Novel Ecosystems: Challenges and Opportunities for the Anthropocene

ANR0010.1177/2053019616662053The Anthropocene ReviewCollier and Devitt 662053research-article2016

Review

The Anthropocene Review 12–1 Novel ecosystems: Challenges © The Author(s) 2016 Reprints and permissions: and opportunities for the sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/2053019616662053 Anthropocene anr.sagepub.com

Marcus J Collier and Catherine Devitt

Abstract Novel ecosystems are ecological assemblages that have emerged in the landscapes of the Anthropocene, where an ecological abiotic or biotic threshold has been passed and can no longer be restored to a previous state. In such landscapes, novelty is attributed to unanticipated rapid anthropogenic environmental change, and deliberate land use practices, and can be characterised by the arrival over time of differing species assemblages and extent. While little has been explored in the literature with respect to the policy implications of novel ecosystems, calls have been made for a better understanding of the barriers to adopting novel ecosystems within mainstream policy. This review reports on a qualitative literature analysis carried out in order to identify the challenges and opportunities for transposing novel ecosystem theory into mainstream policy. Though published debate is still emerging, eleven policy challenges broadly conforming to three themes were identified. Within these themes three opportunity areas were identified, revealing that more focused discussion is required on the wider policy implications of novel ecosystems beyond the stated concerns about lowering standards in ecological conservation. The analysis also shows that there exists a greater understanding of the challenges to transposing novel ecosystems in policy, as opposed to the possible opportunities under current policy timeframes. While a resilience framework has been put forward to offer an outline for policy makers, mechanisms for incorporating novel ecosystem theory into policy and decision making is some distance off.

Keywords novel ecosystems, policy-making, resilience

Introduction Novel ecosystems refer to the ecological assemblages that have emerged in anthropogenic landscapes. These are classified as non-historical, non-analogous systems that have moved beyond an abiotic or biotic threshold whereby they can no longer be restored to their previous state (Hallett

UCD School of Architecture, Planning and Environmental Corresponding author: Policy, University College Dublin, Ireland Marcus J Collier, UCD School of Architecture, Planning and Environmental Policy, University College Dublin, Richview, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Email: [email protected]

Downloaded from anr.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on August 2, 2016 2 The Anthropocene Review et al., 2013). They are therefore deemed ‘novel’, though Murcia et al. (2014) warn that the theory is not yet a substantive replacement for conservation or restoration targets and practices. The drivers of novelty are attributable to, for example, unforeseen anthropogenic environmental change, planned and unplanned land conversion, and/or the arrival of new species, either deliberately or accidental (Bridgewater et al., 2011; Hobbs et al., 2006, 2013). In essence, novel ecosystems are the ‘inadvertent consequences of deliberate human actions’ (Perring et al., 2013: 3), yet the longev- ity of these same systems is not dependent on human management (Hallett et al., 2013; Hobbs et al., 2013). The role of human-agency as a driver of ecological change is also important in our understanding. While some estimates put the extent of novel ecosystems on the planet at close to 40% (Ellis et al., 2010; Perring et al., 2013), they remain a contentious issue, regarded by some as potential reservoirs for ecosystem services (Chapin et al., 2006; Perring et al., 2013), whereas for others, a threat to native species populations as well as wider restoration goals to return ecosystems to a prior historical state (Murcia et al., 2014). Part of this contention may relate to the expanding conceptual application of the term, in parallel to difficulties in reaching consensus on its definition and criteria for the identification of novelty (Hobbs et al., 2013; Morse et al., 2014).

Social-ecological implications Because of their close association with anthropogenic drivers of rapid change, novel ecosystems usually form part of interlinked socio-ecological systems, potentially providing a range of ecosystem services, though a list of cultural ecosystem services has hitherto gone unrecorded (Collier, 2014). As speculated by Hallett et al. (2013), novel ecosystems may prove to be as valuable as historical ecosystems, and perhaps may be exemplars of social-ecological resilience (Collier, 2015). The current approach of managers of ecological systems is to determine how best to stabi- lize trajectories of change which push ecosystems across thresholds (Hobbs et al., 2009) and to subsequently determine how best to ensure legally required or socially desirable ecological assemblages. While an ideal starting point would be to reduce the extent and influence of anthropogenic change, including mitigation against climate change (Zedler et al., 2012), the limitations of restricted conservation funds and the risks associated with climate change places greater pressure on managers and policy makers to determine how and where intervention in highly modified ecosystems should take place (Hulvey et al., 2013; Moyle, 2014; Trueman et al., 2014). While Murcia et al. (2014) argue that it is unbeneficial to conflate socio-economic and cultural limitations with ecological thresholds, societal interactions with the natural world are shaped by a range of values that come together to shape decision-making processes and preferred ecosystem trajectories (Suding, 2011). This relationship of influence, therefore, makes it difficult to separate ecological thresholds and the management of novel ecosystems from the social, cultural and institutional contexts which determine them (Chapin et al., 2013). This also points towards our lack of knowledge of ecosystems, novel or not. In addition to ongoing debates on the social and ecological implications of novel ecosystems, it is becoming more and more essential for ecosystem managers and policy decision makers to understand the ramifications of novelty on species and ecosystems, especially as the pervasive- ness of human-induced environmental change becomes increasingly apparent and ecological thresholds are passed (Jackson, 2013; Kueffer, 2013; Moyle, 2014; Perring et al., 2013). Even in the absence of direct anthropogenic change, it is widely acknowledged that climate change, manifested through changing temperatures and precipitation levels as well as range shifts, represents the biggest potential threat to ecosystem change with significant impacts predicted for species ranges and ecological threshold levels (Chen et al., 2011; Grimm et al., 2013; Harris et al., 2006;

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Starzomski, 2013; Williams and Jackson, 2007; Yamano et al., 2011). Despite differences in agreement concerning the role of climate change in the conceptual definition of novel ecosystems, changing indirect anthropogenic external pressures will increase the likelihood that some systems will be pushed beyond ecological thresholds, particularly those in designed and impacted systems (Morse et al., 2014). The likelihood of reversibility and rehabilitation, such as those that drive restoration ecology, may be more and more diminished as demands for an expanding human population and natural resources grow and the impacts of indirect anthropogenic change become more apparent (Belnap et al., 2012; Hobbs et al., 2009). This paper assesses an aspect of the emerging debates on novel ecosystems. It takes as its starting point the likelihood that in the Anthropocene novel ecosystems will concurrently occupy and frustrate policy making. Though the debate is emerging, and the literature is scant with respect to rigorous assessment, it is nonetheless necessary to ascertain whether novel ecosystems theory may be transposed into policy. This paper contends that transposing novel ecosystems into policy discourses could provide opportunities in which the concept can move from being predominantly a concern for the natural sciences, to being a wider societal issue. This may provide the opportunity for greater dialogue on how novel ecosystems are defined and categorised as well as an acknowledgement of the some of the benefits which novel ecosystems present.

Utility of the novel ecosystems theory A rapidly growing body of work is now emerging documenting the usefulness of taking a novel ecosystem approach when restoration to a historical reference point is not feasible. To illustrate, Doley and Audet (2013) provide the example of mining sites as post-disturbance heavily altered landscapes, with little parallels to natural reference points. They argue that new ecosystems in these post-industrial landscapes ‘can provide levels of stability and functionality acceptable to all stakeholders and within feasible management regimes’ (p. 3). While a novel ecosystem may mani- fest dominant sets of species that change community structure and function (Abelleira Martínez et al., 2009), they may also replace lost functions, promote native species; offer new ecosystem services that have either been previously unidentified or quantified; or potentially new services hitherto unavailable (Lin and Petersen, 2013). However, the wider adoption of novel ecosystem theory may require a crossing of social thresholds (Marris, 2011), a cultural shift or letting go of deeply held binary discourses, offering a trans- formative opportunity – as pointed out by Yung et al., ‘the concept of novel ecosystems could reshape the way we think about conservation, our interactions with nature and the public dialogues about ecosystem management’ (2013: 247). Challenges for practitioners and policy makers may include uncertainty and a lack of understanding on how novel ecosystems may react long term, and what the evolutionary and ecological implications may be (Belnap et al., 2012). Challenges may also arise from the absence of, or uncertainty with respect to past analogue reference points, the growing demand on certain ecosystem services, and different, perhaps conflicting societal values, assumptions, and stakeholder goals (Belnap et al., 2012; Seastedt et al., 2008; Stafford-Smith et al., 2009). Furthermore, part of this challenge also includes difficulties in reaching consensus on the scientific definition of novel ecosystems and criteria for the identification of novelty (Hobbs et al., 2013; Morse et al., 2014). In acknowledging these opportunities and challenges, appeals have been made for more flexible management approaches to acknowledge the potential biodiversity and ecosystem service value of individual novel ecosystems (Bridgewater and Yung, 2013; Harris et al., 2006; Hobbs et al., 2009; Seastedt et al., 2008). Yet, these appeals exist in parallel to the widespread consensus that caution is advised in management approaches (Hallett et al., 2013;

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Perring et al., 2013). Nevertheless, embracing novel ecosystem theory will mean that multiple paths and choice of management goals may emerge; creating a range of possible practical and policy opportunities for social and ecological transformation (Hulvey et al., 2013). The manner in which these opportunities and challenges are managed in policy will have ramifications for the extent in which the possible opportunities and benefits of novel ecosystems can be realised in the Anthropocene (Bridgewater and Yung, 2013). As the understanding and awareness of novel ecosystems increases, as well as emerging work documenting the usefulness of taking a novel ecosystem approach when restoration to a historical reference point is not possible (Doley and Audet, 2013), and perhaps because of its apparent positive metaphorical message, there may be calls for novel ecosystem theory to be incorporated not only into practice, but also policy frameworks. It has already been argued that novel landscapes have potentially high values for educating designers and planners (Dooling, 2015). As is argued by Hobbs et al. ‘Rather than posing a threat to existing practice, expanding the options available provides a more robust and comprehensive toolkit for intervening in rapidly changing landscapes’ (2014: 557). So, while novel ecosystems are a recent arrival in the academic literature, there are emerging discourses on utility of the concept, the nature of these ecosystems and their management. There are ongoing discussions on how to define and clarify some of the challenges that novel ecosystem theory presents, especially the policy context of novel ecosystems (Bridgewater and Yung, 2013). However, there appears to be little practical examination of transposing of novel ecosystems into policy making. This is despite a growing recognition in some areas that existing policy frameworks may no longer be sufficient to respond to the kinds of rapid environmental changes that can result in the creation of novel ecosystems in the first place. For many species, such as migratory fauna, conservation efforts currently implemented through ecological reserves, as dictated by policy, will be inefficient to ensure long-term protection (Waltert et al., 2011). Similar contentions have been directed at places such as the Arctic, where the ongoing risk associated with climate and cultural change calls for more innovative policy responses (Chapin et al., 2006). Fears, however, have been raised that acknowledging novel ecosystem theory may lower the bar for ecosystem conservation (Hobbs et al., 2011; Murcia et al., 2014; Perring et al., 2013b, 2014), and allow a business as usual approach in society whereby environmentally harmful human behaviour and related environmental degradation is ignored (Murcia et al., 2014). However, these concerns exist alongside calls for a better understanding of the barriers to adapting to novel ecosystems in environmental law and policy (Graham et al., 2014).

Method Large-scale reviews can be beneficial in helping researchers and decision makers keep up to date with research and discussion on certain topics in ‘real time’, and to spot emerging issues that may need investigation (Moher et al., 2009). Initially, the intention was to carry out a systematic review in order to identify the challenges and opportunities to transpose novel ecosystems into policy, following a call that more systematic reviews be conducted in conservation and environmental management planning (Pullin and Stewart, 2006). Comprehensive systematic reviews have proven useful in establishing the biodiversity and conservation opportunities when planning for, and management of, offshore wind farms (Ashley et al., 2013), urban greening and green infrastructure (Bowler et al., 2010), climate change adaptation (Berrang-Ford et al., 2011), semi- natural, anthropogenic landscape features (Collier, 2013; Davies and Pullin, 2007). In the case of novel ecosystems, a broad and conclusive systematic review was made difficult because of the lack of empirical research assessing the description and extent of novel ecosystems, the

Downloaded from anr.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on August 2, 2016 Collier and Devitt 5 ecological form and socio-ecological impacts evaluations on the effectiveness of management systems in achieving desired goals, and importantly, wider discussions on the policy implications. Therefore, a literature analysis on the limited literature, currently available and accessible, pertaining to the topic of novel ecosystems was carried out. Using Web of Science, PubMed and Google Scholar, this review sought all available papers and book chapters which refer to novel ecosystems and their policy implications. As ‘novel ecosystems’ is of recent origin conceptually, earlier descriptions were also included in the search. These included: ‘new ecologies’, ‘ecological novelty’, ‘novel landscapes’ and ‘no-analog systems’. A snowball method was also used – this involved assessing the reference lists of publications to identify further publications of signifi- cance. This literature survey was carried out between June 2014 and February, 2015 using key word searches as well as contacting key contributors to the literature for literature sources, book chapter information and grey literature sources. While some time has passed between the survey, there has not been a substantial increase in output concerning novel ecosystems in that time. Figure 1 presents the literature search process. The final literature sample was analysed thematically using a qualitative approach. This first involved the development of descriptive codes and later, analytical categories that formed the basis for a framework that helped conceptually describe the policy ramifications arising from adopting novel ecosystem theory.

Results From examining the low volume of specific research, much of the available and relevant literature contained papers drawn from experiential reflection, rather than empirical or experimental research. This was to be expected because of the relative originality of this specific concept (though discussions on ‘synthetic vegetation’ and ‘recombinant ecology’ have been going for several decades). Tables 1 and 2 were generated in order to illustrate the complexity (the challenges and opportunities) of transposing novel ecosystem theory into mainstream policy making. Table 1 illustrates how traditional policy frameworks, social values and assumptions of a pre- sumed nature state, and the various uncertainties related to novel ecosystems combine to present challenges to adopting the concept into policy domains. This is a similar issue to many past and present societal challenges such as the debates that surrounded genetically modified crops and nanotechnology. Accepting the notion of ecosystems in dynamic flux presents a challenge to the widely held view of recovering to an historical reference point in order to achieving ecosystem conservation policy. Further, gaps in understanding transitions and the passing of thresholds into novel ecosystems also presents challenges for decision makers in policy, and subsequently empha- sises the need for, first, the prioritisation of empirical based research into ecosystem changes and trajectories (Lin and Petersen, 2013; Morse et al., 2014), and second, greater communication between scientists and policy makers on the ecological and socio-economic outcomes, particularly concerning the opportunities, arising from novel ecosystems. This is by no means an exhaustive listing of opportunities, but the three presented in Table 2 are the principal ideas that emerged from the limited literature available. The ability to understand opportunities is reduced by the rate in which empirical research can take place, the changing and uncertain nature of novel ecosystems, the timescales that are required to determine ecological novelty, and whether or not research activities and policy frameworks can move from being reduction- ist in focus to adopting a more integrative, holistic socio-ecological approach. Incomplete or misinformed information arising from research may also actually exacerbate tensions at the macro policy level (Larson et al., 2012).

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Figure 1. Diagram outlining how the final literature sample was reached.

Discussion This short review is an analysis of the limited available literature carried out to identify the key challenges and opportunities to transposing novel ecosystem theory into normative policy. However, this review has revealed that despite an expanding literature on the managerial and practitioner implications of novel ecosystems, there is less focus on considering the ramifications for policy. Similar discussions emerged in the early research related to ecosystem services but the research was further stimulated by the need to identify the implications of the ecosystem service approach. Where present in the literature pertaining to novel ecosystems, reference to policy implications is more circumspect and lacking closer investigation on the specific policy implications, challenges or otherwise, arising from novel ecosystems. This is in line with views made elsewhere concerning the lack of attention attributed to novel ecosystems in the policy context (Bridgewater et al., 2011), and the need for more research into policy barriers (Graham et al., 2014). Gaps in the literature may also be attributed to ongoing debates concerning the prevalence and definition of novel ecosystems, and the implications of these debates on empirical research (Morse et al., 2014; Murcia et al., 2014; Robbins and Moore, 2013). While evidence from restoration ecology suggests that practitioners and scientists often fail to explore the impacts for policy arising from restoration work (Aronson et al., 2010). It is reasonable to hypothesise that this same contention can be directed at the novel ecosystems theory. Given the above limitations, this review has nonetheless identified eleven policy challenges. These challenges broadly fall into three themes. First there is the theme of ecological complexities: understanding timeframes, thresholds, assemblages and colonising stressors, combined under con- tinuing environmental change and anthropogenic forcing. This is paralleled by the second theme of societal responses: values and perspectives, expectations and policy implications. A third theme looks at management responses: intensity, communications and misapprehension. The growing body of empirical work shows that novel ecosystems can exhibit, compliment and perhaps aug- ment ecological function and ecosystem services, offering opportunities to policy objectives con- cerned with maintaining biodiversity and positive human–ecological interactions. This expanding body of evidence highlights the need for new policy instruments that can recognise the potential

Downloaded from anr.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on August 2, 2016 Collier and Devitt 7 Citations and case-study examples where applicable Bridgewater et al. (2011) Former mine sites (Doley and Audet, 2013). Arctic regions (Chapin et al., 2013) Coastal regions (Lyytimäki and Hildén, 2007) Belnap et al. (2012); Bridgewater and Yung (2013); Lin Petersen Morse et al. (2014); Moyle Tockner (2011) Old fields and land abandonment (Cramer Hobbs (2007) Riverine systems in Mediterranean climate regions (Moyle, 2014). Larson et al. (2013); Morse (2014); Tassin and Kull (2015); Walther et al. (2009) Hulvey et al. (2013); Morse (2014) Shale Bings, central Scotland (Harvie and Hobbs, 2013) Coal mines in Central Queensland (Erskine and Fletcher, 2013) Riverine systems in Mediterranean climate regions (Moyle, 2014) Bridgewater and Yung (2013); Moyle (2014); Seastedt et al. (2008) Riverine systems in Mediterranean climate regions (Moyle, 2014) Hobbs et al. (2013); Kueffer Robbins and Moore (2013) Bridgewater and Yung (2013); Suding (2011); Tassin Kull (2015); Zedler et al. (2012) Morse et al. (2014) Land abandonment (Perring et al., 2012) Las Cienegas National Conservation Area, USA (Caves et al., 2013) Galapagos Islands (Trueman et al., 2014) Riverine systems in Mediterranean climate regions (Moyle, 2014) Bridgewater and Yung (2013); et al. (2011); Hobbs (2011); Seastedt et al. (2008); Zedler et al. (2012) Belnap et al. (2012); Hobbs (2011); Marris (2013); Morse et al. (2014); Perring et al. (2012); Seastedt (2008) Post-industrial peatland (Collier and Scott, 2009) Drylands (Stafford-Smith et al., 2009) Shale Bings, central Scotland (Harvie and Hobbs, 2013) problem framing of novel ecosystems may prevent more sufficient The ecological context and rate of change novel ecosystems may lie outside traditional policy timeframes and expectations Difficulties in determining ecological thresholds given the complexity and rate of change, external and internal forcing other environmental stressors Risks associated with unknown ecological assemblages and transitions in novel ecosystems. Novel ecosystems may respond to manipulation in unanticipated ways The risks associated with invasive species raises challenges for conservation policy, with respect to species control, rates of spread, intensity management and so on Challenges in determining intervention, management intensity and strategies Management actions will be experimental and this create challenges for communicating outcomes to policy and for how makers can use scientific knowledge effectively The mainstreaming of the concept as well dictate (and perhaps limit), management approaches, research and policy legal contexts require more flexible, dynamic and adaptive approaches to novel ecosystem management Novel ecosystems will require ecological and social trade-offs, mainstreaming novel ecosystem theory into policy means accepting particular, perhaps counterintuitive management options and implications policy objectives oriented towards the preservation of historical conditions and compositions conflicts may arise when policy directions differ from societal expectations Eleven core challenges for policy in incorporating novel ecosystem theory.

Management and communication Early rejection and misapprehension of the theory Undefined and/or conflicting timeframes Understanding ecological thresholds Understanding ecological assemblages Complex relationships with invasive and colonising species Management and intensity Table 1. Challenges for policy Explanation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Environmental change Under changing environmental conditions, policy and its related 10. 11. 6. Policy trade-offs 7. Societal perspective Traditional policy perspectives tend to regard nature as stable and static with 8. Societal expectations Societal and stakeholder expectations form a strong driver of policy direction, 9.

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Table 2. Three opportunities for the policy adoption of novel ecosystem theory.

Opportunities Explanation Citations and case-study examples where applicable 1. Ecosystem Novel ecosystems can have Collier (2014); Hallet et al. (2013); Harvie services ecosystem service value, and Hobbs (2013); Kowarik (2011); Lin including cultural, heritage and and Petersen (2013); Marris et al. (2013); amenity value and opportunities Perring et al. (2013); Seastedt et al. (2008); for social adaptation to global Tassin and Kull (2015) environmental challenges, enabling Arctic regions (Chapin et al., 2006) a transformation to potentially Field stone wall boundaries (Collier, 2013) advantageous ecosystem Sri Lanka’s novel ecosystems (Pethiyagoda, conditions and assemblages 2012) Hawaiian novel forests (Mascaro et al., 2012) Former mine sites (Doley and Audet, 2013) Artificial waterways (Harvolk et al., 2014) Uruguayan grasslands (Six et al., 2014) 2. Complementarity Novel ecosystems can complement Perring et al. (2013) traditional restoration efforts, particularly in landscapes where restoration is technically feasible but socially difficult 3. Collaborative Acknowledging novel ecosystems Belnap et al., (2012); Hulvey et al. (2013); approaches presents opportunities for dialogue Morse et al. (2014); Moyle (2014); Seastedt and societal and collaboration between et al. (2008); Suding (2011) implications different sets of knowledge holders Societal implications (Collier, 2014) and perspectives from policy makers, scientists, managers and practitioners value of some novel ecological assemblages (Tassin and Kull, 2015). Opportunity for policy transformation lies in the potential for greater dialogue and collaboration between stakeholders, practitioners, the wider public and policy makers. Though this will also bring to the surface some of the challenges previously outlined, especially in managing expectations, and communication between scientists and policy makers. Debates concerning criteria for assessing what constitutes ecological novelty present further challenges (Morse et al., 2014). This area of contention has implications for how such ecosystems are identified, and resulting management, planning and policy implications. Prevailing social and political assumptions and the problem framing of novel ecosystems may prevent more sufficient adoption of the concept as well as dictate (and perhaps limit), research goals, management and policy approaches taken (Hobbs et al., 2013; Kueffer, 2013; Robbins and Moore, 2013). In response to these challenges, the need for policies and environmental legal frameworks to improve adaptive capacity and allow for a more dynamic approach to ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation has been highlighted (Bridgewater and Yung, 2013; Zedler et al., 2012). In the Anthropocene, where we see human-induced ecological novelty manifested throughout the globe, obstacles to the adoption of novel ecosystem theory such as policy resist- ance to change, lack of technical knowledge and awareness of change drivers and their resulting ecological and social outcomes, and limited budgets within policy arenas will all need to be

Downloaded from anr.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on August 2, 2016 Collier and Devitt 9 addressed (Bridgewater andYung, 2013). In addressing some of the challenges identified, greater collaboration and dialogue between scientists, practitioners and policy decision makers is required. This will require consensus at the practitioner level in how novel ecosystems and their related drivers are defined and managed, for example, to protect specific species and maintain biodiversity, to improve or preserve ecosystem services or functions, or to manage for novelty with respect to composition and possible ecosystem services (Hulvey et al., 2013; Morse et al., 2014), as well as dialogue at the macro, policy level in acknowledging the existence and extent of ecological novelty. While concerns pertaining to a ‘business-as-usual approach’ and a ‘lowering of the bar’ in ecological conservation cannot be ignored; there is growing obligation to develop new policies that will address how we develop human activities especially in climate-vulnerable regions, such as, for example, the Arctic (Bridgewater et al., 2011; Chapin et al., 2013; Zedler et al., 2012). Seasted et al. (2008) argue that a road-map of the specific wants and needs of policy makers is now required. This road map may help orient research activities which can be used to inform appropriate dialogue and policy directions in novel ecosystem research (Kueffer and Hirsch Hadorn, 2008; Wuelser et al., 2012). Theoretically, resilience approaches have been advocated as a framework for enabling proactive policy structures to respond to novel ecosystems (Belnap et al., 2012; Chapin et al., 2013; Hobbs et al., 2010). These approaches recognise that such ecosystems often exist in complex socio-ecological systems that require policy approaches that recognise such inter-linkages and are sufficiently adaptable to take a place- based, site-specific approach. Failure to rationally discuss the policy implications of novel ecosystems will likely result in misapprehension and misunderstanding; leading to a likely misrepresentation of the theory. Novel ecosystems offer an avenue for deriving wider utility (ecological and social) from severely impacted landscapes. This review has revealed some opportunities that are heretofore unexamined and un-quantified. With the debate on the veracity of the Anthropocene reaching a climax, it is perhaps an opportune time to stimulate research into the complexities of this issue and to begin to quantify novel ecosystems and their societal implications.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank sincerely the editors and reviewers for their helpful comments.

Funding Funding for this review was provided by Enterprise Ireland (reference number CS/2013/775).

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