E., and Nic Perkins. 2012. “An Inventory of Terrestrial Mammals in the Rincon Mountains Using Camera Traps.” Pp. 269–276 in Gottfried, Gerald J., et al., Merging Science and Management in a Rapidly Changing World: Biodiversity and Management of the Madrean Archipelago III Conference, Tucson, Arizona. Proceedings, RMRS-P-67. Fort Collins, CO: US Dept. of Agriculture, FS Rocky Mountain Research Station.

20 Crossroads in Science

—INVENTORY AND MONITORING—

What Can a Long-Term Monitoring Program Tell Us as a Forest Changes before Us? The Story of Monitoring Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

By Kristin L. Legg, Program Manager, Greater Yellowstone Network, [email protected]; Michael Bozek, Intermountain Region Program Manager, Inventory and Monitoring Division, [email protected]; Erin Shanahan, Field Ecologist, Greater Yellowstone Network, [email protected]

Abstract A story of large-scale change is unfolding before our eyes, and the Greater Yellowstone Inventory and Monitoring Network is poised to describe and evaluate what happened to whitebark pine stands in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE). Whitebark pine trees occur across approximately 10% of the 20+ million acre GYE, of which Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks lie in its center. As of 2013, the Greater Yellowstone Network estimated that around 27% of whitebark pine trees taller than 1.4 meters have died throughout the GYE during the recent mountain

Figure 1. Mature whirebark pine tree, (Pinus albicaulis), pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) epidemic. A in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Source: NPS, Erin majority of the whitebark pine mortality occurred Shanahan, 2014) in the largest, and most majestic, cone-producing trees. As a result of losing the largest trees in the stands, estimates are that up to 80% of the whitebark pine overstory vegetative cover has been lost (based on overfl ight and remote sensing studies). So what does it mean when a signifi cant amount of a reproducing population is lost from an ecosystem and the remaining live trees are threatened by disease, pests, fi re, and climate change? While scientists and managers discuss what may happen, the Greater Yellowstone Network is helping to tell this story with data collected through the whitebark pine long-term monitoring program.

hitebark pine trees in the most exposed areas. spring, which helps to maintain W(Pinus albicaulis) are These fi ve-needle pines are soil moisture for plants into the an iconic symbol of subalpine identifi ed as a keystone species summer, and provide a food zone in western North America that support high elevation source for bears (Ursus spp.), that often take on a gnarled ecosystem functions such as Clark’s nutcrackers (Nucifraga or krummholz appearance retention of snowpack into late columbiana), and red squirrels

21 Fall 2015

Wildlife Service (USFWS) happens as other environmental listed the whitebark pine as factors, such as blister rust, “warranted but precluded” wildland fi re, and climate under the Endangered Species change, continue to change the Act (USFWS 2011). This means landscape. that the whitebark pine merits being listed, but at the time of review, it was not listed due Figure 2. Clark’s Nutcracker (Nucifraga to actions focused on more columbiana) (Source: Dave Menke, US FWS, n.d.) imperiled species. The Greater Yellowstone Network’s (GRYN) long-term whitebark pine monitoring program is helping to tell a story of large- and small-scale changes occurring across the landscape of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE). Whitebark pine trees occur across approximately 10% of the more than 20 million Figure 4. White pine blister rust (aecia, acre ecosystem. Recognizing Cronartium ribicola) (Source: NPS, 2013) the importance of this tree species within the GYE, and What do we know since potential threats to its long-term monitoring was initiated in Figure 3. Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus presence on the landscape, 2004? Analysis of whitebark hudsonicus) (Source: Donna Dewhurst, it was selected as a vital sign pine tree mortality in the US FWS, n.d.) for long-term monitoring by GYE estimates the cumulative (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). the GRYN (Jean et al. 2005), proportion of dead whitebark Unfortunately, across its and a peer-reviewed protocol pine greater than 1.4 m tall range (from the Sierra Nevada was established to guide the is around 27% as of 2013 Mountains, east to the Rocky monitoring (GYWBPMWG (GYWPMWG 2014). Of these, Mountains, and north into 2011). This ground-based monitoring indicates that while Canada), whitebark pine tree monitoring program is unique some trees died with indications populations have declined from in that it is an interagency eff ort of fi re, blister rust, and other infestations by the nonnative occurring across National Park mechanical damage, most of pathogen white pine blister Service, US Forest Service, and the mortality occurred in the rust (Cronartium ribicola), Bureau of Land Management larger diameter trees that are the recent native mountain lands. Monitoring was initiated preferred by mountain pine pine beetle (Dendroctonus in 2004 and occurred at a beetles. A majority of the tree ponderosae) epidemic, and years perfect time to capture the loss occurred in the largest, of wildland fi re suppression impact of the mountain pine cone-producing trees, which (GYCCWPSC 2011). As a result beetle epidemic. This will allow has resulted in an estimated of its decline, the US Fish and us to subsequently follow what 80% of the whitebark pine 22 Crossroads in Science

overstory being lost, based on overfl ight and remote sensing studies (MacFarlane et al. 2013). We have also documented a slower rate of tree mortality since 2009 and 2010, when the mountain pine beetle epidemic peaked (fi gure 6). In addition, we have recorded that over 250 tagged trees have been lost to wildland fi re. Unlike mountain pine beetles that target the larger trees, wildland fi re can remove any size tree depending on the fi re intensity. During this time approximately 20%–30% of whitebark pines in the GYE were infected with blister rust, Figure 5. Red canopy indicative of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae). and the rate of infection stayed Inset: closeup of mountain pine beetle entrance hole (Source: NPS, John Fothergill, 2009) constant during that same time period (Shanahan et al. 2014). In contrast to mortality, we have also observed signifi cant whitebark pine regeneration across the GYE, with some transects having high densities of over 600 whitebark pine seedlings (trees less than or equal to 1.4 meters tall). In addition, over 400 trees have grown greater than 1.4 meters tall and are now included in the permanently monitored population of over 5,000 tagged whitebark pine trees.

These monitoring results provide useful information to forest and park managers responsible for conserving this keystone species. Monitoring results and data are being used in ongoing USFWS Figure 6. Ratio estimates for the portion of trees >1.4m tall that had died in the GYE since last surveyed. The directional arrows indicate the comparisons between panel species listing evaluations survey years (panels 1 and 3 surveyed 2008, 2010, 2012 and panels 2 and 4 surveyed in and numerous research 2009, 2011, 2013. (Source: GYWPMWG, 2014) 23 Fall 2015

2011). The subcommittee recognized that there was a dearth of information on how climate change could aff ect whitebark pine, and as a result, there have been numerous research eff orts to fi ll in some of the gaps. The Greater Yellowstone Network has been participating in discussions, providing data, and fi eld observations to inform these research eff orts. We are also exploring how fi ndings from the monitoring may relate to climate- related parameters (Thoma et al. 2015).

Figure 7. Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) cones (Source: NPS, John Fothergill, 2007) So in light of the signifi cant loss of large, cone-producing whitebark pine trees across the addressed the potential GYE, the Greater Yellowstone response of grizzly bears to Network is poised to record whitebark pine decline and and help tell the rest of the story changes in other food sources as it unfolds. We will continue across the GYE. The USFWS this long-term monitoring is using the fi ndings from this program, adapting the program food synthesis document appropriately to gather among other information to information on when trees start determine whether or not to produce cones, whether to proceed with a delisting proposal for the grizzly bear. In addition, monitoring results are being used during modeling eff orts to project what might Figure 8. Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos happen to whitebark pine horribilis) in the GYE (Source: NPS, Jackie Skaggs, public affairs offi cer, n.d.) as temperatures warm while timing and type of precipitation eff orts. For example, these is predicted to change. These monitoring results were cited eff orts fall under the auspices in a food synthesis document of the Greater Yellowstone for the Yellowstone grizzly Coordinating Committee– bear population, prepared by Whitebark Pine Subcommittee, the Interagency Grizzly Bear which developed the Greater Figure 9. Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) Study Team (IGBST 2013). seedling found in 2014 growing in an Yellowstone Whitebark Pine area that burned in 2007 (Source: NPS, This food synthesis document Strategy in 2011 (GYCCWPSC Erin Shanahan, 2014) 24 Crossroads in Science

regeneration is stable, and what they make decisions about the happens to the remaining live most eff ective restoration and whitebark pine stands after protection strategies. All of disturbances like mountain this information is valuable for pine beetle and wildland understanding and managing fi re. We can use monitoring this important species into the results to inform managers on future, under continued threats the areas whitebark pine are from disease, insects, fi re, and a more likely to survive so that changing climate.

For Additional Information Please Visit: Yellowstone Network’s website at http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/ units/gryn/monitor/whitebark_pine.cfm

References Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee Whitebark Pine Subcommittee (GYCCWPSC). 2011. Whitebark Pine Strategy for the Greater Yellowstone Area. 41 p.

Greater Yellowstone Whitebark Pine Monitoring Working Group (GYWPMWG). 2014. Summary of Preliminary Step-Trend Analysis from the Interagency Whitebark Pine Long-Term Monitoring Program—2004–2013: Prepared for the Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team. Natural Resource Data Series NPS/GRYN/NRDS— 2014/600. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Greater Yellowstone Whitebark Pine Monitoring Working Group (GYWPMWG). 2011. Interagency Whitebark Pine Monitoring Protocol for the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 23 Version 1.1. Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee, Bozeman, Montana, USA.

Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team. 2013. Response of Yellowstone Grizzly Bears to Changes in Food Resources: A Synthesis. Report to the Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee and Yellowstone Ecosystem Subcommittee. Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team, US Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Bozeman, Montana, USA.

25 Fall 2015

Jean C., Schrag A. M., Bennetts R. E., Daley R., Crowe E. A., O’Ney S. 2005. Vital Signs Monitoring Plan for the Greater Yellowstone Network. National Park Service, Greater Yellowstone Network, Bozeman MT. 107 pp. plus appendices.

MacFarlane, William W., Jesse A. Logan, and Wilson R. Kern. 2013. “An Innovative Aerial Assessment of Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Mountain Pine Beetle-Caused Whitebark Pine Mortality.” Ecological Applications 23: 421–437.

Shanahan, Erin, Kathryn M. Irvine, Dave Roberts, Andrea Litt, Kristin Legg, and Rob Daley. 2014. Status of Whitebark Pine in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: A Step-Trend Analysis Comparing 2004–2007 to 2008–2011. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/GRYN/NRTR—2014/917. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Thoma, David, Ann Rodman, and Mike Tercek. 2015. “Water in the Balance: Interpreting Climate Change Impacts Using a Water Balance Model.” Yellowstone Science Vol 23(1).

US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2011. Listing of Whitebark Pine Ruling. http://www.fws.gov/ mountain-prairie/species/plants/whitebarkpine.

Figure 10. Mature whitebark pine tree (Pinus albicaulis) (Source: John Fothergill, 2007) 26 Crossroads in Science

—NATURAL RESOURCES—

A Paleontological Voyage on an Ancient Sand Sea: Discovering Past Life and Environments in the Fossilized Desert of the Nugget Sandstone in Dinosaur National Monument

By Daniel J. Chure, Paleontologist, Dinosaur National Monument, [email protected]

Dinosaur National Monument is world renowned for its great deposit of dinosaur bones exposed in situ in the sandstone of an ancient river system and protected within the Quarry Exhibit Hall. As spectacular and important as that quarry is, however, the twenty- two distinct rock formations within Dinosaur preserve a record of biological and physical changes that extends back over 1 billion years of Earth history. Documenting, protecting, and understanding each of the ancient ecosystems preserved in those formations are fundamental goals of the paleontological program at the monument.

Over the last several years, one major multi-institutional eff ort has investigated the paleontology and paleoenvironments of the Nugget Sandstone with spectacular results. The study area focused on outcrops within Dinosaur National Monument, along with some fi eldwork on Bureau of Land Management land adjacent to the monument. Because our goal is to understand the Nugget ecosystem in detail, this paper summarizes all discoveries of that project, regardless of land ownership.

Welcome to the Great Sandpile oday the Intermountain of this vast eolian ecosystem are This ecosystem was relentlessly TWest is arid, but in the widely exposed in the western brutal and generally Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, United States. Outcrops occur inhospitable to life. Much of this area was a brutal desert, in eight national park system the fossil record from this erg covered by a series of immense units, eight other federal and is in the form of trace fossils dune fi elds, some 2.2 million state parks, and vast areas of (footprints, trails, burrows), km2 (850,000 miles2) in extent Bureau of Land Management with just a handful of body and collectively larger than the and US Forest Service fossils (bones, partial skeletons, dune fi elds of today’s Sahara administered lands. In spite of and other parts of plants and Desert. The preserved thickness the diff erent formation names, animals). In the Dinosaur of this great sandpile is up to all the sediments are recognized National Monument area, 762 meters (2,500 feet). Known as being deposited in a vast, only a few reptile footprints by a variety of names (Nugget, terrestrial sand sea, known as had been previously reported. Navajo, Aztec, and Glen an erg. Although the Nugget had Canyon Sandstones), the rocks received little scientifi c

27 Fall 2015

attention in our area, we knew that the lack of fossils was not necessarily the same as the lack of life. Careful examination of the Nugget outcrops was needed, and once underway, fi eldwork revealed a remarkable diversity of environments and numerous sites with fossil invertebrate trails and reptilian trackways. But most surprising of all was the discovery of a fossil lake that would produce bones in staggering abundance and of a surprising diversity, with virtually every species being new to science. Ancient Environments and Fossils Although most of the erg sediments were deposited as great dune fi elds, there were times when some areas of the ancient desert were wetter and dune formation and Figure 1. Dune Deposits and Fossils. A) Typical fossil dune deposit of the Nugget Sandstone, showing large scale cross-bedding, 2008. B) Paleohelcura, part of a 6-foot- migration stopped. In some long scorpion trail. Each impression is made by a single leg, 2009. C) Octopodichnus, a areas between the dune fi elds, trail made by spiders, 2012. D) Unnamed large scorpion or small reptile burrow cutting through sand dune beds, 2011. E) Brasilichnium, the hind foot impression of a small temporary bodies of water and reptile or primitive mammal, 2009. Scale bar in cm. (Source: Dan Chure, NPS) permanent interdunal lakes appeared. Not all occurrences However, no body fossils have of each of these environments Dunes been found in these sediments. are preserved. Some were The Nugget Sandstone is destroyed during subsequent dominated by sweeping cross- Trace fossils come in two desert growth and sediment bedded deposits formed on the forms. The fi rst group was deposition, others have been steep fronts of dunes (fi gure made by nocturnal animals that lost to erosion, and some still 1A). The dunes were tens to roamed the dunes during the lay buried beneath the surface. possibly hundreds of meters cooler evening temperatures. However, enough occurrences tall. Although fi nding fossils in Among these are trails made have been found in the study such an environment would by scorpions (Paleohelcura), area that our knowledge of the seem unlikely, abundant trace spiders (Octopodichnus), and diversity of environments and fossils occur in some dune sets small mammal-like reptiles life in this ecosystem has been (Good 2013; Chure et al. 2014). (Brasilichnium). The latter dramatically expanded.

28 Crossroads in Science

Figure 2. Carbonate Lake Deposits and Fossils. A) Typical shallow lake carbonate beds, 2009. B) Series of large carbonate domes where carbonate rich groundwater seeped up through the desert sediments, 2009. C) Thallasinoides burrows, made by an arthropod living in the lake sediments, 2014. D) Taenidium burrows, made by arthropod larvae, 2010. Scale bar in cm. (Source: Dan Chure, NPS)

occurs in the hundreds at one These trace fossils are often precipitation in bodies of site (Engelmann et al. 2010). locally abundant in one or standing water. Some are several dune sets, but missing in stromatolitic, indicating Burrows were made by animals most dune deposits. Abundant the presence of microbial living, moving, and feeding occurrences are due to regional biofi lms on the depositional subsurface on the dune front. climate change and refl ect surfaces. Impressions of Many of these (Planolites, periods of time with increasing snails have been found at two Entradichnus, and Taenidium) moisture in the dune fi elds sites and arthropod burrows were made by larval and adult and greatly increased animal (Thalassinoides, Ophiomorpha) arthropods, such as beetles populations (Ekdale et al. 2007). have been found at others (Good 2013). Larger burrows, (Good 2013). The presence perpendicular to the dune front Carbonates of fossils in some carbonates and up to a meter in length, Carbonate beds, such as and not others likely refl ects were made by either large limestone, are rare in the diff erences in water quality scorpions or small vertebrates Nugget in this study area. among interdunal lakes and (Engelmann et al. 2014). These rocks form by chemical ponds.

29 Fall 2015

Figure 3. Moist Interdunal Sediments and Fossils. A) Outcrop preserving hundreds of dinosaur footprints, 2008. B) Large Grallator track, made by a carnivorous dinosaur, 2006. (Source: Dan Chure, NPS)

In several areas, large carbonate are heavily bioturbated by surface exposure is limited mounds, up to two meters in the dinosaurs. Hundreds of (~60 m2 [650 ft2]), over 11,000 height, built up in areas where dinosaur tracks (Otozoum, bones have been mapped mineral rich spring waters Eubrontes, Grallator) occur at and collected, and collecting fl owed up through desert sands some very large sites (Lockley and preparation activities and spread outward from the 2011). Additionally, one locality continue (Britt et al. 2010, source. has produced rare plant fossils 2011; Engelmann et al. 2011, of horsetail rushes. 2012, 2013; Chure et al. 2013; Moist Interdunal Areas Vanosdall et al. 2012, 2013). Dinosaur footprints occur in Oasis Lake Deposits Preservation is spectacular, and some interdunal sands that Rarely, interdunal intervals in spite of the thinness of the were frequently moist but not in consist of pure sand deposited bone (many skull elements are standing bodies of water (Chure in shallow interdunal lakes only a few millimeters thick), et al. 2009; Engelmann et al. that were part of a desert minimal compaction of the sand 2009; Anderson et al. 2011). oasis. At one locality a after burial preserves the bones Often these sandstones consist horizontally bedded sandstone in an uncrushed state. Because of interbedded white and iron is sandwiched above and below the sandstone’s radiodensity oxide mineral-stained, brick- by large dune bed deposits. diff ers substantially from that red layers that weather to a dark This is the site of the Saints and of the bone, microcomputed brown. This color distinction Sinners Quarry, a bone bed in tomography (CT) scanning has allows such beds to be identifi ed a 1 m (3.28 ft) thick sandstone revealed remarkable details of at a distance. deposited in the shallow margin bone still hidden in rock. These of such a lake. This locality CT slices have been processed Dinosaur trackways occur at is, by far, the most important to produce rotatable 3-D images multiple levels within these vertebrate body fossil deposit in of bones and skeletons. intervals, and often the sands the entire erg system. Although 30 Crossroads in Science

Figure 4. Oasis Fossils. A) Small carnivorous dinosaur vertebrae naturally weathering out of oases sands, 2008. B) Skull of an unnamed small sphenosuchian, an agile, running reptile close to crocodiles, 2013. C) Part of a disarticulated dinosaur skull, showing sharp recurved teeth, 2009. D) Perfectly preserved foot of an unnamed drepanosauromorph reptile, 2012. Scale bar in cm. (Source: Dan Chure, NPS)

The Saints and Sinners Quarry like sphenosuchians, multiple such a rich and diverse record is our best window into the life skeletons of an alien-like of vertebrate life in this of the erg system, and virtually drepanosaur, and the second ancient desert. Although plant every species discovered in it most complete pterosaur remains are rare, parts of cycad is new to science. The most specimen (fl ying reptile) from fronds are preserved as faint common animal is a small the Triassic and Jurassic of impressions and dinosaur carnivorous dinosaur (~3m the Western Hemisphere. footprints are found in rocks in length), known from a Both the sphenosuchians deposited along the shoreline. minimum of 22 individuals of and drepanosaurs are known small to large growth stages. from multiple, 3-D preserved The long-limbed dinosaurs Nondinosaurian animals skeletons with skulls. were capable of traveling living in and around the lake Unidentifi ed bones scattered long distances in the erg include two species of small, throughout the quarry suggest system; however, the small lizard-like sphenodonts, at the presence of other groups. sphenosuchians, sphenodonts, least 12 small crocodilian- No other site has produced and especially drepanosaurs 31 Fall 2015

Figure 5. Pre-Erg Fossils. A) Rock overhang near the base of the Nugget Sandstone showing long, thin, invertebrate trails and abundant Brachychirotherium footprints, 2010. B) Close-up of Brachychirotherium footprint, 2010. Scale bar in cm. (Source: Dan Chure, NPS )

could not. Thus, the latter dinosaur footprint fauna are frequently impacted by groups, coupled with the (Grallator, Pseudotetrasauropus, energy development, road remains of cycads (plants of Tetrasauropus) and large, building, construction, as well notoriously slow growth rates) quadrupedal, nondinosaurian as wilderness designation, indicate that the lake was reptiles (Brachychirotherium) resource management activities, permanent, not ephemeral or (Anderson et al. 2011). These etc. However, because the seasonal, and must have existed trackways are not found in the potential for encountering for many, many decades. Nugget after the extensive dune fossils is low, land managers fi elds come into existence. often view it as a formation of Pre–Erg Sediments minimum concern. In the study area, the lower 10 Management Historically, the published meters of the Nugget Sandstone Implications record for fossils in the Nugget consist of sediments not Federal land managers are in the study area was limited deposited in a dune system. required by law to protect to a few dinosaur footprints. During the time of their and preserve paleontological However, the current multi- deposition, the environment resources on land under institutional eff ort in and was slowly becoming more their jurisdiction (Omnibus adjacent to Dinosaur National arid, but water was frequently Public Land Management Monument has revealed a present, and the erg system Act 2009). Rocks of the erg remarkably diverse fossil had not developed. These system are extensively exposed record and mosaic of ancient sediments often contain ripple on public lands across the environments. Conventional marks, with trackways and western United States (Utah, wisdom notwithstanding, the burrows impressed in the soft Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Nugget desert was not barren. muddy sediments. Within New Mexico, Arizona, At times, in some areas, it this interval, we fi nd a diverse Nevada, and California) and was home to dinosaurs, small 32 Crossroads in Science

crocodilians, pterosaurs, be discovered in these erg deposits simply be written off and other reptiles, as well as sediments, the published out-of-hand because those scorpions, spiders, beetles, and scientifi c literature should be dune sediments preserve the other arthropods. considered an unacceptable tracks, trails, and burrows of level of documentation for a vertebrates and invertebrate This project has contributed given area. Understanding the inhabiting the driest part of the greatly to our fuller distribution and signifi cance ecosystem. understanding of Dinosaur of the fossils requires new National Monument’s inventories conducted by Although we have intensively remarkable record of life qualifi ed earth scientists. investigated the Nugget on earth, provided new Investigators need to be Sandstone within our study and exciting interpretive familiar with a wide range area, our area is only a small opportunities, and generated of fossils, ranging from the part of the erg deposits. outstanding opportunities for delicate impressions of a There is undoubtedly a scientifi c research. However, it spider’s leg, to the skeleton of great deal remaining to be has also has given us important a predatory dinosaur, to the discovered in other areas, lessons for managing and faint remains of plant foliage. and those discoveries will protecting these paleontological Inventory fi eldwork should reveal more about a wondrous resources across a mosaic of carefully search for the sandy lost and hostile world of land management agencies. interdunal lake beds that dunes, interdunes, lakes, ponds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, Given the wide range of preserve bone, the rarest of fossils in desert environments. scorpions, spiders, and other environments, sediment creatures. types, and fossils that can No longer can the massive dune

Acknowledgments Our study, extending over nearly a decade and still on-going, was conducted by three PIs; Dr. Dan Chure (DINO), Dr. George Engelmann (University of Nebraska – Omaha), and Dr. Brooks Britt (Brigham Young University). Partial funding came via the CESU network, but external support also came from UNO and BYU. Signifi cant fi eldwork and research was also provided by externally funded undergraduate and graduate students from BYU, UNO, and the University of Utah. Interns from the Geocorps Geologist-in-Park (GSA)/ (NPS) also assisted in the project and made important discoveries. Steamboat Rock, Dinosaur National Monument (Source: NPS, n.d.)

33 Fall 2015

References Anderson, Jacob L., Keegan Melstrom, and Joanna M. Panosky. 2011. “Terrestrial Vertebrate Trackways of the Early Jurassic Nugget Formation at Dinosaur National Monument, Utah.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 43(5): 85.

Britt, Brooks B., Daniel J. Chure, George F. Engelmann, R. Scheetz, and Robin Hansen. 2010. “Multi- Taxic Theropod Bonebeds in an Interdunal Setting of the Early Jurassic Eolian Nugget Sandstone, Utah.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Program with Abstracts 2013: 65A.

Britt, Brooks B., M. Chambers, George F. Engelmann, Daniel J. Chure, and Rodney Scheetz. 2011. “Taphonomy of Coelophysoid Theropod Bonebeds Preserved along the Shoreline of an Early Jurassic Lake in the Nugget Sandstone of NE Utah.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Program with Abstracts 2013: 78.

Chure, Daniel J., George F. Engelmann, Brooks B. Britt, and Rodney Scheetz. 2009. “Interdune Facies of the Lower Jurassic Glen Canyon Group Sandstone and Their Paleontologic Potential in and around Dinosaur National Monument, Northeastern Utah.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 41(6): 47.

Chure, Daniel J., Brooks B. Britt, George F. Engelmann, Austin Andrus, and Rodney Scheetz. 2013. “Drepanosaurs in the Desert: Multiple Skeletons of a New Drepanosaurid from the Eolian Nugget Sandstone (?Late Triassic – Early Jurassic), Saints and Sinners Quarry, Utah: Morphology, Relationships, and Biostratigraphic Implications.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Program with Abstracts 2013: 106.

Chure, Daniel J., George F. Engelmann, Brooks B. Britt, and Thomas R. Good. 2014. “It’s Not Your Parents’ Erg Deposit Anymore: Fossil Management Implications of a Paleontological Study of the Nugget Sandstone in Northeastern Utah.” Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fossil Resources, Rapid City, SD May 2014. Dakoterra Vol. 6:148–162.

Ekdale, Anthony A., Roger G. Bromley and David B. Loope. 2007. “Ichnofacies of an Ancient Erg: A Climatically Infl uenced Trace Fossil Association in the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, Southern Utah, USA,” pp. 563–574 in W. Miller (ed.), Trace Fossils, Concepts, Problems, Prospects. Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier.

Engelmann, George F., Daniel J. Chure, and Brooks B. Britt. 2009. “Paleoecological Information from Paleontology and Sedimentary Geology of Interdunal Sediments of the Early Jurassic Glen Canyon Group in and around Dinosaur National Monument (DNM) in Northeastern Utah.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 41(7): 163.

Engelmann, George F., Daniel J. Chure, and David B. Loope. 2010. “An Occurrence of Remarkably Abundant Brasilichnium Tracks (Nugget Sandstone, Early Jurassic, Dinosaur National Monument) and Their Environmental Context.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 42(5): 642.

Engelmann, George F., Daniel J. Chure, Brooks B. Britt, and David B. Loope. 2011. “Interdune Facies Containing a Dinosaur Bone Bed in the Lower Jurassic Nugget Sandstone in Northeastern Utah.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 43(5): 263.

34 Crossroads in Science

Engelmann, George F., Daniel J. Chure, Brooks B. Britt, and Austin Andrus. 2012. “The Biostratigraphic and Paleoecological Signifi cance of a New Drepanosaur from the Triassic- ?Jurassic Nugget Sandstone of Northeastern Utah.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 44(7): 604.

Engelmann, George F., Brooks B. Britt, Daniel J. Chure, Austin Andrus, and Rodney Scheetz. 2013. “Microvertebrates from the Saints and Sinners Quarry (Nugget Sandstone: ?Late Triassic-Early Jurassic): A Remarkable Window onto the Diversity and Paleoecology of Small Vertebrates in an Ancient Eolian Environment.” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Program with Abstracts 2013: 122–123.

Engelmann, George F., Daniel J. Chure, and Thomas R. Good. 2014. “Possible Vertebrate Burrows in the Dunes of the Nugget Sandstone, Early Jurassic, of NE Utah.” In M. G. Lockley, and S. G. Lucas (eds.), Fossil Footprints of Western North America. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 62: 197–203.

Good, Thomas R. 2013. “Life in an Ancient Sand Sea: Trace Fossil Associations and Their Paleoecological Implications in the Upper Triassic/Lower Jurassic Nugget Sandstone, Northeastern Utah”. M.S. thesis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, 124 pp.

Lockley, M. G. 2011. “Theropod and Prosauropod Dominated Ichnofaunas from the Navajo-Nugget Sandstone (Lower Jurassic) at Dinosaur National Monument: Implications for Prosauropod Behavior and Ecology.” pp. 316–320 in R. M. Sullivan, S. G. Lucas, and J. A. Spielmann (eds.), Fossil Record 3. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 53.

Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009, Subtitle D – Paleontological Resources Preservation, PL 111-11, 123 Stat. 995 (2009).

Vanosdall, David A., and George F. Engelmann. 2013. “Microstratigraphy of an Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic Dinosaur Quarry.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 45(5): 33.

Vanosdall, David A., Daniel J. Chure, and George F. Engelmann. 2012. “A GIS Database for Field Observations of the Lower Jurassic Nugget Sandstone in the Vicinity of Dinosaur National Monument, Utah as Demonstrated by Interdunal Carbonates.” Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 44(6): 91.

35 Southeast arms of Yellowstone Lake (Source: NPS digital slide fi le, R. Robinson, n.d.) Crossroads in Science

—SUBMERGED RESOURCES—

Yellowstone’s Underwater Wonders By Dave Conlin, Submerged Resources Center Chief, Intermountain Regional Offi ce, [email protected]

ellowstone National Park, Your nation’s fi rst national park, is a study in contrasts—a place of great natural beauty and displaced urban issues, where people on holiday sometimes jostle for peace and quiet or a simple moment of connection to the rugged beauty and wonder that is omnipresent. Firmly planted in the heart of the park, Yellowstone Lake, with more than 100 square miles of surface area, dwarfs the other 75 ponds and lakes in the park. Centuries before the idea of the world’s fi rst national park Figure 1. Yellowstone Lake (Source: NPS digital slide fi le, Harlan Kredit, 1976) was discussed around a frontier campfi re, Yellowstone Lake While most Americans know by the 1870s, these activities was the focus of much human about Yellowstone and its shifted toward scientifi c studies activity. American Indian natural wonders above water, and, before the end of the groups had long been moving many would be surprised to nineteenth century, included through the area, hunting and learn that some of its most recreation, with heavy infl uence living along the shores of this fascinating and spectacular from concessionaires catering high-altitude, volcanic lake. jewels lie in the frigid waters of to the growing tourist trade. How many aboriginal sites the lake that bears the park’s Euro-American sites, many of occur along the lake shores name. Here beneath water that which are integral to the park’s is unknown, but evidence rarely warms above 40 degrees history, are numerous around indicates a long history of Fahrenheit and literally is within Yellowstone Lake, although the human occupation and use of a stone’s throw of one of the number and full range of these the unusual area associated with busiest areas of the park—the sites are not yet known. Park Yellowstone Lake. Mocking this Lake District—lie natural and management has recognized relatively short-term occupation cultural gems that very few have the importance of these of the area by humans are seen. archeological sites and begun the millions of years of earth a program to survey, inventory, history told in the geology and The earliest Euro-American and evaluate them in a manner hydrology of the region. activities in the area mirrored necessary for their management, those of American Indians, but protection, and interpretation. 37 Fall 2015

Dan Lenihan in his fi eld notes Figure 2. A side-scan sonar map of a fi eld of underwater spires in from 1996, “these craft are bridge bay (Source: Brett Seymour, all approximately the same NPS, 2014) size with enough variations to suggest nonassembly-line production. They seem fragile and as if they have been there quite some time.” They compare exactly with the rental boats shown in historical photographs of the Lake Hotel, which date to 1941 and were apparently scuttled after becoming obsolete.

In June of 2014, with our NPS diving intern Yasmeen Smalley in tow, the SRC fi elded a team to complete a proof of concept test for an underwater, 3-D laser scanner provided by the Boulder, Colorado, fi rm of 3-D at Depth. While 3-D scanning of archeological sites and NPS structures is increasingly common, application of this Terrestrial archeological surveys A single dive on these small craft technology underwater is and excavations have been confi rmed four boats sitting fraught with thorny technical conducted in many park areas, in about 23 feet of water. All issues that few companies have including along the Yellowstone four are of similar design and been able to solve. 3-D at Depth Lake shoreline. oriented in the same direction. was incredibly generous in As noted by former SRC Chief Underwater, the National Park Service has been similarly diligent; beginning in 1996, the Submerged Resources Center (SRC) began a program to survey, inventory, and evaluate both cultural and natural resources in a manner necessary for their management, protection, and interpretation. In 1996, side scan sonar revealed a clear sonogram of a cluster of small boats about 0.2 miles southeast of Lake Hotel. Figure 3. 3-D laser scan of one of the Yellowstone boats (Source: Brett Seymour, NPS, 2014) 38 Crossroads in Science

Figure 4. 2014 NPS dive intern Yasmeen Smalley swims past one Figure 5. 2014 NPS dive intern Yasmeen Smalley swims through of the small boats sunk in front of Lake Hotel (Source: Brett a submerged forest of underwater spires in Bridge Bay Seymour, NPS, 2014) (Source: Brett Seymour, NPS, 2014) providing the equipment and is spectacular,” slap. Nowhere Taken together, the small boats an operator for the successful is this more apparent than in and submerged spires on the project. Future plans include Yellowstone Lake’s Bridge Bay, fl oor of Yellowstone Lake upscaling the documentation where submerged geothermal comprise a remarkable diptych eff ort to address larger spires that formed in air more of our natural and cultural underwater structures in parks than 13,000 years ago lay like heritage, joined together and systemwide. quiet sentinels above the muddy protected by water, preserved bottom at depths between 30 unimpaired for the enjoyment While the SRC prides itself and 90 feet. Diving on these of the hardy few of this and on its abilities to document majestic features reminds you, future generations willing to submerged cultural resources, again, why our parks are so brave the cold and make the on many occasions the natural special and why, on a good day, dives. resources we observe reach out we have the best jobs in the and smack us with a fi rm, “this world.

39 Fall 2015

For Additional Information Please Visit: http://www.owuscholarship.org/blog/2014/07/welcome-to-jellystone/

http://www.owuscholarship.org/blog/2014/07/yellowstone-2-0/

References Bradford, James E., Matthew A. Russell, Larry E. Murphy, and Timothy G. Smith. 2003. Yellowstone National Park Submerged Resources Survey. Submerged Resources Center Professional Report No. 16, National Park Service, Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Rough water on Yellowstone Lake (Source: NPS digital slide fi le, Harlan Kredit, 1976)

40 Crossroads in Science

—NATURAL RESOURCES—

Desert Waters, Desert Frogs – Exploring the Natural Dynamics of a Rare Amphibian and Its Habitat By Don E. Swann, Biologist, Saguaro National Park, [email protected]; Erin R. Zylstra, PhD student, University of Arizona, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, [email protected]; Robert J. Steidl, Professor, University of Arizona, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, [email protected]; Kris Ratzlaff , Biological Technician, Saguaro National Park, kris.ratzlaff @gmail.com

lthough aridity is their Adefi ning characteristic, deserts of western United States also provide habitat for a surprising number of amphibians. Many of these are toads and spadefoots that spend most of their lives underground, compressing their reproductive and foraging activities into the incredibly brief periods when rains come and water temporarily

fl oods their world. Couch’s Figure 1. Lowland leopard frog (Source: Erin Zylstra) spadefoots (Scaphiopus couchii), for example, are capable The lowland leopard frog drought and fl oods, lowland of eating enough lipid-rich (Lithobates [Rana] yavapaiensis; leopard frogs are vulnerable to termites in a single rainy night fi gure 1), which occurs large-scale reductions in the to sustain them for up to two in scattered populations surface waters on which they years until they can feed again. throughout southern Arizona, depend. The species was once Seeking mates and breeding in southwestern New Mexico, widespread in large rivers in temporary ponds, they produce and northern Mexico (Sredl southern Arizona. However, eggs that become tadpoles and 2005; Wallace et al. 2010), is an many valley populations have then metamorphose into small aquatic species that must remain become extirpated as perennial toads in as few as 10 days. In wet to survive. Unlike toads fl ow in the Santa Cruz River and contrast, other desert-adapted and spadefoots, its tadpoles its tributaries ceased, principally amphibians, including aquatic typically require at least three, in response to water diversion frogs, have very diff erent life and up to nine, months in for human use, and the frogs histories that depend entirely on permanent water before they are now mainly found in small, rare springs, seeps, and streams metamorphose. Although isolated habitat patches in where water is available year- resilient to natural cycles of mountain canyons. Lowland round. 41 Fall 2015

leopard frogs are considered where they occurred, we began continued this eff ort to the sensitive everywhere they occur, systematic surveys in the park’s present, supplementing it with including in Saguaro National Rincon Mountain District, additional range-wide surveys Park in southern Arizona. an area of approximately and research on frog habitat 27,200 hectare (105 mi2). (Wallace et al. 2010), diseases In recent decades, declines After locating several small, that include those caused by of amphibians across North isolated populations of lowland chytrid fungus (Ratzlaff 2012), America and worldwide have leopard frogs, we began regular interactions with wildland fi re alarmed many conservationists monitoring of areas where (Parker 2006; Wallace et al. (Wake and Vredenburg 2008). conditions seemed appropriate 2006), and basic life history of These declines have been for supporting frogs. We have amphibians that inhabit the attributed to many factors operating across a range of spatial scales, including habitat loss, disease, and climate change, and understanding their causes is a priority for conservation eff orts. Because there are few long-term, detailed studies of the natural dynamics of most amphibians, however, diff erentiating between long-term declines and short-term fl uctuations in amphibian populations can be challenging, especially in environments where the natural range of conditions is highly variable (Pechmann et al. 1991).

We began monitoring lowland leopard frogs in Saguaro National Park in the late 1990s. Initially, our eff orts were largely exploratory; in 1996, park biologists received a report of a leopard frog from two US Geological Survey researchers, Cecil Schwalbe and Todd Esque, who were studying the eff ects of desert fi res on saguaros and desert tortoises. When no one on the staff could answer the questions of which leopard frog Figure 2. Tinaja habitat of the lowland leopard frog in Saguaro National Park; tinaja species occurred in the park or means “earthen jar” in Spanish and is a local term for bedrock stream pools (Source: NPS, Don Swann, 2015) 42 Crossroads in Science

park. We recently completed a technical report on the fi rst 16 years of monitoring of lowland leopard frogs (Zylstra et al. 2013) and a peer-reviewed paper in the journal PLoS ONE (Zylstra et al. 2015.)

Over the past nearly 20 years of research and monitoring, our main questions have been basic and focused on conservation: what are the natural population dynamics of this frog in the park? How do patterns of distribution and abundance change over time, and what Figure 3. University of Arizona PhD student Erin Zylstra conducting visual encounter natural and anthropogenic survey for leopard frogs in Chimenea Canyon, Saguaro National Park (Source: NPS, Don Swann, 2015) forces drive these changes? Are there long-term trends that we sources of drinking water for note the amount of water in should be concerned about? both wildlife and backcountry tinajas and photograph the What are the major threats, hikers. pools from established points to and—most importantly—how document changes in vegetation can we mitigate them to ensure Since 1996, we have mapped and sediment over time. We persistence of this and other and surveyed repeatedly more also record observations of aquatic species in the park? than 240 tinajas in 9 streams other aquatic herpetofauna, in the park. We use binoculars including Sonoran mud turtles Survey and Analytical to quietly survey tinajas and (Kinosternon sonoriense), Methods their terrestrial perimeters black-necked gartersnakes for frogs from a distance of In Saguaro National Park, (Thamnophis cyrtopsis), canyon 10–20 meters (fi gure 3), then lowland leopard frogs occur treefrogs (Hyla arenicolor), and approach the pool edges. We generally in small bedrock Sonoran desert toads (Bufo count individuals we see or pools in mountain streams alvarius). that are known locally as hear—they make a distinctive tinajas, meaning “earthen “plop” when entering the Although we have aimed to jar” in Spanish (fi gure 2). water (Wallace et al. 2010). visit most pools twice annually Tinajas maintain water during With a few exceptions during since 1996, the extent and dry periods, and many are research projects, individuals frequency of survey eff ort spring-fed. They are scattered have not been captured or has varied over time. For our throughout the Rincon handled during the nearly 20 recent analysis (Zylstra et al. Mountains, and vary greatly in years of monitoring. We classify 2013), we restricted data to size, water volume, sediment frogs into stage classes: adult, those collected during late volume, and vegetation. In juvenile, tadpole, or egg mass. spring (May–July) and fall addition to supporting leopard In addition to recording the (October–December) between frogs, tinajas are essential number of leopard frogs, we May 1996 and December 2011. 43 Fall 2015

Figure 4. Maximum counts of adult lowland leopard frogs during each spring and fall survey season between 1996 and 2011 for nine drainages in the Rincon Mountains (Source: Zylstra et al. 2013)

Because the tinajas are often would be unlikely to move analysis that allowed us to in close proximity, we based among complexes. explore how site- and season- analyses on pool complexes, level characteristics, such as which we defi ned as collections Although fi eld experience elevation, distance to nearest of adjacent pools that were helps, frogs are cryptic and easy habitat patch and availability separated from other pools to overlook during surveys, of surface water aff ected by at least 120 meters, so that even for expert surveyors. To abundance and occupancy, within a survey season, frogs overcome the limitations of but also to account for these imperfect surveys, we characteristics that might have used hierarchical models for 44 Crossroads in Science

aff ected the effi ciency of survey, such as survey eff ort or date. Results of 16 Years of Monitoring Between 1996 and 2011, park staff and volunteers completed 470 surveys during spring and fall seasons. Leopard frogs were observed at least once in >95% of drainage reaches (n = 21). In general, counts of frogs were highest in drainages that were south-facing and that had a high density of pools below 1200-meter elevation (fi gure 4).

Water availability throughout the 16-year period was a primary driver of population dynamics. The probability of occupancy for adult frogs at both drainage and pool- complex scales increased with the number of pools Figure 5. Estimated occupancy (± 1 SE) of pool complexes and drainages in the Rincon and availability of surface Mountains each spring and fall season between 1996 and 2011. Estimated trends in water and was not associated occupancy (dashed lines) were not signifi cant at the complex (P-value = 0.70) or drainage scale (P-value = 0.65). (Source: Zylstra et al. 2013) strongly with distance between adjacent populations. Within pool complexes, abundance of adult frogs varied seasonally, with higher numbers of frogs observed in fall than in spring. Figure 6. Predicted Similar to occupancy dynamics, monthly survival (with 95% rates of adult recruitment confi dence interval) of adult and survival increased with lowland leopard frogs in the Rincon Mountains as a availability of surface water function of the minimum (fi gure 5). Despite highly proportion of pools in a complex with water during dynamic populations, over the previous survey season the 16 years of monitoring (Source: Zylstra et al. 2013) we found no evidence of a systematic positive or negative trend in populations of lowland leopard frogs (fi gure 6).

45 Fall 2015

Implications: The in the severity of droughts bombs entered the atmosphere Importance of Desert and decreases in winter in the 1940s, suggesting a Waters for Leopard precipitation in the desert potential connection of the Southwest (Seager et al. 2007). pools with regional aquifers Frogs In addition, the much higher outside the park. However, we One of the more striking results temperatures observed around still know very little about the of monitoring lowland leopard Saguaro National Park during hydrology of tinajas and other frogs in Saguaro National the past two decades (Monahan park waters. We are working Park during the past and Fisichelli 2014) with a range of partners, ...we remain two decades has have the potential including the National Park been recognizing the concerned about to reduce the Service Water and Geological tremendous dynamics the vulnerability of volume of water Resource Divisions, Sonoran through increased Desert Inventory and of their populations this species in the in time and space. In evapotranspiration. Monitoring Network, Sky Island some years, leopard park, particularly Snowmelt appears Alliance, Geological Society of frogs were abundant because of the to be an important America, US Geological Survey, in nearly every stream strong associations factor driving the The University of Arizona in the park—but in water dynamics in Geosciences Department, and between other years, frogs were tinajas and springs many others, to try to improve rare. For example, in availability of in the park; we our knowledge. In March the spring of 2006, water and rates do not monitor 2014, we sponsored a group of snowpack directly geology and hydrology graduate following a series of extinction, of dry years, adult at Saguaro, but students to study tinajas frogs inhabited only recruitment, and reductions in through a Park Break program one pool complex survival. mountain snow with the George Wright Society on the western side and the length of and the US Geological Survey, of the park, with tadpoles time that it persists are being and we are receiving support metamorphosing in only a observed throughout the from the Friends of Saguaro single pool. Yet the population western United States. National Park, Nina Mason rebounded from these low Pulliam Charitable Trust, and Long-term, we are concerned numbers during the years of other nonprofi t partners to that the water needs of a above normal precipitation that support additional student growing population in Tucson, followed. projects. now a city of approximately Although we found no evidence 1 million people, have the Fungal Disease, Fire, of a systematic trend over potential to impact tinajas and and Other Threats 16 years of monitoring, we springs in the park. Ground remain concerned about the and surface water are often The chytrid fungus vulnerability of this species in tightly linked in desert water (Batrachochytrium the park, particularly because of systems (Stromberg et al. 1996). dendrobatidis, or Bd) has been the strong associations between Preliminary evidence from implicated in declines of many availability of water and rates isotopes suggests that some of amphibians, including ranid of extinction, recruitment, the current groundwater input frogs in Arizona (Bradley et al. and survival. Climate-change into tinajas fell as rainfall before 2002). Bd has been known to scenarios predict increases fallout from testing atomic exist in Saguaro since we fi rst 46 Crossroads in Science

Figure 7. Tinaja in Saguaro National Park in 1999 before the Box Canyon Fire, and in 2001 following the fi re, showing post-fi re sedimentation (Source: NPS, Don Swann, 1999 and 2001)

began testing for it in the 1990s, are continuing to try to better to be a product of years of and may play a role in governing understand the interactions fi re suppression, although dynamics of these populations. of this disease with other the timing and severity of the However, disease is certainly environmental factors. events remain unpredictable. not the only factor infl uencing Frog populations in at least rates of mortality and local An additional factor that aff ects two major canyons became extinction given the associations leopard frog populations is loss extirpated following large fi res we observed between surface of habitat associated with large and are still not recovered after water and temporal variation in wildland fi res. On two occasions more than 16 and 11 years. occupancy and abundance of since we began monitoring Geormorphological monitoring leopard frogs. Recent studies leopard frogs, erosion following suggests that sediment moves have demonstrated that some large fi res has inundated tinajas through these tinaja systems on populations of lowland leopard with sediment, dramatically the order of decades rather than frogs in Saguaro have persisted reducing the amount of water years (Parker 2006; O’Brien et while maintaining low rates of available for frogs (fi gure 7). al. 2015), which has long-term infection (Ratzlaff 2012), but we These very large fi res appear implications for management 47 Fall 2015

of frogs and fi re on a landscape Answering this question can be Monitoring leopard frogs in scale. In response to the very challenging for managers Saguaro National Park, while potential for losing populations, who do not want to call out necessarily limited by fi scal we are collaborating with a local every decline as a crisis—but constraints, provides us with neighborhood association (the also do not want to see species some regional and temporal Historic Notch Neighborhood), disappear on their watch. In context by which to interpret the Arizona Game and Fish the case of amphibians in arid changes in local populations Department, and the Rincon environments, it is clear that and has also indicated that this Institute to encourage park populations fl uctuate greatly in desert-adapted aquatic frog neighbors to develop backyard response to natural processes is remarkably resilient. Our pond refugia for leopard frogs related to variation in climate, results also validate our original and native fi sh for potential disease, and many other concern from the 1990s—that future replenishment of natural factors. On the other hand, this species is one of the more populations. some species have declined vulnerable vertebrates in the catastrophically in western park. Our hope is that by Value of Long- national parks, so it’s essential combining our understanding Term Monitoring that we take proactive steps of the relationships between of Amphibians in when there is the possibility of these frogs and their aquatic National Parks a crisis. environment, we can not only protect frogs, but also the rare When is the loss or decline of a The value of long-term and unique desert waters that wildlife population a cause for monitoring is to provide context sustain them. concern or action, and when it for making these decisions. is simply part of a natural cycle?

For Additional Information Please Visit: Technical Report on 16 Years of Monitoring of Lowland Leopard Frogs: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4452645/).

Lowland Leopard Frog: http://www.reptilesofaz.org/Turtle-Amphibs-Subpages/h-l-yavapaiensis.html;

Creating Backyard Ponds and Restoring Habitat for Lowland Leopard Frogs: http://www.nps.gov/sagu/learn/nature/upload/backyard-pool-pond-resource-brief.pdf

Arizona Game and Fish Department-Animal Abstract: http://www.azgfd.gov/w_c/edits/documents/Ranayava.fi _000.pdf

48 Crossroads in Science

References Bradley, George A., Philip C. Rosen, Michael J. Sredl, Thomas R. Jones, and Joyce E. Longcore. 2002. “Chytridiomycosis in Native Arizona Frogs.” Journal of Wildlife Diseases 38: 206–212. O’Brien, K., Don E. Swann, E. Fajardo, C. Perger, C. Prudent, and Kristina Ratzlaff . 2015. Monitoring of Sediment Volume in Bedrock Stream Pools (Tinajas) in Saguaro National Park, 2005–2013. Unpublished report to Saguaro National Park, Tucson, AZ. Monahan William B., and Nicholas A. Fisichelli. 2014. “Climate Exposure of US National Parks in a New Era of Change.” PLoS ONE 9(7): e101302. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101302. Available from http://dx.plos. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101302. Parker, John T. C. 2006. Post-Wildfi re Sedimentation in Saguaro National Park, Rincon Mountain District, and Eff ects on Lowland Leopard Frog Habitat. US Geological Survey Scientifi c Investigations Report 2006-5235. Pechmann, Joseph H. K., David E. Scott, Raymond D. Semlitsch, Janalee P. Caldwell, Laurie J. Vitt, and J. Whitfi eld Gibbons. 1991. “Declining Amphibian Populations: The Problem of Separating Human Impacts from Natural Fluctuations.” Science 253: 892–895. Ratzlaff , Kristina M. 2012. Dynamics of Chytrid Fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) Infection in Amphibians in the Rincon Mountains and Tucson, Arizona. M.S. Thesis. University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Seager, Richard M., Mingfang Ting, Isaac Held, Yochanan Kushnir, Jian Lu, Gabriel Vecchi, Huei-Ping Huang, Nili Harnik, Ants Leetmaa, Ngar-Cheung Lau, Cuihua Li, Jennifer Velez, and Naomi Naik. 2007. “Model Projections of an Imminent Transition to a More Arid Climate in Southwestern North America.” Science 316: 1181–1184. Sredl, Michael J. 2005. “Species account: Rana yavapaiensis.” Pages 596–599 in Lanoo, Micheal, editor. Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Stromberg, J. C., R. Tiller, and B. Richter. 1996. “Eff ects of Groundwater Decline on Riparian Vegetation of Semiarid Regions: The San Pedro, Arizona.” Ecological Applications 6: 113–131. Wake, David B., and Vance T. Vredenburg. 2008. “Are We in the Midst of the Sixth Mass Extinction? A View from the World of Amphibians.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105: 11466–11473. Wallace, J. Eric, Don E. Swann, and Robert J. Steidl. 2006. Eff ects of Wildland Fire on Lowland Leopard Frogs and Their Habitat at Saguaro National Park. Final report to Western National Parks Association, Tucson, Arizona. Wallace, J. Eric, Robert J. Steidl, and Don E. Swann. 2010. “Habitat Characteristics of Lowland Leopard Frogs in Mountain Canyons of Southeastern Arizona.” Journal of Wildlife Management 74: 808–815. Zylstra, Erin R., Don E. Swann, and Robert J. Steidl. 2013. Population Dynamics of Lowland Leopard Frogs in the Rincon Mountains, Arizona. Final report to Desert Southwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit (Project Number: UAZDS-386), University of Arizona Tucson. Zylstra, Erin R., Robert J. Steidl, Don E. Swann, and Kristina Ratzlaff . 2015. “Hydrologic Variability Governs Population Dynamics of a Vulnerable Amphibian in an Arid Environment.” PLoS ONE: 10(6):e0125670. 49 Fall 2015

—CULTURAL RESOURCES— Feature Program—Historic Preservation

Preserving Active Agricultural Landscapes in Intermountain Region Parks: A Joint Cultural and Natural Resources Venture By Jill Cowley, Regional Historical Landscape Architect, Historic Preservation Programs, Cultural Landscapes, [email protected]; Lloyd Masayumptewa, Superintendent, Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site; Christine Ford, Integrated Resources Program Manager, Grant- Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site; Jason Smith, Natural Resources Management Specialist, Grant- Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site; Terry Fisk, Chief of Resources Management and Science, Capitol Reef National Park

Introduction cultural and natural resource National Historical Park and any national parks staff s. Nowhere is this more Salinas Pueblo Missions National Mpreserve landscape so than in the management of Monument). For instance, with resources related to historic and active agricultural landscapes, active agriculture, integrity precontact agricultural activity. where both abiotic and biotic needs to take into account the However, there are a number landscape elements contribute need to accommodate some of parks that preserve historic to historic signifi cance, and contemporary agricultural landscapes with contemporary where both historic and methods. This article looks active agricultural operations. ecological integrity need to be at how landscape treatment Park active agriculture includes maintained. guidance provided by cultural preserving cattle ranching landscape reports (CLR) culture in Montana, managing Preserving evidence of historic combines with results of natural historic orchards in Utah, and agriculture and maintaining resource science to facilitate reintroducing farming and contemporary agricultural preservation of active history- livestock operations at a historic operations based on historic based agriculture at three IMR trading post in the Four Corners methods are equally important parks: Capitol Reef National region. Park employees within for keeping the stories of past Park, Hubbell Trading Post the National Park Service (NPS) relationships with the land National Historic Site, and Intermountain Region (IMR) alive, and scientifi c research Grant-Kohrs Ranch National are actively applying cultural is needed for both to be Historic Site. The historical landscapes management eff ective. While preserving research and analysis in a CLR principles and natural resources agricultural heritage of all types identifi es the “what” (the specifi c science, and they are working is challenging, the challenges of historic patterns and features with associated communities managing landscape for active and overall historic character) to preserve and interpret contemporary agriculture (e.g., that needs to be preserved, active agricultural heritage in case studies in this article) and natural resources science national parks. Managing all can be a little diff erent from informs the “how”—the specifi c cultural landscapes inherently preserving evidence of historic preservation maintenance involves coordination between agriculture (e.g., at Pecos protocols.

50 Crossroads in Science

Capitol Reef National Park The Fruita Rural Historic District within Capitol Reef contains approximately 25 hectares of historic orchards and pastures fi rst established by late-19th-century Mormon pioneers (fi gures 1 and 2). As noted in the orchard condition report (Routson and Nabhan 2007, p.6), “The management of the orchards indirectly or directly interacts with water management, weed management, deer management, Figure 1. Mormon settlement in Capitol Reef area (Source: park photo fi les, CLI fi le HG_890148, n.d.) traffi c management, archeological site and historic building management, and pest management in the park.” The Fruita Rural Historic District Cultural Landscape Report (Gilbert and McKoy 1997) identifi ed historic landscape resources to be preserved, which included the open ditch irrigation system (fi gure 3), specifi c heirloom fruit tree varieties associated with various historic individuals, and the characteristic mosaic of younger and more mature orchards. The Inventory, Condition Assessment, and Management Recommendations for the orchards (Routson and Figure 2. Historic orchard trees adjacent to and within the nonhistoric campground (Source: NPS, Vicky Jacobson, c. 2005) Nabhan 2007) detailed overall orchard health, recommended system monitoring, soil while open ditches are still actions for specifi c orchards, management, and integrated the primary water delivery and guided the park’s 5-year pest management needs. device throughout the historic orchard operations plan, which district and need to be included specifi c direction on Maintaining the active historic preserved to retain historic annual and cyclical planting orchards involves challenges character, some sections of (fi gure 4), pruning, irrigation and trade-off s. For example, the irrigation system are piped 51 Fall 2015

Figure 3. Characteristic open irrigation ditch (Source: NPS, Vicky Figure 4. Sierra Club volunteer, Utah Conservation Corps Jacobson, c. 2005) worker, and CARE ranger Ray Budzinski planting a new orchard tree during a 2013 Volunteer Day (Source: NPS photo, 2013)

or use pressurized water in ripening times than within the trading post, Hubbell’s response to the challenges of the contributing historic operation also included growing ditch sedimentation, fl ooding, orchards. Thus, historic crops and keeping livestock and low water volume (T. Fisk, integrity is retained and orchard (fi gures 5, 6, and 7). Hubbell pers. comm., 2015). Also, in management remains relevant Trading Post National Historic order for the park to maintain to park visitors. Site was established in 1967, and its popular “you-pick” visitor the trading post remains active. fruit harvesting program, a few Hubbell Trading Post Following cultural landscape of the orchards are managed National Historic Site report recommendations (P. as noncontributing landscape John Lorenzo Hubbell ran Froeschauer-Nelson 1998), the elements to accommodate an active trading post on the park embarked on an eff ort to needs of the you-pick program, Navajo Reservation in the 19th reintroduce active agriculture which includes more consistent and 20th centuries. Besides to the site in order to restore

Figure 5. Hubbell Trading Post circa 1931 (Source: Park photo fi les; CLI fi les AS_850109-1) 52 Crossroads in Science

historic landscape character. The Hubbell Trading Post’s farm plan (Regenesis 2005) provided initial guidance, and irrigation was reestablished shortly thereafter (fi gure 8). The irrigation water comes from the historic source, but uses piping rather than an open ditch system.

Ten years later, Hubbell Trading Post now takes care of 31 reintroduced sheep, ram, and Figure 6. Historic farming at Hubbell (Source: Park photo fi les, goats (fi gure 9). Navajo high CLI fi les AL_8500232, n.d.) school students will again participate in the Hubbell Trading Post agricultural and livestock program, working with the post’s Student Conservation Corps farmer Ethelynn Ashley, through a memorandum of agreement with the Ganado High School agricultural program (fi gure 10). Hubbell Trading Post continues to coordinate with IMR natural and cultural resources programs, including ongoing work on the integrated pest management plan. The national historic site also Figure 7. Remnant headgate from historic open ditch irrigation, with fallow fi elds continues to consult with between it and trading post buildings (Source: NPS, J. Cowley, late 1990s) IMR Historic Preservation (fi gure 11). According to Programs and the Navajo tribal Grant-Kohrs Ranch current Superintendent Lloyd and Arizona State Historic National Historical Site Masayumptewa (a traditional Preservation Offi ce on such farmer himself) additional Grant-Kohrs Ranch preserves issues as how best to balance research on soils, invasive the history of cattle ranching parking needs for traditional weeds, and ethnio-botanical in the western United States, community events with plants would be very useful from 18th-century open preservation of historic fi eld in optimizing agricultural range to 20th-century feedlot areas. Reintroducing historic eff orts at Hubbell Trading Post operations (fi gure 12). Cattle are crops such as alfalfa has proved (Masayumptewa, pers. comm., contributing historic landscape diffi cult in the face of invasive 2015). elements, and as part of the weeds and other challenges overall nutrient cycle, they 53 Fall 2015

Figure 8. Former Hubbell Trading Post Superintendent Figure 9. Reintroduced livestock at Hubbell. Nancy Stone supervises reintroduction of irrigation to a (Source: NPS, Ed Chamberlin, c. 2011) fi eld area. (Source: NPS, c. 2005)

are also tools for maintaining healthy soils and vegetation within the Grant-Kohrs Ranch historic landscape (fi gures 13 and 14).

The Cultural Landscape Report, Part One for Grant-Kohrs Ranch (John Milner Associates 2004) provides an exhaustive analysis of landscape history, characteristics, and character; and describes and analyzes nine component landscapes, a number of landscape systems Figure 10. Local Navajo high school students sheering sheep at Hubbell. (Source: NPS, Mick Castillo, c. 2011) (including irrigation), and 420 contributing landscape elements(including hay fi elds, beaver lodges, and wells). All biotic contributing landscape elements are both “natural” and “cultural” at the same time. The Cultural Landscape Report, Part Two (Shapins Belt Collins 2009) provides landscape treatment goals, for instance, for the Upland Pasture component landscape: “Manage vegetation Figure 11. Reestablished historic farming terraces at Hubbell Trading Post. in the Upland Pastures to refl ect (Source: NPS, Mick Castillo, c. 2010)

54 Crossroads in Science

Figure 12. Feeding cattle and horse at Grant-Kohrs Ranch ca. 1934 (Source: NPS, Grant-Kohrs Ranch NHS fi les, GRKO 16107b) the long history of these lands i.e., native prairie in the dry uplands and introduced pasture species in irrigated areas . . . continue to use grazing as a tool for preserving these plant communities (Shapins Belt Collins 2009, p.25).” The 2013 Best Management Practices Report guides implementation of the cultural landscape report recommendations. For example, it provides details on the chemistry of animal and green manure and how to use these nutrient sources to benefi t soil and plant health (B. Olson and B. Leinard 2013, p.9–12A). Figure 13. Cattle grazing at Grant-Kohrs Ranch NHS (Source: NPS, Christine Ford, 2009) Park partners are also important to the overall eff ort of maintaining a healthy cattle Cooperative Education conducting oral histories on herd and telling the park’s Studies Unit, with key input the historic irrigation system, story to the public (fi gure 15). provided by the regional and the park hosted 178 K–12 Grant-Kohrs’ staff continues Exotic Plant Management students during the 2012 to work with Montana Team, and the Inventory and Montana Range Days Program State University Range staff , Monitoring Program. Colorado (J. Smith, pers. comm., 2015). through the Rocky Mountain State University faculty are

55 Fall 2015

Figure 15. Grant-Kohrs Ranch volunteer Laura Newman caring for a calf (Source: NPS, Christine Ford, 2004)

Conclusion Sharing approaches to active management of agricultural landscapes within parks and protected areas is of interest to local, regional, and international Figure 14. Winter cattle feeding: Cattle manure provides nutrients for hay that is communities and land grown in the summer (Source: NPS, 2009) managers. The International Scientifi c Committee on Cultural Landscapes, one of several committees of the International Council For Additional Information Please Visit: on Monuments and Sites, International Scientifi c Committee on Cultural Landscapes World recently initiated a World Rural Rural Landscapes Project http://www.worldrurallandscapes.org/ Landscapes project. english/outstanding-projects/

Information on the IMR parks’ For more information on the NPS Cultural Landscapes Program agricultural landscapes is also and management of agriculture within parks nationwide, visit available on the ISCCL website, http://www.nps.gov/cultural_landscapes. with the potential to reach those involved worldwide in Acknowledgments the preservation, conservation, Thanks to Tom Lincoln, Intermountain Region Associate Regional and interpretation of historic Director for Cultural Resources, and to all coauthors for their and traditional agriculture. assistance and time in providing information, materials, and While preserving heritage review comments for this article. agriculture within parks and protected areas may not be as complex as outside of protected areas, sharing NPS eff orts and challenges may be useful to those trying to manage heritage agriculture outside of protected areas. 56 Crossroads in Science

References Froeschauer-Nelson, Peggy. 1998. Cultural Landscape Report: Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site. Santa Fe, New Mexico: National Park Service Intermountain Support Offi ce.

Gilbert, Cathy A. and Kathleen L. McKoy. 1997. Cultural Landscape Report: Fruita Rural Historic District, Capitol Reef National Park. Cultural Resources Selections No. 8, Intermountain Region. Torrey, Utah: Capitol Reef National Park.

John Milner Associates, 2004. Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site Cultural Landscape Report, Part One: Landscape History, Existing Conditions, and Analysis and Evaluation. Completed under contract for U.S.D.I. National Park Service. Deerlodge, Montana: Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site.

Olson, Bret and Bob Lienard. 2013. Best Management Practices Report, Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site. Bozeman, Montana: Animal and Range Sciences Department, Montana State University.

Regenesis Collaborative Development Group, Inc. 2005. Hubbell Trading Post Farm Plan. Completed under contract for U.S.D.I. National Park Service. Ganado, Arizona: Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site.

Routson, Kanin and Gary Paul Nabhan. 2007. Inventory, Condition Assessment, and Management Recommendations for Use in Preparing an Orchard Management Plan for the Fruita Rural Historic District, Capitol Reef National Park. Completed through cooperative agreement with the Northern Arizona University Center for Sustainable Environments.

Shapins Belt Collins, 2009. Grant-Kohrs Ranch Cultural Landscape Report, Part Two: Pasture/HayFields and Upland Pasture Component Landscapes. Completed under contract with U.S.D.I. National Park Service. Deerlodge, Montana: Grant-Kohrs Ranch NHS.

U.S.D.I. National Park Service, Capitol Reef National Park. Park Orchards Operations Plan 2014–2018 (draft).

57 Fall 2015

—CULTURAL RESOURCES—

Building Common Ground: Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area Tribal Field School

By Suika Rivett, Cultural Resource Manager, Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area, [email protected]

n 2010, tribal consultation Imeetings with the National Park Service (NPS) and American Indian tribes generated a request for additional historic preservation training for tribal staff and offi cials. In response, Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area (BICA) began an accredited fi eld school to host both Crow and Northern Cheyenne tribal members and students from three colleges within the NPS Intermountain Region (IMR): Northwest College, Little Bighorn College, and Chief Dull Knife College. Bighorn Canyon is located in Figure 1. View of the Bighorn Canyon from 500 feet above the Bighorn River (Source: NPS, 2010) northcentral Wyoming and southcentral Montana. The Battlefi eld National Monument or train tribal government park provided the venue for with associated American historic preservation staff and the tribal fi eld school from Indian tribal leadership. During tribal offi cials; build greater 2011–2014 and off ered a unique the workshop, representatives communication with tribes, opportunity for participants to from the Crow, Northern state historic preservation explore an environment that Cheyenne, Fort Peck, Rose Bud offi ces, and archeological was home to hunter-gatherer Sioux, and other associated societies/communities to groups year-round for more tribes discussed how the reverse the clash of the than 10,000 years. National Park Service could paradigms in the public’s eye; Since the 1996 inception of the provide better support for provide training sessions for the Tribal Historic Preservation the tribes (NPS 2011, p.37). public to include state, tribal, Offi ce, the need for better That discussion resulted in and archeologists’ perspectives; cultural resource training for the following requests from and develop both online and tribal personnel has grown the tribes to the National face-to-face training for the dramatically. In April 2010, the Park Service—develop historic preservation staff and National Park Service hosted additional publications and tribal historians. a workshop at Little Bighorn workshops to assist and/ 58 Crossroads in Science

In response to these requests, in partnerships with either allowed occupants to maintain Bighorn Canyon began the University of Wyoming or a ready supply of fi re fuel. Tipis planning an accredited fi eld Northwest College. provided shelter during spring school to host both Crow and months throughout the varied Northern Cheyenne tribal While Chris Finley worked ecological zones, providing members and students from at Bighorn Canyon, he began opportunities for occupants to three diff erent colleges reuniting hunt and collect edible plants. within the IMR. In These visits have members of Summer saw the loss of snow order to provide not only allowed local tribes, on the Pryor Mountain tops; including the educational the associated tribes thus providing a place to fi nd background for the his Crow and hew new tipi poles and to continue cultural fi eld school, Bighorn family, with hunt both game and plants. Canyon began practices on native the Bighorn Native peoples spent fall in the Canyon. He collaborating with local lands encompassed grasslands region and “annually colleges, with whom— encouraged gathered for the communal by Bighorn Canyon, through the Rocky tribal elders and bison hunt, meat and hide Mountain Cooperative but they also others to visit processing and preservation Ecosystems Studies increased park staff’s and continue and engaged in many social and traditional Units (CESU)—the knowledge of the ceremonial activities” (Van West park could partner ceremonies 1979, p.26). importance of the and provide NPS within the funding for the fi eld area and management park—several The Bad Pass Trail provided which hadn’t a travel corridor to the many school. Assistance of the site’s cultural from the CESU made been practiced seasonal sites and other parts resources. possible the funding for many years. of the plains. The trail cuts a distribution and These visits jagged north-south line through coordination for the Bighorn have not only allowed the Bighorn Canyon and was Canyon Tribal Field School. associated tribes to continue utilized by both prehistoric and cultural practices on native historic man well over 10,000 Most students received lands encompassed by Bighorn years ago. The trail provided scholarships through CESU Canyon, but they also increased a treacherous route from the funds provided to Northwest park staff ’s knowledge of Shoshone River near Lovell, College in Powell, Wyoming. the importance of the area Wyoming, to Grapevine Creek Although initially the institution and management of the site’s in Ft. Smith, Montana, following was not a member of the CESU, cultural resources. a mostly parallel path along the the issue was rectifi ed through Bighorn River through what the tenacious eff orts of Chris Bighorn Canyon provides is now park land. In addition Finley, the former archeologist a unique environment for a to over 700 cairns that mark at Bighorn Canyon. Northwest tribal-focused fi eld school. This the trail, there are also deep College, with an enrollment landscape provided for the ruts that line most of the trail’s of 2,111 students, became one needs of hunter-gatherer groups more heavily used corridors. of the smallest partners in occupying the area year-round These ruts were created by the CESU beginning in 2014. for more than 10,000 years. countless bison, humans, dogs, Since then, all Bighorn Canyon Winter months were spent in and horses. Later, trappers and Tribal Field Schools have been caves or wooden huts, which explorers would use the trail 59 Fall 2015

Figure 2. Map of Bighorn Canyon and general path of Bad Pass Trail (Source: Wisehart, 2005)

as an overland pass, making an easier route during times of the year when the river routes became dangerous. While explorers mapped the trail, trappers reconnoitered it to fi nd areas that harbored pelt-bearing animals. Trappers would spend months at a time in the region trapping animals for trade at outposts further north and south of the Bighorn Canyon (Bearss 1970). Figure 3. Several cairns of the Bad Pass Trail (Source: NPS, n.d.) Prior to the 1950s, most of the cultural resources of Bighorn West 1979, p.118–136). During the Bad Pass Trail and some Canyon were unknown. During the 1960s and 1970s, Larry of its associated occupational the 1950s, small surveys by the Loendorf and an archeological sites (Loendorf 1974, p.96–99). Smithsonian Institute identifi ed crew surveyed the park and Loendorf identifi ed 12 basic 37 sites within the park (Van identifi ed 122 sites, including classes of sites within the

60 Crossroads in Science

Bighorn Canyon: occupation sites, tipi ring sites, wooden structures, caves/rock shelters, buff alo jumps, burials, fortifi ed sites, quarries, rock art sites, vision quest sites, a medicine wheel site, and cairns/rock alignments (Van West 1979, p.118–136). The majority of the sites known to Bighorn Canyon staff prior to 2000 had been identifi ed by Loendorf and his crew. NPS identifi ed eight sites between 1979 and 1999; during Chris Finley’s tenure as Bighorn Canyon’s archeologist, another 183 sites were discovered prior Figure 5. Tipi ring overlooking the Bighorn River (Source: NPS, 2014) to 2009. In this way, and through trips then as one student measures to see other historic ranches components of the tipi circle in the park, students also and stones, another notes the learn about Bighorn Canyon’s degree direction and draws the historical resources and receive corresponding information on a instruction on the major sheet of paper. In that way, each legislation associated with stone circle is accurately drawn cultural resource management, to scale. basic archeological fi eld methodology, the National Overall, Bighorn Canyon Tribal Historical Preservation Field School participants Act (NHPA) / section 106 complete 300 hours of decision-making process, combined coursework and and basic artifact and feature archeological surveys in the identifi cation. park to obtain 6 hours of Figure 4. Chris Finley recording a cairn of college credit and receive a the Bad Pass Trail (Source: NPS, 2014) Field studies include recording nationally recognized certifi cate During Larry Loendorf’s primary features in an of training from Northwest original surveys of the Bighorn occupational site, generally a College. Several of the fi eld Canyon, the team based their tipi ring or stone circle. Students school’s fi rst students are now camp at the Ewing-Snell Ranch learn to accurately record these instructors for the school, and in the park. This ranch has circles using a tipi quick, which many others work for their now been converted into a is a small wooden board, usually tribal cultural programs. A science center which houses 1-foot square or smaller, with 2012 fi eld school participant, the fi eld school, with students directional degrees drawn Sarah Jacobs, is now working spending 3 to 6 weeks living in around it in a circle. Students on the Bad Pass Trail cultural tents on the historic ranch site. fl ag stones within the tipi circle, landscape inventory as a 61 Fall 2015

Figure 6. Recording a tipi ring / stone circle (note fl agging) (Source: NPS, 2012) Figure 7. Use of a tipi quick (Source: NPS, 2012) graduate student. Listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, the trail has benefi ted from the fi eld school which provided research data for this inventory.

During the fi eld school, Bighorn Canyon hosts tribal elders to teach both the students and park staff their history of the park lands. This information, combined with the hundreds of additional sites that have been recorded by the summer fi eld school students, has provided park staff with a much greater understanding of Bighorn Canyon’s cultural resources. Figure 8. A Crow elder teaching at the fi eld school at the Ewing-Snell Science Center Thanks to the Bighorn Canyon (Source: NPS, 2010) Tribal Field School, more had thought were not viable the park’s current and future than 137 new sites have been for use or habitation. Cultural utilization and to improve documented since 2009, and the sites range from lithic scatters protection of cultural resources boundaries of several large sites and historic roads to entire from impacts of visitor use, have been redefi ned. This has prehistoric occupational sites. natural occurrences, wildlife, included not only identifi cation With the data gained from and ranching activities. Projects of new sites within areas of the fi eld schools, personnel at developed to support these previous surveys, but also sites Bighorn Canyon have the ability cultural assets also provide in areas that past archeologists to better plan and manage 62 Crossroads in Science

Figure 9. Students learning to fl int knap (Source: NPS, 2012)

has helped to identify and map impacted sites and features on the Bad Pass Trail and throughout Bighorn Canyon that need additional care and protection. Because of this, implementation of park projects and required maintenance has been successfully redesigned to avoid damaging the historic trail and other recognized cultural sites, as well as allowing for enhanced interpretation by park staff .

The Bighorn Canyon Tribal Figure 10. Students learning to throw the atlatl (Source: NPS, 2010) Field School’s success has been demonstrated through information that enhances park throughout most of the the reconnection of tribal interpretation for visitors. previously inhabited portions members with their past and of the park), high winds, heavy bringing the next generation As with all parks, Bighorn snows, and extreme hot and into Bighorn Canyon, providing Canyon’s cultural resources cold temperatures. General training for current and future face many threats, including erosion from recent ground- tribal preservation personnel, landscape impacts from wild disturbing park projects adding vital information to horses of the Pryor Mountain and human-caused damage Bighorn Canyon’s overall Wild Horse Range and from (including looting of some cultural resource program, and over 2,500 head of cattle that are sites) has aff ected several of the publicizing the park through trailed through the park each Bad Pass Trail cairns near the articles in peer-reviewed season. Nature-driven impacts park’s main road (Bad Pass Trail journals and NPS publications. include fl ash fl oods (common Park Road). The fi eld school 63 Fall 2015

Figure 11. 2010 Field school students presenting their preservation certifi cate (Source: NPS, 2010)

References Bearss, Edwin C. 1970. Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area, Montana-Wyoming, Historic Basic Data, Volume 1. Available at the NPS Service Center, Denver, CO.

Loendorf, Lawrence. 1974. The Results of the Archeological Survey in the Pryor Mountain Bighorn Canyon Area – 1971 Field Season. University of North Dakota. Available at the Bighorn Canyon NRA Library, Lovell, WY.

National Park Service. 2011. Little Bighorn Battlefi eld Long-Range Interpretive Plan. Available at the Little Bighorn Battlefi eld Library, Crow Agency, MT.

Van West, Carla Rebecca. 1979. Data Base and Assessment of the Archeological Resources in the Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area. Available at the Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln, NE.

Wisehart, A. 2005. A Cultural Study of the Bad Pass Trail in the Pryor Mountains, Montana and Wyoming. Master’s thesis. Missoula, MT: University of Montana.

64 Crossroads in Science

—CULTURAL RESOURCES—

Border Archeology at Chiricahua National Monument: Data Recovery at CHIR00021 By Matthew C. Guebard, Chief of Resource Management, Montezuma Castle National Monument and Tuzigoot National Monument, [email protected] Contributing Authors: Bruce B. Huckell, Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, [email protected]; Thaddeus A. Liebert, Archeologist, University of New Mexico, [email protected] Introduction n southeastern Arizona, Ithe incredible history of Chiricahua National Monument is threatened by modern, human-caused impacts, ranging from cross-border smuggling to climate change. But thanks to an ongoing cooperative project, several sites are being relocated, recorded, and preserved. This is the story of the Garfi eld Peak Cave, which spans nearly 100 human generations.

Among the steep canyons and rugged mountains of Chiricahua

National Monument, much of Figure 1. Jake DeGayner looks out from Garfi eld Peak Cave (Source: Matt Guebard, 2014) the rough landscape appears uninhabitable. However, Today, direct and indirect et al. 2014). For example, in humans have been living in human impacts are negatively 2011, the Horseshoe Two Fire the Chiricahua Mountains for aff ecting those resources. The burned approximately 12,000 thousands of years. In fact, monument is located within a acres within the Chiricahua evidence of human habitation corridor commonly used for the National Monument boundary in the area of the monument has traffi cking of illegal narcotics (Southwest Fire Science been found dating to the Middle from Mexico. Trails and Consortium 2015). The intense Archaic period (ca. 5500–3500 campsites used by smugglers heat caused by wildfi res can BCE). Archeological evidence are often discovered within the damage and destroy artifacts, also shows that subsequent boundaries of archeological and the loss of vegetation American Indian groups lived sites and result in destructive accompanying a fi re often in and around Chiricahua until impacts. Global climate results in the erosion of site the arrival of Anglo American change is also a threat. Rising features and artifact deposits. settlers and soldiers in the late temperatures and drought have 19th century. increased the size and intensity In 2010, the National Park of wildfi res in the region (Holtz Service (NPS) partnered with 65 Fall 2015

Figure 2. Map of Chiricahua National Monument showing the location of Garfi eld Peak (Source: Southern Arizona Offi ce, 2015) 66 Crossroads in Science

the University of New Mexico (UNM) to assess and record damage to archeological sites caused by drug traffi cking. Following the Horseshoe Two Fire, the partnership was extended to include inventory and condition assessment of archeological sites within the burn area. As part of the ongoing cooperative project, UNM and NPS archeologists relocated known archeological sites threatened by wildfi res and narcotics traffi cking. CHIR00021: The Garfi eld Peak Cave Figure 3. CHIR00021 with chain link fence torn down (Source: Thaddeus Liebert, 2013) One of the fi rst sites to be relocated was CHIR00021, a small rock shelter located on the southeast side of Garfi eld Peak. The site was fi rst discovered and recorded by NPS archeologists in 1971. At that time, two artifacts were reported in the cave: a large, globular basket made of coarsely coiled bunch grass and a buried hunting net made of twined yucca fi ber. The National Park Service initially adopted a “preservation in place” strategy, wherein these fragile artifacts were left in the location they were found. A chain link fence and rock wall were constructed at the mouth Figure 4. The net is packaged and ready to remove from the CHIR00021 cave of the cave to provide additional (Source: Matt Guebard, 2014) protection by restricting archeologist Donald Morris CHIR00021 was relocated animal and human access. NPS removed the coarsely coiled by UNM archeologists in archeologists soon determined basket, but left the partially 2013. By that time, the chain this strategy was ineff ective and buried net in place (Morris link fence had been pulled that rodents were damaging 1981). down and the hunting net the basket. In 1980, NPS was exposed. Park resource 67 Fall 2015

managers feared that the cave Copies of the plan and a required to wear respirators might be used as temporary memorandum of agreement to protect against cave dust shelter for smugglers or that were reviewed by the Arizona containing silicon dioxide and a wildfi re could irrevocably State Historic Preservation rodent feces. Two 1-meter units damage the exposed and fragile Offi ce, the park’s traditionally were methodically excavated net. Management guidelines in associated American Indian over three days. Sediment Director’s Order 28: Cultural tribes, and the Advisory Council was carefully removed from Resource Management state that on Historic Preservation. around the net using brushes “Signifi cant archeological or and passed through 1/4-inch other scientifi c data threatened Recovery and Analysis and 1/8-inch sifting screens. with loss from the eff ects of of the Net Prehistoric ceramics, net natural processes, human In May 2014, data recovery at fragments, charcoal, and plant activities . . . are recovered, CHIR00021 began. A strenuous, remains were found in the recorded, or otherwise 2.5-hour hike over diffi cult and screens and collected for future preserved” (NPS 2015). steep terrain was necessary analysis. The net was extensively Hunting nets, like the one found each day because pack animals, documented before, during, and at CHIR00021, are extremely helicopters, and off -road after excavation, using digital rare; this is due in part to the vehicles could not be used to photography, digital video, fragility of the plant fi bers access the area. Once there, the hand mapping, and digital from which they are made. A small size and low ceiling of the photogrammetry. collections survey some 40 years cave made work uncomfortable, Following excavation, the net ago (Kaemlein 1971) found only and steep drop-off s from 16 nets known in the American was carefully lifted and placed the cave made conditions into a box built of cardboard, Southwest; of these, only one dangerous. Excavators were other net had been found in the ethafoam, and cotton batting. Chiricahua Mountains.

In 2014, an interdisciplinary team of cultural resource specialists from the Southern Arizona Offi ce, Western Archeological and Conservation Center (WACC), and UNM convened to determine appropriate measures for documenting, protecting, and preserving the net. After careful consideration, it was decided that the net should be removed from the cave and curated at WACC. A data recovery and conservation plan was drafted to outline methods for removing, transporting, Figure 5. Brian Haas removes the net from the CHIR00021 cave and storing the fragile artifact. (Source: Matt Guebard, 2014 68 Crossroads in Science

Figure 6. Brian Haas carries the packaged net on his back (Source: Matt Guebard, 2014) The box was built on-site to provide customized support, so the net would not move or be Figure 7. The net is carefully transported from CHIR00021 damaged during transportation. (Source: Matt Guebard, 2014) The box was then secured net were carefully recorded its shape and size, representing to a specialized backpack and removed. Each individual many hours of tedious labor. called a cache pack, designed strand, of which there were for carrying large and heavy hundreds, was also carefully Ethnographic evidence suggests objects. The box containing the mapped. that hunting nets like this one net was then carefully hauled were used to catch rabbits off the mountain on the backs Much has been learned about (Steward 1938). Similar but of archeologists. the net since it arrived at WACC complete hunting nets found in 2014. For instance, it is made elsewhere in the American The net was transported to of yucca fi ber (Yucca sp.), a Southwest measure up to 73 WACC, where it underwent sharp-leafed perennial shrub meters (239.5 feet) in length rigorous curatorial that is widely available in the (Kaemlin 1971). At this size, treatment. Before entering local area. To build the net, a net would have been too the conservation lab, the net prehistoric people collected large for one person to handle was frozen to -30°C (-22°F) large amounts of yucca leaves, and would have required a for 48 hours. This extreme then pulverized them to extract coordinated group eff ort. To temperature was necessary to the fi brous tissue. Hundreds successfully catch rabbits, kill any living pests that might of stringy fi bers were then many people would have been damage the net, as well as to twined together to create long, required to hold and position destroy dangerous pathogens, thin strands of cordage. One the net, while many others were such as hantavirus. Sediment individual strand measures responsible for driving rabbits was carefully removed from over 6 meters (19.68 feet) in into the net. Once entrapped, each strand, using low-powered length, and hundreds of square rabbits could be killed with vacuum suction. Additional knots were tied to give the net clubs or arrows. artifacts entwined within the

69 Fall 2015

archeological culture, a group of prehistoric farmers living in the Chiricahua Mountains from AD 300–1200. Plain brown ware ceramic sherds found with the net also date to this period, suggesting that CHIR00021 may have also contained ceramic storage vessels that were broken or removed prior to the 1971 discovery of the cave. Reanalysis of the Coarse Coiled Basket A reanalysis of fi eld notes and artifacts associated with Figure 8. CHIR00021 net after its arrival at WACC (Source: Brynn Bender, 2014) Donald Morris’s excavation at CHIR00021 was also conducted The size of the CHIR00021 net hunts. Two small sections also as part of the project. Of was much smaller than other appear to have been gathered in particular interest was the more complete specimens handfuls and cut with a sharp- coiled grass basket removed found in the Southwest; this edged tool, perhaps as a means from the cave in 1980. The was because it had become of salvaging portions of the net basket is made of split beargrass severely damaged by rodents. for other purposes. leaves (Nolina microcarpa) The orientation of intact A date range for the creation of and wild bunchgrasses (Setaria sections, however, suggests the macrostachya, Muhlenbergia net was originally folded and the net is approximately 930 (+/- 30) BP (Before Present) (Hood monticola, Trachypogon placed directly on the fl oor of secundus), all locally available the cave, perhaps for long-term 2014). This suggests it was made and used by the Mogollon materials (Morris 1981). storage or safekeeping between Carbon 14 dates acquired from the grasses indicate they were harvested around 3340 (+/-190) BP (Linnick 1983). This places use of the basket within the Late Archaic / Early Agricultural period, a time associated with the earliest known use of maize and other domesticated plants in southern Arizona. Interestingly, Morris found fragments of maize kernels inside the basket. If the basket and kernels are contemporaneous, then Figure 9. Brynn Bender cleans and examines the CHIR00021 net (Source: NPS, 2014) 70 Crossroads in Science

CHIR00021 may be one of the earliest agricultural sites yet known in the American Southwest. UNM and NPS archeologists are developing a sampling plan to date the kernels using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon technology. The resulting AMS dates will determine whether kernel fragments are contemporary with the basket. If the kernels are 3,000 years old, the team will suggest genetic sequencing as a means of helping future Figure 10. The coiled basket removed from CHIR00021 by Donald Morris in 1980 archeologists to track the (Source: Matt Guebard, 2015) adoption of maize agriculture in the American Southwest. Conclusion The coarsely coiled basket is over 2,000 years older than the hunting net. This indicates that CHIR00021 was used for the storage of important objects Figure 11. Fragments of maize kernels found within the basket (Source: Matt Guebard, 2014) over the span of 100 human generations. Although the hunting equipment. This type CHIR00021 cave. Future study reuse of dry caves is common of environment is also optimal of these objects will increase in the archeological record, for the preservation of these scientifi c understanding of CHIR00021 is particularly organic objects for thousands of prehistoric life at Chiricahua small and extremely diffi cult years. National Monument and to access. What distinguishes throughout the American CHIR00021 from other caves Chiricahua National Monument Southwest. in the area, and why was it used contains steep canyons and repeatedly for many years? The rugged mountains with a answer may lie in the shape rich record of human history. and size of the cave itself. Impacts such as illegal drug Although CHIR00021 is small, traffi cking and wildfi res create it is over fi ve meters (16.40 serious challenges but also feet) deep from front to back. opportunities for scientifi c This is deeper than many other investigation. Archeologists alcoves in the area and provides are only beginning to fully a dry, protected spot for the understand the importance of Figure 12. Schott’s Yuccas short-term storage of food and the artifacts found within the (Source: NPS, n.d.) 71 Fall 2015

References Holtz, Debra, Adam Markham, Kate Cell, and Brenda Ekwurzel. 2014. National Landmarks at Risk: How Rising Seas, Floods, and Wildfi res Are Threatening the United States’ Most Cherished Historic Sites. Accessed March 11, 2015. http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/fi les/legacy/assets/documents/global_warming/ National-Landmarks-at-Risk-Full-Report.pdf.

Hood, Darden. 2014. “Report of Radiocarbon Dating Analysis (Beta-385244).” Unpublished Report on fi le at CHIR.

Kaemlein, Wilma. 1971. “Large Hunting Nets in the Collections of the Arizona State Museum.” Kiva 36: 20–52.

Linnick, Timothy W. 1983. Letter to Donald Morris, September 13, 1983. On fi le at the Western Archeological and Conservation Center, Tucson.

Morris, Don P., Annita Harlan, James Adovasio, and R. L. Andrews. 1981. An Aboriginal Basket from Chiricahua National Monument, Arizona. On fi le at the Western Archeological and Conservation Center, Tucson.

National Park Service. NPS-28: Cultural Resource Management Guideline. Accessed March 11, 2015. http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/nps28/28contents.htm.

Southwest Fire Science Consortium. 2015. 2011 Horseshoe 2 Fire Chiricahua Mountains, Arizona. Accessed March 11, 2015. http://swfi reconsortium.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/HS2-fact- sheet-11-5-12.pdf.

Steward, Julian H. 1938. Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 38, Washington D.C.

Figure 13. View from Massai Point, Chiricahua National Monument (Source: NPS, Katy Hooper, n.d.) 72 Crossroads in Science

—NATURAL RESOURCES—

Application of New Technologies Supporting Paleontological Resource Inventory and Monitoring in Intermountain Region Parks By: Vincent L. Santucci, National Park Service Geologic Resources Division, [email protected]; John R. “Jack” Wood, National Park Service Geologic Resources Division, [email protected]

Introduction

he Intermountain Region 2015 (Santucci and Koch 2003; The application of emerging T(IMR) of the National Santucci et al. 2009). technologies in IMR parks Park Service (NPS) preserves points the way to future a diverse and scientifi cally Rapid advances and the advances in paleontological important fossil record, which increasing aff ordability research, monitoring, and extends from the top of the of powerful computers, protection. Rocky Mountains in Glacier software, and advanced National Park to the cliff s digital photography enable Arches National Park the creation of precise along the Rio Grande Wild Paleontological fi eld inventories 3-D models. Among these and Scenic River. Collectively, within Arches National Park, advances is photogrammetry fossils documented within 73 Utah, over the past decade software that uses overlapping parks in the region span more have yielded several rare and digital photographs to than a billion years of Earth’s important fossil discoveries fi nd the 3-D aspect of an history and provide exceptional (Madsen et al. 2012). An object and then recreate opportunities for scientifi c unusual series of trace fossils an accurate virtual model research and public education. preserved at one locality in (Wood and Santucci 2014). The challenges associated the Lower Cretaceous Cedar Photogrammetric imaging with the management and Mountain Formation in Arches of in situ paleontological protection of nonrenewable National Park may represent resources has been recently paleontological resources evidence of vertebrate feeding undertaken at several IMR resulted in the development behavior. A repeated pattern of parks including: Arches of innovative practices and parallel groups of 4–8 grooves National Park, Capitol Reef collaborative partnerships are being interpreted (Martin et National Park, Florissant Fossil within the IMR parks. The al. 2014) as semicircular feeding Beds National Monument, Glen use of new and improved traces by a beaked vertebrate, Canyon National Recreation technologies, including such as a bird or pterosaur Area, Grand Canyon National digital photogrammetry and (fi gure 1). The biogenic features Park, White Sands National unmanned aviation systems, form semicircular patterns Monument, and Wupatki were utilized for inventory, suggesting a small vertebrate National Monument. The monitoring, protection, and standing or fl oating in shallow photogrammetric data support interpretation of fossils within water and shifting laterally to scientifi c evaluation and long- IMR parks during 2014 and systematically mine the surface term monitoring of fossils. for food. Photogrammetric 73 Fall 2015

(sp.) was discovered in the photogrammetric data are being Monitor Butte Member. These used for scientifi c description of fossils are preserved in growth the paleontological locality and position and occur in three will be available for long-term distinct sedimentary layers. This monitoring of the stability and rare occurrence of standing condition of the site (Kirkland fossil horsetails contributes et al. 2014). to the understanding of these ancient plants and the Florissant Fossil Beds paleoenvironment during National Monument deposition of the Chinle In May 2014, photogrammetry Formation at Capitol Reef specialists from the Bureau of National Park (Dubiel 1987). Land Management and the The Equisetites forest is an National Park Service met unusual occurrence, with with staff at Florissant Fossil only a few locations known Beds National Monument, with this fossil in growth Colorado, to document a trio of Figure 1. Vertebrate feeding traces large Eocene sequoia (ancient preserved in the Early Cretaceous Cedar position outside of Capitol Mountain Formation at Arches National Reef National Park (Dubiel redwood) fossil stumps. Park, Utah (NPS Photo, 2002). 1987). In response, staff from Although the in situ petrifi ed the NPS Geologic Resources stumps are beneath a protective images of the feeding traces Division traveled to the park to open-sided structure, they enhance the ability to remotely document the locality through are subjected to seasonal and describe and precisely measure photogrammetry (fi gure 2). The often extreme temperature the morphological patterns fl uctuations and freeze-thaw preserved in these unusual features. Capitol Reef National Park Through a cooperative agreement between the NPS Geologic Resources Division and the Utah Geological Survey, paleontological fi eld inventories were undertaken at Capitol Reef National Park, Utah, between 2013 and 2014 (Kirkland et al. 2014). During fi eld evaluations of the Late Triassic Chinle Formation, a fossil plant locality with 8 to 10 Figure 2. Photogrammetric documentation of in situ Equisetites casts in the Late in situ casts of the tree-like large Triassic Monitor Butte Member of the Chinle Formation at Capitol Reef National Park, horsetail known as Equisetites Utah (Source: UGS, 2014). 74 Crossroads in Science

eff ects. Photogrammetric images were obtained to provide baseline data for the park paleontologist and staff in order to further enhance monitoring of the stability and condition of the petrifi ed stumps (fi gure 3). Glen Canyon National Recreation Area Hundreds of fossil track localities are preserved in the Early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone Figure 3. Photogrammetric image of petrifi ed redwood stumps at Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument, Colorado and other Mesozoic strata Inset: NPS staff acquiring imagery for photogrammetric modeling (NPS Photos, 2015) along the shores of Lake Powell in Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah. Most of the fossil localities preserve footprints of dinosaurs and occasionally tracks of early mammals or mammal- like reptiles and insects. Paleontological resource monitoring was established to evaluate the stability and condition of fossil track localities subject to periodic submersion and emergence with fl uctuations in the water levels of the lake (Kirkland et al. 2011). Historically low water levels at Lake Powell has recently led to the discovery and documentation of several new and important fossil track localities during paleontological resource monitoring at Glen Canyon National Recreation Area.

In 2009, a team of paleontologists from the Figure 4A. The Megatrack Block at Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah, Utah Geological Survey and contains a variety of dinosaur tracks within the Early Jurassic Navajo Sandstone the National Park Service (Source: NPS, 2009) 75 Fall 2015

Figure 4B. Detailed surface mapping of the Megatrack Block reveals the occurence of seven distinct vertebrate track morphotypes (Source: A. Milner, 2011).

documented a large block of initiate long-term monitoring preserves more than 100 fossil Navajo Sandstone containing of the paleontological footprint impressions identifi ed dozens of individual footprints, locality, photogrammetric as Brasilichnium, which are representing at least seven documentation was undertaken believed to be associated diff erent types of fossil tracks in 2014. with small early mammals (known as morphotypes) or mammal-like reptiles (fi gures 4A–B). On the main Due to the low lake levels (fi gure 5). Photogrammetric track-bearing surface of the in 2014, another new and documentation of this fossil block is a prominent trackway important fossil track track locality during the period consisting of what appear to be locality was discovered and of low lake level will enable tracks made by a large bipedal documented in the Navajo continued study when the site ornithopod-like dinosaur. In Sandstone at Glen Canyon becomes resubmerged with a order to facilitate the study of National Recreation Area. rise in the lake water level. this megatrack block and to The newly exposed locality

76 Crossroads in Science

identifi ed as Chelichnus (fi gure 6A).

Photogrammetric documentation of Cassi’s Fossil Track Locality was accomplished in September 2014. Digital 3-D models were generated using the photogrammetric images to enhance scientifi c analysis and description of the Paleozoic tetrapod trackways (fi gure 6B). The photogrammetric images also yield baseline data for long-term monitoring of this important paleontological Figure 5. NPS geologist photogrammetrically document a partially submerged Brasilichnium trackway along the lake shore at Glen Canyon National Recreation locality. Area, Utah (Source: NPS, 2014). White Sands National Grand Canyon most important fossil track Monument localities known in the park. National Park An extensive Late Pleistocene On one surface of the block, fossil megatrack site has Grand Canyon National Park, several exceptionally preserved recently been documented Arizona, preserves one of trackways of large tetrapod within and around White the greatest concentrations footprints occur and are of Late Paleozoic tetrapod Sands National Monument, (four-legged [quadrupedal] animal) tracks in the world. During the 1920s, Smithsonian paleontologist Charles Gilmore studied and made extensive collections of fossil tracks and trackways from the Early Permian Coconino Sandstone within the park (Gilmore 1926, 1927, 1928). Since Gilmore’s research at the Grand Canyon, new fossil track localities have been documented in park strata. A massive detached block of Coconino Sandstone, discovered during 2013 by paleontology intern Cassandra Figure 6A. Chelichnus trackways exposed on the surface of a block of Permian Knight, preserves one of the Coconino Sandstone in Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona (Source: C. Knight, 2013).

77 Fall 2015

Monitoring of the ephemeral fossil tracks preserved within the monument continuously reveals new fossil track occurrences, as well as documents the rapid deterioration of previously recorded fossil tracks. Traditional ground level monitoring and photogrammetry of fossil trackways require close proximity to the fossil tracks

Figure 6B. Photogrammetric image of the same Chelichnus trackway block where by the photographer. This color variation is based upon the depth of surfi cial features including the fossil approach to photodocumenting footprints (Source: NPS, 2015) the tracks generates disturbance to the adjacent soft sediments and fossils at or near the surface.

Collaboration between the Department of Defense, Bureau of Land Management, United States Geological Survey, and the National Park Service during 2014 enabled the use of an unmanned aviation system, specifi cally an RQ-16 Tarantula- Hawk (T-Hawk), to be employed in restricted airspace to obtain aerial photography and videography of portions of the Late Pleistocene megatrack Figure 7. Photogrammetric image of a large felid track preserved in Pleistocene site at White Sands National sediments at White Sands National Monument, New Mexico (Source: NPS, 2013). Monument (fi gure 8). This proof of concept project represents New Mexico (Santucci et al. sediments, in which the fragile the fi rst time a T-Hawk platform 2014). Thousands of fossil footprints are preserved, results has been used to support tracks and trackways produced in their rapid weathering paleontological research by extinct ice age animals, by wind and storms. Once and resource management. including mammoths, camels, exposed at the surface, tracks The aerial photography carnivores, and possibly giant are ephemeral and temporary and videography enabled ground sloths, are preserved geologic features. Processes centimeter-scale resolution and in the gypsum-rich sands which erode the tracks will also geospatial data collection while associated with dry lake beds help to exhume new ones from minimizing impacts and ground (fi gure 7). The nature of the the subsurface as the sand shifts disturbances to the fragile loosely compacted gypsiferous and abrades the underlying paleontological resources. fossiliferous deposits. 78 Crossroads in Science

(pentadactyl) footprint believed to be produced by an unidentifi ed early reptile (pseudosuchian). To date, several footprint specimens that preserve skin impressions have been collected at Wupatki National Monument and are maintained within the collections at the Museum of Northern Arizona.

During September 2014, photogrammetric images were obtained of the Wupatki Chirotherium tracks with skin impressions. The high Figure 8. Interagency team, consisting of staff from the NPS, BLM, USGS, DOD and the RQ-16 Tarantula-Hawk, during documentation of ice age fossil tracks at White Sands resolution 3-D images National Monument, New Mexico (Source: NPS, 2014). enhance the ability to view the morphological features Wupatki National preservation exhibiting early of the ancient reptilian skin. Monument reptilian skin was associated The photogrammetric models with a fossil track identifi ed as will be available for use by A fossil vertebrate track with Chirotherium from the Lower– researchers and for public skin impressions was discovered Middle Triassic Moenkopi interpretation of this rare in 2004 at Wupatki National Formation (fi gure 9). evidence of early reptile skin. Monument, Arizona. This rare Chirotherium is a fi ve-toed Conclusion The use of photogrammetry and unmanned aviation systems have increased opportunities for inventory and monitoring of paleontological resources in Intermountain Region parks. In some instances, the innovative applications of these new technologies have been employed to reduce potential impacts to fragile resources while enhancing paleontological resource management activities (Wood and Santucci 2014). The NPS Geologic Resources Division website includes some Figure 9. Chirotherium track with skin impressions from the Triassic Moenkopi Formation at Wupatki National Monument, Arizona (Source: NPS, 2014). examples of paleontological 79 Fall 2015

resource photogrammetry stability and condition of fossils fossils virtually or in person projects. and fossil localities due to with no resource damage, truly either natural processes, such as leaving no trace and protecting The extreme precision of weathering, or human impacts. the actual location of sensitive the ground-based and aerial fossil localities. The use of photogrammetry enables Digital photogrammetric photogrammetry will likely documentation, monitoring, data can be used to generate yield opportunities for other and subsequent remote mathematically precise 3-D resource management and scientifi c study of in situ models, which are able to interpretation applications, paleontological resources. The be printed or electronically support long-term resource acquisition of high resolution shared for public education or preservation, and expand images provides a methodology scientifi c study. The 3-D models analysis of paleontological for evaluating changes in the will allow millions to enjoy the resources.

For Additional Information Please Visit: http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/monitoring/photogrammetry/

References Dubiel, Russell F. 1987. “Sedimentology of the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation, Southeastern Utah: Paleoclimatic Implications.” Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science 22: 35–45.

Gilmore, Charles W. 1926. “Fossil Footprints from the Grand Canyon.” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 77(9): 1–41.

Gilmore, Charles W. 1927. “Fossil Footprints from the Grand Canyon: Second Contribution.” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 80(3): 1–78.

Gilmore, Charles W. 1928. “Fossil Footprints from the Grand Canyon: Third Contribution.” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 80(8): 1–16.

Kirkland, James I., Scott K. Madsen, Donald D. DeBlieux, and Vincent L. Santucci. 2011. “Establishing a Paleontological Monitoring Test Site at Glen Canyon National Recreation Area. Proceedings of the 9th Conference on Fossil Resources.” Olstad, Tyra and Arvid K. Aase, eds. BYU Geology Studies, vol. 49(A): 51–60.

Kirkland, James I., J. W. Martz, Donald D. DeBlieux, Vincent L. Santucci, Scott K. Madsen, John R. Wood, and N. M. Payne. 2014. Paleontological Resource Inventory and Monitoring: Chinle and Cedar Mountain Formations, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. Utah Geological Survey Technical Report, 123 p.

80 Crossroads in Science

Madsen, Scott K., James I. Kirkland, Donald D. DeBlieux, Vincent L. Santucci, P. Inkenbrandt, and Justin S. Tweet. 2012. Paleontological Resources Inventory and Monitoring at Arches National Park, Utah. Utah Geological Survey Contract Deliverable, 120 p.

Martin, Anthony, James Kirkland, Andrew Milner, and Vincent L. Santucci. 2014. “Vertebrate Feeding Trace Fossils in the Cedar Mountain Formation (Lower Cretaceous), Arches National Park, Utah (USA).” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Program and Abstracts, 2014, p. 179.

Santucci, Vincent L., Jason P. Kenworthy, and Alison L. Mims. 2009. “Monitoring In Situ Paleontological Resources.” In Young, R. and L. Norby (eds.), Geological monitoring. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO., p. 189–204.

Santucci, Vincent L., and Alison L. Koch. 2003. “Paleontological Resource Monitoring Strategies for the National Park Service.” Park Science, 22(1): 22–25.

Santucci, Vincent L., Justin S. Tweet, David Bustos, Torrey Nyborg, and Adrian P. Hunt. 2014. “An Inventory of Cenozoic Fossil Vertebrate Tracks and Burrows in National Park Service Areas.” New Mexico Museum of Natural History Bulletin 62: 469–488.

Wood, John R., and Vincent L. Santucci. 2014. “Rapid Prototyping of Paleontological Resources Facilitates Preservation and Remote Study.” Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fossil Resources, Dakoterra 6: 228–230.

81 Fall 2015

—CULTURAL RESOURCES—

Reading Desert Stones: Archeology in Big Bend National Park By David Keller, Senior Project Archeologist, Center for Big Bend Studies, fl [email protected]

t had already been a long Iday, one of many spent under the relentless sun in the sweltering west Texas heat. Two archeologists—David Keller and Warren Kinney—walked up a rocky slope to determine the boundaries of the sixth prehistoric site of the day. Wiping the sweat from their brows, they could make out a linear rock alignment just ahead. “It’s just an old two-track road,” said Warren. However, as they grew closer, they could not see a second parallel alignment or any indication of tire ruts. They followed the serpentine line as it snaked uphill, where it intersected a second line of rocks Figure 1: A stone ruin frames one side of Cerro Castellan, a prominent landform in the southwestern portion of the park (Source: David Keller, 2005) coming in from the northwest. “I’ll be,” David exclaimed, “It minutes, archeologist Sarah looks like a petroform!” (an Loftus called out, “I found a archeological term for rocks dart point!” David looked up purposefully arranged upon the from his clipboard and started ground). toward her just as she called out again, “Here’s a second point!” They walked further upslope He quickened his pace. “Don’t and found a small rock ring, move!” he yelled, “Don’t touch and then a large cluster of them!” By the time he arrived limestone cobbles; then a second; she had spotted several more. and a third. By this time, they Within a few minutes, a total realized they had chanced upon of eight chipped-stone points something signifi cant. David had been discovered within a called the rest of the crew over. two meter area. Based upon the The eight archeologists fanned point types, it appeared they out across the site, looking for Figure 2. One leg of the serpentine petroform at a 4,000 year old dart point had stumbled upon a 4,000 additional clues. Within a few cache site (DSCN8791, Source: Brian Dailey, 2006) year-old dart point cache! 82 Crossroads in Science

It was the highlight of a long and arduous project—one that spanned almost two decades and that involved an intensive archeological survey of more than 60,000 acres of land in one of the most remote and rugged landscapes in the United States. In fact, the Big Bend National Park project was a study in superlatives. For one, it was the biggest archeological survey in the state’s history. For another, it produced an unprecedented amount of new data, including documentation of 1,566 archeological sites and 1,300 isolated features and the collection of more than 2,000 Figure 3. Crew members recording a stone enclosure on top of a cuesta with the Chisos Mountains in the background (DSCN4708, Source: David Keller, 2007) artifacts, almost all of which were temporally or functionally occupation spanning at least design was not set up to test diagnostic. In the course of 10,000 years. The range of site hypotheses or build a model collecting this mountain of data, complexity was similarly broad, of population dynamics. more than 17,000 photographs from sites as basic as a single The goals were much more were taken, and more than hearth or artifact scatter to pragmatic. For the NPS—having 32,000 discrete locations were those containing prehistoric mostly management-related recorded. In other words, it was structures with contiguous concerns—the predictive model one monster of a project! room blocks, multiple stratifi ed for prehistoric site occurrence buried occupations, or those would be a useful tool for Although the project whose features and artifacts planning purposes. In addition, documented thousands of span more than a square mile. the project would signifi cantly thermal features and artifacts After tens of thousands of pages increase the surveyed acreage commonly found across the of paperwork, photographs, and site inventory, bringing region, it also resulted in the and proveniences, the project the park closer to compliance discovery of feature types had made one of the largest with federal mandates and the and artifacts unknown to archeological contributions in National Historic Preservation science. Among these were a the history of the region. Act. Sites would also be new type of thermal feature evaluated for inclusion in the (cobble-lined hearth), both The Big Bend National Park National Register of Historic ritual and utilitarian artifact project began almost 18 years Places, and visitor interpretation caches, a variety of zoomorphic, ago, at a time very diff erent services would be updated by anthropomorphic, and abstract from today both with regard to providing better, more detailed petroforms, unusual tool forms, the fi eld of archeology and the information to the general and exotic ceramics, in addition interests of the National Park public about the park’s cultural to artifacts representing human Service (NPS). The research resources. 83 Fall 2015

In terms of the academic contribution, the project would bear on a variety of archeological questions, such as the range of site, artifact, and feature types, unique archeological signatures, the array of stone technology, and inter-site relationships, as well as prehistoric subsistence and settlement patterns. Although the project informed all those things, it did not make systematic inroads into any one of them. Surveys such as this off er a kind of “shotgun approach” that is spatially expansive but focused on providing more of an inventory Figure 4. Typical set up of a front country, roadside basecamp (DSCN_226, Source: Candace Covington, 2009) of material culture than an analytical treatise. In this sense, the project harkened back to classic normative archeology; old school fi eld archeology at its best, albeit with a few new gadgets and a few new tricks. However, if the project appeared unsophisticated by modern standards, it was largely so by necessity: archeologically speaking, the region is still in its infancy. Because of this, the project was a pioneering eff ort—one that provided a baseline of site assessments, as well as a solid foundation for future studies, while bringing the region closer to the level Figure 5. Crew members fi ltering water from a spring seep at a remote backcountry of archeological knowledge basecamp (DSCN2234, Source: David Keller, 2010) attained in other parts of the state. park, which caused the logistics the location of the blocks, and The areas to be surveyed to be challenging. One to three logistical concerns—with each consisted of 58 separate survey crews were used—depending crew consisting of three to eight blocks spread widely across the on the availability of personnel, archeologists. Fieldwork took 84 Crossroads in Science

place in both the spring Big Bend and fall, each with three to four ten-day Prehistoric sessions, separated Chronology by four days off . Backcountry roadside campsites were used when possible; While distinguishing between however, when more prehistoric and historic sites remote access was was nearly always obvious, required, crews chronological control of backpacked in and prehistoric sites was provided established a base camp the crew lined out once more, almost exclusively by projectile close to their survey area. Due and the survey resumed. points, making them critical to interpretation and analysis. to the heat and aridity, water Although both historic and Those collected during the was always a concern. In some prehistoric sites were amply project represent some 10,000 cases, mules were used to pack represented, almost 74% of years of human occupation water into the backcountry. all sites documented during in the region—from the Late At others, crews were on their the project were exclusively Paleoindian period to the own to fi lter water from springs prehistoric. By contrast, a small Late Prehistoric. Although or tinajas (stone depressions minority (representing only many factors can infl uence that can hold water for weeks 4% of all sites) was exclusively projectile point density, these following a rain). historic. An additional 22% points served as rough proxies of sites had both historic Starting at one corner of the for past human population and prehistoric components. survey block, archeologists levels. The projectile point spread out at 30-meter intervals and surveyed the ground surface while walking parallel lines across the landscape to assure complete coverage. Upon reaching the far end of the block, the line pivoted to cover an adjacent swath on the return transect. When a site was discovered, all cultural features and diagnostic artifacts were fl agged before crew members began their respective duties: one fi lling out a site form, another recording features, a third recording artifacts, a fourth taking photographs, etc. Figure 6. Contracting stem dart points collected during the survey; just a handful of Once a site had been thoroughly more than a thousand projectiles recovered during the project. documented, fl ags were pulled, (Img_5553, Source: Bobby Gray, 2014) 85 Fall 2015

most notably during the Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, and Late Prehistoric periods.

Prehistoric sites were placed in one of six diff erent site types based primarily on features and artifacts contained within them or by the setting in which they occurred. The vast Figure 9. One of hundreds of kid-goat shelters recorded during the survey; majority (90%) of sites are open expedient shelters such as these were campsites, followed by artifact used to protect baby goats from the sun during the heat of the day while their scatters, special use sites, natural mothers browsed (DSCN3161, Source: Figure 7. Breakdown by time period of shelter sites, food processing Lisa Weingarten, 2007) projectile points collected during the sites, and stone enclosure sites. project (Source: NPS, 2015) Of the 60 sites that contained only historic materials, most distribution suggested that were homesteads, followed by population density rose campsites, dumps, cemeteries, throughout prehistory, but not dams, artifact scatters, mining in the steady linear fashion one related sites, quarries, graves, might assume. In fact, the data survey-related sites, water tank indicates that against a general sites, wax camps, and a handful Figure 10. Shearing blades used to shear of outliers, such as a lime kiln sheep and goats; a few of the hundreds trend of increasing population, of historic artifacts collected during the there were signifi cant spikes, site, a ranching site, a water project (IMG_8013, Source: Bobby Gray, 2014) well, and a civil aeronautics administration tracking station.

The analyses of survey data were restricted to prehistory since the most pressing archeological questions in the region relate to this period. The analyses performed essentially focused on examining temporal and spatial site data in an eff ort to illuminate relationships between them. The primary variables were the temporal affi liation, size, distribution, and archeological “richness” value (based on the range of material culture) of sites in addition Figure 8. Crew members recording historic graves on a remote mesa in the southern to site content. Sites that had part of the park (DSCN6110, Source: Candace Covington, 2005) 86 Crossroads in Science

temporal attributes (sites In a broad sense, where temporally diagnostic the analyses artifacts were recovered) were suggested there examined with regard to their were notable location on the landscape, changes in and their distribution was population measured against expected density, social values; in this case, the percent structure, site of total area surveyed in any distribution, one environmental zone. Thus, and subsistence if 30% of the surveyed area strategy occurred in the uplands, then throughout with all things being equal, we prehistory in should expect 30% of sites to the Big Bend Figure 12. One crew member uses a GIS-compatible global also occur in the uplands. This and that these positioning unit to record a provenience while another deceptively simple exercise changes were examines a stone artifact (Source: Amie Meade, 2008) provides a relevant metric complex and these areas may have off ered the from which we can measure nonlinear. Despite a very small best suite of resources. divergence. The greater the sample size, the data support divergence, the more likely prevailing beliefs that during the Adaptive strategies appear that particular zone is more or Late Paleoindian period, groups to have changed during the less signifi cant to any one time tended to be small and highly Early Archaic, which coincide period. nomadic with an adaptive focus with the Holocene Climatic on lowland areas. This indicates Optimum (a warm period that, during the early Holocene, around 7,000 years ago), when higher elevation landforms became preferred over the lowlands. Although population levels were signifi cantly higher than in the preceding period, group size appears to have remained small and highly nomadic. Among their technological adaptations was a newly discovered feature type (cobble-lined hearths) that may be completely restricted to this period, possibly refl ecting specifi c resource processing or increased thermal effi ciency.

Dramatic cultural changes appear to have occurred during the Middle Archaic period—a Figure 11. Project crew members surveying on hands and knees in a dense prehistoric midden deposit (DSCN0948, Source: David Keller, 2006) 87 Fall 2015

sort of cultural fl owering that, in many aspects of material culture, far exceeded periods before and after. The data suggest there was a huge leap in both population and group size, likely with large seasonal aggregations of people. Increased specialization is indicated by the wide variation in site type and size. The use of earth oven technology; (where hot rocks are used as thermal elements in an underground oven) appears to rise during this period, possibly signaling a shift toward increased use of succulents such as cacti. Many Figure 12. Crew members examining a stone enclosure on a peak top at the mouth of a canyon south of the Chisos Mountains (P4290009, Source: David Hart, 2009) of these fi ndings also support the idea that Middle Archaic ovens and an increase in the Although this summary of people enjoyed a rich spiritual use of ring hearths (hearths fi ndings provides a quick and life, as suggested by their use of consisting of a circle of rocks). easy way to present the results abstract petroforms and ritual Attendant with smaller group of analysis, in fact, the data are caches, such as the Lizard Hill size and increased mobility, far more nuanced than such dart point cache that Sarah it appears that specialization generalizations can reveal. discovered. also decreased as sites became What is signifi cant is that most The Late Archaic witnessed more uniform in size and of these preliminary, tentative a major shift away from the composition. conclusions are derived from patterns of the Middle Archaic. many diff erent analyses, During the Late Prehistoric, it Although population levels which demonstrated greater appears that both population appear to have continued to consistency than chance alone levels as well as group size rise, the data suggest that group would allow. In doing so, the increased, although the latter size declined signifi cantly, confi dence level in both the did not rise to that achieved possibly refl ecting higher data and the veracity of results during the Middle Archaic. mobility and increased was bolstered. The data also suggest that opportunism in foraging mobility decreased from the These fi ndings have signifi cance patterns. In fact, Late Archaic Late Archaic as lowlands beyond what they tell us about sites are distributed more assumed increasing importance, prehistoric human behavior. uniformly across the landscape especially as base camps. The They also bear on prevailing than any other time period. use of earth oven technology, concerns about survey-level The data also suggest changing as well as stone-based wikiups, data, as opposed to excavation subsistence strategies, as appears to have increased, or at data. Many believe that the refl ected in a possible shift least occur in greater numbers integrity of survey data— away from the use of earth within individual sites. 88 Crossroads in Science

primarily resulting from must be conditioned not only that is helping to rewrite the natural and human-caused by the quality of the data, but prehistory and history of the disturbance—is compromised by its quantity as well. In other Big Bend as we know it. By to a degree that it cannot be words, if enough high-quality learning to read the desert’s used as a basis for analysis. survey data is collected, it can stones—the lithic legacy of However, the results of cut through the “noise” caused bygone peoples—the project analyses in this project appear by such disturbances. has allowed us to gain a much to demonstrate that survey better understanding of the rich data can, indeed, rise to the The Big Bend National Park cultural heritage of one of our occasion, even if its accuracy Project was a pioneering eff ort greatest national parks.

For Additional Information Please Visit: Center for Big Bend Studies: http://cbbs.sulross.edu/

Big Bend National Park: http://www.nps.gov/bibe/index.htm

Texas Beyond History-Trans Pecos Mountains and Basins: http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/trans-p/index.html

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—LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE—

Intermountain Region Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan

By Tom Olliff , Chief, Landscape Conservation and Climate Change Division, Intermountain Region, tom_olliff @nps.gov; Pam Benjamin, Climate Change Coordinator, Intermountain Region, [email protected]

Introduction he Intermountain TRegion (IMR) has a staggering diversity of parks that encompass mountains and beaches, deserts and prairie, and range from sea level to over 14,000 feet in elevation. Global climate change is aff ecting all aspects of IMR park operations— facilities, resources, staff , and visitors. We are adjusting to changes in temperature and precipitation, storm frequency and fl ooding, drought, changes Figure 1. Glacier National Park is expected to lose all of its namesake Glaciers in the in snowpack, sea level rise, and 21st Century including Sperry Glacier, pictured above (Source: NPS, Tim Rains, n.d.) longer growing seasons. These changes are ongoing, and many These directives focus on put the federal directives for fl uctuations are predicted to two fundamental tactics: (1) climate change adaptation and accelerate in the future and mitigation (activities that mitigation into practice for the require a coordinated and reduce GHG emissions or National Park Service (NPS forward-looking National Park enhance their removal from the 2010, 2012a, 2012b). Service (NPS) management atmosphere) and (2) adaptation response. (activities that help people and This regional climate change natural systems better cope strategy and action plan The NPS climate change with climate change eff ects by supplements the NPS guidance response operates within moderating harm or exploiting with specifi c goals and actions several federal directives benefi cial opportunities). The to integrate climate change introduced since 2007 to reduce 2010 NPS Climate Change into planning and management emissions of greenhouse gases Response Strategy, coupled with that the IMR will aspire to in (GHGs), achieve sustainability, two implementation plans—the the next fi ve years. Each of the and implement science and Climate Change Action Plan, nearly 5,000 employees of the planning tools for adaptation. and the Green Parks Plan— IMR can contribute to and 90 Crossroads in Science

benefi t from achieving these goals as we prepare for and manage under climate change and uncertainty. We can serve as a model for ways that we, as a society, can take steps that will lead to the best possible present and future outcomes. Ongoing Climate Change The fi fth assessment report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2013) states: “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since Figure 2. Summary of parks with recent (past 10–30 years) mean temperature (above the 1950s, many of the observed left) and precipitation (above right) more extreme than 95% of the historical range of changes are unprecedented conditions (1901–2012). Intermountain Region outline is depicted in dark gray. over decades to millennia, (Source: Modifi ed from Monahan and Fisichelli, 2014) [and] it is extremely likely that human infl uence has been the temperature measured over the to 9.5°F by 2070–2099, with dominant cause of the observed last 30 years has been warmer the greatest increases in the warming trend since the mid- than 99% of all periods of summer and fall (Shafer et al. 20th century (p. 15).” In other equal length since 1901. For 2014; Garfi n et al. 2014). More words, the planet is warming, precipitation, seven IMR parks winter and spring precipitation and scientists are 95%–100% (9%) were “extreme wet,” 14 is projected for the northern certain that human activities are parks (18%) were “extreme United States, and less for the cause. dry,” and 57 parks (73%) did the Southwest. Snowpack not have any recent extreme and streamfl ow amounts are Parks in the IMR are already precipitation variables (fi gure 2). projected to decline in parts experiencing a changing climate. of the Southwest, decreasing Monahan and Fisichelli (2014) Future Climate Change surface water supply reliability evaluated climate change The rate of climate warming in for cities, agriculture, and exposure in parks. Across the the coming century is projected ecosystems (Shafer et al. 2014; IMR, most parks are already to be 2.5–5.8 times higher Garfi n et al. 2014). In the at the extreme warm end of than that measured in the past Southwest, future droughts are historical conditions, and some century for national parks projected to be substantially parks are also extreme dry or and surrounding ecosystems more intense, and for major wet (fi gure 1). Seventy-fi ve of throughout the nation river basins such as the 78 parks (96%) evaluated were (Hansen et al. 2014). Projected Colorado River Basin, drought categorized as “extreme warm”; warming is uneven across the is projected to become more none as “extreme cold.” As Intermountain Region, but frequent, intense, and longer- an example, at Grand Canyon annual average temperatures lasting than in the historical National Park, annual mean are projected to rise by 5.5°F record (Garfi n et al. 2014). 91 Fall 2015

Figure 3. High-elevation species, such as the whitebark pine, Figure 4. Climate change caused the loss of snowpack, increased and aquatic species, such as the Yellowstone cutthroat trout, summer temperatures, and loss of connectivity that will likely are vulnerable to climate change (Source: NPS, n.d.) reduce wolverine populations (Source NPS, Eric Peterson, n.d.)

Impacts to Resources (Chang et al. 2014), and limber The NPS Climate Change pine (Monahan et al. 2013) Response Strategy noted that Climate change will increasingly may be vulnerable to range signifi cant cultural resources are aff ect the region’s natural and shifts, mortality, and decreased disappearing rapidly due to high cultural resources. Increased abundance. Widespread tree rates of erosion, intense weather warming, drought, and insect death and wildfi res, which are events, and other factors outbreaks, all caused by or already occurring, are projected related to climate variability. linked to climate change, to increase in frequency and Buried archeological resources have increased wildfi res severity (Westerling et al. 2006). and historic architectural and impacts on people and ecosystems throughout the region (Shafer et al. 2014; Garfi n et al. 2014; Hansen and Phillips 2015). Some of the changes found in IMR parks include increases in tree mortality in Rocky Mountain National Park (van Mantgem et al. 2009) and reduction of snowpack at Glacier National Park (Pederson et al. 2011). Projections suggest that biomes may be vulnerable to extensive shifts (Gonzalez et al. 2010; Hansen and Phillips 2015), and individual species such as American pika (Jeff ries et al. Figure 5. Extreme rain events can impact all historic buildings, but have the potential to literally dissolve earthen structures. A heavy monsoon rain in 2010 overwhelmed 2013), cutthroat trout (Haak the drainage system on the mission church at Tumacácori and infi ltrated the adobe et al. 2010), whitebark pine walls. The result was the loss of tons of plaster and adobe from the north wall of the church sacristy. (Source: NPS, n.d.) 92 Crossroads in Science

resources are vulnerable positioned to increase to changes in moisture, public understanding of potentially accelerating climate change and its deterioration. Cultural impacts on parks. Actions resources are unique, include: encouraging and once gone, their and enabling all IMR ability to contribute to the superintendents, story of human history interpretive rangers, and is lost forever. Earthen resource managers to architecture is particularly take the climate training vulnerable to heavy modules; identifying rainfall events, which appropriate staff to may increase in some take advanced training areas of the region. Areas such as Climate-Smart with signifi cant climate Conservation (off ered change may experience through the National large impacts on historic Conservation Training architectural resources Figure 6. Drought-killed pinon impacting archeological site Center); helping parks because the local climate in the Bandelier region. Fallen trees not only damage fabric, develop key climate but add hazard fuel loading to a site. (Source: NPS, n.d.) has the potential to be change and sustainability considerably diff erent talking points; assisting seek to incorporate climate than the environment in parks in creating interpretive change adaptation, mitigation, which these resources were products and programs communications, and constructed (Jeff ery and for general audiences and partnerships into their practices Burghardt 2014). Ninety-one youth about the impacts and operations. of 260 IMR collections facilities of climate change; and (35%) are projected to be Goal 1: Improve Climate developing messages (through vulnerable to climate change– Change Knowledge and existing venues) that provide induced fl ooding (NPS 2014). Communication information on climate change programs and help employees The amount of information IMR Climate Change share successes and challenges. Strategy Goals and about climate change has grown exponentially in the last 20 Actions Goal 2: Manage Resources years. For example, Cook et al. for Ongoing and Future The shifts in climate that have (2013) found 11,944 climate Change already occurred, projections change manuscripts were As we gain experience of even greater shifts, and the published from 1991–2013. incorporating climate change potential harm to resources Many IMR resources managers impacts into our planning and in national parks has lead have a higher-than-average management, we have also the Intermountain Region understanding of climate begun to move toward Climate- to develop a climate change change terminology and science Smart Conservation in all strategy. These IMR goals (Garfi n et al. 2011), yet all aspects of park management and actions are intended to employees could benefi t from (Stein et al. 2014). Adaptation provide encouragement and climate change training. The includes natural systems, human guidance to park programs that IMR parks and staff are ideally

93 Fall 2015

Figure 7. The unique gypsum dunefi eld of White Sands National Monument could be impacted by dryer conditions and lower water tables predicted under climate change scenarios (Source: NPS, n.d.)

and cultural systems, facilities and using information from mission of the National Park and assets. The National Park planning and vulnerability Service, as well as all relevant Service is well-positioned to assessments to evaluate, select, laws, executive orders, and be a leader in understanding, and implement adaptation secretarial and director’s orders. preparing for, and managing actions, then monitor The actions to implement climate change impacts, thus eff ectiveness of those actions the plan include: developing implementing one of the key toward achieving conservation park-based environmental characteristics of Climate-Smart goals. management systems (EMS) Conservation—safeguarding and sustainability action plans; people and nature. The actions Goal 3: Eff ectively Implement tracking GHG emissions; to manage resources include: the Green Parks Plan working toward all IMR parks encouraging consideration of The Green Parks Plan defi nes a becoming Climate Friendly climate change and associated collective vision for integrating Parks by 2020; and meeting uncertainty in all planning environmental stewardship the DOI Sustainable Building and strategic documents into facility management Implementation Plan and and reports; developing and for educating park staff the Guiding Principles for resource-specifi c vulnerability and visitors about climate Federal Leadership in High assessments for natural and change and sustainability in Performance and Sustainable cultural resources and facilities; a manner consistent with the Buildings.

94 Crossroads in Science

Goal 4: Build and Strengthen actions being taken include: have long been leaders in Climate Change Partnerships IMR parks and programs will adopting new best management The scale of climate change consider a broader context practices for cultural and impacts will far exceed the in managing resources by natural resources. Some ability of any one park, agency, engaging with ecosystem- and of our most iconic parks— or organization to eff ectively landscape-scale partnerships; Glacier National Park, Rocky respond as a single entity. Well- helping parks and programs Mountain National Park, Grand informed responses to climate understand and apply climate Canyon National Park, and change will require building change science and engage in Yellowstone National Park, connections at local to regional climate science partnerships; for example—have enabled scales and among people engaging partners such as the national discussions on issues with a wide range of technical International Committee on such as fi re management, expertise within the NPS, the Monuments and Sites and the ungulate management, Department of the Interior, National Trust for Historic managing for natural sounds other agencies, and existing Preservation; and strengthening and night skies, and the impacts partners and stakeholders. local partnerships to enhance of climate change. The IMR National park system units climate change adaptation and Climate Change Strategy tiers are high-value areas within sustainable actions. from national and servicewide guidance and provides guidance the larger landscape; working Conclusion through partnerships and to IMR parks and programs collaborations will provide The NPS IMR has an to fulfi ll that leadership role. the IMR with opportunities to important leadership role to It is designed to focus on a highlight these values within a play in understanding and coordinated set of actions connected system of protected communicating about climate while promoting fl exibility to areas while acknowledging that change and in responding incorporate new knowledge, we cannot protect these high- with eff ective adaptation and new initiatives, and changing value resources in isolation. The mitigation actions. Our parks circumstances as the future unfolds.

For Additional Information Please Visit: Climate Training Modules NPS New Superintendents Academy Climate Change Training http://www.nps.gov/training/LD/html/new_superintendents_academy.html Interpreters Training http://idp.eppley.org/ICC

Climate-Smart Conservation Training http://training.fws.gov/NCTCWeb/catalog/CourseSearch.aspx (search keywords: Climate Smart Conservation)

Climate-Smart Conservation http://www.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/Climate-Smart- Conservation/Guide-to-Climate-Smart-Conservation.aspx

95 Fall 2015

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Cook, John, Dana Nuccitelli, Sarah A. Green, Mark Richardson, Bärbel Winkler, Rob Painting, Robert Way, Peter Jacobs, and Andrew Skuce. 2013. “Quantifying the Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming in the Scientifi c Literature.” Environmental Resource Letters 8: 024024. doi:10.1088/1748- 9326/8/2/024024.

Garfi n, Gregg, Guido Franco, Hilda Blanco, Andrew Comrie, Patrick Gonzalez, Thomas Piechota, Rebecca Smyth, and Reagan Waskom. 2014. “Chapter 20: Southwest.” Pgs. 462–486 In J. M. Melillo, T. C. Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, eds. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, U.S. Global Change Research Program. doi:10.7930/J08G8HMN.

Garfi n, Gregg, Holly Hartmann, Mabel Crescioni-Benitez, Theresa Ely, John Keck, Jim Kendrick, Kristin Legg, Janet Wise, Lisa Graumlich, and Jonathan Overpeck. 2011. Climate Change Training Needs Assessment for the National Park Service Intermountain Region. The University of Arizona. 84 pp.

Gonzalez, Patrick, Ronald P. Neilson, James M. Lenihan, and Raymond J. Drapek. 2010. “Global Patterns in the Vulnerability of Ecosystems to Vegetation Shifts due to Climate Change.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 19: 755–768.

Haak, A. L., J. E. Williams, D. Isaak, A. Todd, C. Muhlfeld, J. L. Kershner, R. Gresswell, S. Hostetler, and H. M. Neville. 2010. The Potential Infl uence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West. US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2010–1236, 74 p.

Hansen, Andy J., and Linda B. Phillips. 2015. “Which Tree Species and Biome Types Are Most Vulnerable to Climate Change in the US Northern Rocky Mountains?” Forest Ecology and Management 338: 68–83.

Hansen, Andy J., Nate Piekielek, Cory Davis, Jessica Haas, David M. Theobald, John E. Gross, William B. Monahan, Tom Olliff , and Steven W. Running. 2014. “Exposure of US National Parks to Land Use and Climate Change 1900–2100.” Ecological Applications. Accessed February 11, 2015. http://dx.doi. org/10.1890/13-0905.1.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2013. Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Stocker, Thomas F., Dahe Qin, Gian-Kasper Plattner, Melinda M. B. Tignor, Simon K. Allen, Judith Boschung, Alexander Nauels, Yu Xia, Vincent Bex, and Pauline M. Midgley, eds. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Jeff ery, R. Brooks and Laura Burghardt. 2014. A Climate Change Vulnerability and Risk Assessment for Cultural Resources in the National Park Service’s Intermountain Region Vanishing Treasures Program. Phase I: Compilation of Existing Data and Models. University of Arizona Drachman Institute. Desert Southwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit Project Number UAZDS-397. 98 pp.

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Jeff ries, Mackenzie R., Thomas J. Rodhouse, Chris Ray, Susan Wolff , and Clinton W. Epps. 2013. “The Idiosyncrasies of Place: Geographic Variation in the Climate-Distribution Relationships of the American Pika.” Ecological Applications 23(4): 864–78.

Monahan, William B., Tammy Cook, Forrest Melton, Jeff Connor, and Ben Bobowski. 2013. “Forecasting Distributional Responses of Limber Pine to Climate Change at Management-Relevant Scales in Rocky Mountain National Park.” PLoS ONE 8(12): e83163. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083163.

Monahan, William B., and Nicholas A. Fisichelli. 2014. “Climate Exposure of US National Parks in a New Era of Change.” PLoS ONE 9(7): e101302. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101302.

National Park Service (NPS). 2012a. Climate Change Action Plan 2012–2014. National Park Service Climate Change Response Program, Fort Collins, Colorado. 36pp. Accessed February 11, 2015. http:// www.nps.gov/jeca/parkmgmt/upload/NPS-Climate-Change-Action-Plan-2012-2014.pdf.

National Park Service (NPS). 2012b. Green Parks Plan: Advancing Our Missions through Sustainable Operations. Sustainable Operations and Climate Change Branch. 15pp. Accessed February 11, 2015. http://www.nps.gov/greenparksplan/.

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Pederson, Greg T., Stephen T. Gray, Connie A. Woodhouse, Julio L. Betancourt, Daniel B. Fagre, Jeremy S. Littell, Emma Watson, Brian H. Luckman, and Lisa J. Graumlich. 2011. “The Unusual Nature of Recent Snowpack Declines in the North American Cordillera.” Science 333: 332–335.

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97 Fall 2015

—CULTURAL RESOURCES—

100 Years: The Nature of Culture and the Culture of Nature: Toward Holistic Resource Management By Pat O’Brien, Desert Southwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit Coordinator, pat_o’[email protected]

recently received an Iemail from Casa Grande Ruins National Monument Superintendent Karl Pierce. He shared a site for an audio visual experience called Bella Gaia (Beautiful Earth): A Poetic Vision of Earth from Space (www. bellagaia.com). Created by Kenji Williams, it is a production of music, art, and science that illustrates the beauty and unity of our planet. It is an important work, especially for resource managers, as it underscores the interrelatedness of natural and cultural systems.

We often imagine our world as separated into natural and cultural realms. The relationship of nature and culture is one of the greatest questions in resource management. And while many scholarly investigations of these relationships often center on various formulae and data, we seldom investigate how these ideas are played out on the Figure 1. Kelly, Walt. Pogo Cartoon for Earth Day 1971, Anchorage Daily News landscape. Our ideas of nature newspaper 18 April 1971. (Source: version courtesy of http://otegony.com/we-have- met-the-enemy) and culture are so much a part of our world that we often After the 1968 space depended on their notion of act upon them automatically, photographs of the Earth were the earth.” But everyone on without considering their made public, the poet Archibald the globe sees thing diff erently. origins or questioning their MacLeish noted that “Men’s Many peoples do not have validity. (sic) conception of themselves our binary resource concept and of each other has always divided into natural and cultural 98 Crossroads in Science

disciplines; they see themselves of Architecture and Planning climate change, its origins and and their world as one entity. at the University of New its consequences, can hardly be Their approach is an ancient Mexico, noted in his articles ignored. If climate change has one and confi rms what historian “Linguistics and Language of any positive eff ects, perhaps one Marc Bloch noted in the 1940s Design” and “Nature/Culture/ is the long overdue dialogue when he said “Is not humanity Words/Landscapes” the various between natural and cultural the greatest variable in nature?” ways that language manifests fi elds in a unifi ed and integrated Climate change would seem to itself on the landscape, echoing resource management concept. support Bloch’s observation. other scholars like Henry Nash But many still resist the notion Smith and Roderick Nash in How we got to the division that human activity has any the exploration of landscape of natural and cultural signifi cant eff ect regarding our imagery and meaning. Sorvig resource administration changing planet, and cultural notes that “Splitting Nature in the US government is professionals often have a from Culture is an ancient habit complicated—but worth diffi cult time making themselves of the Western or European reviewing, at least in part. It heard in the halls of science, mind.” Under a subheading of started with the establishment even though the climate change “Why Bother,” Sorvig notes that of federal agencies. In 1849, discussion has been of record an understandable vocabulary the Department of Interior for some time.1 is essential to understand (DOI) assumed management our relationship with both of the United States’ ever- Separate resource spheres and culture and nature and their increasing empire, which their respective administration relationship to each other. doubled in less than fi fty years. are of record. For example, at He quotes scientist David E. In 1862, President Lincoln the UNESCO conference on Fisher, who startlingly observes: established the US Department natural resources in Paris in “The question is not one of of Agriculture (USDA). 1964, the following was noted philosophical interest only, Competing administration and by a presenter: its answer will form the basis philosophies of management occurred between the two The old fashioned idea that of our response to the most important danger facing us agencies into the 1890s, with the there is a kind of antagonism USDA assuming more infl uence between man and nature today: How do we respond to the changes in our environment as Euro-American farmsteads dies hard. . . I do not like the overtook American Indian lands expression, which is often which we ourselves have wrought?”3 in the West and native peoples used today, of “man versus were forced onto reservations. nature”, but would much Unfortunately, little has These events, combined with prefer “man in partnership changed in our divided the advent of rail transportation, 2 with nature.” management of resources. changed America’s relationship More recently, Kim Sorvig, However, today, natural to the land and nature forever. research professor at the School phenomena is underscoring Limitless prairies became the interconnectedness of fenced farmsteads; farmers and nature and humanity. Rapid miners exploited the natural 1 Archibald MacLeish, The New York bounty of the land, ending Times, December 25, 1968, p. 1; Bloch, 197; 3 Smith, Nash, passim; Sorvig “Linguistics Cooper, pp. 500–520 http://cecelia.physics. and the Language of Design”, 2–12 and centuries-old relationships indiana.edu/life/moon/Apollo8/122568sci- “Nature/Culture/Words/Landscapes”, between humanity and nasa-macleish.html 1–14. Sorvig’s quotation from Fischer, “The 2 Worthington, p 2 Nature of Nature”, p. 134 environment. European cattle 99 Fall 2015

resource protection became more pronounced, so did the rift between natural and cultural camps. The USDA occupied a distinctly cultural stance with its management and utilization of resources. The DOI continued to view resources and the aboriginal peoples within them as a natural unit—even to the point of American Indians and the Bureau of Indian Aff airs breeds largely replaced the that became the US Forest (originally established in 1824) native bison and Spanish Service (USFS) in 1897. In included as a subset the DOI longhorn cattle. Wheat strains 1879, the US Geological Survey administrative structure.6 originally from Turkey (hence (USGS) was established. In the name “Turkey Red”) 1881, the USFS Division of The bureaucratic welter of enabled German Mennonite Forestry began operations. federal offi ces, programs, and farmers from the Russian In 1905, Theodore Roosevelt administrations continued Crimea to extend their growing moved the Interior’s former to increase—and so did the seasons and to establish a public lands and forest reserves distance between resource wheat and milling industry in to the USDA and USFS. philosophies. This polarization Kansas unrivaled anywhere in On June 8, 1906, President manifested in the relationship the world—but one that would Theodore Roosevelt signed into between John Muir and USFS’s sacrifi ce large portions of the law the Antiquities Act, a piece Giff ord Pinchot. Originally native stands of prairie grasses of legislation that had resulted friends, they fell out over and their attendant ecosystems. from a quarter of a century of concepts of resource use The introduction and use of lobbying and negotiation by and preservation. Pinchot technology sped up the process, cultural resource advocates. saw resources in a utilitarian piling the bones of wildlife into Under section 2, the president context; Muir’s mystical vision fertilizer for cultivated crops was empowered to designate of wilderness and its positive and plowing under millions of national monuments on federal eff ects on society were evident acres of native fl ora. Indeed, lands.5 in his description of California’s cultural/technological wonders Sierra Nevada Mountains: The 1906 Antiquities Act like locomotives, combine “every one of its living creatures was one of the fi rst pieces of reapers, and river dams could . . . and every crystal of its rocks American legislation to address be both awesome and fearsome . . . is throbbing and pulsing threatened resources. It served things.4 with the heartbeats of God.” as a harbinger of 20th-century Muir opposed projects like Government agencies mirrored environmental legislation, both Hetch Hetchy (1908–1913), the transformation of the cultural and natural. But as and many utilitarian advocates American West. In 1876, USDA 5 http://www.doi.gov/index.cfm; http:// saw his opposition as backward established a one person offi ce www.fs.fed.us/learn/our-history; Sellars, pp. 35–37; Ise, 188–89, 279, 282, 440; Foresta, 14–17, 19–21, 26, 30–32, 46, 118; 6 http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/anti1906. 4 Marx, 5; White, 455–486, passim; http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/ htm; http://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/ Murdoch, 5; O’Brien, p. 28–30 Publications/100years/sec1.htm laws/antact.htm 100 Crossroads in Science

and reactionary. Muir and the 1960s and its inclusion in the The Statue of Liberty is a natural lobby looked upon the formulas for NEPA and other good example of what might valley reservoir project as an protective legislation increased be achieved through a hybrid assault on basic preservation the public visibility of the NPS model of resource management. principles, particularly cultural program; however, The cultural eff ects of the 12- since it was located within parks remained largely natural acre spot of ground, originally the boundaries of Yosemite preserves. known to Europeans as National Park (1890). The Bedloe’s Island (today Liberty controversy continues today.7 How do we bring culture and Island), in New York Harbor nature together? Or, rather, is evident—even if one is not After the 1906 Antiquities how do we get professionals aware that Fort Wood preceded Act, a larger and larger rift in both camps to acknowledge it and today serves as its base. developed between federal the essential truth that the The island also served as a POW resource managers. NPS world as humans defi ne it is camp during the Civil War. designations of ”natural parks” and “cultural parks” refl ected an administratively bifurcated mindset. Some within NPS thought the agency had been weakened by the addition of eastern park properties and civil war battlefi elds. Indeed, in 1936 the National Parks Association called for the “purifi cation” of the national parks system.8 The USFS continued to manage resources through a measured system of harvest and prudent consumption; NPS concerned itself with the Figure 2. Devastation by Hurricane Sandy (Source: National Landmarks at Risk, Union preservation of nature and of Concerned Scientists, pg. 8, n.d.) culture, with consumption limited to resource appreciation an imagined cultural construct The 305 ft. image, constructed and tourism. Nature had a visited upon the physical reality out of 3/32 copper sheets decided edge in NPS resource of nature itself? It will require (about the thickness of two philosophies and policies, and a fundamental shift in the way modern pennies, according cultural programs usually found we see the world in which to one source), captured the themselves in second place we live. The most effi cient imagination even before it when it came to budgets and and sensible way to ensure was dedicated in 1886, and its programs. The expansion of the resource protection is through beckoning image is culturally national register program in the a scientifi c, integrated resource fi xed in our minds.9 management system that refl ects 7 Muir, as quoted in Foresta, 15; http:// the holistic truth of the nature 9 http://dmna.ny.gov/forts/fortsT_Z/ www.archives.gov/legislative/features/ and our place within it. woodFort.htm; https://patriciahysell. hetch-hetchy/ wordpress.com/tag/statue-of-liberty/; http:// 8 Sellars, 143 dmna.ny.gov/forts/fortsT_Z/woodFort. htm 101 Fall 2015

elements. The health of New establishing park housing on the York harbor’s estuarine site, the “rock bums” (by this environment is monitored time a well-heeled confraternity, through investigation of the including contacts with island’s formerly famous businessmen and attorneys) shellfi sh beds and other decided to nominate Camp natural features traditionally 4 to the National Register of used by the Lenape Indians. Historic Places. NPS reaction Archeology has been done was initially one of outrage by on the island, revealing many agency members. But not only modern cultural after some NPS historians artifacts but also information and others made the case for regarding the natural and the signifi cance of the site in cultural environments prior outdoor industry history, the to European contact, as well Keeper of the National Register as their later interactions. The of Historic Places relented, A hydrangea macrophylla, native to damaged sustained during and the site was listed in the Japan and used in landscaping (Source: National Park Service, Statue of Liberty 2012 Hurricane Sandy and register. In an article entitled National Monument) its eff ects underscore the “When Nature Becomes need for integrated resource Culture: The National Register But less fi xed in national management within the context and Yosemite’s Camp 4, a Case memory are the island’s natural of changing climate patterns.10 Study,” the authors chronicled features. Little is said of them this interesting turn of events and the park’s entire natural During the years of the 1950s that illustrates the imaginary resource collection consists of and 1960s, a post–world war line between humanity and 332 plant specimens collected California counterculture nature—and as the authors so in the 1990s. The interaction centered on the outdoors, and succinctly note, of the famous monument rock climbing established itself with its natural surroundings at a base camp known as Camp All of these eff orts illustrate has been limited largely to 4. There were confl icts between that when nature becomes restoration and maintenance NPS park administration and culture historic preservation of the statue and its base. the climbers, but in 1997, takes on new meaning, Oxidation rates, combined when Yosemite administrators and that historians and the with storm water run-off ratios, attempted to remove what caretakers of America’s have been the subject of at they deemed an environmental National Parks will need to least one scientifi c paper from detriment and nuisance by broaden their conception scholars in Stockholm who of preservation as the lines 10 Hedberg and Wallinder, 2, 956–959; briefl y reference the Statue of Griswold, “Archeology of a Prehistoric between environmental and Liberty and her copper skin. Shell Midden Statue of Liberty National cultural preservation continue Monument, New York”, Griswold, ed. 11 But more regular and intensive 1–6, “The Ground beneath Her Feet: to blur. monitoring of natural resources The Archeology of Liberty Island, Statue of Liberty National Monument, New at the park are needed as well, York, New York” p. 1, passim; Waldman, 11 Kirk and Palmer, pp. 496–506. Thanks particularly those specimens p.5, http://www.nps.gov/elis/learn/ to Ms. Cannon Daughtrey of the PLN of nonnative plants that have historyculture/natural-resources.htm; http:// 564 graduate seminar for recalling this www.nps.gov/stli/learn/historyculture/ subject to my attention, http://www.nasa. been established as landscape archeology-native-american-and-historic- gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_ use-of-liberty-and-ellis-islands.htm feature_1249.html 102 Crossroads in Science

gentrifi cation of nature is now seen as legitimate (the poor seldom rock climb)—whereas before Yosemite and its natural symbolism was larger than any one interest group. It is hard to say what the fi nal eff ect of the Camp 4 nomination will be for future resource protection and management, but it is clear that national parks have entered a new era of public interface. And blurring of the natural and cultural realms can only point to the very real need for integrated resource management programs. Figure 3. National Register of Historic Places marker in Yosemite National Park (Source: Ron Gaunt, 2012) We fi nally saw our planet While the Camp 4 controversy and culture blurred. Today, the from space in 1968—and we was hailed by certain outdoors American climbing saga is alive have been reassessing things enthusiasts as a signifi cant and well. Companies like Camp ever since. Science enabled legitimization of their specifi c 4 Collective continue to build the image from space—and history, it also highlighted on the symbolism of the original culture has made it an icon for other issues. For example, the Camp 4 experience. humanity and its future. We upper-middle class’s reverential need to keep that “Earthrise” experience of the Yosemite There is another side to the image in our mind’s eyes— natural landscape was forced Camp 4 controversy as well. in our collective human to make room for a cultural In some ways, it says more imaginations. We can only do phenomenon that ultimately about economics and class that by realizing that there are realized itself as a billion dollar struggle in postwar America no meaningful boundaries industry. Passive interaction and than it does about the scenic between culture and nature— appreciation of the landscape magnifi cence of Yosemite, its they constantly combine to was sacrifi ced in part for active place in American imagery, or make the world in which we interaction with nature—literal nationalistic pride in landscape. live. It is only by humanity’s rock-hugging. Many of the In one sense, the Camp 4 acknowledgment of ourselves young Camp 4 pioneers of confl ict can be seen as evidence as nature’s “greatest variable,” the 1950s and ’60s were the of a healthy democracy, in as noted by Bloch, that the children of the middle-class which the voice of everyone problem can be completely Americans who had previously is heard and acknowledged. assessed and addressed. We valued Yosemite’s natural But in another, Camp 4 can be must see ourselves as part of symbolism, seemingly devoid interpreted to refl ect a change an integrated system, instead of human mark. As the authors in national priorities. In this of the commanders of it. If not, note, at Yosemite’s Camp 4, the case, signifi cance is negotiated, “Earthrise” as we fi rst observed artifi cial line between nature as well as documented. Active 103 Fall 2015

it in 1968 may never look the old models of integrated as a total, interrelated entity that same.12 resource management that are we continuously experience sustainable. Their neighbors, and imperfectly interpret. It is Traditionally, NPS resources the Apache, compare wisdom a whole of which we are each a have been managed by to water—supporting life part—or to quote our national competing natural and cultural and indispensable to human motto: E pluribus unum—From administrative structures that existence. Partnerships based many, one.15 often pit one discipline against on proven approaches to the other instead of fostering nature and people can lead Individual national parks are cooperation that supports the to new models of resource leading the way in contemporary conservation of both. Today, management. We can then truly applications of holistic the National Park Service is in say that we have envisioned our management. For example, cattle a position to lead the way in futures by learning from the ranching in the West can be an holistic resource management. past, and, in the words of the arena for integrated resource Recently, restoration ecology Tohono O’odham, we will “walk management. At Grant-Kohrs scientists have acknowledged a (good) path.”14 Ranch National Historic Site the importance of a “reciprocal in Montana and Lyndon B. relationship between people Similar ideas are also found in Johnson National Historic and the landscape”—a post-World War II European Site in Texas, cattle ranching statement that turns from and American historiography. plays an important role in the contemporary views of history’s It is what Lucien Febvre interpretation, management, irrelevance in a rapidly changing (Marc Bloch’s colleague and and interface with natural and world to one that acknowledges mentor), Fernand Braudel, cultural resources and is of prime historical/cultural constructs as and others in the French concern for park managers. On being more important in such Annales school of history called the East Coast, thirty parks are instances—not less.13 mentalités—the histories of participating in a Coastal Risk ideas and beliefs, combined Assessment that hopes to serve One approach to the integrated with a concept of longue durée as a model for national parks in resource management model or vast period of time. This general. These and similar eff orts is found in the curriculum view of history led to works show how resource diversity and design of the Tohono O’odham such as Braudel’s magisterial integrated programs can benefi t people of Southern Arizona. work La Méditerranée et parks resource protection and The Tohono O’odham le monde méditerranéen à management.16 Community College at Sells, l’époque de Philippe II (1949) Arizona, requires that the (The Mediterranean and Parallel changes in tribe’s concept of Himdag the Mediterranean World administration and budgets be respected and included in the Age of Philip II). La can help guarantee integrated in all curricula. Himdag Méditerranée acknowledges resource management that sees the world as a single, a basic truth about existence 15 related entity. The Tohono and humanity’s attempts to Bloch, 5-18; Hutton, pp. 237-259 16 O’odham and other traditional recount it over time—the world http://www.nps.gov/grko/getinvolved/ cultures use centuries- planning.htm; http://www.nps.gov/lyjo/ planyourvisit/lbjranching.htm; fi le:///C:/ Users/pat/Downloads/2013%20%20 14 Tohono O’odham Community College 12 GRKO%20BMP%20Report%20 Bloch, 197 Catalog 2014–2016, p. 4, http://www.tocc. 13 Lienard%20Olson.pdf; http://www8. Higgs, Falk, et al, p. 1. Also see Hobbs, et. edu/CatalogFinal2014-6(1).pdf; Cohen, nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem. al. passim 17–41; Darling, 4; Basso, 73 also 53–90 aspx?RecordID=18811 104 Crossroads in Science

complements and protects all Acknowledgments resources. Natural and cultural Thanks to Jill Cowley, Historical Landscape Architect in the NPS resource professionals need Intermountain Regional Offi ce, Santa Fe, for calling Sorvig’s works to be included at the table to my attention; to ARD Cultural Resources Thomas Lincoln for his for all resource committees suggestions regarding the works of Keith W. Basso; NPS historian and eff orts, including Sam Tamburro, IMR, and Dr. Pei Lin Yu of Boise State University for maintenance and interpretation. suggestions regarding the federal government overview; and Todd An integrated four-point Chaudhry for his sharing of current ecological publications. All were resource concept of natural, of great help in the setting the fi nal structure and content of this cultural, interpretation, and article. maintenance programs should be the base for any park Bibliography eff ort. Integrated resource management plans need to Basso, Keith W. 1996. “Wisdom Sits in Places” pp. 53–90 in Sense be created and implemented of Place, Steven Feld and Keith W. Basso, eds., Santa Fe: School of that acknowledge federal American Research Press. http://www.asu.edu/courses/aph294/ administrative boundaries while total-readings/basso%20--%20sensesofplace.pdf. acknowledging and cooperating Bloch, Marc. 1953. The Historians Craft. New York: Vintage Books. with neighboring systems and resources. Carr, Ethan. 1998. Wilderness by Design: Landscape Architecture and the National Park Service. Lincoln: University Nebraska Press. A more comprehensive and integrated approach to resource Carr, Ethan., Eyring, Shaun., and Wilson, Richard G. 2013. Public management can be achieved. Nature: Scenery, History and Park Design. University of Virginia. We can adopt approaches Cheng, Antony S., Linda E. Kruger, and Steven E. Daniels. 2003. that are holistic and inclusive “’Place’ as an Integrating Concept in Natural Resource Politics: instead of divided and separate. Propositions for a Social Science Research Agenda.” Society & We can support a new era of Natural Resources: An International Journal, 16:2, 87–104. doi: cooperative and integrated 10.1080/08941920309199). resource management that treats all resources as varied Cohen, Rebecca. 2012. “‘The Desert Is Still Their Home’: Changes elements of one ecosystem. We in O’odham Land, Labor and Culture 1936–1970.” Tempus 13.1 can share the contemporary (Spring): 17–41. http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/tempus/archives_fi les/ images and sounds of Kenji tempus_131_cohen.pdf. Williams’ Bella Gaia and remember and honor poet Darling, J. Andrew. “Pima Song and the Archaeology of Archibald MacLeish’s hopeful Space”, Cultural Resource Management Program, Gila River 1968 vision: “To see the earth Indian Community 5/142006 [Draft], 4. http://ccat.sas.upenn. as it truly is, small and blue edu/~cerickso/Roads/Papers/Darling%201%205-14-2006.pdf and beautiful in that eternal Fischer, David E. 1994. “The Nature of Nature.” in The Nature of silence where it fl oats, is to see Nature: New Essays from America’s Finest Writers on Nature, William ourselves as riders on the earth Shore, ed. New York: Harecourt Brace. together. . .”17 Foresta, Ronald A. 1984. America’s National Parks and Their 17 Macleish, New York Times, December 25, 1968 Keepers. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, Inc. 105 Fall 2015

William A. Griswold, 2002. “Archeology of a Prehistoric Shell Midden Statue of Liberty National Monument, New York.” Occasional Publications in Field Archeology Number 1, Archeology Group, Northeast Region, National Park Service US Department of the Interior. http://s-media.nyc.gov/ agencies/lpc/arch_reports/493.pdf.

William A. Griswold, 2013. Tonya Baroody Largy, Lucinda McWeeney, David Perry, Dorothy Richter, Sarah Whitcher. 2003. “The Ground Beneath Her Feet: The Archeology of Liberty Island, Statue of Liberty National Monument, New York, New York.”Griswold, William A., ed. Occasional Publications in Field Archeology Number 3, Archeology Group, Northeast Region, National Park Service US Department of the Interior, 1–61, passim. http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/stli1/griswold. pdf.

Hedberg, Yolanda and Inger Odnevall Wallinder. 2011. “Protective Green Patinas on Copper in Outdoor Constructions.” Journal of Environmental Protection 2: 956–959. doi:10.4236/jep.2011.27109.

Higgs, Eric, Donald A. Falk, Anita Guerinni, Marcus Hall, Jim Harris, Richard J. Hobbs, Stephen T. Jackson, Jeanine M. Rhemtulla, and William Throop, “The Changing Role of History in Restoration Ecology.” The Ecological Society of America. http://www.esajournals.org/toc/fron/12/9.

Hobbs, Richard J., et. al. “Managing the Whole Landscape: Historical, Hybrid, and Novel Ecosystems.” http://www.esajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1890/130300.

Holtz, Debra, Adam Markham, Kate Cell, and Brenda Ekwurzel. 2014. National Landmarks at Risk: How Rising Seas, Floods, and Wildfi res Are Threatening the United States’ Most Cherished Historic Sites. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/fi les/legacy/assets/ documents/global_warming/National-Landmarks-at-Risk-Full-Report.pdf and http://www.ucsusa.org/ global_warming/science_and_impacts/impacts/national-landmarks-at-risk-from-climate-change.html.

Ise, John. 1979 (c1961).Our National Park Policy: A Critical History. New York: Arno Press.

Jacoby, Karl. 2001. Crimes against Nature: Squatters, Poachers, Thieves and the Hidden History of American Conservation. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Kirk, Andrew and Charles Palmer. 2006. “When Nature Becomes Culture: The National Register and Yosemite’s Camp 4, a Case Study.” The Western Historical Quarterly 37(4 Winter): 496–506.

Louter, David. 2006. Windshield Wilderness: Cars, Roads, and Nature in Washington’s National Parks. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Marx, Leo. 2000. The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Idea in America. New York: Oxford University Press.

MacCormack, Carol P. 1980. “Nature, Culture and Gender: A Critique”, pp.1–24, and Marilyn Strathern, et. al. “No Nature No Culture,” pp. 174–222, in Nature, Culture and Gender, Carol P. McCormack and Marilyn Strathern, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, also passim.

Macleish, Archibald. 1968. New York Times, December 25, p. 1.

106 Crossroads in Science

Murdoch, David Hamilton. 2001. The American West: The Invention of a Myth. Reno: University of Nevada Press.

Nash, Roderick. 2002. Wilderness and the American Mind. Yale University Press.

National Parks for the Future: An Appraisal of the National Parks as they begin their second century in a changing America. Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1972.

O’Brien, William P. Warkentin Farm, Newton Kansas, James H. Charleton, ed. June 20, 1990, p. 28-30. http://www.kshs.org/resource/national_register/nominationsNRDB/Harvey_ WarkentinHomesteadNHL.pdf

Olson, Bret and Bob Leinard. 2013. BMP Report Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site Deer Lodge, Montana. Animal and Range Sciences Department Montana State University Bozeman, Montana.

Pendergraft, Curtis A. 1998. “Human Dimensions of Climate Change: Cultural Theory and Collective Action.” http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1005323809980#page-1

Sellars, Richard West. 1997. Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Smith, Henry Nash. 1950. Virgin Land: The American West and Symbol and Myth. Boston: Harvard University Press. (Hypertext version: the American Studies Group at The University of Virginia 1995–96. Editing and formatting and by Eric J. Gislason, February–March 1996.)

Sorvig, Kim. 1996. “Linguistics and the Language of Design.” Landscape Review Vol. 2(3): 2–12.

Sorvig, Kim. 2002. “Nature/Culture/Words/Landscapes.” (MS, Copyright EBSCO Publishing): 1–14.

Stevens, Stanley. 1997. Conservation through Cultural Survival: Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas. Island Press.

Tohono O’odham Community College Catalog 2014–2016, p. 4. http://www.tocc.edu/ CatalogFinal2014-6(1).pdf. van den Pol, Bernadet. “The Connection between Culture and Climate Change.” http://www. culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case-studies/cs-bernadet-van-den-pol.pdf.

Waldman, John. 2012. Heartbeats in the Muck: The History Sea Life and Environment of New York Harbor, Revised Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. “Chapter 1: The Essential Harbor-5” as provided through https://books.google.com.

Worthington, E. Barton. 1964. “A Defi nition of Natural Resources”, (limited distribution) United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization, conference on the Research and Training in Africa In Relation To The Study, Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources, UNESCO/ CORPSA/4.A Paris 31 January. Original: English WS/0264.17(NS).

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Websites and Electronic Articles Consulted http://www.bartleby.com/73/1742.html Number 1742, Author Archibald MacLeish (1892-1982)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_4_(Yosemite)

http://cecelia.physics.indiana.edu/life/moon/Apollo8/122568sci-nasa-macleish.htm Archibald Macleish, December 25, 1968: “Riders on Earth Together, Brothers in Eternal Cold”

http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/utley-mackintosh/

http://www.doi.gov/index.cfm; http://www.fs.fed.us/learn/our-history

http://www.fws.gov/help/about_us.html

http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/History.print.html

http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/anti1906.htm; http://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/laws/antact.htm

http://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/hetch-hetchy/

http://www.usa.gov/Agencies/Federal/Executive.shtml

http://cecelia.physics.indiana.edu/life/moon/Apollo8/122568sci-nasa-macleish.html

http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/fi les/legacy/assets/documents/global_warming/National-Landmarks- at-Risk-Executive-Summary.pdf

http://dmna.ny.gov/forts/fortsT_Z/woodFort.htm; https://patriciahysell.wordpress.com/tag/statue-of- liberty/

http://dmna.ny.gov/forts/fortsT_Z/woodFort.htm

http://www.nps.gov/elis/learn/historyculture/natural-resources.htm

http://www.nps.gov/stli/learn/historyculture/archeology-native-american-and-historic-use-of-liberty- and-ellis-islands.htm

http://www.journals.elsevier.com/estuarine-coastal-and-shelf-science/

http://www.nps.gov/grko/getinvolved/planning.htm;

http://www.nps.gov/lyjo/planyourvisit/lbjranching.htm

http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=18811

http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/regions/coasts

http://www.stormrecovery.ny.gov/sites/default/fi les/documents/Risk_Assessment_Area_Mapping.pdf;

http://www.nps.gov/grko/getinvolved/planning.htm;

http://www.nps.gov/lyjo/planyourvisit/lbjranching.htm;

http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=18811) 108 Valles Caldera National Preserve

960/122371-B Crossroads in Science National Park Service • Intermountain Regional Offi ce 12795 W. Alameda Parkway Lakewood, CO 80225