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Jaguar Conservation in Venezuela Against THE JAGUar coNservatION IN VENEZUela AGAINst the Backdrop OF CUrreNT KNowledGE ON Its BIoloGY AND evolUTION WlodZIMIerZ JedrZejewskI, MarÍA ABarca, ÁNGel VIlorIA, HUGO Cerda, DANIel Lew, Howard TakIFF, ÉDGar ABadÍa, PABLO VeloZO and KRZysZTOF SchmIdt SUMMARY Current knowledge is reviewed on the jaguar Panthera onca makes it a notorious livestock predator. Conflicts caused by jag- evolution, morphological, genetic and ecological variation, as uar predation on cattle are the main reason for killing them, al- a background for understanding conservation problems. Based though they are also hunted for skins, despite legal protection. on published sources and own data, the current situation of the Another threat is deforestation. Jaguar population in Venezuela jaguar in Venezuela is analyzed. Body size of today’s jaguars has decreased substantially during the last 30-40 years, and is is highly variable; the largest are found in the Brazilian Panta- currently variable: in northern Venezuela isolated and declining nal and Venezuelan Llanos (mean male body mass >100kg). The small populations survive; south of the Orinoco, a vast popula- smallest jaguars live in Central America (~56kg). Skin color- tion exists; in Los Llanos it was nearly eliminated ~40 years ago, ation pattern is highly variable and may have a geographic cor- but seems to have returned and re-colonized former territories. relation. The morphological variation correlates with its genetic The most important measure for conservation of jaguars in Vene- variability, which in turn may reflect diversity of adaptations zuela is to create more protected areas, to develop ecological to different habitats and prey communities. Its diet is extreme- corridors to protect connectivity and halt deforestation of critical ly diversified. The territorial size and density of jaguars varies regions. Hunting and killing could decrease through educational amongst localities, probably reflecting variation in prey density programs, involving local communities, compensations for losses and degree of human disturbance. Adaptation to kill large prey from jaguar predation and incentivizing ecotourism. Summary of Current Knowledge on Jaguar Biology and Evolution France, Germany, Netherlands, Great Britain, Caucasus, lower Urals, and in Evolution, morphological variation, genetics, and taxonomy of the jaguar Tajikistan (Sotnikova and Vislobokova, 1990; Koufos, 1992; Spassov, 1997; Turner and Anton, 1997; Kahlke, 2000; he jaguar Panthera Hemmer et al., 2001, 2010). Fossils of Hemmer et al., 2001, 2010; Barysh- onca evolved in Europe the European jaguar P. onca gom- nikov, 2002, 2011; Palombo and Valli, or Asia during the late Pliocene/early baszoegensis have been recorded from 2003-2004; O’Regan and Turner, 2004; Pleistocene period, at least 1.8-2.0 mil- several localities of Eurasia, including Foronova, 2005; Van Den Hoek Ostende lion years ago (Kurten, 1965, 1973; Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Hungary, Spain, and De Vos, 2006; Petronio et al., KEYWORDS / Conservation / Current Distribution / Jaguar / Panthera onca / Venezuela / Received: 11/01/2011. Modified: 12/14/2011. Accepted: 12/21/2011. Wlodzimierz Jedrzejewski. Prof. Dr. hab. in Forestry, Warsaw Agricultural University, Poland. Reseacher, Centro de Ecología, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Venezuela, and Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, 17-230 Bialowieza, Poland. e-mail: [email protected] María Abarca. B.Sc. in Biology, Universidad de Los Andes, Venezuela. M.Sc. and Ph.D. student in Ecology, IVIC, Venezuela. Ángel Viloria. Ph.D. in Biology, London University, UK. Researcher, IVIC, Venezuela. Hugo Cerda. Ph.D. in Biology, London University, UK. Professor, Universidad Simón Rodríguez, Venezuela. Daniel Lew. M.Sc. in Biodiversity, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Spain, Chief, Unit of Biodiversity, IVIC, Venezuela. Howard Takiff. M.D., New York University, EEUU, Researcher, IVIC, Venezuela. Édgar Abadía. Dr. in Microbiology, IVIC, Venezuela. Researcher, IVIC, Venezuela. Pablo Velozo. B.Sc. in Biology, La Universidad del Zulia, Venezuela. Professional Research Associate, IVIC, Venezuela. Krzysztof Schmidt. Ph.D. hab. in Biology, Warszaw University Deputy Director, Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Bialowieza, Poland. 954 0378-1844/11/12/954-13 $ 3.00/0 DEC 2011, VOL. 36 Nº 12 2011). Based on the oldest jaguar fossils 1) Panthera onca hernandesii (Western and Valli, 2003-2004; Kahlke et al., from North America, it colonized this Mexico) + P. o. centralis (Central 2011; Petronio et al., 2011). It is diffi- continent via the Bering Strait during America -El Salvador to Colombia) + P. cult to establish which of these herbi- the middle Pleistocene, ~850,000 years o. arizonensis (Southern Arizona to So- vores were the jaguar’s main prey, but ago (Simpson, 1941; Kurtén and Ander- nora, Mexico) + P. o. veraecrucis (Cen- the adaptations of ancient and living son, 1980; Seymour, 1989, 1993; Turner tral Texas to Southeastern Mexico) + P. jaguars to kill large prey are obvious. and Anton, 1997; Arroyo-Cabrales, o. goldmani (Yucatán Peninsula to Be- In South America, after colonizing this 2002). Very soon, also in the middle lize and Guatemala); continent in the middle Pleistocene up Pleistocene, it passed from North to until ~10,000 years ago, jaguars coex- 2) P. onca onca (Venezuela through the South America through the Panama isted with the local large herbivorous Amazon) + P. o. peruviana (Coastal (Darien) Isthmus (Webb, 1985, 2006; community composed of giant ground Peru); and Marshall and Sempere, 1991; Arroyo- sloth Megatherium, forest elephants Cu- Cabrales, 2002). Rincón and Prevosti 3) P. onca palustris (Pantanal regions of vieronius, mastodonts Stegomastodon, (2011) suggested that current dating Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sur, camel-like Macrauchenia, huge arma- may result from sampling bias, as there Brazil) + P. o. paraguensis (along the dillos Glyptodon, wild horses Hippidi- have been relatively few paleontological Paraguay River into Paraguay and north- on, and Toxodons, animals similar to studies in northern South America. eastern Argentina). hippopotamus or rhinos (Lessa and Fa- They hypothesized that in general the Additionally, five ex- rina, 1996; Turner and Anton, 1997; Al- big cats came in a wave to South tinct subspecies have been proposed roy, 2001; Cione et al., 2003; Soibelzon America much earlier, as the Isthmus of (Cabrera, 1934; Simpson, 1941; Hoff- et al., 2008). Due to the extinction of Panama was already functional in Late stetter, 1952; Seymour, 1993; Hemmer South American mega-fauna 10,000- Pliocene, at least 2.7 million years ago 2001, 2010): P. o. mesembrina (Pleisto- 12,000 years ago, possibly because of (Webb, 2006; Rincón and Prevosti, cene South American jaguar), P. o. au- climate change and also human hunting 2011). However, most of jaguar fossils gusta (Pleistocene North American (Alroy, 2001), today jaguars are left from South America are dated from jaguar), P. o. gombaszoegensis (Pleis- with communities of much smaller prey. middle or late Pleistocene (Marshall tocene Euroasian jaguar), P. o. georgi- The body size of jag- and Sempere, 1991; Arroyo-Cabrales, ca (early Pleistocene European-Cauca- uars is highly variable, both at the con- 2002; Prevosti and Vizcaíno, 2006; sian jaguar, 1.8 mya), and P. o. tos- tinental and local levels, and there is Tonni et al., 2009; Ghilardi et al., cana (most archaic, early Pleistocene sexual dimorphism in body size, fe- 2011). Repeated advances of ice sheets European jaguar). males being 10-20% smaller than males. during glaciations caused the extinction The jaguar skull is ro- Females from western Brazil and from of jaguars in Europe, Asia, and North bust and massive but relatively short, Central America are the smallest, while America ~400,000 years ago. When the with wide zygomatic arches. The sagit- jaguars from Paraguay and Pantanal are climate warmed up during the Holocene tal crest is well developed to support believed to be the largest (Seymour, period, Central and North America the powerful head muscles. Condylobas- 1989; Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi, 1996). were recolonized by jaguars (Turner al length is usually 190-260mm, but in Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi (1996) ana- and Anton, 1997). The current geo- some may be longer than 275mm (Sey- lyzed body mass and skull measures of graphic range of the species covers mour, 1989; Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi, several jaguars from the Venezuelan from Mexico to northern Argentina 1996). Powerful jaws, with very long Llanos, the Brazilian Pantanal, the Am- (Sanderson et al., 2002a). and massive canines, endow it the azon basin and Central America. The Morphological studies strongest bite of all cats, capable of largest jaguars were from the Llanos placed the jaguar close to the leopard breaking the skull of a tapir or a turtle (mean body mass for males of 104.5kg Panthera pardus; however, recent mo- shell. Jaguars can kill a cow with a bite and for females of 66.9kg) and the Pan- lecular studies indicate that it is more from ear to ear, piercing through the tanal (99.5 and 76.7kg, respectively). closely related to the lion P. leo (Po- skull to the brain (Meachen-Samuels Skull measures were slightly higher for cock 1939; Johnson et al., 2006; and Van Valkenburgh, 2009). They have Pantanal males and significantly higher O’Brien et al., 2008; Werdelin et al., sharp, strong, retractile claws, which for Pantanal females. The smallest jag- 2010) or the snow-leopard P. uncia (Yu they use to grasp and hold a prey. All uars were those from Central America and Zhang, 2005). It has been also these adaptations to kill large prey are (56.1 and 41.4kg in males and females, suggested that the jaguar and the ex- better understood in the context of jag- respectively) while those from the Am- tinct American lion Panthera atrox uar evolution. They evolved as preda- azon were intermediate (83.6kg for (one of the biggest ever living cats) tors in the mega-fauna communities of males, no data for females). Based on were the two closest related species. In Pliocene/Pleistocene. In Europe, their fossil morphometrics, it has been sug- this scenario, P.
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