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Towards a Historical Archaeology of the Rozvi in South-Western Zimbabwe

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Towards a Historical Archaeology of the Rozvi in South-Western Zimbabwe Material Culture and dialectics of Identity and Power: Towards a Historical Archaeology of the Rozvi in South-Western Zimbabwe By Machiridza Lesley H. A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MA (Archaeology) In the Department of ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SUPERVISOR: Professor Innocent Pikirayi APRIL 2012 © University of Pretoria To God, my family and the Rozvi people ii ABSTRACT The desire to attach identities (e.g. ethnic, gender, race, class, nationality etc.) to material culture has always featured at the core of archaeological inquiry. Archaeologists share the view that material culture is an active cultural agent that can reflect complex ideas that operated in the minds of prehistoric agents when carefully examined. These ideas were often shaped by dynamic social interactions and they sometimes manifested through stylistic patterns or material culture variation at archaeological sites. In Zimbabwe, various archaeological identities have been defined but Rozvi identities remain the most problematic. This study, therefore, revisits the Rozvi subject in the light of contemporary ideas on ethnicity, agency and material culture. Rozvi identities are probed from material culture at Khami and Danamombe sites, which are also linked with the Torwa historically, thus historical archaeology largely informs this investigation. Through documentary and fieldwork research results, I found that Rozvi identity construction processes were extremely fluid and sophisticated. Diverse elements of culture (both tangible and intangible) were situationally invoked to mark Rozvi ethnic boundaries. Whilst ceramics at Khami were diverse and complex, Danamombe pottery became more simple, less diverse or homogenous. Polychrome band and panel ware however still occurred at Danamombe, but in very restricted numbers. Perhaps the production and distribution of polychrome wares was controlled by Rozvi elites as part of their ideology and power structures. On the contrary, beads, dry-stone walls, and status symbols became more diversified at Danamombe than at Khami. However, dhaka structures show no difference between the two research sites, where mundane stylistic differences manifesting at Danamombe, the former Rozvi capital, are perceived as demonstrative of ethnic objectification. KEYWORDS: material culture, style, identity, ethnicity, agency, social interaction, historical archaeology, Rozvi iii DECLARATION I declare that this dissertation is my own unaided work. It is submitted for the degree of MPhil in the University of Pretoria, Pretoria. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other university. Lesley Hatipone Machiridza day of 2012 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures …………………………………………………………………….. viii List of Plates …………………………………………………………………….. x List of Tables …………………………………………………………………...... xi CHAPTER ONE …………………………………………………………………….. 1 Background and Conceptual Approaches ………………………………………… 1 1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Problem formulation ………………………………………………………… 5 1.3 Research aims ………………………………………………………………... 6 1.4 Definition of terms ………………………………………………………… 8 1.4.1 Nyai/VaNyai ……………………………………………………. 8 1.4.2 Torwa …………………………………………………………... 9 1.4.3 Guruuswa ………………………………………………………. 9 1.5 An Overview of Rozvi Socio-Political Complexity ………………………… 10 1.6 The Zimbabwe culture: an overview from Great Zimbabwe to Rozvi state…… 17 1.7 Organisation of this work ……………………………………………………. 20 1.8 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………... 22 CHAPTER TWO ……………………………………………………………………. 23 Physiography of south-central and western Zimbabwe …………………………………………………………………………………………... 23 2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 23 2.2 Topography and Drainage …………………………………………………... 25 2.3 Geology and Soils …………………………………………………………... 28 2.4 Climate ………………………………………………………………………. 30 2.5 Vegetation …………………………………………………………………... 34 2.6 Current land use patterns ……………………………………………………. 35 2.7 South-central and western Zimbabwe cultural landscape: opportunities and constraints …………………………………………………………………………. 37 2.8 Overview …………………………………………………………………….. 42 CHAPTER THREE ………………………………………………………………… 44 Analytical frameworks ……………………………………………………………… 44 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 44 3.2 Defining Historical Archaeology ……………………………………………. 45 3.3 Contextualising notions of Identities, Ethnicity, Power, Agency and Material Culture……………………………………………………………………………… 51 3.4 Varying perspectives on ethnicity in archaeology……………………………... 53 3.5 Defining agency in archaeology……………………………………………….. 59 3.6 Towards a definition of Rozvi identities …………………………………….. 61 3.7 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………... 66 CHAPTER FOUR …………………………………………………………………... 68 v Research Methodology ……………………………………………………………… 68 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 68 4.2 Written sources ……………………………………………………………… 69 4.3 Oral traditions ………………………………………………………………... 70 4.4 Ethno-historical sources …………………………………………………….. 72 4.5 Archaeological approaches ………………………………………………... 74 4.5.1 Ceramic analysis ………………………………………………... 74 4.5.1.1 Vessel form …………………………………………………….. 75 4.5.1.2 Lipform ………………………………………………………… 76 4.5.1.3 Fabric …………………………………………………………... 77 4.5.1.4 Exterior colour ………………………………………………….. 77 4.5.1.5 Decoration technique …………………………………………... 78 4.5.1.6 Decoration placement …………………………………………... 78 4.5.1.7 Decoration motif ………………………………………………... 78 4.5.1.8 Sherd thickness ………………………………………………… 78 4.5.2 Analysis of Beads ………………………………………………………... 78 4.5.2.1 Classification …………………………………………………... 79 4.5.2.2 Material ………………………………………………………… 79 4.5.2.3 Techniques of manufacture …………………………………….. 80 4.5.2.4 Shape ……………………………………………………………. 80 4.5.2.5 Structure ………………………………………………………... 81 4.5.2.6 Colour …………………………………………………………... 81 4.5.2.7 Diaphaneity …………………………………………………….. 81 4.5.2.8 Decoration ……………………………………………………… 82 4.5.2.9 Size ……………………………………………………………… 82 4.5.2.10 Bead analysis ………………………………………………….. 82 4.4.3 Architectural analysis of dry-stone walls ………………………………... 82 4.5.3.1 Wall number ……………………………………………………. 82 4.5.3.2 Material ………………………………………………………… 83 4.5.3.3 Form ……………………………………………………………. 83 4.5.3.4 Techniques ……………………………………………………… 83 4.5.3.5 Entrance ………………………………………………………… 84 4.5.3.6 Decoration ……………………………………………………… 84 4.5.3.7 Classification and analysis ……………………………………… 84 4.5.4 Dhaka structures …………………………………………………………... 84 4.5.5 Miscellaneous finds ………………………………………………………... 84 4.6 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………... 85 CHAPTER FIVE ……………………………………………………………………. 86 Documentary and ethnographic data on the Rozvi and Torwa ………………….. 86 5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 86 5.2 Data from Portuguese documents …………………………………………... 86 5.3 Oral traditions ………………………………………………………………... 91 5.4 Traditions of Rozvi origins and power ………………………………………... 92 5.5 Rozvi traditions of the Mwari religion…………………………………………. 92 5.6 Rozvi traditions of chieftainship and land rights………………………………. 95 vi 5.7 Rozvi traditions centred on totemic identity…………………………………… 98 5.8 Traditions of the Rozvi dialect as a symbol of identity………………………... 100 5.9 Traditions of Rozvi military power…………………………………………….. 100 5.10 Data from creative writing……………………………………………………. 101 5.11 Rozvi ethno-historic data……………………………………………………... 106 5.12 Overview of Rozvi identity markers………………………………………….. 112 CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………… 114 Archaeological Data Presentation: Material culture as Rozvi witnesses ………... 114 6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 114 6.2 Ceramic analysis and results ………………………………………………… 115 6.3 Bead analysis and results ……………………………………………………. 141 6.4 Dry-stone wall analysis and results ………………………………………….. 147 6.5 Dhaka structure description and analysis ……………………………………. 154 6.6 Description of miscellaneous finds ………………………………………….. 157 6.7 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… 157 CHAPTER SEVEN ………………………………………………………………… 159 Discussion and Conclusions: Rozvi identities in the past and present …………... 159 7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 159 7.2 Contextualising Torwa and Rozvi ethnic identities ………………………… 160 7.3 An agency oriented archaeological characterization of Rozvi ethnicity ……. 167 7.4 Challenges of defining identities and power archaeologically ……………… 173 7.5 Directions for future research ………………………………………………... 174 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………….. 176 APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………… a Appendix A: Data capture sheet for Torwa/Rozvi ceramics ……………………. a Appendix B: Data capture sheet for Torwa/Rozvi beads ………………………... b Appendix C: Architectural data capture sheet for Khami and Danamombe ……. c Appendix D: Interview questions for the Rozvi ………………………………… d Appendix E: Detailed descriptions of analysed vessels from Khami and Danamombe ……………………………………………………………………….. e vii List of Figures Figure Fig. 1.1 Map showing the distribution of Khami-phase or Torwa sites that later defined the core Rozvi state during the late 17th century (After Pikirayi 2001)……………………………………………………………… 2 Fig. 1.2 Map indicating a much broader distribution of Rozvi settlements both north and west of Mafungautsi plateau during the early 18th century (After Pikirayi 2001)………………………………………………………. 3 Fig. 1.3 Map highlighting Butua/Guruuswa modified from Petrus Plancius, 1594 10 (in Randles 1958)………………………………………………………… Fig. 2.1 Location of the research Area …………………………………… 24 Fig. 2.2 Location of Khami, Danamombe and other Khami phase sites …….............................................................................................................
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