Trop. Agr. Develop. 58（4）：140 － 145，2014

Caution in Developing Technologies for Smallholder Farmers: A Case of Maize Plant Spacing and Seed Rate Using Maresha Plow in Semi-Arid Farming in

Bedru Beshir1 and Yoshiaki NISHIKAWA2, *

1 Melkassa Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 2 Faculty of Economics, Ryukoku University, Kyoto, 645-8577, Japan

Abstract This paper discusses the amount of maize seed required per unit area and the spacing formed using the Ethiopian traditional plow -maresha-, based on data obtained from randomly selected smallholder maize growers. The results showed that farmers planted 64% and 180% higher amounts of seed in row-planting and broadcasting, respectively than the research- recommended seed rate per hectare for maize. The maresha plow opens a 50 cm spacing between rows, compared to the recommended 75 cm. It was found that the value of the seed saved by adopting row-planting exceeded the value of hiring labor for row-planting at peak time to solve household farm labor shortage. Thus, the recommended maize row spacing and seed rate should be reconsidered in line with farmers’ plow used in maize planting. Key words: Broadcasting, Oxen drawn, Row-planting, Shilshalo

tion that hampers yield. Zamir et al. (1999) noted that Introduction reduced spacing resulted in a significantly higher maize Maize (Zea mays L.) is a key staple food crop in yield than the commonly recommended spacing of 75 Ethiopia. It ranks first in production and second in area cm by 25 cm. Another study, in Kenya, showed that a re- allocated to cereals (Central Statistical Agency, 2011). duced row spacing of 50 cm by 25 cm gave a significantly A number of improved maize varieties are grown which higher yield than the recommended spacing (Onyango, have to be accompanied by research-recommended ag- 2009). In the Ethiopian maize farming, spacing of 75 ronomic practices and application of fertilizers for their cm between rows and 25 cm between plants is recom- optimum yield (MoA, 2008). mended regardless of differences between maturity Row-planting of maize is a highly recommended groups (MoA, 2008). Moreover, this recommendation agronomic practice (MoA, 2008), which is rather new does not consider the size of the maresha plow that is among Ethiopian farmers who use oxen-drawn maresha used by the Ethiopian smallholder farmers during land plow and who traditionally plant maize in broadcasting. preparation and planting. Inter-row plowing (shilshalo) is also common in Ethio- Planting of 25 to 30 kg of maize seed per hectare is pian maize production and farmers practice it once after recommended in Ethiopia (MoA, 2008). This seed rate field establishment. The time of the inter-row cultivation has been observed to be insufficient even if farmers had varies and most of the times farmers plow later than the planted maize in rows, mainly due to the narrower spac- recommended time － the knee height. Maize seed plant- ing opened by the maresha plow than the recommended ing method (row-planting or broadcasting) influences spacing. Temesgen et al. (2001) reported the superiority plant population and affects plant utilization of nutrients, of an erf and mofer-attached moldboard plow over the water and light, and consequently the yield (Zamir et al., maresha plow farm implement in land preparation which 1999; Onyango, 2009). Row-planting facilitates fertilizer is translated in higher harvest. The moldboard plow, application, hoeing, weeding and harvesting. Appropriate however, does not replace the maresha plow for planting plant spacing in maize cultivation is recommended for purpose. harvesting the optimum yield, while improper spacing Bisanda and Mwangi (1996) observed that nearly between plants leads to an inappropriate plant popula- all the farmers in Tanzania adopted row-planting in maize production since it requires only a small amount

Communicated by S. Asanuma of investment, compared to other technologies such as Received Aug. 6, 2013 improved variety and fertilizer application. The same Accepted Jun. 25, 2014 authors have noted that none of the farmers adopted * Corresponding author [email protected] the recommended spacing (both between plants and Bedru Beshir and Nishikawa: Maize seed rate under maresha plow farming 141 between rows) in their maize production. wettest month is August (mean monthly average rainfall Temesgen et al. (2001) conducted their studies 191 mm) while the driest months are November and De- on oxen-drawn plow implements (the moldboard plow cember (mean monthly rainfall 12 mm each). The main and maresha plow) and indicated the low efficiency of rainy season extends from June to September. The soils the maresha plow, compared to the moldboard plow. of the area consist of loam, clay loam and sandy loam Likewise, Bisanda and Mwangi (1996) conducted (locally known as shakite) (Laike el al., 2006). Mixed studies about maize agronomic practices and indicated farming of crop and livestock constitutes the main liveli- farmer adoption of row planting. None of those studies, hood sources of farm households. The principal crops however, attempted to understand and explain farmers’ grown are maize, common bean and tef, while the major non-adoption of recommended spacing rate between livestock kept are cattle, goat, sheep and donkey. Oxen plants and spacing between rows. are the primary farm animal power used for plowing, Thus, the present paper examined why farmers transporting and threshing. plant maize at a higher seed rate than the recommended one both in row-planting and in broadcasting, since Description of the Ethiopian maresha plow planting in broadcasting is easier and can be managed Maresha plow is an oxen-drawn, iron-tipped wooden with a lower amount of labor than labor required in plow farm implement. It has a metal loop that holds the row-planting. Hence, the issue of any incentive for farm- plowshare together with the two wooden side-wings (de- ers to adopt row-planting, including those who have a ger). The maresha plow weighs around 14 kg (Temesgen household labor shortage was investigated. et al., 2001) and has a total length of about 3.5 m (Fig. 1). The potential plow width is about 50-55 cm. The Materials and Methods Ethiopian maresha plow (particularly the iron tip) is an Description of the study area ancient plow type that has been used for millennia due to This study was conducted in , its simplicity, easy access (to buy and get its maintenance Central Ethiopia (7°12’–9°14’ N latitude, 38°57’–39°32’ locally), affordability and its adaptability to a wide range E longitude) in September and October, 2009. Adama of soil types and moisture regimes (Gebregziabher et (8°54’N, 39°27’E), the capital of the zone, is located at 100 al., 2006; Temesgen et al., 2001). km southeast of Addis Ababa. Four major maize-grow- ing districts of the zone namely, Adama, , Data collection and analysis and Adami-Tulu-Jido-Kombolcha (ATJK) were selected. The data were obtained through a questionnaire Adama district is located in the surrounding of the town interview of farm household heads and field measure- of Adama, while Boset district borders to Adama district ments. Farmers were randomly selected from major in the West. Dugda and ATJK districts are located about maize-producing districts (Adama, Boset, Dugda and 85 to 100 km from Adama in the southwest. The average ATJK) of East Shewa Zone. Two to three kebeles (kebele annual rainfall was 820 mm (at Melkassa Agricultural is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia) were Research Center (MARC)) over the period from 1977 selected from each district. In total, 110 farmers from 11 to 2011. MARC is located in the heart of the semi-arid kebeles were interviewed about their maize production, Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia at the altitude of and farm implements used. The field measurements of 1,550 meter above sea level at 8°40’ N, 39°35’ E. The the whole 110 sample farmers were taken of which 21

Fig. 1. The Ethiopian traditional Maresha plow 142 Trop. Agr. Develop. 58（4）2014

(19%) plots were planted to early-maturing maize variet- Results and Discussion ies, 62 (56%) plots planted to medium-maturing maize varieties and the remaining 27 (25%) plots were planted Characteristics of the farmers to late-maturing maize varieties. To estimate the spacing Fifteen percent of the interviewed households were between plants, four randomly selected rows of five-me- women-headed. The average age of the farmers was 42 ter length were measured and the plants were counted. years with a standard error of 1.4. There was a clear The corresponding row length for each replication was association between the adoption of maize row-planting divided by the number of plants. To estimate the spacing and the gender of a household head (higher proportion between rows, the whole sample farm plot of a quarter of the male-headed farm household adopted maize row- of a hectare was measured across the rows and the rows planting compared to the proportion of female-headed cross-sectional length (50 m) of the plots was divided by households). As for the age category, a higher propor- the total number of rows (Fig. 2). tion of young and middle-aged farmers practiced maize The data collected from interviews and field mea- row-planting, compared to a low proportion of elderly surements were analyzed using descriptive statistics farmers (Table 1). The average land-holding size was such as percentage, average, standard deviation and 2.5 hectares per household and 46% of the farmland was standard error. T-test was employed to verify the statisti- allocated to maize, 27% to common bean, 20% to tef and cal significance of differences in binary comparisons. 7% to other crops. All the respondents were growing maize and have been doing so since they started farming

Note 1. Total plot area is 2500 m2. Note 2. Spacing between plants calculated from 5 m long randomly selected rows (see numbers ₁，₂，₃，₄) divided by number of plants for the sample rows.

Fig. 2. Sketch of sample plot Source: The authors’ field survey.

Table 1. Gender and age category of farm household head and adoption of maize row planting in Rift Valley of Central Ethiopia. Category of the Method of maize planting (%) Characteristic Total characteristics Row planting Broadcasting Both Gender Female 47.1 (8) 52.9 (9) 0.0(0) 100(17) Male 74.2(69) 24.7(23) 1.1(1) 100(93) Age Young age 78.6(11) 21.4 (3) 0.0(0) 100(14) Middle age 71.6(53) 28.4(21) 0.0(0) 100(74) Old age 59.1(13) 36.4 (8) 4.5(1) 100(22) Note 1. The age is categorised based on the mean and standard deviation of these data. Accordingly, farmers under age of 27 years are categorised as young age, 27 to 56 years middle age and above 56 years as old age. Note 2. Figures in the brackets indicate the actual number. The female-headed households account for 15.4%. Age category the proportion of young, middle age and old accounts for 12.7%, 67.3%, 20.0% respectively. Note 3. Concerning education level of farm household heads according to their districts, the average years of formal schooling for ATJK were 3.8, Dugda, 1.6, Boset, 0.7 and Adama, 1.3. The average family size for ATJK was 7.8, Dugda, 7.1, Boset, 5.9 and Adama, 5.7. Source: The authors’ field study. Bedru Beshir and Nishikawa: Maize seed rate under maresha plow farming 143 at about 16 years of age. All of them used oxen-drawn weed type and population, to control weeds at the later meresha plow for farming operations. stages until the crop matures.

Major agronomic practices in maize production Maize seed rate using different planting methods Land preparation, planting methods (row-planting The yield of maize is mainly influenced by the variety, or broadcasting), hoeing, fertilizer application, shilshalo2 the amount of seed planted and management practices, and weeding are the major agronomic practices in maize among others (Bisanda and Mwangi, 1996). Keeping farming. Land preparation is performed three to four other things constant, the amount of seed planted per times by using oxen-drawn maresha plow. Maize unit area was considered in this paper. Farmers used a planting is performed by broadcasting or row-planting. higher seed rate than the blanket recommendation (a Broadcasting is the simplest and the quickest method of broad recommendation without properly targeting spe- planting, where the seeds are randomly scattered on the cific agro-ecology) based on research. Data show that field after dividing the field into strips of about two meter the average maize spacing planted for different maturity width. On the other hand, row-planting involves placing groups (early, medium and late) was similar (Table 5). seed roughly at a fixed distance by placing a single seed, Commercial seed enterprises in Ethiopia (e.g., the which requires considerable time and labor. Within Ethiopian Seed Enterprise) package seed at 25 kg, three weeks to a month from emergence, hoeing is per- which is the minimum recommended amount for one formed to control weeds. Hoeing was more common in hectare sowing. The average amount of seed planted per ATJK district than in the other districts. For example, hectare was 41 kg in row-planting and 70 kg in broad- nearly all the farmers practiced hoeing in ATJK, while casting (Table 3). This showed that 64% and 180% higher only one-third of the farmers in Boset and Dugda and seed rates were used in row-planting and broadcasting, about one-fifth in Adama (Table 2). The reason why respectively than the recommended seed rate. more farmers in ATJK practiced hoeing is most likely Since 2008, row-planting has been extensively pro- due to the fact that the farm households in this district moted with improved maize seed in the CRV of Ethiopia. had a larger family size and higher years of formal The promotion is in line with the expansion (scaling-up) schooling for the household heads (Table 1). At about of “best agronomic practices” by the government to one month to one month and a half from emergence, improve crop production and productivity of smallholder shilshalo is performed using the maresha plow to control farmers. The benefits of row-planting include ease for weeds, loosen the soil and conserve the soil moisture. cultivation, convenience for shilshalo making, and facili- Hand-weeding or mowing is also practiced, based on the tation of weeding and fertilizer application. The practice

Table 2. Number of farmers practicing hoeing in drought-prone Rift Valley in Central Ethiopia. Number of Number of farmers Percentage of farmers District samples practicing hoeing practicing hoeing ATJK 30 29 97 Boset 30 10 33 Dugda 20 6 30 Adama 30 6 20 Total 110 51 46 Source: The authors’ field survey.

Table 3. Average maize seed rate and plant per hectare, percentage of farmers adopting row planting and recommended seed rates in semi-arid areas in Central Ethiopia. Seed rate in Seed rate in Percentage of District broadcasting row planting farmers adopting maize (kg/ha) (kg/ha) row planting ATJK 48 (1) 27(29) 97 Boset 69(10) 43(20) 68 Dugda 74 (9) 51(11) 55 Adama 69(12) 54(18) 59 Total 70(32) 41(78) 71 Note. Figures in the bracket indicate the actual number of respondents. Source: The authors’ field survey. 144 Trop. Agr. Develop. 58（4）2014 of row-planting is currently advised also for small grain while the spacing between plants was wider (35 cm) cereals such as wheat and tef. In effect, however, maize than the recommended spacing of 25 cm (t (109) =10.94; row-planting has not been adopted to the level expected p<0.001). In general, the spacing between rows under and efforts made by agricultural extension service. Yet, farmer practice was 50 cm, whereas the recommended a considerable proportion of farmers (32 out of 110) has spacing between rows was 75 cm (reduction of one-third, continued planting in broadcasting that consumes a 25 cm out of 75 cm, between the rows). This is due to high amount of seed (Table 3). Furthermore, the recom- the space opened by the maresha plow (50 cm between mended seed rate was not adopted both in row-planting row spaces) that consequently influenced the amount and broadcasting methods. A package of 25 kg seed of seed planted per hectare, since a larger number of for hectare was not found to be sufficient for planting rows are formed when the spacing is 50 cm instead of to a hectare even when farmers practiced row-planting. the recommended 75 cm. The shortage was most likely attributed to the narrower space opened by the maresha plow. Plant spacing among different maize varieties Meanwhile, the rate of adoption of row-planting No statistically significant differences were found varied from district to district. In the ATJK area, row from the data of this survey among varieties of various planting was more highly adopted than in the other dis- maturity groups (Table 5). However, based on discus- tricts. In ATJK, a higher proportion of land is allocated3) sions with farmers, the authors found that farmers tended to maize, and farmers use improved varieties, including to prefer a wider spacing between rows for medium-ma- hybrid seed and associated agronomic practices of row- turing maize varieties. This may be due to the formal planting (Tables 3 and 4). Moreover, the average family source of those variety seeds with information regarding size was larger and the years of formal schooling were recommended seed rate. Further investigation should higher ATJK than in the other districts (see Table 1). be carried out to understand the mechanism.

Maize plant and row spacing on farmers’ fields Financial consideration of the high seed rate planted in As shown in Table 4, the spacing between rows broadcasting 50cm practiced by the farmers on average was sig- By planting in broadcasting, 29 kg maize seed per nificantly narrower than the recommended spacing of hectare was used in excess on average of what farmers 75 cm. The average spacing between plants was 35 cm plant under row-planting (see Table 3). The monetary without significant statistical differences between the value of the 29 kg of maize at market price was 116 three maturity groups (Table 5). The spacing between Birr (≈13.06 USD) (Birr is the Ethiopian currency and rows was significantly reduced (t (109) =-45.55; p<0.001) one USD was 8.88 Birr during planting for this study),

Table 4. Average maize spacing between plants and between rows in row-planting and in broadcasting methods on farmers’ field. Spacing between plants Spacing between rows Method of planting (cm) (cm) Row planting (n=78) 37 (∓9) 51 (∓6) Broadcasting (n=32) 28 (∓7) 45 (∓4) Total (N=110) 35 (∓9) 50 (∓6) Note 1. The row is the furrow formed after shilshalo in broadcasting. Note 2. The figures in the parenthesis denote the standard deviation. Note 3. The data indicate the average value for the three (early, medium and late) maturity groups of maize. Note 4. The data indicate the whole sample of 110 farmers categorized into row planting and broadcasting. Source: The authors’ field survey.

Table 5. Spacing between plants of maize with different maturity groups in Central Ethiopia. Number of Average spacing Standard Deviation Maize by maturity group farmers between plants (cm) (cm) Early maturing 21 35 9 Medium maturing 62 36 10 Late maturing 27 33 9 Total 110 35 9 Source: The authors’ field study. Bedru Beshir and Nishikawa: Maize seed rate under maresha plow farming 145 while the average labor cost for planting maize seed row-planting tends to be reasonable for the reduced in broadcasting was 40 Birr (≈4.50 USD) per hectare. spacing between rows using the maresha plow. Row- Thus, the monetary value of excess seed planted in planting was found to be financially profitable besides its broadcasting which was 76 Birr (≈8.56 USD) could potential agronomic benefits since the monetary value of be saved by planting maize in row instead of planting the excess of seeds used in broadcasting is higher than it in broadcasting, which can be used to hire labor for the value of hiring a farm labor for row-planting to meet row-planting (see Table 3). By planting in broadcasting, household farm labor shortage. Likewise, maize seed one person can plant a large area (about a quarter of a rate has to be reevaluated in order to consider the plow hectare in 15 minutes, and then continue with covering type and the crop varieties used for enhanced adoption soil, while row-planting needs one more person for plant- of row-planting for optimum grain harvest. Likewise, ing throughout the plowing time for planting the seed, research on agronomic practices needs to consider whereas two more people are required to assist if fertil- farmers’ practices and farm tools. For this purpose, col- izer has to be applied. Thus, the amount of seed used in lection of data on existing farmers’ practices, including excess by planting in broadcasting, compared to maize sizes of implements used, consultation with farmers and row-planting shows a higher monetary value than the participation of farmers in technology development are value of hiring farm labor for row-planting, when house- essential to enhance the dissemination of and adoption hold farm labor shortage is the main concern in the peak of improved technologies. (critical) planting season. Moreover, there is a slight Notes yield increase due to planting maize in row (row-plant- ing gave 3.6 ton per hectare, while broadcasting gave 3.4 1) Erf and mofer-attached moldboard plow is a primary and sec- ondary tillage implement designed at Melkassa Agricultural tons per hectare that is about a 5% yield increase). Research Center of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Re- The other reason farmers mentioned for planting in search (see Fig. 1 for erf and mofer). 2) Shilshalo ( word) is an interrow cultivation practice broadcasting is that they at times practice thinning of performed using maresha plow. their maize field until the maturity of the crop. Continu- 3) The proportion of farm area allocated to maize by the sur- veyed district farmers in ATJK was 60%, 55% in Dugda, 52％in ous thinning, however, is not a recommended practice Boset and 36% in Adama. because maize thinning is most effective if it is performed References at early stages, particularly during hoeing and Shilshalo times; otherwise, the yield is considerably affected from Bisanda, S. and W. Mwangi 1996. Adoption of recommended maize technologies in Mbeya region of the southern highlands of extended thinning, since the plants are increasingly Tanzania. Addis Ababa: CIMMYT/the United Republic of competing for light and nutrients. Fischer and Javed Tanzania, Ministry of Agriculture. p.41. Central Statistical Agency 2011. Federal Democratic Republic of (1985) reported that maize thinning performed at 20 Ethiopia Agricultural Sample Survey 2010/2011 (2003 E.C.) days before flowering and onwards significantly reduced (September-December 2010) Volume I Report on Area and Production of Major Crops (Private Peasant Holdings, Meher the grain yield. Season), April 2011. Addis Ababa. p.126. Fischer, K. S. and H. Javed 1985. Production of maize grain and Conclusions and Implication fodder in the Northwest frontier Province and Islamabad Capital Territory of Pakitan. Pakistan Agricultural Research Maize is an essential food security crop, particularly Council and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement in the semi-arid part of Ethiopia. Although improved vari- Center Collaborative Programme. Islamabad. p.30 Laike, S., K. Tilahun, and T. Hordofa 2006. Crop Coefficient of eties are grown and accompanying agronomic practices Haricot Bean at Melkassa, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. J. of such as row-planting are recommended by research and Agr. and Rural Dev. in the Tropics and Subtropics 107: 33-40. Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) 2008. Crop Variety Register. Animal widely promoted by the government, their adoption is and Plan Health Regulatory Directorate Crop Development slow and yet a significant proportion of farmers uses Department. MoA (Addis Ababa) p.8. Onyango, O. 2009. Decreased row spacing as an option for increas- broadcasting with higher seed rates. The blanket maize ing maize (Zea mays L.) yield in Trans Nzoia district, Kenya. seed rate recommendation does not consider the plow Journal of Plant Breeding and Crop Sci. 1: 281- 283. Temesgen, M., K. Giorgis, S. Goda, and H. Abebe 2001. Develop- type used by the farmers and varietal maturity differ- ment and Evaluation of Tillage Implements for Maize Produc- ences. Farmers’ maize seed rate per hectare is notably tion in Dryland Areas of Ethiopia. Pages 308-312, In: Proceed- higher than the recommended seed rate both in row- ings of the Seventh Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, 5 – 11 February 2002, Nairobi Kenya. (Fri- planting and in broadcasting. This is mainly attributed esen, D.K. and A.F.E. Palmer eds) CIMMYT (Nairobi) pp.308- to the farmers’ maresha plow size that opens 50 cm be- 312. Zamir, S., M. Maqsood, M. Saif, and N. Yousaf 1999. Effects of tween rows instead of the 75 cm recommended spacing. Plant spacing on Yield and Yield Components of Maize Int. J. Farmers’ seed rate of an average of 41 kg/ha used in Agri. Biol. 1: 152-153.