A/CONF.43/5

Department of Economic and Social Affairs

FOURTH UNITED NATIONS CONGRESS ON THE PREVENTION OF CRIME AND THE TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS

Kyoto, Japan, 17-26 August 1970

Report prepared by the Secretariat

UNITED NATIONS New York, 1971 NOTE

Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United Nations document. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publica• tion do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers. The views expressed by lecturers do not necessarily reflect any opinion on the part of the United Nations Secretariat.

A/CONF.43/5

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

Sales number: E.71. IV. 8

Price : $ U.S. L50 (or equivalent in other currencies) DECLARATION OF THE FOURTH UNITED NATIONS CONGRESS ON THE PREVENTION OF CRIME AND THE TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS

The Fourth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, meeting at Kyoto, Japan, in August 1970, attended by participants from eighty-five countries representing all regions of the world, Being deeply concerned with the increasing urgency of the need for the world community of nations to improve its planning for economic and social development by taking greater account of the effects that urbanization, industrialization and the technological revolution may have upon the quality of life and the human environment, Affirming that inadequacies in the attention paid to all aspects of life in the process of development are manifest in the increasing seriousness and proportions of the problem of crime in many countries, Observing that the world-wide crime problem has many ramifications, covering the range of conventional crime as well as the more subtle and sophisticated types of organized crime and corruption, and subsuming the violence of protest and the danger of increasing escapism through the abuse of drugs and narcotics, and that crime in all its forms saps the energies of a nation and undermines its efforts to achieve a more wholesome environment and a better life for its people, Believing that the problem of crime in many countries in its new dimensions is far more serious now than at any other time in the long history of these Congresses, and Feeling an inescapable obligation to alert the world to the serious consequences for society of the insufficient attention which is now being given to measures of crime prevention, which by definition include the treatment of offenders, 1. Calls upon all Governments to take effective steps to co-ordinate and intensify their crime preventive efforts within the context of the economic and social develop• ment which each country envisages for itself; 2. Urges the United Nations and other international organizations to give high priority to the strengthening of international co-operation in crime prevention and, in particular, to ensure the availability of effective technical aid to countries desiring such assistance for the development of action programmes for the prevention and control of crime and delinquency; 3. Recommends that special attention be given to the administrative, professional and technical structure necessary for more effective action to be taken to move directly and purposefully into the area of crime prevention.

iii CONTENTS

Introduction Paragraphs Page

I. Terms of reference 1-2 1 II. Preparation 3-6 1 III. Participation 7-16 1 IV. Agenda 17-19 ' 2 V. Documentation 20-23 2 VI. Officers 24-27 2 VII. Organization of work 28-30 4 VIII. Small-group meetings 31-41 4 IX. Other activities 42-45 5 X. Publicity 46-47 5

Part One. Deliberations of the Congress

I. Opening plenary meeting 48-60 6 II. Reports on the discussions 61-239 7 A. Report on agenda item (1): Social defence policies in relation to develop• ment planning. Rapporteur: E. A. Missen (New Zealand) 61-110 7 B. Report on agenda item (2): Participation of the public in the prevention and control of crime and delinquency. Rapporteur: Hamid Zahedi (Iran) 111-142 13 C. Report on agenda item (3): The Standard Minimum Rules for the Treat• ment ot Prisoners in the light of recent developments in the correctional field. Rapporteur: Severin-Carlos Versele (Belgium) 143-199 18 D. Report on agenda item (4): Organization of research for policy develop• ment in social defence. Rapporteur: Knut Sveri (Sweden) 200-239 24 III. Closing plenary meeting 240-267 26

Part Two. Summary of report of General Rapporteur 268-295 33

Part Three. Summaries of lectures

1. Criminality and deviance in a changing world 296-308 37 II. 309-323 38 III. 324-335 40 IV. Prison administration and planning for development in an African setting .. . 336-354 41 V. The role of the Soviet leeal system in the prevention of crime 355-370 43 VI. The changing role of the law in.protectins prisoners' right?; 371-381 44

v Annexes Page

I. List of participants 46 II. Rules of procedure of the Congress 62 III. List of documents 65

vi INTRODUCTION

I. Terms of reference 5. The Advisory Committee of Experts on the Pre• vention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, which The Fourth United Nations Congress on the met at Rome, Italy, in June 1969, considered, inter alia, ntion of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders was the organization of the Fourth United Nations lized in conformity with paragraph (d) of the annex Congress and gave its advice on the items that might be meral Assembly resolution 415 (V) of 1 December included in the Congress agenda and on various other which provided for the convening of an international questions concerning the preparation and organization ess in this field every five years. The First Congress 1 of the Congress.* The rules of procedure for the Congress leld at the European Office of the United Nations were prepared by the United Nations Secretariat; the meva, Switzerland in 1955; the Second Congress,2 text is reproduced in annex II. the Government of the United Kingdom of Great 6. The responsibility for running the Congress was in and Northern Ireland acting as host, at Church shared by the United Nations and the Government of e and Carlton House, London, in 1960; and the Japan. The Government appointed a Japanese Organiz• 3 Congress, with the Government of Sweden acting ing Committee, composed of representatives of various st, at Folkets Hus, Stockholm, in 1965. departments of the Government of Japan, under the The Government of Japan generously invited the chairmanship of Mr. Minoru Tsuda, Vice-Minister of :d Nations to convene the Fourth Congress on Justice. The Ministry of Justice co-operated with the revention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders United Nations Secretariat in servicing the Congress. foto. The invitation was accepted by the Secretary- ral on behalf of the United Nations, and the jess was held at the International Conference Hall, HI. Participation o, from 17 to 26 August 1970. 7. The following categories of persons were entitled to attend the Congress: experts designated by Govern• II. Preparation ments invited to participate in the Congress; representa• tives of the specialized agencies of the United Nations, In preparation for the Fourth Congress,, a special of intergovernmental organizations and of non-govern• tariat was established under an executive secretary, mental organizations in consultative status with the secretariat arranged preparatory regional meetings Economic and Social Council and interested in, or e headquarters of the United Nations Economic concerned with, social defence matters; and qualified mission for Africa (ECA) at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, individuals. 3 to 7 November 1969: at the headquarters of the 8. All States Members of the United Nations and rd Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the members of its specialized agencies were invited by the East (ECAFE) at Bangkok, Thailand, from 24 to Secretary-General to appoint representatives to partici• lovember 1969; and at Buenos Aires, with the pate in the Congress. The United Nations Children's rnment of Argentina acting as host, from 1 to Fund (UNICEF), and three intergovernmental organ• sember 1969. The United Nations, in co-operation izations interested in the questions on the agenda were the League of Arab States and the Government of invited to send representatives to the Congress. lit, the host Government, arranged a preparatory 9. Invitations to participate in the Congress were also ng of Arab States from 4 to 9 April 1970. addressed to interested non-governmental organizations In preparing for the Congress, the Executive in consultative status with the Economic and Social tary consulted a number of Governments in Europe Council and to the International Penal and Penitentiary STorth America. Foundation (IPPF). 10. Subject to the acceptance of their applications by the United Nations Secretariat, persons having a direct eport of the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention interest in the field of social defence, including repre• me ana the Treatment of Offenders (United Nations publici• sentatives of criminological institutes and of national ties No. : 56.IV.4). non-governmental organizations concerned with social >ccnd United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime defence matters, could participate in the Congress in an he Treatment of Offenders (United Nations publication, individual capacity. No. : 61.IV.3). hird United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime he Treatment of Offenders (United Nations publication, Mo. : 67.IV.1). 4 See E/CN.5/443, paras. 10-43. 11. The Secretary-General also invited all the national 19. During the Congress, one and a half days were correspondents with the United Nations in the field of devoted to lectures. The Secretary-General had invited social defence to attend the Congress in an individual six persons prominent in the field of the prevention of capacity unless designated as Government delegates. crime and the treatment of offenders to address the 12. There were 1,014 registered participants, from Congress. Summaries of those lectures may be found in eighty-five countries, in the Congress. Of that number, part three of this report. A special lecture on criminal 388 were designated by their Governments. The list of justice, correctional treatment and rehabilitation in participants, by category, is given in annex I to this report. Japan was delivered by Mr. Seiichiro Ono (Japan) at the first plenary meeting. 13. The United Nations Children's Fund, the Inter• national Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) were represented at the V. Documentation Congress, as were the Council of Europe and the League 20. The documentation prepared by the United of Arab States. Five persons attended as representatives Nations Secretariat for the Congress represented a of those organizations. reversion of the procedure followed for the First and 14. Thirty non-governmental organizations in con• Second Congresses and sought to provide a compre• sultative status with the Economic and Social Council hensive background for the discussions by examining the .sent a total of seventy representatives. The International elements of the problems, indicating, the preoccupations Penal and Penitentiary Foundation (IPPF) designated of developed and developing countries. An innovation four representatives and provided its Japanese members of the Fourth Congress was the consideration at the with funds to assist two independent experts, to be regional meetings of a discussion guide based on the first selected from any country, to attend.6 draft of the working papers and the incorporation of the 15. Attending the Congress as individuals were results of the regional discussions in the final text of the 556 persons, including some experts from countries not working documents issued in 1970. That procedure had officially represented at the Congress and some from ensured a wide coverage of the subjects before they were Trust Territories and Non-Self-Governing Territories. actually placed before the Congress. The United Nations Office of Technical Co-operation 21. Four issues of the International Review of Criminal approved the use of country funds to assist certain experts Policy also served as background documentation for the from developing countries who were not included in any Congress. They dealt, respectively, with: (a) the preven• official delegation to attend the Congress. tion of crime and delinquency in the context of national 16. In addition to those officially registered as parti• development (No. 25) ;7 (b) the Standard Minimum Rules cipants in the Congress, fourteen persons especially for the Treatment of Prisoners and other aspects of invited attended the Congress (see annex I). institutional treatment in both developed and developing countries (No. 26);8 (c) participation of the public in the IV. Agenda prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders (No. 27) ;9 and (d) the examination of the manner in 17. The programme of the Congress was devoted to the which research is being organized and utilized for policy general theme of crime and development. That theme development in social defence (No. 28).10 was interpreted broadly so as to focus attention on crime 22. At the request of the United Nations Secretariat, and delinquency, not merely as a problem of behaviour one of the specialized agencies participating in the and law enforcement, but as a phenomenon closely Congress, as well as the International Criminal Police associated with economic and social development. The Organization (INTERPOL) and several non-govern• programme comprised the following agenda items: mental organizations, submitted papers in connexion (1) Social defence policies in relation to development with the agenda items. A complete list of Congress planning; documentation is given in annex III. (2) Participation of the public in the prevention and 23. Throughout the Congress, the United Nations control of crime and delinquency; Secretariat issued a daily journal covering the day's (3) The Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment proceedings, carrying various announcements and includ• of Prisoners in the light of recent developments in the ing the agenda for the following day. correctional field; (4) Organization of research for policy development in VI. Officers social defence. 18. The inclusion in the agenda of the third item, the 24. At its opening meeting, the Congress elected the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, following persons as its officers in accordance with rule 12 which is not so obviously linked to the main theme, was of the rules of procedure: recommended by the United Nations Consultative Group on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of 6 See. Report of the United Nations Consultative Group on the Offenders at its second session, held at Geneva, Switzer• Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (United Nations publication, Sales No.: E.69.1V.3). land, in August 1968.6 ' United Nations publication, Sales No. : E.68.IV.7. * United Nations publication, Sales No. : E.70.IV.1. 5 The experts thus selected were Mr. Manuel L6pez-Rey * United Nations publication, Sales No. : E.70.IV.7. (Bolivia) and Sir Leon Radzinowicz (United Kingdom). 10 United Nations publication, Sales No. : E.70.1V.9.

_ 2 — President: Section II. Participation of the public in the prevention Yoshitsugu Baba, Attorney-at-Law, former Prosecutor- and control of crime and delinquency General, Japan; Chairman: G. Z. Anashkin (Union of Soviet Socialist Honorary President: Republics); Takeji Kobayashi, Minister of Justice, Japan; Vice-Chairman: Andrew Saikwa (Kenya); Vice-Presidents: Rapporteur: Hamid Zahedi (Iran); Maurice Aydalot, President of the Supreme Court, Panel: Adnan B. Haji Abdullah (Malaysia); Dudley France; Allen (Jamaica); Paul Amor (France); Adolfo Beria di Kristian Block, Secretary-General, Ministry of Justice Argentine (International Society of Social Defence); and Police, Norway; Jean-Pierre Bouba (Central African Republic); Alfredo Alfredo Buzaid, Minister of Justice, Brazil; Buzaid (Brazil); Ahmed Derradji (Algeria); Giuseppe C. O. E. Cole, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, di Gennaro (Italy); Juan Manuel Mayorca (Venezuela); Sierra Leone; Milton Rector (United States of America); Svetla Daskalova, Minister of Justice, Bulgaria ; Technical Adviser to Chairman: Ahmed Khalifa; Jean Dupreel, Secretary-General, Ministry of Justice, Consultant: Norval Morris (Australia). Belgium; Aly Nour El-Din, Attorney-General, United Arab Section III. The Standard Minimum Rules for the Republic; Treatment of Prisoners in the light of recent developments Lennart Geijer, Minister of Justice, Sweden; in the correctional field Francis Laurence T. Graham-Harrison, Deputy Under• Chairman: Marc Ancel (France); secretary of State, United Kingdom; Vice-Chairman: L. Nordskov-Nielsen (Denmark): Pietro Manca, Director-General, Correctional Admin• Rapporteur: Severin-Carlos Versele (Belgium); istration, Ministry of Justice, Italy; Panel: John Braithwaite (Canada); Brian C. Cubbon Robert Stanbury, Minister without Portfolio, Canada; (United Kingdom); Jean Dupreel (Belgium); J. C. Gar- Robert J. Traynor, former Chief Justice of California, cia-Basalo (Argentina); Tadahiro Hayama (Japan); United States of America; J. C. Maddison (Australia); Richard A. McGee Minoru Tsuda, Vice-Minister of Justice, Japan; (United States of America); Erik Nyman (Sweden): Boris Alekseevich Victorov, Vice-Minister of the Jyotsna H. Shah (India); Valentin Timofeevich Interior, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; Kolomiets (Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic); Stanislaw Walczak, Minister of Justice, Poland. Technical Adviser to Chairman: V. N. Pillai. Honorary Vice-Presidents: Consultant: Gerhard O. W. Mueller (United States of Herman Mannheim, Emeritus Professor of Crimi- America); lology, University of London, United Kingdom; Consultant to prepare report for Human Rights Division: Akira Masaki, President, Japanese Correctional Asso- J. L. Robson (New Zealand). :iation, Japan. 25. Mr. Philippe de Seynes, Under-Secretary-General Section IV. Organization of research or Economic and Social Affairs; and Mr. Kurt Jansson, for policy development in social defence Director of the Social Development Division, represented Chairman: Thorsten Sellin (United States of America); he Secretary-General at the Congress. Mr. William Vice-Chairman: Abdellatif Faisal Al-Thuwaini (Kuwait); Clifford had been appointed Executive Secretary of the Rapporteur: Knut Sveri (Sweden); )>ngress in 1969. Mr. Minoru Shikita, Officer-in-Charge Panel: Inkeri Antilla (Finland); Dr. Franco Ferracuti n the Social Defence Section, served as Deputy Executive (Italy); Ryuichi Hirano (Japan); Joseph M. Nume Jecretary. Kakooza (Uganda); Vladimir N. Kudriavtsev (Union 26. In accordance with rule 13 of the rules of procedure, of Soviet Socialist Republics); Tom S. Lodge (United he Secretary-General designated, in advance of the Kingdom); Elmer K. Nelson (United States of Congress, the Chairmen, Vice-Chairmen and Rapporteurs America); Ivan Nenov (Bulgaria); or each of the four sections. The list of officers so Technical Adviser to Chairman: Edward Galway. esignated and placed for affirmation before the Congress Consultant: Guy Houchon (Belgium). t its first plenary meeting was as follows: 27. In conformity with rules 26 and 27 of the rules of Section I. Social defence policies procedure, the Steering Committee of the Congress in relation to development planning comprised the following members: Y. Baba, President Imirman: Conrado Sanchez (Philippines); of the Congress (Chairman of the Committee): K. Jansson, "ice-Chairman: Josef Brncic (Yugoslavia); representative of the Secretary-General of the United lapporteur: E. A. Missen (New Zealand); Nations; M. Tsuda, representative of the host Govern• ment: R. Stanbury, representative of the host Govern• anel: Marshall Clinard (United States of America); 11 Willem Duk (Netherlands); Josef Godony (Hungary); ment for the next quinquennial Congress (Canada); Dr. B. A. Lebedev (World Health Organization); Peter C. Sanchez (Philippines), Chairman of section I; Lejins (United States of America); Atsushi Nagashima G. Anashkin (USSR), Chairman of section II; M. Ancel (Japan); I. O. Timoshenko (Byelorussian Soviet Social• (France), Chairman of section III; T. Sellin (United ist Republic); echnkal Adviser to Chairman: Torsten Eriksson; 11 Mr. Stanbury was unable to attend and was replaced, at onsultant: Denis Szabo (Canada). the request of the'Canadian delegation, by Mr. J. Braithwaite.

— 3 — States of America, Rapporteur of the Committee), 34. The International Association of Penal Law, the Chairman of section IV; T. Eriksson (Sweden), co-opted International Society of Social Defence, the International member; F. L. Okwaare (Uganda), co-opted member ; Society for Criminology and the International Penal and R. Traynor (United States of America), co-opted member; Penitentiary Foundation held a joint meeting during the B. Victorov (USSR), co-opted member; W. Clifford, course of the Congress; and their representatives sub• Executive Secretary of the Congress; M. Shikita (Secre• sequently held a special meeting with the Executive tary of the Committee). Secretary of the Congress to explore the prospects for improving the co-ordination of international work for VET. Organization of work crime prevention. 35. The representatives of the International Union for 28. In accordance with rule 7 of the rules of procedure, Child Welfare and the International Catholic Child the items on the agenda of the Congress were allocated Bureau convened a meeting on the subject of families to four sections. Sections I and III, and sections II and of prisoners, which was attended by participants from IV met concurrently; each held five meetings. The five countries. Several special aspects of the problem Congress held three plenary meetings and also met on were discussed, including the lack of research on the several occasions to hear the general lectures referred effects of the imprisonment of a father (or a mother) on .to above. the family and children. 29. The working languages of the Congress were 36. Participants from eight countries attended a special English, French, Russian and Spanish; simultaneous meeting on the topic of the police and social defence, interpretation into and from these languages was pro• which was addressed by Marshall Clinard (United States vided, as required, during all plenary meetings, section of America). That exchange of ideas and experience led meetings, and lectures. The host Government provided to a unanimous suggestion that one of the subjects for Japanese participants with interpretation facilities from the next Congress might be the role of the police in social English into Japanese and from Japanese into English. defence. 30. Discussions were initiated and guided by small 37. Probation and parole officers held a meeting which panels selected by the Secretary-General, with due regard was attended by twenty-nine persons. Work-release, to geographical representation, as may be seen from the staff-training, the procedure for parole hearings and list of officers given above. possible representation by counsel were among the subjects discussed. Vlll. Small-group meetings 38. Some twenty-four criminologists and sociologists joined in a far-ranging discussion of the place of crimi• 31. While it was not possible to service all the small- nology in the field of sociology, which included considera• group meetings with four-language interpretation, all tion of the non-legal treatment of juvenile delinquents, other facilities were made available. Accommodation the criminological training of research workers to meet and secretarial help were provided by the host Govern• the demand and the place of criminology in the training ment, and the United Nations commissioned a consultant, of law students. At a follow-up meeting attended by Mr. Benedict S. Alper (United States of America), to seventeen teachers of criminology and penology, various assume responsibility for services to organizations or conceptualizations, curricula content and the expecta• individuals wishing to convene meetings for groups of tions of students were discussed. It was decided to participants with common interests. exchange information on curricula being used b^ 32. In all, ten meetings providing for a variety of participants. interests were held. Some of these meetings, such as the 39. A joint meeting of the International Society of quinquennial meeting of the International Penal and Social Defence and its Japanese counterpart was held Penitentiary Foundation, which was attended by thirty with some twenty persons in attendance. Mr. Marc participants, were those traditionally held during the Ancel (France), President of the Society, gave a short Congress. Mr. Jean Dupreel (Belgium) was elected address in which he defined social defence and traced its President and Mr. Pier Allewijn (Netherlands) was development as an idea. Japanese participants then elected Secretary-General of the Foundation. Other described their programmes and their objectives, and a meetings had not previously been held in connexion with discussion followed, which Jed to the Japanese being the Congress. requested to provide a report detailing their thinking 33. In view of the fact that a number of alumni and and activities for the benefit of the other social defence visiting experts of the United Nations Asia and Far East groups. Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment 40. Two meetings were held for representatives of the of Offenders were in attendance at the Congress, a meeting African region and the Caribbean area with the United of the Ad Hoc Advisory Committee of the Institute was Nations Interregional Adviser on Social Defence, to held at the International Conference Hall, Kyoto, on discuss the questions of technical assistance in those 21 August 1970. Representatives of Governments of areas and in the prospects of future improvement. Before countries in the ECAFE region were among the partici• the Congress, the quinquennial meeting of the Inter• pants. The Director of the Institute, Mr. A. Nagashima, national Prisoners Aid Society had been held at the led a discussion of the Institute's work and of the training International Conference Hall at Kyoto, by arrangement and research activities it planned for the future. with the host Government.

— 4 — 41. All the meetings were found to be useful and it tions given by the United Nations, by various delegations was proposed that they should be continued at future and by several non-governmental organizations. Congresses. 45. A bookstall for the sale of United Nations and other publications in the field of social defence was IX. Other activities provided at the Conference Hall.

42. The Government of Japan generously organized X. Publicity group visits to a number of institutions for adult and juvenile offenders in and around Kyoto each working 46. The work of the Congress was covered extensively day, a special group visit to various social defence by television, the press and radio. A United Nations press institutions outside of Kyoto on 21 August 1970 and a officer issued press releases and arranged for press group visit to Expo 70. More than one hundred Japa• conferences with United Nations officials and Congress nese families extended invitations to their homes to officers, as well as interviews with delegates for broad• participants. A programme of interest to the wives of casting to their respective countries. Articles concerning participants also was organized. the Congress appeared in newspapers throughout the world. 43. The Government of Japan also organized an 47. While the Congress was sitting, a Japanese air international exhibition in which all Governments liner was hijacked and to meet the demands of the press invited to participate in the Congress were asked to take for additional information on the hijacking of aircraft part. The purpose of the exhibition was to show new from experts attending the Congress, a special meeting /evelopments in the planning, construction and adminis• of selected experts was convened and an informal dis• tration of penal and re-educational institutions. The cussion of this subject was televised. The following display was arranged in the International Conference experts attended the meeting: Remiguisz Bierzanek Hall at Kyoto. (Poland); W. Clifford (Chairman of the meeting); 44. Hospitality extended to the Congress included C. O. E. Cole (Sierra Leone); Dr. Franco Ferracuti receptions by the Minister of Justice, Japan, the President (Italy); Omar Lima Quintana (Argentina); Holger of the Congress, the President of the Japanese Correc• Romander (Sweden); Roger Traynor (United States of tional Association and the Mayor of Kyoto, as well as America); Tatsusaburo Tsuji (Japan); Ivan Nicolle dinners offered by the Government of Japan and recep• (Secretary of the meeting). PART ONE. DELIBERATIONS OF THE CONGRESS

I. Opening plenary meeting and humane principles in the treatment of offenders. 48. The Congress was graced at its opening, on As society became more complex, increasingly important 17 August 1970, by the presence of Their Imperial and subtle questions were raised concerning the harmo• nization of the need for the preservation of offenders' Highnesses Prince and Princess Takamatsu, who were rights with the requirements of more effective crime introduced by Mr. Taro Otake, Parliamentary Vice- prevention. Minister of Justice of Japan. * 49. His Imperial Highness Prince Takamatsu extended 52. Mr. Takeji Kobayashi, Minister of Justice of a warm welcome to all participants, wished them success Japan, traced the history of the Congress to the First in their work and expressed the hope that the Congress International Prison Congress, which had been held in would contribute to the achievement of a better quality 1846, and observed that, on the eve of the Second Unitec of life for all mankind. Nations Development Decade, it was particularly significant that the Congress had been convened to 50. A personal message to the Congress from Mr. Ei- discuss the subject of crime and development and to lay saku Sato, Prime Minister of Japan, was read by Mr. Yos- down guiding principles for the most effective and hiho Yasuhara, Deputy Vice-Minister of Justice of humanitarian social defence policies for the Decade. Japan. The Prime Minister warmly welcomed the partici• pants who had come from all over the world to attend the 53. In formally opening the Congress, Mr. Philippe Congress, which had such a distinguished tradition and de Seynes, Under-Secretary-General for Economic and which was being held in Asia for the first time. Recent Social Affairs speaking on behalf of the Secretary- progress in the technological and industrial spheres had General of the United Nations, thanked the Government been astounding, but it had not brought about the of Japan for its generous hospitality. He observed that harmonious advancement of peace to man's society as the innovative passion of the country, which had been a whole; in fact, it seemed to produce newer, more the motive power of its recent success, was well exemplified diversified and more complex types of criminal phenom• by the fine cultural centre in which the meeting was ena. The theme of the Congress, crime and develop• being held and by the subjects selected for discussion, ment, was meaningful and timely; and it provided an which had so many novel features. He said that since the opportunity for international discussion on the many Third Congress in 1965, the problem of criminality had problems facing all countries. It was the first step in the assumed new proportions; and it could no longer be establishment of the most appropriate social defence regarded as a social blemish which might be kepi to policies for the 1970s and should contribute to the tolerable levels by a combination of more or less effective realization of a peaceful international society and har• preventive and repressive measures. monious progress for all mankind. He wished the 54. Mr. de Seynes called for bolder and better co• Congress success and hoped that participants from ordinated action, both nationally and internationally, overseas would take the opportunity to broaden their to meet the problem of crime. He said that internationally understanding of Japan and its people by familiarizing too little energy and too few resources were being devoted themselves with its social and cultural situation, including to the elucidation of a problem that was beginning to be a visit to Expo 70, which had the theme of progress and recognized as being of major importance to the future harmony for mankind. of society and to the humanitarian ideals which inspired 51. Mr. Kazuto Ishida, Chief Justice of the Supreme the Organization. The past few years had had the dual Court of Japan, observed that, with economic expansion effect of acceleration and revelation. Crime was acknowl• and the technological revolution, life had become a great edged as a current socio-political problem of the first deal more complicated; and, consequently, the problems order—a problem which was substantially altering and, of crime prevention and control had become more at the same time, calling into question some of the complex and subtle. He observed that it was not enough fundamentals of society, and one which, if it were to be to rely on the deterrent effect of punishment as a counter- dealt with successfully, demanded not just measures of measure to crime. The prevention and control of crime, a technical nature, but comprehensive action conceived under modernizing conditions, required many and varied at the highest political level. measures to be considered in relation to national economic 55. Violence as a form of protest, as well as drug and social policies. The prevention of crime could not be addiction, he said, had assumed a significance nobody left solely to the police, prosecutors, courts and correc• could have foreseen at the time of the Third Congress. tional institutions, but required the full and co-ordinated The need to cope with them effectively was engaging co-operation of all segments of society. It was also a considerable proportion of the activities of the law important to safeguard due process in criminal procedures enforcement agencies, many of which had been over-

— 6 — whelmed by the very scale of the phenomena and tions varied. The function of modern penal codes was surprised by their unconventionally. Fear was affecting to protect and preserve society while guaranteeing more and more of people's daily habits and decisions as individual freedom and human rights. Those functions, the danger grew of kidnappings, the "hijacking" of which were the basic tenets of criminal policy, had to be aircraft and the wave of crimes committed with impunity properly co-ordinated not only in the criminal justice in the huge urban conglomerations whose complexity process, but also in the correctional treatment of offenders frustrated ordinary police techniques. The function of during the execution of the sentence and subsequent protection, whjch had long been considered a public rehabilitation. Mr. Gno then outlined the patterns of responsibility, was being assumed more and more by crime in Japan from the Meiji Restoration to modern private persons. From social defence the public was times and traced the development of Japanese penal turning to self-defence. The situation in some modern legislation and various institutions responsible for imple• apartment buildings, where people retreated behind menting criminal policy. He described the procedures double-locks, television cameras and private security followed in the administration of criminal justice, cor• services from the dangers in the streets outside, might rections and rehabilitation, including the sentencing even be compared to the situation at mediaeval Kyoto, practices, probation system and treatment of juvenile with its seigniories offering protection to the local offenders, stressing the need to ensure the co-operation population. The methods adopted by certain groups and participation of private citizens in those matters. to protect themselves were frustrating efforts to promote 60. In Japan, rapid economic and social change had social integration; and the resulting polarization and generated many problems which exerted a profound nsularity would tend to enlarge social rifts, creating impact on the administration of criminal justice and the opportunities for those with criminal ingenuity and a processes of correction and rehabilitation. He stated capacity for playing off one interest group against that a review of the Japanese penal code was envisaged, another. Doubt, too, had crept in with respect to many as was new legislation dealing, inter alia, with the treat• of the values that were considered safe and stable, and the ment of mentally disturbed offenders, drug-addicted very content of criminality was changing rapidly. Conse• offenders and juvenile delinquents. Emphasis was also quently, a dilemma had arisen—that of keeping order in being placed on the further development of community- a world in which social stratification and the power based treatment. Although criminological institutions structure were being repudiated by a large fraction of the varied in character, they had to be integrated within a population, which did not always possess constitutional single national system. There was an essential need for an means of bringing about the desired changes. That objective approach to crime and criminal policy, based dilemma was crucial in all major industrial societies; but, on sufficient empirical data, a deep understanding of through a process of osmosis characteristic of the modern human nature and respect for human beings. Criminal world, it was being rapidly transmitted to those countries policy reflected the historical and dynamic aspects of which were currently grappling with the first dislocations human society; and, like criminal law, it must be inte• of modernization. grated in the understanding of the interplay of liberty 56. Following the election of Mr. Yoshitsugu Baba as and responsibility that characterized human existence. President of the Congress, and of its other officers, the Executive Secretary of the Congress outlined the struc• II. Reports on the discussions tural, procedural and technical features of the meetings which were to follow. In accordance with rule 13 of the A. REPORT ON AGENDA ITEM (1) : SOCIAL Jules of procedure, he read the list of section Chairmen, DEFENCE POLICIES IN RELATION TO DEVEL• Vice-Chairmen, Rapporteurs and Panel members, and OPMENT PLANNING stated that Sir Leon Radzinowicz had been designated as an independent General Rapporteur. Rapporteur: E. A. MISSEN (New Zealand) 57. Mr. Boris A. Victorov (Union of Soviet Socialist 61. At the beginning of the discussion of social defence Republics), speaking on behalf of his own delegation and policies in relation to development planning, it was those of the Byelorussian and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist observed that measures taken to prevent or control Republics, welcomed the opportunity that the Congress crime were investments; they attracted scarce resources presented for participants to exchange views and experi• from alternative uses. Development that did not lead ence in the field of crime prevention. He stressed the eventually to a more equitable distribution of benefits principle of universal representation at the Congress and was a questionable endeavour. Therefore, any dichotomy protested the fact that the German Democratic Republic between a country's policies for social defence and its had not been officially invited. planning for national development was unreal by 58. The President thanked Mr. Victorov for his definition. < remarks and said that the meeting fully understood his 62. The relationship between development and crime point of view; the Congress, however, being a professional had been considered within the United Nations frame• one, was not really competent to pronounce on political work for some time, and the Fourth United Nations questions. Congress became both the vantage point for reviewing 59. Mr. Seiichiro Ono, Professor Emeritus of Tokyo and co-ordinating past endeavours and the venue for University and Special Adviser to the Minister of Justice, formulating practical guiding principles for policy and then delivered the opening lecture. He observed that for devising imaginative programmes for action. crime was a universal phenomenon though its manifesta• 63. More specifically, the purpose of the discussion

— 7 — was to consider the facts and problems confronting ciated with development, such as temporary housing, countries at various stages of development, to provide disorientation of family life and residual unemployment, information on national policies and programmes con• were conducive to crime and delinquency. The rate of cerned with the prevention of crime and the treatment of change was also seen as a significant factor. Rapid offenders, and to examine conditions in society that could population growth, whether from natural increase or be criminogenic, with a view to exploring ways and means massive immigration, accentuated the pressures within of planning to prevent, contain and combat crime, and the changing societies. It was emphasized, however, to establish a better society. that with adequate forethought and planning, positive 64. As a background for its discussion, the Congress steps could be taken to alleviate and obviate what had a working paper prepared by the United Nations was referred to as the "negative" effects of developing Secretariat (A/CONF.43/1) and a paper entitled "Health societies. That effort would entail the provision of planning in relation to social defence planning" (A/ adequate housing and educational and recreational CONF.43/L.1) contributed by the World Health Organi• facilities, and assistance in job placement and in the zation. The Congress was also provided with the general process of resettlement. report of the Ad Hoc Meeting of Experts on Social 69. Crime currently was largely a manifestation of Defence Policies in Relation to Development Planning urban life, but it would be a mistake to associate it (E/CN. 5/443), held at Rome in June 1969, and the only with the slum areas of large cities. The Congress reports of the regional meetings held in Africa, Asia, took note of the observation of the Under-Secretary- Latin America and the Middle East in preparation for General for Economic and Social Affairs, who, in the Congress. Those papers are referred to as appropriate opening the Congress, had drawn attention to the amount in this report. of organized crime and "white-collar" crime perpetrated by the more affluent and "respectable" residents of such cities. Considering the climate of life in many large 1. CRIME AND DEVELOPMENT: urban areas, their shifting populations, with their anony• THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT mity and opportunity, this tended to breed a variety 65. It was acknowledged that although the pattern of criminal subcultures. The formation of those unde• of crime varied according to the political and social sirable subcultures, however, could be avoided by wise structure of a country, the subtlety of the relationship planning. between crime and change in a society could not be 70. The increasing rate of crime by young offenders oversimplified. While it might appear that as a country was of special concern to modern society; and, indeed, began to open up, outgrow its traditionalism and respond it was felt that the future of societies could be threatened to outside influences or to new internal ideas and pres• if answers were not found to the problem. Juvenile sures, there tended to be an increase in crime, particularly delinquency, according to several speakers, derived from youthful crime, there was agreement that the relationship changing values in society and the questioning of tradi• between changes in a country's economic and social tional forms of authority and behaviour, the absence or structure and people's attitudes and,H*o,de_s.of>behaviour inadequacy of normal family life, and, often, from a was one not yet adequately traced nor properly under• failure, for one reason or another, to reach normal stood; the most that could be said, perhaps, was that standards of achievement. In the latter connexion, it increasing crime was often associated with rapid change. was observed that many juveniles were drop-outs from 66. On the other hand, it was observed that whether the educational system and hence were limited in thei development actually caused crime could depend upon earning capacity. Mental and physical disabilities were the nature of the development process itself; it would be recognized also as being important factors in certain unjustified to state categorically that development cases. caused crime. Such certitude was excluded not only 71. The crime problem in many areas of the world because "crime", "prevention" and "development" were was intensified by youths in large numbers leaving their multisignificant terms which varied according to culture homes in rural areas to seek work in the cities. Difficulties and interpretation, but because the concept of causation of adjusting to new standards, expectations and condi• was itself subject to interpretation. Nor should any tions, and problems of finding work or suitable employ• inexorable correlation between urbanization and crimi• ment, and in facing the new social environment without nality be assumed. Urbanization itself took a variety of adequate support, often led weaker personalities into complex social and economic forms in different countries. deviant behaviour. It was further observed that in some 67. While different economic and social backgrounds countries the process of physical transfer was com• would give different aspects to the phenomena of crime, pounded by cultural change inherent in the shift of there was, in general, agreement that the main aspects minority racial groups to the cities; many youths were of development considered potentially criminogenic thus deprived of the supports and sanctions of the well- were urbanization, industrialization, population growth, understcod traditional culture. Bewilderment, extreme internal migration, social mobility and technological loneliness and frustration led all too frequently to change; they were so considered because of their indirect unlawful adjustments to new situations. effect upon the behaviour of some people. 72. In some countries, the existence of graft and corrup• 68. The relationship of urbanization and industrial• tion also was seen as a threat to progress. ization to criminal behaviour was discussed extensively. 73. Considerable discussion centred around the new It was, in general, agreed that many of the factors asso• and emerging forms of crime. The increase of so-called

— 8 — white-collar" crime, currently assuming new dimen- 2. PLANNING ions; drug abuse and addiction, credit-card offences, 77. The view that social defence planning should be alse advertising and packaging, and stock manipulation an integral and essential part of planning for national I'ere cited as examples. The most recent and dramatic development was accepted without question. Planning >f such crimes was, however, the hijacking of aeroplanes. should provide for the total well-being of the community )n that matter, one speaker affirmed that from 1967 —economic, social and cultural. It should seek to pre• o July 1970, there had been 120 instances of illegal serve and to build up those things recognized in society eizures in flight and fourteen cases of sabotage and as enabling each member to live a full, satisfying life* irmed attack affecting eighty-seven countries. In all, to achieve his aspirations for a better future, to have he lives of 7,000 passengers had been placed in jeopardy; work and to enjoy justice and decency. Over-emphasis linety-six persons had been killed and fifty-seven on the purely material objectives of planning should be vounded. Of the persons committing those crimes, only avoided. In that way, planning would be an investment leventy-two had been apprehended and presumably for the future—an investment which society could nore than 500 of them has escaped. Kidnapping, as a scarcely afford to neglect. ueans of obtaining unlawful concessions from Govern• ments, was also giving increasing cause for alarm. 78. The development process had a bearing on the The situation thus called for immediate international prevention and control of juvenile delinquency and intervention. criminality. The question for the planner, however, was 74. The Congress considered also the matter of the how to deal effectively with the various aspects of creation" of crime, or the inducement of crime-generat• development so as to achieve economic growth and higher ing conditions-.by._the-inappropriate use of criminal levels of living, while at the same time preventing delin• justice for purposes for which it was ill-suited and in quency or containing it within limits acceptable to the situations it frequently distorted:~lr~could~ well be that society. Criminologists could help in answering this social change brought problems of division and inadap• question by maintaining a constant dialogue with the tability which must be dealt with, but which could not economic and social planner; and by paying particular be ^lveTTbylaw? The feadiriess~bf many societies to seek attention to the modification, changes and shifts of refuge in penal legislation _before considering other legal policy needed in education, health, housing, industrial and, perhaps,"more practical social outlets and"adminis• and regional development, and legislation. The modalities trative solutions could increase the crimes reported. for effective communication depended, of course, upon That increase might then appear to be a result of develop• the situation in each country. One means of institu• ment but, in reality, it would be an unwarranted extension tionalizing such communication was the use of standing of law over human conduct not previously considered ad hoc consultative committees composed of crimi• criminal. A progressive build-up of unnecessary legislation nologists, social defence administrators and represen• could profoundly change the very meaning of crime in tatives of the police, the courts and the correctional and any society and make the administration of justice social welfare agencies. In that way, advice on the cumbersome, if not, indeed, oppressive. criminal justice system and its operation, and on questions of prevention could be given to planners, to the legis• 75. The Congress felt it to be pertinent to mention lature and to others designing social action. that over the preceding twenty years there had been an increasing trend in many countries towards the use of 79. The interdisciplinary nature of planning was -sanctions aimed at reducirg recourse to imprisonment. emphasized. Crime was a complex phenomenon springing i'he greater use of the fine, probation, the suspended from the interaction of social, economic and cultural sentence and periodic detention were well-known forces. Consultation and communication must therefore instances of such procedure. The advantages of allowing be secured across the whole spectrum of planning activity the offender to remain in employment and thus to be if proper balance was to be established and maintained. able to continue support of his family were clear. i At was pointed out that planning, if it was to be truly 76. There was also evidence of an increasing interest \nterdisciplinary and intersectoral, must be informed in, and a growing desire to supplement, the processes of Joy the social and behavioural sciences. Furthermore, law (and, in some cases, to supplant them) by the us£, 'planning must provide for both long-term and short- of informal, non-legal sanctions within society itself. term needs. As one speaker put it, planning was needed "Existing types of social control in the form of people's or on broad fronts to secure community services to support comradeship courts were cited. Not only the limitations, the family and, in turn, to support, in a social defence but the positive dangers of branding juveniles as criminals context, the judicial services with alternatives to custodial or of punishing already deprived or inadequate or and institutional treatment. Planning was also needed to medically unfit persons were reviewed. It was recognized provide support to known high-risk groups of the as important that public measures to prevent and combat population and to deal with specific problems of crime crime were only part of the total systems of social control. and delinquency. Broad social planning had to address itself to the func• 80. Discussion on educational policies and programmes tions and efficacy of other than purely legal forms of emphasized that education should be for "living" and not control. Methods of strengthening informal social just for "working". However, education needed to be controls through the family, the neighbourhood, the geared to the needs and demands of the society for which peer groups and the local community were thought to be a person was being educated. Proper place should be given particularly valuable and in need of further development to the development of attitudes and behaviour that would in all parts of the world. give youths a proper appreciation of their responsibilities

— 9 — in society and of the structure of society as a whole. was based on the principle of seeking to deal with Social defence demanded also that special attention be delinquent youths and to resolve domestic difficulties given drop-outs from the normal educational system, within the context of the family group by a process of who formed a large proportion of juvenile delinquents.' discussion, conciliation and support. The relationship Provision should be made for remedial and vocational of family breakdown or inadequacy to the incidence of education to enable such youths to acquire skills to crime gave point to those procedures. In other places, permit them to find productive employment up to the there were special children's courts do deal with juvenile full extent of their abilities. The importance of voca• offenders, with or without the process of actual convic• tional guidance and orientation programmes for youths tion. The concept of the children's court had nevertheless, coming to cities from urban areas was also stressed. been called into question in some countries and the Examples were given of positive programmes of education alternative of non-juridical appearances before panels and vocational training of young delinquents committed of lay persons had been adopted. to penal institutions. In the context of some aspects of 84. The relevance of the inclusion of health in social youthful delinquent behaviour, education was seen as defence programmes had been underlined by the World demanding a two-way process to seek, over the genera• Health Organization in its definition of health as "mental, tion gap, an understanding and recognition of the physical and social well-being". It was observed that the aspirations of modern youth, and a satisfying answer same conditions in society that contributed to criminal to youth's questioning of the traditional norms of behaviour often contributed to mental disorder, and that society. there was a close interrelation between the two. Social 81. Planning for social defence demanded also the defence planning should, it was urged, give greate review anH reform, as necessary, of the criminal law in attention to mental health services and to research and each country. Adjustment of the legal system to social training, in order to promote mental health and well- changes and opinions had led to some practices being being in the broadest sense of such terms. There were removed from the criminal code. New offences, on the contexts in which law-abiding behaviour and mental other hand, had demanded the introduction of new health were synonymous expressions. elements into the field of criminal justice. A contrast 85. The Congress took note of the submission in the was made between the rapid changes in the patterns of paper prepared by WHO (A/CONF.43/L.1), that the crime over the past twenty-five years and the relatively general principles of health planning laid down by the slow and conventional changes in criminal law and penal Expert Committee on Public Health Administration codes. The^tWfiW could apply equally well to social defence. creative approach to a reshaping of the law, if countries 86. Taking all of the foregoing information into were to meet effectively the challenges of modern society. consideration, the Congress was of the opinion that Countries should not be bound by the past, but should there appeared to be two ways of approaching the plan• seek imaginative and original approaches in combating ning for social defence; those ways were not alternatives, the widening pattern and incidence of criminal offending. and both should be pursued simultaneously; The immediacy of that readjustment of law and the legal (a) One way could be to begin from the current system was stressed because of the general spirit, of expenditure on social defence services and seek the plan• questioning and revolt against traditional forms of law ning methods and guidance to make the investments and order, which, if left unchecked, could threaten the have more meaning and to obtain optimum results. very existence of society itself. This process of law That would be termed planning in the short run; reform needed far more attention at both national and (b) The other way could be to adopt the wider pei international levels than it had so far been accorded. spectives of an economic and social planner with a view 82. Correspondingly, the Congress warned against to providing for social defence on a broader scale. Thus, any seeking of facile solutions to the problem of crime social defence, besides its sectoral implications, would be through the simple imposition of more severe legal a planning issue permeating all sectors. That way would sanctions. It was recognized that public clamour for be termed planning in the long run. action in the face of rising trends in crime, or demands for 87. It was recognized that one of the requirements for repression in consequence of a particular criminal act, sound planning was accurate data; and, in that respect, could lead to pressures for more severe penal sanctions. mention was made of the reports of the African and It was easy to yield to such pressures, but experience Asian regional meetings, which called for more uniform offered little to support the view that severity of sentence crime reporting and for a more integrated system of alone did, in fact, decrease or arrest the levels of crime. national accounting. Not only should the statistics of Mention was made of research conducted in three crime be interrelated and reconciled, but all kinds of different countries and over three different areas of data should be collected so that they could be of value for criminal offending. In none was there evidence to support understanding, preventing and controlling criminal the deterrent effect of increased penalties. The abolition behaviour. None the less, planning should not stand still of capital punishment, for example, had not been followed pending the complete acquisition of such data; in most by a higher incidence of homicide in those countries countries, there were already enough data to permit a where that action had been taken. systematic approach to planning for crime prevention. 83. Instances in which the law had been adapted to 88. Although the need for accurate data was recog• meet more effectively the needs of a developing society nized, it was observed that there was often an excessive were cited. The Family Court in Japan, for instance, emphasis on quantification as an indispensable require-

— 10 — lent for planning on a broad social and economic scale, A new dimension needed to be created in work of that alls for precision could be overdone because in any kind to match the complex and subtly pervasive character uantification for the purpose of general planning, it of modern crime. 3d to be recognized that the criminological factors did 92. Again, in countries with a federal system, more ot always lend themselves to precise measurement. could be done at the national level to provide provinces !ence, it might be better to think in terms of orders of or states with the specialist services and facilities they mportance" or "usefulness" rather than concentrating needed. An instance of that type of development was pon the fine differentiations in investments and results the recent establishment in one country of a national Scely to be reflected by cost benefit or cost-effective law enforcement assistance administration. chniques. Simply to be able to advise planners that one 93. There was also clear need for much closer consulta• pe of investment would be likely to give less trouble tion not only in the planning field, as had been mentioned iminologically than some other type of investment earlier, but between administrators involved in all fields ould be a valuable service to those responsible for of social and economic welfare. Such consultation locating resources. should include both governmental and non-governmental 89. Similar advice would be equally valid at the agencies. A world movement should be developed to ternational level. In modern times, the problems of prevent crime, getting its momentum from an increasing jvelo^ment and social defence extended beyond national number of meetings for study and action at the local, >undaries, and investment in international co-operation national and international levels. -'Id not be measured against benefits for which quanti- ,.tion was demanded. As far as the United Nations 3. PROGRAMMING as concerned, the Congress thus felt strongly that the ne had come to review and strengthen its structure and 94. The Congress stressed that crime prevention was tend its activities. In point of fact, the Under-Secretary- a cross-sectoral activity likely to be most successful eneral for Economic and Social Affairs had already where there was a good level of co-ordination in total awn attention to possible inadequacies in the structure planning. Where such co-ordination could lead inter- international action to prevent crime. sectoral programmes to deal with hunger, lack of educa• tion, youth unemployment, the effects of migration, 90. The following were seen as those areas in which urbanization or the need for rural development, it s United Nations could most effectively help: would have crime preventive aspects and implications (a) The gathering of statistics and information on a which could often be emphasized without the need for iform basis, by the use, if necessary, of sophisticated additional funds or any reallocation of investment :hniques; resources. Housing, nutrition, agricultural extension (b) The provision of more training and research and a host of other programmes could be improved by ititutes to give specialist support to geographical areas linking the schemes and building them into the results d as a means of better equipping staff to handle of criminological research. oblems of social defence planning within their respective 95. Manpower surveys, public administration systems, untries. The United Nations Asia and Far East local government structures, child development pro• ititute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment grammes, public works services and others were cross- Offenders was a particular example of the value of sectoral activities, each of which had its own importance *h institutes, and there was general agreement that the for the prevention of crime and delinquency. itute should be strengthened and that other similar 96. Within the various sectors, such as agriculture, titutes should be established in a world-wide attempt to industry, health and education, there were ways in which prove social defence planning and crime prevention; existing investments could become more crime preventive, (c) The provision of technical assistance to developing and attention was called to the techniques reported in untries. That could be effected in a variety of ways, the Secretariat working paper (A/CONF.43/1), as well ginning from an assessment of the problems of social as in other background and informational documents fence and its integration into the general plans for which had been made available to the Congress. tional development. That assessment could, in turn, 97. Special measures were also reported. While those followed by specialized assistance over a wide field measures did not constitute a sector, but were rather a help in determining the specific requirements of collection of services distributed between ministries of inning and in the implementation of the plan. health, the interior, education, justice and social welfare, )I. A plea was also made for a greater measure of it was believed useful to record some of them. isultation and co-operation on a regional basis 98. The first was a community development project ween countries with an identity of interests, whether in one country, described as having a programme involv• a broad front or on specific problems. Such co- ing an integrated approach to community improvement oration could take many forms, from the holding of and, incidentally, crime prevention by social service ional conferences to the attachment of individuals agencies, both statutory and voluntary. The people a particular agency or agencies for education and affected were themselves involved in stating their needs ining. A modicum of activity was already taking place and in developing the institutions or services required both crime prevention and other fields, but there was to meet them. It extended to all age groups within the urgent need for it to be increased and directed more area. A second project dealt with an educational area the over-all objectives of planning for social defence. and called for curriculum revision to discover the

2 methodology and content most relevant to the current clearly to avoid the frustration of young people in their economic and industrial setting. It recognized the fact quest for a meaningful role in modern society. that industry was becoming increasingly knowledge- 103. While in the above mentioned case particular based and that many young people would find their reference was made to youth, the measures described, future limited if they were not capable of school-work together with others, such as child-care facilities, could be and academic study with a practical application. It was and, in some cases, were being provided to serve the age felt important to involve parents themselves more groups within the area of assistance. closely in the educational institutions for the local groups and in the learning process itself. 104. An important lesson to be learned from past assistance programmes was that they should contain the 99. Ways and means of meeting the special needs of elements of consultation, information and education, and young people were outlined by a number of participants. participation. One device used in consultation was the Young persons comprised a very significant proportion anonymous survey—a sort of marketing research project of the population of most countries. That fact in itself that told the potential buyer what the product was, highlighted the importance of seeking new and more sought his reactions and views, and made modifications effective ways of dealing with juvenile delinquency. It had accordingly. Thus, the final product was geared to the been repeatedly suggested that for programmes dealing interests and motivations of the consumer. Secondly, 'with juvenile delinquency to be successful, youth iiself the use of information services and of mass media was must be involved actively in its rehabilitation; the repeatedly stressed as being relevant to all levels of resources of non-delinquent youth must be used in both planning and social defence intervention. A conscious^ short-term and long-term social defence programmes; and continuing effort must be made to inform the public^ opportunities must be provided for training in leadership what was being done and why, and to gain its understand• and the exercise of leadership in peer groups. In order ing, confidence and support. Ignorance could breed for efforts undertaken with and on behalf of youth to be only suspicion and opposition. Lastly, there was the successful, they must be accepted by youth as meaningful question of the active participation of the persons affected and relevant. by the programme. The question of participation applied 100. It was mentioned that some countries had a throughout the whole spectrum of social defence activity, ministry of youth charged with special responsibilities but it was seen as particularly relevant to those pro• in that field. In other countries, the responsibilities for grammes affecting young people. That area was, in fact, youth services were distributed between two or more a vital facet of citizen participation in dealing with ministries (education, health, welfare, labour, etc.); deviant behaviour. It was basic to the concept of dealing sometimes co-ordinating committees had been set up with juvenile delinquents through community agencies to rationalize and direct the work of several ministries and sanctions. with responsibilities for youth. 105. The elements were aimed at securing community 101. One speaker described the development and participation in the formulation of the plan and in its activities of a national youth service. There was provision implementation. for advisory group counselling and vocational guidance facilities, as well as a street-worker service and night hostels for temporary accommodation. Considerable 4. PRAGMATISM IN PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING emphasis was placed on the work of sports and cultural organizations through youth clubs, with well-qualified 106. It was stressed that in seeking to profit from whaf" leaders and communal intermingling of youth in outdoor others had done, adaptation and not mere adoption life and sports. Among the activities were special tours should be a guiding maxim. If planning and programming for handicapped and maladjusted children. Experience were to be meaningful, they must be derived from the had shown that the therapeutic value of the group was social, economic and cultural realities of the country significant in that project. concerned. 102. Measures provided to overcome the negative 107. It was also stressed that the problem of crimi• effects of urban shift and to give immediate support to nality itself must be dealt with differentially: that the people in new urban areas included: (a) vocational nature, dynamics and structure of criminality and its guidance and employment agencies; (b) temporary causes differed in various socio-political systems. That low-cost accommodation by way of housing or hostels factor should be taken into account when planning social for single youths; (c) special advisory bureaux to assist, defence in the context of national development. advise and support young people, as necessary; (d) special 108. On behalf of the developing countries, a question educational and vocational training facilities better to was raised as to what broad political concepts should equip youths to find suitable work and to understand govern national planning. While that area was recog• and cope with city life; (e) recreational facilities in the nized as being unavoidable for the determination of form of sports fields and youth clubs. In the developing policy in each country, and while modern dimensions countries, special measures were required to cope with of crime made it an obvious and important political issue, the serious problem of unemployed young people in it was felt that such considerations were beyond the scope urban areas where education had outstripped employment of a meeting of such short duration. None the less, the possibilities. In the industrialized countries, the problem question deserved more careful study by follow-up was less one of unemployment than one of suitable conferences and seminars to be held at the national, employment. In both cases, however, the need was regional and international levels.

— 12 — 109. The fact that planning should be both preventive (a) Special courses with emphasis on the problems and and curative was firmly underlined, and there was a call methodology of quantitative measurement; for maximum flexibility in the use of resources so as to (b) Research to develop appropriate models; bring appropriate measures into operation when and (c) National, regional and international meetings where the occasion demanded. Such flexibility required to evaluate results; more careful determination of priorities in the disposition (d) Increased communication between countries, using of money, manpower and other resources. In curative to this end such resources as data banks. planning, the pressing need in most countries was for measures to deal with the problems in high-risk urban areas, particularly with respect to juvenile delinquency. B. REPORT ON AGENDA ITEM (2): PARTICIPA• TION OF THE PUBLIC IN THE PREVENTION 5. CONCLUSIONS AND CONTROL OF CRIME AND DELIN• QUENCY 110. The following conclusions were reached concern• ing social defence policies in relation to development Rapporteur: Hamid ZAHEDI (Iran) planning: (1) Proper relationship between social development 111. No participants in the Congress dissented from planning and national planning. Social defence planning the importance of bringing the public to a closer knowl• should be an integral pait of national planning. No edge of, participation in and collaboration with govern• Country can afford to exclude the social defence element mental efforts in the prevention and treatment of crime in its over-all ..social and economic planning and its and delinquency. It had become clear that, throughout allocation of adequate resources to that end. The pre• the world, a rapidly developing partnership towards vention of crime and the treatment of offenders cannot be those ends was being experienced between Governments effectively undertaken unless it is closely and intimately and public groups. That unanimity of purpose tended related to social and economic trends. Social and eco• to conceal the remarkable diversity of relationships nomic planning would be unrealistic if it did not seek between centralized authority and community groups to neutralize criminogenic potential by the appropriate which made up the mosaic of public participation in investment in development programmes; different regions and in different countries. Public participation reflected the political, economic, social and (2) Considerations governing social defence planning cultural processes in each country; and a great range of and programming. To ensure effective planning, proper experience was thus reported to the Congress. The provision must be made in terms of information (reliable arrangements for community group collaboration with and comprehensive statistical data), of trained personnel governmental efforts in Eastern Europe, diverse and over the whole range of disciplines involved and in all extensive though they might be, varied from the relation• participating government agencies, and of money. The ships which had emerged in Africa and Asia, and from universities have a special role to play in assisting in those which had developed in other regions of the world; research and in the training of personnel for all areas of though all had as their purpose the pursuit of a more crime prevention, as well as in the wider area of inter- effective programme of social defence. The problems sectoral planning; facing the Congress had never turned on whether public (3) Special importance of the prevention of crime as participation should be fostered; they had turned only \elated to youth. Planning for social defence should be on how to define the proper roles of government and oriented towards more effective crime prevention, community groups in social defence and how to develop especially in relation to unrest and deviancy among still further community participation. youth. In many countries, the larger part of the popula• tion is less than twenty-one years of age. To fail to give 112. The Congress expressed its appreciation of the urgent attention to youth in social defence planning could work of the regional meetings of experts convened by give rise to a dramatic increase in crime throughout the the United Nations in 1969 in Africa, Asia, Latin America world; and the Caribbean, and of the 1970 regional meeting of representatives from the Arab States. At all four of those (4) Social and economic changes and changes in the regional meetings, the subject of public participation in legal and criminal justice structure. There is an increasing social defence had been discussed. Those meetings and disparity between the rates of social and economic the working paper prepared by the United Nations change in the community and the changes in the legal Secretariat (A/CONF.43/2), which drew heavily on the system. This is a source of serious conflict. Social defence regional meetings, formed an excellent basis for the planning should be concerned not only with criminal Congress discussions. There was general endorsement justice as such, but with the basic legal principles for the of the views concerning public participation expressed maintenance of law and order. In this connexion, there in the working paper. Discussions at the Congress were is special need to combat new forms of crime with treated as supplemental to, and not in derogation of, the international implications, such as hijacking; views and advice that had emerged from the regional (5) Development and refinement of social defence meetings and were expressed in the working paper. This planning and programming techniques. In order to report is therefore confined to selected problems within develop and refine techniques of social defence planning the topic of public participation and is not intended to and programming, there is a pressing need for: provide exhaustive coverage of that topic.

— 13 — 1. GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON PUBLIC PARTICIPATION programmes, it would be necessary that particular atcention be devoted to the recruitment of those citizens 113. It was recognized that the United Nations who volunteered for that work. In many countries, it Congresses on the Prt /ention of Crime and the Treatment would be necessary and desirable to pay volunteers for of Offenders were themselves models of collaboration the time they would be willing to devote to such work. between governmental representatives, non-governmental They must not be seen as a cheap substitute for govern• organizations, and skilled individual citizens for the mental efforts, but as essential elements of an effective purpose of discussing topics of social defence and planning programme. It might be that they would also show a for a more effective treatment of crime and delinquency. favourable cost/benefit ratio, but the justification for their In a similar manner, social defence programmes in every involvement was efficiency and not economy. Hence, if country should involve community groups at every payment was necessary to recruit and retain volunteers stage of planning and implementation of plans for the from a sufficiently wide range of skills and positions in better protection of the community against crime. A society, such payments should be made. central difficulty, however, was recognized: there was a 117. In many countries, it would be desirable that the tendency in many countries towards centralization of recruitment of volunteers should not be exclusively governmental power and towards the centralized control under State control. Voluntary groups must be a true of finances; those tendencies must be balanced by expression of community values. Recruitment plans, 'increased local participation of voluntary group* in therefore, must be carefully devised with that end in social defence programmes and planning. If such partici• view. pation was to be achieved, there must be active govern• 118. Many participants stressed the importance off mental effort to form such groups and continuously to youth groups. Crime, including serious crime, had long support their endeavours. Those relationships needed been and remained predominantly a problem of youth to be planned. Governmental support of community and of young adulthood. It was important to build upon groups was necessary both for greater efficiency and so existing youth groups in the community and to introject that government itself might have feedback from private into their existing group efforts work on the prevention efforts on the successes and failures of its programmes. of crime and delinquency. Furthermore, existing youth 114. All participants agreed that plans must be made groups should be involved in rehabilitation work with for co-operation between governmental and group efforts youths and young adults who have broken the law. It was in that field. Professional and voluntary group efforts not only the older and more mature members of the were complementary and must not be seen as competitive. community who must make public participation a reality For example, in those countries where probation and in social defence; young people themselves must be more after-care involved the work of both volunteers and effectively involved as agents of delinquency and crime governmental officers, it was of primary importance that prevention and treatment. In that connexion, efforts research and planning should be devoted to an appro• should be made to harness the energies of some university priate allocation of cases between them. It might be that student groups for those important social processes. certain types of socially more threatening or psycholog• 119. It was recognized that, in many countries, some ically disturbed offenders could be better treated by elements of youth appeared to have ideas and attitudes professional probation and after-care officers than by antagonistic to governmental efforts relating to the volunteers; or sometimes collaboration between them, prevention and treatment of crime and delinquency. even on one particular case, might be desirable. The It was difficult to enlist their co-operation; but it was central point was that community group efforts must be important to do so. One means—the involvement oi seen as an integral part of all programmes dealing with youth groups—has been mentioned. Another means the prevention and treatment of crime and delinquency, would be the introduction, even as early as secondary not just as extra help to governmental efforts handling school, into formal educational processes of information the left-over and less important problems. Furthermore, on the prevention and treatment of crime and delinquency. it was wise, where practicable, to involve community Thus, a larger sense of social responsibility might be groups and voluntary workers in planning social defence inculcated. To assist in such educational efforts, UNESCO programmes, as well as in implementing them. might be willing to prepare textual and audio-visual 115. Governmental efforts were required if effective teaching materials suited to that purpose for use in those partnership with community groups was to be achieved. countries which might welcome such assistance. In that connexion, it was pointed out that there were 120. Another "community group" that should be particular problems of dissemination to the public of involved in planning social defence programmes and information concerning social defence programmes and collaborating in their implementation were the ex- of the training of individual citizens to collaborate in the offenders. Experimentation was being pursued in many prevention and treatment of crime. Those problems are countries with the use of ex-offenders in parole, after-care discussed later in this report. Further, the public must and probation work, with the use of ex-addicts in the have confidence in the criminal justice system; and that treatment of drug addiction, and with similar arrange• confidence would be present only if the police, courts ments by which those who had had close personal expe• and correctional processes of the State were indeed rience of the problems of crime and its treatment brought ethically sound, fair and efficient. their experience and willingness to help others to the 116. In order to involve an adequate range of citizens tasks of social defence. Provided recruitment screening and groupings of citizens in social defence plans and was careful, there was widespread enthusiasm for more

— 14 — extensive use of ex-offenders in the tasks of preventing defence in which he was brought into collaborative group and treating crime and delinquency. relationships with other citizens. The Congress recognized, 121. All types of community groups must be involved however, that attention should also be devoted to ways in not only in the execution of plans for social defence, but which the individual citizen's collaboration with, and in the shaping of those plans. Participants in the Congress support of the social defence work in each country might discussed a variety of means to that end, such as the use be improved. It was apparent that all legal systems of advisory committees for various aspects of social depended to a large degree upon the support of the defence planning, the publication of proposed legislation individual citizen. It was he who must report most crimes and regulations for community groups prior to the to the police. It was he who must appear as a witness. promulgation of the law, and similar ways of involving It was he, in the last resort, who must provide that the community at the planning stage. community support on which all correctional processes ultimately depended. It was the individual who must 122. In an important sense, there was an even earlier accept the ex-offender as neighbour and co-worker upon stage at which the community and individual citizens his return to the community. The Congress recognized must be involved—community groups were essential that in some countries, for a variety of reasons, there were agents of primary prevention of crime and delinquency. problems of persuading citizens properly to fulfil those Many countries appeared to allocate too little of their r roles; the Congress therefore gave attention to the ways budget to the support of community groups which we e in which that situation might be remedied. involved in enriching those many aspects of community development—education, housing, social welfare, recre• 126. The police could deal only with those crimes which ation, culture, health—all of which were of prime impor• they saw or which were reported to them. The "dark tance in the .prevention of crime and delinquency. The figure" of crime could be reduced only if the individual Congress was strongly of the view that Governments citizen were willing to report that knowledge to the police. should be urged to allocate an increasing proportion of If he felt apathetic towards crime or tolerant of it, if he their funds to assisting those significantly important had no great confidence in the criminal justice system of crime prevention groups. his State, if he feared that his time would be wasted or even his safety imperilled, he would be less likely to report 123. Participants from several countries mentioned crime of which he knew. It was, in general, agreed that the tendency for voluntary efforts to begin with one governmental efforts, drawing community groups to aspect of the prevention and treatment of crime and to their aid, should be used in public educational pro• spread to other aspects. For example, a voluntary after• grammes on the significance of crime in the community care group would find it desirable, with governmental and on the citizen's duties in its prevention and treatment. assistance, to establish an after-care hostel; it would then It was stressed that such educational programmes could move on to establish a rest centre for families and friends scarcely be sufficient in themselves if citizens lacked visiting prisoners; then to help form a club for ex- confidence in the courtesy of the reception of their offenders; next, to provide some longer term residential complaints and in the speed of official response to them, facilities for ex-offenders; and subsequently to grow, and if they were in doubt whether they would be ade• through meeting the then manifest needs of certain quately protected if they came forward as informants and socially, educationally or intellectually handicapped witnesses. Systems must be created that in practice offenders, to the provision of sheltered workshops. That would give the citizen a sense both of the receptivity to natural expansion of voluntary services should be wel• complaints of crime and of the expeditious and efficient comed and encouraged, and given governmental support. processing of such complaints. The Congress was of the What had frequently happened was that as volunteers view that such a reliance on an educational programme, met some needs, they came to recognize the existence together with ensuring courtesy and efficiency when the of other needs which had been overlooked, and became citizen would come forward, held greater promise of ingenious in developing new methods of collaboration increasing the reporting of crime than did statutory between themselves and the Government in the work of sanctions for failure to report, though such sanctions social defence. were not meant to be excluded as appropriate in some 124. Community groups might also serve the function cases. of providing measures for the prevention of the abuse of 127. A somewhat similar analysis was offered in rela• State power by governmental officers; they tended to be tion to the citizen's moral obligation to come to the aid supportive of such developments as the ombudsman and of his fellow citizen being imperilled or injured by crime, citizen complaint committees in many countries. Several and to the aid of the police in the execution of their duty. participants were of the view that the aspect of public Again, public educational programmes were stressed; but participation aimed at the diminution of the abuse of the practice in some countries of providing compensation power against citizens should be fostered and encouraged to those citizens who suffered injury or loss in the execu• by the State, particularly in so far as the protection of tion of those duties was also welcomed as a step towards prisoners and their families was concerned. a better relationship between the citizen and the State in that field. 2. THE INDIVIDUAL CITIZEN 128. Citizens sometimes failed adequately to protect themselves and their property against criminals and 125. The reports of four regional preparatory meetings potential criminals. Public educational programmes and the working paper gave primary consideration to should be directed to assisting citizens to a better under• those aspects of the citizen's participation in social standing of how that protection could be achieved.

— 15 — 129. The individual citizen also had the major respon• tages beyond those of efficiency and economy flowed sibility of helping to eradicate organized criminal activities from such a deliberate use of or reliance on community which required corruption of public officials and toler• groups: the "labelling effect" of criminal convictions ance of such corruption by individual citizens. Public could often be reduced so that rehabilitative efforts were educational efforts towards adequate community support less impeded; and sometimes criminal offences could of government activities against organized crime and wisely be reduced in seriousness from criminal offences corruption should also stress that as crime moved beyond to breaches of administrative regulations, by such delega• national boundaries, citizens of one country must avoid tion of power outside officialdom. supporting corrupting influences and criminal activities that crossed state and country lines. 4. PUBLIC INFORMATION

3. COMMUNITY GROUPS 132. It was the view of the Congress that it was the 130. The Congress followed the analysis of public duty of government to help to form and lead public group participation offered in the working paper, which opinion in relation to social defence and that such treated it in terms of increasing degrees of reliance by leadership required the provision to the public of accurate the State on community groups. Such reliance ranged information about the criminal justice system and its 'from political support of social defence programmes to work on which the public could base its views. Hence, public co-operation with such programmes, through proper use of the mass communications media had the delegation to community groups of elements of those become a matter of predominant importance. The programmes, and ultimately to the provision by commu• impact of the mass media on youth and the value of nity groups of entirely autonomous social defence educational programmes for youth were stressed. It was, programmes. An extremely rich and diverse range of recognized that the mass media frequently give a distorted experience in different countries was reported to the and sensational perspective on problems of crime; the Congress. Community groups were involved in various Congress did not give consideration to any attempt to ways in police, judicial and correctional programmes; limit inaccurate reporting, but devoted the discussion they were involved in rural areas, villages and cities; to ways in which government and community groups they were relied on increasingly by all forms of political, could collaborate to ensure that the mass media should social and economic organization of the State; they give the public a more complete and true image of the provided a major thrust of planning for the more effective problems of crime and its treatment, and of the citizen's prevention and treatment of crime in every country role in social defence. The public must know what had represented at the Congress. The modalities of public been accomplished and what was proposed to be achieved participation were already numerous and they were by existing and planned legislation for the prevention increasing. The Congress took note of a degree of reluc• and control of crime; they must know what values and tance in certain countries to use community group interests the State sought to protect and the extent of representatives in judicial processes; it was the general individual social responsibility to collaborate for those view, however, that the lay volunteer had as important purposes. a role to play in judicial work as in that of police and 133. Effective collaboration between the governmental corrections. Most of the discussion on the whole topic bodies and community groups and individuals in the of public participation was devoted to an exchange of prevention and treatment of crime required that those understanding between participants of the many various responsible for the criminal justice system be neither ways in which groups functioned in the social defence secretive nor unduly sensitive about its operations. In field in the cultural, political, economic and social particular, in relation to prisons, it was recognized that diversity of countries represented at the Congress. It is the walls sometimes served not only to keep prisoners in, impossible to reflect this wealth of knowledge in this but to keep responsible moulders of public opinion out. report. What did emerge with clarity, however, was the Correctional administrators must exercise initiative and need to provide means to continue the supply of interest• leadership in providing full and open information on ing information on which social action and experimenta• their work; in the light of the unfair criticisms to which tion could so readily be based. What also emerged was they were sometimes subjected, that would take patience that the general attitude of the Congress was energetically and courage. to encourage community group roles in all aspects of the 134. In seeking to inform the public, the means chosen prevention and treatment of crime, with their ever- must be adjusted to the literacy and reality of life of the increasing collaboration with and participation in police, mass population to which information should be dissemi• judicial and correctional work being warmly welcomed. nated; the press, radio, television, the cinema and other 131. Another unifying thread that drew together the audio-visual techniques were of value. Community variety of modalities of community group participation groups and individual citizens of public prominence was that all required of governmental authority a delib• could often be used to assist government representatives erate policy to support those efforts and to collaborate in public educational programmes. It was suggested that in relating them to the totality of social defence pro• efforts should be made to interest editorial writers on grammes, and sometimes required that government newspapers, and television and radio commentators in should be willing to divest itself of authority in some problems of social defence, not only in times of crisis and aspects of the criminal justice system and to pass that difficulty, but at times when an effort could be made authority on to community groups. At least two advan• through shoit seminars, and planned visits and discussions

— 16 — to give them that broad background of information on industrial, cultural, political and social forces in each which it was hoped their future commentaries would be country that the relative homogeneity of those forces based. within regions facilitated regional meetings; and personal contact between those facing similar problems was of importance. However, the bringing together of larger 5. TRAINING geographical groupings, such as those at the Fourth 135. The Congress attached great importance to Congress, was also sometimes highly desirable. It was offering training programmes in many aspects of the suggested, therefore, that an interregional seminar on prevention and control of crime, suited to the work of public participation in the prevention and control of volunteers prepared to assist as individuals or in commu• crime and delinquency should be held at Budapest, as nity groups. It was stressed that if a proper collaborative soon as it could conveniently be arranged, so that the relationship was to be achieved, the design and imple• important experiences of the countries of Eastern and mentation of those training programmes presented quite Western Europe, with their different processes of public as much challenge as the design and implementation of participation in social defence, might be brought into training programmes for the professional staff. Training sharper focus, as had been done in the four recent regional courses for volunteers must not be seen as mere recruit• meetings. ment instructional devices whose purpose would be to give 138. Apart from meetings to discuss public participa• the-volunteer the minimum knowledge, on the basis of tion, the Congress saw merit in holding workshops and which he could relate to official agencies. A great deal seminars in each country for that purpose. One means of was being expected of the volunteer; intelligence, effort conducting such workshops would be through the use and funds should be devoted to training him for his of United Nations study teams, possibly provided from work. His training should involve continuing in-service such institutes as the United Nations Asia and Far East training opportunities. He should be supported, as had Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment been done in some countries, by journals devoted to his of Offenders (Fuchu, Tokyo) or the United Nations Social work and by being brought into contact with the other Defence Research Institute (UNSDRI) at home, to serve elements of the criminal justice system to which his work as discussion leaders. If such teams were to be effective, related. In effect, a communications system must be they would require knowledge of public participation in built up by which the volunteer would know his place countries other than that in which the workshop was in the larger perspective of social defence, would see the being held. It was therefore desirable that, in the regional challenge of his work, would be given the training institutes, surveys should be made of public participation necessary to meet it, and would have an opportunity to in social defence in the respective regions. It was likewise express his views about desirable developments in the desirable that United Nations interregional advisers entire system. should make particular efforts to gather information on public participation so that they could play a role of leadership in workshops and seminars on that topic. 6. SUGGESTIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL ACTION Countries conducting such workshops and seminars should also try to arrange exchange visits of experts 136. The Congress reiterated its indebtedness to the from neighbouring countries who had faced similar preparatory regional meetings convened by the United problems in developing public participation processes. Nations in 1969 in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean. That recognition included the value of the 139. In the light of the eight years of experience accu• meeting in 1970 of representatives of the Arab States, mulated at the United Nations Asia and Far East Institute which also had discussed the topic of public participation. and its successful completion of three survey projects It was suggested that regional meetings of that character (one on an aspect of public participation), it was suggested should be continued to follow up the work of the Con• that those responsible for the work of that Institute gress. At such meetings, country reports could be sub• should consider launching a general survey of the modal• mitted on developments in modalities of public participa• ities of public participation in the prevention and treat• tion, close analysis of their successes and failures could be ment of crime and delinquency in the region served by the pursued, and a continuing effort could be made to assist Institute. It was pointed out that a major asset in under• in furthering that partnership in the prevention and taking such a survey was the fact that there were currently control of crime. It was reported that the Venezuelan over 500 alumni, from twenty-five countries, on training Government proposed to convene a regional seminar for courses held at the Institute; many of those alumni South American countries in 1971 or 1972. Meetings of remained in touch with the Institute and could play a that kind might also deal with questions of international major role in a comprehensive survey of public participa• crime. It was also the view of the Congress that in regions tion in their region. A somewhat similar opportunity lacking the funds to organize such meetings (and the same might be pursued by UNSDRI, which had been studying applied to the interregional meetings and country semi• a problem in public participation in social defence in nars and workshops discussed below), it would be highly Tunisia. desirable for United Nations funds and other international 140. An important means of supporting developments development funds to be allocated for that purpose. in public participation was a more adequate programme 137. Regional or subregional seminars and conferences of publication of information on that topic than currently were thought to be of particular value because public existed. It was urged that consideration be given to participation was so closely linked to the economic, devoting an issue or some issues of the International

— 17 — Review of Criminal Policy to that increasingly important (d) Surveys of modalities of public participation in topic. To achieve sufficient impact, it might be necessary social defence in the region served, to be undertaken by for the journal either to produce some special issues on the United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the that topic or (what many, in any event, considered Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (and desirable) to increase the frequency with which the journal future regional institutes), and a similar opportunity to be was published. The International Review of Criminal pursued by the United Nations Social Defence Research Policy constituted by far the most appropriate vehicle Institute at Rome; for the international dissemination of information on the (e) More intensive steps to disseminate information on topic under consideration. The Review should not this subject, through the International Review of Criminal publish only "success stories" on public participation; Policy or otherwise; the possible inclusion, in the Review, failures and difficulties also should be analysed so that of a directory of specialists in each country to whom they might be avoided by others. Research on public inquiries on developments in this area may be addressed; participation of a practical and accurately descriptive special issues of the Review dealing with public participa• nature should be encouraged and published. tion; and increased frequency of publication of the Review. 141. It might also be appropriate for consideration to be given to the preparation and publication, in the International Review of Criminal Policy, of a list of names C. REPORT ON AGENDA ITEM (3): THE STAN• and addresses of specialists in each country, to whom DARD MINIMUM RULES FOR THE TREAT• inquiry might be directed concerning developments in MENT OF PRISONERS IN THE LIGHT 0T that field in their country. Such communication would RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CORREC• permit a continuing dissemination of information on TIONAL FIELD public participation of a type that was being so interest• ingly and helpfully pursued at the current Congress. Rapporteur: Severin-Carlos VERSELE (Belgium) 142. The conclusions reached with respect to participa• tion of the public in the prevention and control of crime 143. The Congress took note of the fact that there was and delinquency were as follows: nearly half a century of history behind the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners as they (1) Social defence programmes in every country should currently stood, although humanitarian concern for pris• involve community groups at every stage of planning and oners had preceded that period by yet another one and a its implementation for the better protection of the half centuries. There were three particularly important community against crime, and Governments should reasons that the questions of revising the Rules and their support such efforts; implementation had arisen for current consideration. The (2) Community group efforts should be seen as an first was the lapse of a period of time similar to that integral part of all crime and delinquency prevention and between the first formulation of the Rules in 1933 and the treatment efforts and not merely as an adjunct thereto; consideration of a revision in 1949. Secondly, the United (3) There should be careful recruitment, appropriate Nations Economic and Social Council, in its resolution training and, if necessary, remuneration of volunteers; 663 C (XXIV) of 31 July 1957, had included a recommen• (4) An adequate range of citizens and groups of citizens dation that the Secretary-General of the United Nations should be involved in social defence activities, including be informed every five years of the progress made by such groups as youth, ex-offenders, etc.; Governments in the application of the Rules. Thirdl}} (5) There is a variety of ways in which the public can be it was widely felt that there had been developments in the^ involved in the prevention and control of crime at different field of corrections in the past fifteen years which should be levels and in different areas (for example, prevention, reflected in the Rules. judicial process, treatment of offenders, fight against 144. On an initiative taken by the United Nations Advi• organized crime, corruption) and a variety of means of sory Committee of Experts on the Prevention of Crime promoting such involvement (including more effective and the Treatment of Offenders in December 1965, inter• dissemination of information, the use of advisory com• national attention had been refocused on the Rules, mittees etc.); particularly in the light of developments in the correc• tional field, and the subject had been featured as an item (6) International action to promote public participation on the common agenda of the four regional preparatory in social defence should include: meetings of experts convened by the United Nations in (a) The holding of regional and subregional meetings Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East in 1969 on this subject to permit personal contacts, the exchange and 1970, in preparation for the Fourth Congress. of information on developments in this field, an analysis of successes and failures, and a sustained effort to promote 145. The Congress discussions were given substance public participation in social defence; by the reports of those four meetings, the basic working (b) Interregional meetings of this kind, beginning with paper prepared by the United Nations Secretariat one bringing together the experience of the countries of (A/CONF.43/3), the Report of the United Nations Consul• Eastern and Western Europe; tative Group on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment 1 (c) Workshops and seminars held with United Nations of Offenders (Geneva, 1968) the national reports sub• support in the various countries to consider modalities of mitted in response to the note verbale of the Secretary- public participation and ways of enlisting broad public support of social defence programmes; 1 United Nations publication, Sales No.: E.69.IV.2.

— 18 — General of the United Nations in November 1967,2 and (b) The extent of applicability of the Rules, or the the reports siibmitted by non-governmental organiza• question of jurisdiction, i.e., who was to be covered by tions by individuals and by research institutes interested the Rules. There was also the question of extending the in that field. Rules to persons subjected to new correctional practices 146. As an initial step, a distinction was made between which did not fall into the category of full-time insti• pseudo and real problems. The following areas were tutionalization; considered to be pseudo problems, which were clearly (c) The status of the Rules, or the question of elevating outside the ambit of discussion as prescribed by the item the Rules, or a part thereof, to the level of a General on the agenda: Assembly resolution, declaration or convention; {a) Questions pertaining to the range of substantive (d) The question of the implementation of the Standard criminal law or questions concerned with the reasons for Minimum Rules, whether national or international, or the the imprisonment or detention of persons. It was sug• search for new and improved methods of implementing gested that the range of substantive criminal Jaw, despite the Rules through education, reporting, monitoring, its great significance for social defence policy, should not seminars, travelling faculties, etc. Allied to that area be discussed, as it clearly fell outside the ambit of the was the question of financial and budgetary allocations Standard Minimum Rules. Naturally, all concerned might to develop implementation programmes; hope that penal prohibitions would be used more spar• (e) The question of the need for technical revision, ingly in the future so that eventually fewer persons would with particular emphasis on the possible need for simplify• need be subjected to detention and, consequently, to the ing and redrafting the Rules in a manner which would protection of the Standard Minimum Rules; make possible uniform reporting and data collection; the use of a questionnaire for the purpose of data collection; (fc) The identification of specific offences or offender the question whether revision of individual rules should be types. While the Rules themselves contained references entrusted to a committee, commission or working party, to distinct types of detainees (for example, mentally and specific recommendations for amendment. abnormal offenders, pre-trial detainees, civil prisoners), they did not contain any identification of offender or offence types, making it clear, therefore, that the Rules 1. NATURE, CONTENT AND SCOPE were equally applicable to all prisoners detained, regard• OF THE STANDARD MINIMUM RULES less of the nature of the crime of which they were charged 148. The Congress was unanimous in recognizing that or convicted; the Standard Minimum Rules corresponded to an (c) Cultural or regional differences. Those differences increasingly deep-felt need. Since 1955, the principles were considered not to require any discussion, particu• underlying the Rules had assumed greater importance larly in view of the fact that all prior documentation had because of the development of contemporary thought proved that compliance or non-compliance with the about criminality and of attitudes towards offenders. Rules was independent of the cultural or regional identifi• 149. Several speakers, nevertheless, warned against the cation of the reporting country. The Rules themselves danger of any effort to revise the Rules merely out of a did not refer to cultural or regional differences and had concern for "perfection". It was the majority view that proved to be flexible in setting standards of compliance any future revision should be limited to what was really which were adequate or suitable under the cultural or necessary—to such improvements as were necessitated regional conditions or traditions in existence; by the results achieved and by whatever new problems (d) The use of alternative methods of treatment in might arise. To those who held the view that a revision lieu of traditional types of imprisonment. While the past might serve as a pretext for those who did not want to put few decades had witnessed the emergence of imaginative, the Standard Minimum Rules into effect, others replied humanitarian correctional methods in all countries, those that their fear was unfounded, since the principles on new correctional developments, as such, were not which the Rules were based were concerned with abiding germane to the topic at hand. What was relevant, how• human and social values, which were becoming ever more ever, was the problem of the possible extension of the deeply rooted in the conscience of individuals and of Standard Minimum Rules to new forms of correctional countries. treatment which had not been in existence at the time the Standard Minimum Rules were drafted. That topic is 150. A revision, if carried out, must not be improvised. dealt with under problem area (b) below. It must be entrusted to a working group of experts, to be designated by the United Nations. Those experts must be 147. After identifying and separating the problems not given the task of developing the trends that had emerged relevant to the specific purpose of the discussions, the on each of the five issues discussed. Thus, they would be following five problem areas were identified as being those expected to specify which aspects of human rights which almost all documentation at hand had singled out required specific application to persons in detention in as the most crucial: order to bring about a better understanding and hence a (a) The question of the nature and scope of the Rules, broader recognition of their rights. Lastly, they should with particular emphasis on the possible need for recast• study the progressive application of the Standard Mini• ing the Rules so as to correspond with the two distinct mum Rules to the new sanctions and to the new ways of subject areas they covered: the human rights aspects; executing them, which were under experimentation in and sound correctional practices; some countries. Thus, for example, the visiting rights provided for in rule 37 might be interpreted as being * For a summary, see A/CONF.43/3, annex. capable of exercise in premises enclosed by grills or by

— 19 — glass partitions (regressive), or in unsupervised public 156. The Standard Minimum Rules should not be rooms or in the form of conjugal visits (progressive). extended to penalties involving restriction, rather than 151. It was necessary to envisage a very flexible applica• deprivation, of freedom, i.e., not to offenders whose tion of the Standard Minimum Rules so as to respect the freedom was merely limited by particular duties or special local conditions deriving from the history, tradi• prohibitions. Consequently, the Standard Minimum tions, socio-economic structures and socio-cultural aspi• Rules would not apply to conditionally released offenders, rations of the different regions and countries. The need to persons on parole, or to persons subject to local for a degree of flexibility is referred to again under banishment or to house arrest, etc., again the list not being subsection 5 of this report, which is concerned with exhaustive. Those categories of penalties might be the possible future revisions of the Standard Minimum Rules. subject of a special chapter in some future revision or restructuring of the Standard Minimum Rules. 157. The complexity of the task of revising the whole 2. RANGE OF APPLICATION of the Rules, either by improving previously adopted OF THE STANDARD MINIMUM RULES provisions or by adding new provisions, justified the establishment of a working group of experts. The working 152. The discussion began with the observation that, group should attempt to evaluate the changes that had expressis verbis, the Standard Minimum Rules of 1955 taken place since 1955, to take into account totally new were applicable to, or referred to, the following: situations which had arisen; and to consider ways and (a) Persons in prison by virtue of a criminal sentence means of dealing with them, with particular reference to and persons in prison awaiting trial; the various new forms of quasi- or semi-detention and a)' (b) Insane and mentally abnormal persons who, as a non-institutional sentences. result of ihe commission of a crime, were being treated in the closed wards of a psychiatric institution; 3. STATUS OF THE STANDARD MINIMUM RULES (c) Persons imprisoned for debt or for the execution of a judicial decision of a non-penal nature. 158. The general development of criminal policy 153. It was readily acknowledged that a very large derived from a better understanding of deviant behaviour majority of the participants were of the view that the and the democratization of authority and social relations Standard Minimum Rules should be applicable to any had given rise to some questioning of the status of the person deprived of his freedom regardless of whether a Standard Minimum Rules and the need or advisability criminal charge had been lodged against him. It would be of conferring upon them a more binding authority. The easy to satisfy that wish by amending rule 84 (1) of the 1955 text enjoyed great moral authority as the result of 1955 text. its painstaking preparation by the International Penal 154. Some participants expressed the view that special and Penitentiary Commission, its adoption by the First mention should be made of some categories of persons United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and who would be able to benefit from the guarantees granted the Treatment of Offenders, and later by the Economic under the Standard Minimum Rules, particularly the and Social Council of the United Nations. Because of so-called "political" prisoners. The following arguments the desire of most of the participants to promote an even were adduced in opposition to that suggestion: clearer awareness of the Rules, however, the desire was (a) If the Standard Minimum Rules were made expressed that the Standard Minimum Rules should be applicable to any person who had been deprived of his couched in such a form as to provide greater assurance freedom, whatever the cause of his incarceration or of their implementation. whatever the deciding authority, there would be no need 159. Some participants proposed that the guarantees for an explicit mention of any specific offender category; embodied in the Standard Minimum Rules should be (b) There was no justification for singling out one of incorporated in the internal positive law of each country. those categories—the so-called "political" prisoners— Some thought that the Standard Minimum Rules without mentioning others, such as cases of quarantine for could be given legal force by incorporating the 1955 text health reasons; en bloc into national legislations. Others thought it (c) The problem of defining the so-called "political" would be better to insert the substance of the various prisoners did not fall within the mandate of the Congress. articles making up the Standard Minimum Rules in 155. The extension of the range of the Standard Mini• separate provisions of the codes of criminal procedure, mum Rules should not depart from the concept of dealing with sanctions, whether in the form of penalties, "deprivation of freedom". Any such extension should be security measures or measures of social defence. The limited to the circumstances of "part-time or quasi- choice between those alternatives seemed to depend detention", under which the execution of a prison sentence directly upon the systems of criminal policy peculiar to could be accomplished by time spent in prison, alternating each country or group of countries. with visits outside, on a systematic basis rather than as the 160. Some participants went even further, by suggest• result of ad hoc decisions taken in individual cases. ing the* conclusion of an international convention that Similarly, it would embrace week-end detention, semi- would be open for signature by the States Members of the detention, half-way houses, agricultural settlements, United Nations. Their arguments rested on the need for work in outside factories or in enterprises serving the making the guarantees, which were currently no more than public interest, and so on, the list given being in no way mere recommendations, more legally binding. The major• exhaustive. ity of the participants, without rejecting, in principle, the

— 20 — possibility of elevating the Rules to the level of an inter• in the past few months. The Fourth Congress marked a national convention in the future, felt that such a step new stage in the treatment of prisoners: the various view• would be premature at the current time, having to be points, although differently expressed, had something preceded by a more thorough study of its multifarious very definitely in common so that one could speak of a implications. convergence of aspirations. 161. Nevertheless, the Congress was virtually unani• (b) Programme of implementation mous in hoping that the moral authority, and hence the relatively mandatory nature, of the Standard Minimum 166. As to the current status of the Standard Minimum Rules could be reinforced by a resolution of the General Rules drafted in 1955, the discussion confirmed, on the Assembly of the United Nations. Such a resolution, one hand, the social philosophy embodied in the Rules as originating in the highest policy-making body of the a whole and, on the other hand, underlined their practical United Nations, would be justified by the consideration application. With respect to the humanitarian and social that the Standard Minimum Rules were the concrete spirit of the Rules, a warning note was sounded against application of human rights in the sphere of social the tendency to be overly literal in their interpretation. defence, which was currently being approached from an It was evidently necessary to recall that the 1955 text of ever more scientific, humanitarian and social point of the Rules constituted a "minimum" and that, far from view. The General Assembly resolution, which w?s justifying any kind of inaction, it should encourage earnestly desired by the Fourth Congress, should embody attempts to go even further through experimentation the new spirit that imbued the prevention of crime and the aimed at broadening the rights of prisoners. efforts being made for the treatment of offenders. 167. It should also be recalled that the Standard Mini• 162. At the time of that resolution, the Assembly mum Rules provided a supple and flexible framework should invite the Secretary-General to make greater use allowing scope for the inclusion of the most demanding of the authority—which he already enjoyed—to request ideals, the most modern aspirations and prudently of Member States periodic information on the quantita• audacious experimentation. The 1955 text of the Rules tive and qualitative developments in the application of the must be taken as a starting-point for successive stages of Standard Minimum Rules; and on the new problems progress as represented by advances in science and an arising, the experiments being carried out, the difficulties increasingly real socialization of human relations. Several being encountered and the results being achieved. It was speakers thus emphasized the need for increasing contact proposed that that information should be provided between prisoners and the outside world, and for making periodically in the form of replies to a questionnaire so those contacts more socially meaningful. The way in devised as to cover the main problems, couched in specific which that aim could be realized necessarily depended terms, and so formulated as to ensure comparability of upon national and regional traditions. Among the areas the replies. in which such contacts could become more frequent and lively, the following were specifically mentioned: 163. A more formal international legal status for the Standard Minimum Rules would almost inevitably bring (a) The family and, in particular, the emotional with it a more effective implementation of them, in environment and economic situation of prisoners' respect of both the number of rights, and the reality and children; effectiveness of their observance. Experience had shown (b) Employment, not only with respect to the relation• that a General Assembly resolution elicited more favour• ship between employer and employee, but with respect able response from the Member States. Lastly, the benefi• to the relationship among teams of workers; cial results of a dialogue between those at the national and (c) Social service organizations that were not part of international levels were well known. the prison, which might either belong to the public sector or be the outcome of private initiatives; (d) The community itself, taken in accordance with its 4. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STANDARD MINIMUM RULES widening circles from the neighbourhood, to the town, the (a) Current situation province and the country. 164. Several participants pointed out that the Standard 168. A similar concern underlay the suggestions made Minimum Rules were not everywhere equally well in the course of the discussion that efforts should be known and that, more particularly, there was practically made towards developing the closest possible corres• no country in the world that had already succeeded in pondence between living conditions within the correc• applying them in their entirety without reservations. tional institutions and those of persons living in freedom That situation existed primarily because the progressive in the region in which the institution was located. spirit of the Rules went beyond the classical or neo• 169. The principal means proposed for achieving such classical notions of punishment. Not all countries had a correspondence of conditions were as follows: overcome the gap between the abstract notions or criteria (a) To organize life in the correctional institution in of their penal codes and the more rational and more such a way as to enable prisoners to play a part in deter• definitely social approaches of the Standard Minimum mining their daily routine, to exercise their initiative and Rules. thereby to assume responsibilities—because participation 165. The exceptional interest the Congress was showing of that kind would be less artificial than passive obedience in the Standard Minimum Rules brought prominence to and closer to social reality; a problem that, to some extent, had been lying dormant (b) To rationalize the work of the prisoners as much in some countries, and in others had been dealt with only to secure for them the vocational training which would

— 21 — promote their reintegration into society as to select those hand, scientific commentaries and, on the other hand, activities which would permit the social education and the readily understandable synopses available to everyone; economic profitability of the work of prisoners at one on the one hand, articles in specialized journals, such as and the same time; periodicals of general interest and, on the other hand, the (c) To allow the inmates to spend part of their wages drafting of simple texts in such a way as to force attention. freely, after deductions had been made for the cost^of 175. One sector of distribution deserved a special their board and lodgings; effort: that of the judicial world. The traditions of the id) To draw up a daily schedule of working hours, meal magistrature had not usually included any direct and times and recreation and rest periods which would cor• personal contact with prison life. It had been said— respond as closely as possible to the pattern followed by perhaps exaggeratedly—that some judges did not know the residents of the region. exactly to what they condemned an offender when they 170. A further need was stressed in the same context: inflicted a sentence of imprisonment. The real problem that of ensuring reliable and regular communication was that judges applied a juridico-penal system which did between the various branches of the correctional system, not correspond exactly to the new horizons of the sanc• taken in the broadest sense of the term, and encompassing tioned treatment. For that reason, it would be highly all methods for the treatment of offenders. Clearly, the desirable that the Standard Minimum Rules should be facts noted about probationers or conditionally released widely distributed to judges and prosecuting attorneys, offenders could be advantageously used in developing an not forgetting the members of the bar, many of whom institutional system. It was also clear that the experience were still subject to the effects of their training in retri• gained with prisoners could play a useful part in improving butive penal law. non-institutional methods of treatment. There also, one 176. Lastly, it was recommended that a special effort might hope that many benefits would flow from a spirit should be made to reach public opinion, which necessarily of emulation between the various parts of the correctional lagged somewhat behind the scientific progress that system, such as the correlation of experiments with their affected the understanding of criminal behaviour and results, which would, in turn, suggest further experiments. tolerance in that respect. The reaction of public opinion to criminality was one of aggressive defensiveness which (c) Methods of implementation did not always take account of the real factors involved 171. It appeared to the Congress that some considera• in crime and its prevention. The dissemination of the tion might usefully be given to practical methods of Standard Minimum Rules through the mass media implementing the Standard Minimum Rules. Those would enable the public to gain better understanding and methods were classified under the following general acceptance of modern correctional methods. The public headings: (a) dissemination; (b) training; (c) information; would, moreover, be more disposed to make a place for and (d) establishment and use of the machinery most the prisoner in society upon his release from prison; and appropriate for such purposes. Each of those four areas would also more readily accept sanctions that restricted can be considered in turn at the national level, the regional the prisoner's freedom only partially, such as quasi- level and the United Nations level. or semi-imprisonment. 177. At the regional level, consideration should (i) Dissemination equally be given to the methods suggested for the national 172. The first method of ensuring the more effective level in order that they might be co-ordinated. It was implementation of the Standard Minimum Rules would considered likely, moreover, that joint efforts by sever?" be, naturally, to make them better known and understood countries having common aspirations would make * and hence more easily and generally acceptable. It would possible to effect economies. In that respect also, some therefore be necessary for the spirit of the Rules to be benefit could be expected from emulation between propagated and the text to be disseminated. countries. 173. At the national level, the following methods could 178. At the United Nations level, the dissemination of be considered: the Standard Minimum Rules would naturally imply the (a) Translation of the Standard Minimum Rules not objectives of persuasion, co-ordination and technical only into the national language, but into other languages assistance, although the precise ways and means of so used in particular areas of a country; doing could not yet be detailed. (b) Dissemination of those translations not only (ii) Training among the prison authorities, but among all other author• ities, services and social groups, since the fate of offenders 179. If the publicity recommended above was designed was the concern of society as a whole. It was pointed to increase the understanding and acceptance of the out, in particular, that those translations should reach humanitarian and social principles underlying the all members of government, including the legislative Standard Minimum Rules; development and improve• branches; all parts of the correctional system down to the ment of methods and techniques was needed for the actual last prison warder and the prisoners themselves; and all implementation of the Rules. agencies and associations in the public and private 180. At the national level, training must be provided sectors that were concerned with any aspect of the social throughout the hierarchical pyramid of the correctional reintegration of offenders. administration. For the Rules to be really applied in the 174. The diversity of those recipients necessarily daily life of institutions, all institutional staff must have implied different methods of dissemination: on the one the opportunity to familiarize themselves thoroughly with

— 22 — the objectives of the Rules and to acquire an outlook that social principles of the Standard Minimum Rules and would enable them to implement them in practice. Such of the practical achievements in correctional techniques. instruction in new techniques for the treatment of The questionnaire should include a blank section in offenders should also be given to those on the outside which new problems, experiences and difficulties could be co-operating with the correctional system.. Although a noted. Importance should be attached to terminology, humanitarian approach was essential, certain forms of to ensure that a word would be interpreted identically old-fashioned paternalism and of a narrow philosophical in all languages. The expressions to be used in the ques• outlook would run the risk of evoking an undue reaction. tionnaire would therefore have to be "codified" in Lastly, some instruction in new techniques could usefully advance. Ways should also be considered of overcoming be given to those individuals or agencies which ensured the reluctance of some countries to report on their less some liaison between the institutional and the outside successful experiences. Since all countries had experi• world. Such training could be undertaken at the national enced some failures, international co-operation required level through courses, conferences, in-service training, that those failures be reported so that other countries seminars or colloquia, exchange of personnel etc. could avoid making the same mistakes. Lastly, the United 181. At the regional level, the objectives and methods Nations should distribute, on a regular basis, the informa• suggested for the national level could also be taken into tion received from all countries. consideration. In addition, however, it should be stressed (iv) Establishment and use of agencies that regional institutes should also be utilized for that 187. Once the broad outlines of the programme for purpose since their usefulness in the area of scientific the implementation of the Standard Minimum Rules evaluation and in dealing with the direct and specific had been indicated, provision must be made for agencies problems of training and specialization had been proved. to put it into effect at various levels. 182. At the United Nations level, the problem of 188. At the national level, several participants sug• training for the treatment of offenders required several gested that each country should establish a national types of action. The suggestions made by the Congress agency specifically charged with the task of ensuring and included, in particular: supervising the implementation of the Standard Minimum (a) Intensification of technical assistance, the possibil• Rules. Several suggestions were made concerning ways of ities of which had not been fully explored in requests from officially enforcing respect for human rights as laid down Member States; in the Standard Minimum Rules. Some participants felt (b) Support for, and co-ordination of, national and that courts of special jurisdiction or special judges regional efforts, for example, through periodical publica• should pronounce on questions arising out of the execu• tions or the provision of teaching materials; tion of sanctions and measures; others preferred the (c) Financial support, by complete or partial absorp• system of the ombudsman, who would have jurisdiction tion of costs, according to the resources of the countries over all authorities; still others felt that it would be or regions concerned; sufficient for prisoners to have recourse to a special (d) The setting-up of regional social defence institutes tribunal. Nearly all participants felt that provision for research and training; should be made for recourse procedures consistent with (e) The setting-up of teams of international experts national traditions without, however, deciding in favour (travelling faculties), which, with the help of national or of a particular form of recourse. regional specialists, could hold seminars in different 189. At the regional level, the same function might be places. fulfilled by international conventions. Some groups of (iii) Information countries had already signed conventions establishing 183. The implementation of the Standard Minimum conciliation boards which acted as arbitration courts. Rules should be facilitated by co-ordinating efforts 190. At the United Nations level, the steps to be taken designed to effect an exchange of information on the must depend upon the experiences gathered at the national Rules themselves and on their underlying rationale, on and regional levels. the methods used for their implementation; and on the difficulties encountered in, and the results obtained by, 5. REVISION OF THE STANDARD MINIMUM RULES their application. 191. During the discussion on the revision of the 184. At the national level, co-ordination of information Standard Minimum Rules, a large majority of partici• should be achieved systematically, so that a synopsis pants expressed the view that it was more important to allowing international comparability could be prepared. ensure the more effective application of the Rules than 185. At the regional level, co-ordination of information to revise the 1955 text. It was also agreed, however, that should be the responsibility of regional institutes, particu• the Rules as drawn up in 1955 marked a particular larly with respect to the standardization of reporting moment in a long process of evolution and that any practices. country could undertake experiments without waiting for 186. The question of information was considered to be a possible revision of the Standard Minimum Rules as a of particular importance at the United Nations level. whole. It might be possible to co-ordinate efforts by drawing up 192. It was recommended that only those rules which a questionnaire to which Member States would be invited truly required modification should be revised. The to reply. The questionnaire would deal with the existing general principles underlying the Standard Minimum status and application both of the humanitarian and Rules, which were their foundation and justification, were

— 23 — still valid. Some minor changes might have to be made in very acute and continue to give rise to increasingly the rules relating to methods and techniques of treatment. difficult questions, because of their human and social That problem, however, did not appear ripe for specific implications; proposals by the Fourth Congress. Methodological (£>) A programme of persuasion and action was questions that might require reconsideration would recommended to promote the spirit of the Rules and include the division of prisoners into categories and the training in the specific methods required for their extension of the Standard Minimum Rules to persons implementation. detained in the absence of any criminal charge, as well 198. In order to respond to the clear wishes expressed, as the consideration of the dependants of prisoners. it was suggested that the following steps should be taken: Emphasis was also placed on the importance of approach• (1) The General Assembly of the United Nations ing the Rules in the light of the continuing need for should adopt a resolution approving the Standard Mini• scientific knowledge relating to human behaviour and mum Rules and recommending their implementation to the personality of the individual if the treatment of Member States; offenders was to be truly effective. (2) The Economic and Social Council and the Secre• 193. The division of prisoners into categories appeared tary-General of the United Nations should immediately to be justified only if special treatment was required. The take the necessary steps to encourage scientific research mentally ill and severe cases of drug addiction clearly and develop technical assistance, and should provide the constituted such special categories. On the other hand, United Nations social defence programme with the means separation into different age-groups did not appear to be needed to promote such implementation, in particular, by justified in all cases, as a mixed group might more establishing a working group of specially qualifiec accurately reflect the actual make-up of society. Lastly, experts to study the numerous complex problems relating^ a more flexible attitude might be taken towards separa• to the Rules; tion on the basis of sex, following the example of psy• chiatric treatment in groups. (3) The working group should: (a) undertake an inter• national evaluation of needs, means and results, relating 194. Almost general agreement was expressed with to the implementation of the Rules; (b) devise a system the view that States should be requested to apply the that would ensure that the information periodically Standard Minimum Rules to any person deprived of requested from Member States or voluntarily submitted liberty, for any cause and by any authority. The extension by non-member States should be pertinent and quantita• of the 1955 text to cover such cases did not appear to raise tively and qualitatively comparable; (c) consider the any particular problems. desirability of dividing the Standard Minimum Rules 195. Lastly, it was acknowledged that steps must be into a general part, containing a more refined statement of taken to help the dependants of prisoners in order to the basic principles which might form an international avoid harmful disruptions and problems in the education convention; and a special part, devoted to the technical of children, which hampered their integration into questions relating to treatment, to which amendments and society. Those problems had not been overcome in many additions could be made in the light of favourable countries. experience; (d) study all the implications of a possible 196. The revision of the Rules must, of course, be future "internationalization" of the various types of entrusted to the working group of experts referred to remedies open to persons detained who claim that they earlier and must extend to the following areas: have not received the benefits of the guarantees laid (a) Assessment of new problems and needs; down in the Rules; (e) undertake the amendment proposed (b) Minor changes in the 1955 text required in certain above, in particular, to ensure the application of the Rule Rules; to all prisoners, regardless of whether they are charged (c) Further study of a possible subdivision of the with, or convicted of, crime. Standard Minimum Rules into a first part incorporating 199. The next United Nations Congress should receive the basic principles of the Rules and a second part a report on the action taken on those conclusions. If it is dealing with methods and techniques of treatment, which not possible to submit a report to the plenary session of might be subdivided, in turn, into sections dealing with the Fifth Congress, such a report should be submitted the various specific forms of treatment; to the working party, the setting-up of which is strongly (d) Consideration of all the implications of a possible recommended. future international convention on the fundamental principles of the Standard Minimum Rules. D. REPORT ON AGENDA ITEM (4) : ORGANIZ• ATION OF RESEARCH FOR POLICY DEVEL• 6. CONCLUSIONS OPMENT IN SOCIAL DEFENCE 197. It was decided that no formal resolutions or recommendations concerning the Standard Minimum Rapporteur: Knut SVERI (Sweden) Rules would be submitted. Certain key concepts, however, 200. The aim of the Congress was to discuss how emerged from the preparatory work as a whole and from criminological research should be organized in order the Congress discussions: to give maximum assistance to policy-makers in their (a) The problem of the Standard Minimum Rules has task of formulating, and to administrators in the carrying- elicited sustained attention and has given rise to impor• out of, the most effective criminal policy. It was not the tant comment at the highest level. The problems remain aim of the Congress to determine suitable topics for

— 24 — research, although examples of research useful to policy• concentrate on those types of behaviour which could be makers were cited. The common agreement not to said to be really harmful to the citizens. discuss such matters, which clearly would have led to a 205. If the former viewpoint were adopted, it would debate on criminal policy in general, made it possible lead to a type of social defence organization where to focus the discussion on the main problem of the scientists would be expected to play the key role, since, organization of research. in the course of time, they would be expected to know all 201. A wide variety of opinions was expressed and the the answers. As stressed by some of the sociologically discussions were far-ranging. Three main reasons for the oriented speakers, however, social scientists could never difference in opinions may be mentioned: (a) whether the solve political problems; those problems must be solved speaker had had any experience in research work; by politicians. Scientists and research workers could (6) what kind of position he occupied; (c) the particular only give policy-makers the basic data and eventually social and economic structure within which he functioned probabilities concerning the results of choices for future in his home country. action. In that case, the organizational structure must 202. The Congress took note of the fact that differ• necessarily be different, with the interaction between ences of opinion could even be found among policy• decision-makers and research workers being a close, but makers, administrators, practitioners; and the two types not a key, one. The participants were cautioned, however, of research workers, namely, those whose area of research against assuming that a decision-making body became a 'was determined and directed by their Governments and scientific one simply by the inclusion of scientists in its those of the academic world to whom those constraints membership. did not apply. The way one decided how criminological research should be carried out in a country affected 2. RESEARCH people in those different positions differently. There were 206. Research has been defined in the Secretariat likely to be instances in which policy-makers would want working paper (A/CONF.43/4) as "the pursuit of truth the results of research to support or prove the Tightness through the application of scientific procedures designed of their policies, or to disprove contrary policies; the to reduce bias". Although all speakers seemed to agree administrator would like to know whether he was carrying on that definition, it was quite obvious that the term out his duties for the Government in such a manner that "scientific procedures" was used in different ways, it had the prescribed effect; the practitioner often wanted without clarification. Some speakers used the term to have research organized in such a way that it could "scientific procedures" to connote an empirical method prove injustices in the law and illumine the contradictions to gather facts; others used it to include even "logically and confusion between casework requirements and derived conclusions from a political theory". One possible sentencing practices. Lastly, differences of opinion way of defining research in social defence was suggested, derived from national differences in political philosophy namely, activities falling within one of the following and orientation, in social structure and in levels of types: (a) statistical research (mainly gathering and economic and social growth; differences in definitions of control of criminal statistics); (b) operational research crime and different crime rates had thus been produced. (e.g., the study of police systems and institutions); and 203. It was therefore to be expected that opinions (c) "pure" research, either of a descriptive kind or with might differ on what could be expected of research, what the aim of testing hypotheses derived from a theory. types of research would be desirable, and how research 207. The old contrast between pure and applied should be organized and integrated in the social defence research was touched upon by many speakers. Some of the policy of a country. A common agreement on those policy-makers present wanted to restrict pure research points was difficult enough to reach at regional or even as much as possible, because such research had no national meetings; it could scarcely be expected at an bearing on the existing problems with which they had international meeting of the scope and character of the to deal. The consensus, however, was that there should be Congress. room for research undertaken purely for the sake of knowledge and understanding; not all research had to be 1. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO PROBLEMS OF CRIME directed towards immediate practical aims. It was mentioned that an interesting development appeared 204. The opinions were set forth concerning the use of to have taken place during the past years, namely, some "science" and "research" in the scientific approach to Governments and larger research funds expected plans problems of crime. The most commonly expressed view for development to include some kind of "evaluation was that through use of science, society would be able to research design". That design made it possible to wed solve those problems. From that view, it may be inferred practical and theoretical elements in such a way that the that the majority of the participants had great expecta• plans were acceptable to both decision-makers and tions of the usefulness .of future criminological research research workers. aided by computers to collate and evaluate data. A con• 208. Another type of research development was trary view was that crime, as a deviation from social mentioned: systems analysis, which had recently been norms, was a natural social phenomenon and would never introduced. That type of analysis was directed towards disappear, simply because social norms of one kind or the decision-making processes, and it viewed the judicial another would always have to be present. Adopting that system as a corporate entity. By studying the persons sociological viewpoint, a social defence policy should passing through the system, one could find the important aim at reducing crime to a tolerable level and should points where different decisions might be taken. System-"

— 25 — a tic studies of the outcome of those decisions provided plan long-term research. In that connexion, it was constant feedbacks to the decision-makers and helped suggested that universities, primarily, should give the them re-evaluate their future decisions. In that way, time necessary training in research and that the State should and money might be saved and higher efficiency attained. employ the most qualified researchers and give them either positions at governmental research institutes or similar positions at university research institutes. It was 3. CONDITIONS FOR RESEARCH also suggested that the United Nations Social Defence 209. There was complete agreement that the most Research Institute at Rome should initiate training important condition for research was simply that the programmes for research workers and that, in general, value of the results of research must be realized by the the United Nations should explore possibilities of policy-makers. If the policy-maker believed that the system sponsoring training in research, including international he had been responsible for was the best available, he fellowships, for that purpose. would not be particularly interested in studies concern• ing the system as such; but certainly he might want to 4. STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION FOR RESEARCH have research that could help him improve the details of practice. In that connexion, it was observed that research 213. Among the different countries, organizational should have the broad aim of studying the entirety of a structures for research varied considerably. Most coun• specific and desired programme or policy, as well as the tries appeared to have at least some type of organization, hidden or unforeseen consequences which might emanate i.e. some place where criminal statistics were gathered. from it. Such research could be expected to have an There seemed to be full agreement that that type of data influence on policy-makers by making them aware of collection should be the duty of the Government. It problems and consequences which they might not have was stressed, however, that the different types of criminal anticipated. statistical data could be of greater use to research workers 210. A number of reasons were adduced for the if they were gathered in a data bank and not kept by scepticism of policy-makers concerning different types different authorities. It would then be possible to make of research undertaken so far. It was observed that in use of the information for studies, such as on the criminal some of the developing countries, research often was careers of offenders, and for systems analysis. undertaken by persons who did not understand the 214. Other types of research—operational and pure importance of the cultural context in which the studies research—were currently undertaken in part by govern• were being conducted and therefore often misinterpreted mental institutes or bureaux, and in part by university their results. It was also mentioned that material often institutions. Some countries even had local or national was gathered from unreliable sources and the findings planning boards for such research. coloured by the personal preconceptions of the research 215. The problem of the organization of social science worker. Such short-comings were not alien, moreover, research was a political one, which had to be solved to the developed countries. Thus, even if the policy-makers according to the historical and political traditions of a were interested in different kinds of research results, country. The main reason for that might not necessarily many studies undertaken so far had either had only be differences in the political structures of the countries, "academic" interest or had been of poor quality. In the but simply because social research could be extremely relatively few cases (outside of purely statistical trends expensive and thus required proper budgeting. On the and studies of work-loads) where reliable results had been other hand, it became clear that even motives connected reached (e.g., prison studies and studies concerning the with political ideology might have a direct bearing upon effects of institutional versus non-institutional treatment), the organizational structure. Thus, it was reported that those results usually had been neglected by policy• in one country, a national planning board for social makers. There was agreement, therefore, that in order research had .been set up and invested with the right to to solve the conflict of mutual scepticism, some kind of refuse publication of the results of research which it had dialogue between research workers and policy-makers authorized. appeared to be a prerequisite. 216. It was therefore suggested that considerable 211. While that state of affairs prevailed in most parts attention should be given to the way in which policy of the world, some countries were exceptions, and in for research activities should be organized. Research those countries, the mutual scepticism of research workers work, it was stressed, should not be concentrated in and policy-makers was not usual. Some of those were governmental institutions alone, since those institutions countries where research was centrally organized by themselves were biased. Studies of prisons, for example, Governments and executed according to specific plans should be performed by research workers from "the based on concrete political ideas and carried out by outside", since prisoners often were afraid of revealing Civil Servants. the truth (as they saw it) to officials who might convey the 212. The Congress stressed that in order to obtain information to the prison personnel. An ideal organiza• good research work, it was essential to have highly tion, which satisfied all concerned, probably could not be trained research workers. Most of the work done thus far, found anywhere. It appeared, however, that after a long it was stated by one speaker, had been carried out by period of experimentation, many countries were following unqualified part-time workers. Training and positions the same general pattern: political authorities (for for research workers were essential not only to obtain example, a parliament) decided the proportion of the better work, but to assure continuity and to be able to budget that should be given to social defence research

— 26 — (or social research); whereas some kind of a planning identification of sociological and psychological factors board selected the research projects on which the money which could be used for planned action. should be spent. That planning board might include 223. As one of the types of studies raising special research workers, politicans and administrators. difficulties, but considered to be of the utmost interest, 217. Another issue, where differences among countries the experiment with differential treatment of samples of were even greater, concerned the balance between free offenders was mentioned. Outstanding examples of such academic research and research by institutes directly research were cited, for example, studies that had shown attached to the Government, for example, the ministry that effective probation with a casework approach for or department of justice. offenders from fifteen to eighteen years of age had given significantly lower recidivism rates than the usual commit• ment to industrial schools. That result, however, was not 5. PRIORITIES necessarily universally valid; results might differ in 218. The differences of opinion between policy• another cultural setting. makers and research workers were stressed mainly by speakers from countries where social sciences had 6. SOME ISSUES IN RESEARCH reached a certain level of sophistication. It was observed that it had not always been the "practical" approach (a) The research team which had brought insight and, in the long run, had had , revolutionary influence on mankind; there should be an 224. There was general agreement that at least the academic world without constraints so that work which larger research institutes should have a staff of research might appear, zt the current time, quite impractical and workers and practitioners trained in different fields of useless could be undertaken. human behaviour (law, sociology, psychiatry, psycho• logy, etc.). Only by the fusion of such a team, covering 219. Apart from that consideration, there still remained all aspects of the same phenomena, could one expect the the problem of allocation of resources (money and maximum effect of a research project involving the study personnel) to the type of research directed towards of human behaviour. Interdisciplinary research work, practical aims. Two main topics were emphasized in that however, had as a prerequisite some kind of an agreed respect: the study of crime in itself, and the study of the theoretical framework. Without that framework, it effectiveness of existing policies and programmes. would be impossible for the findings of the different 220. Concerning the first problem, there appeared to be specialists to be fitted together in a meaningful way. full agreement that all criminological knowledge should be based upon exact information, which meant knowledge (b) Co-ordination of the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the 225. As had been mentioned early in the discussion, phenomena of crime. The former type of data would many countries had national planning boards for research. primarily be the official criminal statistics of a country In that connexion, the opinion was advanced that these (crimes known to police, court statistics and correctional boards should also co-ordinate research and direct it statistics). Such statistics were frequently used as indexes towards practical objectives. While that function would of changes in "criminality" over time, although, as such, be fairly easy in countries where the planning board in they might only reflect changes in police activity. Controls question was situated in the ministry or department of were therefore necessary, for example, through studies justice, difficulties might arise where the board decided sing interviews with victims of crimes in samples of the its own policy of research. Moreover, general research population, to find the actual number of persons who councils might have interests too broad to give social had committed crimes but had never been caught. The defence the attention it required—however logical it study of the "quality of crimes" was also mentioned. might seem, administratively, to give them the responsi• Such studies often showed that some of the social behav• bility for practical research in social defence. If they were iour called "crime" was harmless and only to be called to assume responsibility for the kind of policy-oriented "nuisances" having no great importance. research that was required, it might be necessary to provide for special subcouncils or for a structure ade• 221. Secondly, policy-makers and administrators might quate to take full account of policy needs in social be interested in studies that could show the usefulness defence. Then, the broader interests of a general research of their policy, and there was obvious interest on the part council and the specialized interests of social defence af the participants in such studies. Those projects usually could be harmonized. bad as their main objective to give a description of the situation (for example, of a prison or of the recidivism 226. Some kind of co-ordination was obviously neces• •ate from different kinds of measures) in order to deter- sary, however, in order that research of more immediate nine whether any change of policy might be appropriate. practical value could be undertaken. Some countries Studies of that type might not only include studies of has established committees for the co-ordination of >ffenders and their way of reacting to the measures research within their respective ministries of justice, :nforced, but even direct themselves towards offenders. which had the task both to act as a clearing-house of information and to encourage research in the neglected 222. A small minority of speakers expected research area of social defence. o solve the problem of the "causes" of crime. With a few xceptions, however, agreement seemed to exist that the 227. International and regional co-ordination of >rimary objective of research should be mainly the research was stressed by many speakers, and it was

— 27 — proposed that the United Nations should give assistance 233. Many suggestions were put forward as to how in those matters. that problem could be solved. All of them had as a com• mon base that, in order to understand each other, people (c) Limitations must meet and present their opinions, and have a free 228. Four main questions were raised in connexion exchange of views. That communication could be done with limitations: (a) the question of free access to data through seminars, workshops and conferences. Refer• by research workers outside the Government; (b) the ence was made to the important role played by private rights of the research worker to freedom of action and institutions and foundations in many countries. freedom to publish; (c) the right to undertake research 234. Another issue that was mentioned was the ques• and the individual's right to privacy; and (d) experi• tion of how to acquaint a broader public—among them, mental research with human beings. for example, the judges—with the results of scientific 229. On the two first questions, there was no great studies. The prerequisites appeared to be, first, that the diversity of opinions. Although those speakers who presentation should be made in such a way that it could touched upon the problems agreed that the confidentiality be understood; and, secondly, that it should be available of data on individuals must be strictly upheld, there to the persons one wanted to reach. One country had seemed to be agreement that competent and reputable made a survey of the reading habits of judges in order • researchers should be given access to official data. to find out how those could be used in public relations Concerning the right to publish, the problem of dis• activities. Other countries had very- active private asso• closing the identity of and data on the offender might ciations which were used for the purpose of spreading be solved by having some kind of censorship by the information of that kind. Lectures sponsored by Goverr^ authority giving the research worker access to the data. ments might also be of value, and even refresher course Such censorship, however, should be restricted to the for administrators. question whether the confidentiality rule had been 235. Very often, a country did not have the resources broken. and trained personnel to undertake research and to 230. The question of experimentation was considered organize the necessary communication between research to be, in some instances, a more difficult one; and that workers and policy-makers. One of the best ways out question was the object of some discussion. It was of that dilemma was some kind of regional organization. stated that some types of experimentation raised no It was suggested that the United Nations could be of ethical problems, for example, the effects of changes in great help in sponsoring and assisting such organizations police methods. Since clinical experience seldom provided in different parts of the world to develop the necessary an answer which could have general applicability and communication. retrospective studies were difficult to check except with 236. It was observed that communication could, and more or less dubious statistical research designs, there should, be looked upon as a long-term undertaking. was no doubt that controlled experiments with different That matter, however, was primarily a question of treatment of samples of offenders might yield the best higher education at the universities. Many groups of scientific results. students who were important for the future development 231. The principle was suggested, therefore, that as of social welfare should be included in that type of edu• long as the experimental groups were exposed by common cation in social defence, for example, medical doctors, agreement to less suffering and hardship than they would city planners; and, in many countries, even lawyers. have otherwise experienced, no ethical objections should be raised against using the experimental method. 7. SUGGESTIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND UNITED NATIONS ASSISTANCE (d) Communication 232. The Congress considered that the question of 237. The question of more effective aid to developing communication and common understanding between countries through multilateral and bilateral aid program• policy-makers and research workers was a crucial issue. mes was considered. The problem of providing staff It was clearly stated that although policy-makers might and facilities for training was raised by several developing want research undertaken, they were very often quite countries. The United Nations and other technical sceptical of the research worker's ability to understand assistance agencies were asked to make available fellow• their points of view. That scepticism was, however, very ships for training at home or abroad at internationally often mutual, at least for research workers who were recognized institutions. Emphasis was placed on having not a part of a governmental research organization. The the United Nations sponsor regional and subregional research designs, the complicated theoretical framework systems of collaboration in research training; and existing and the technical language used by many research United Nations resources, such as the United Nations workers often proved a traumatic experience for the Social Defence Research Institute at Rome and the policy-maker. It must be realized, however, that "crime" United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the Pre• was a legal definition of a certain type of behaviour and vention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (Fuchu, that the subject-matter of scientific research could not Tokyo) were asked to give a special place in their work always be defined in legal terms. The research worker, programmes to training research personnel. It was fore• therefore, was often sceptical of the policy-maker's seen that the newly appointed interregional advisers on ability to understand anything outside of matters having social defence could play an important role in developing immediate practical value. that kind of work among Governments. The area oi

— 28 — social defence also was one for regional or subregional HI. Closing plenary meeting collaboration and services. The United Nations should conduct seminars and workshops; and the Congress 240. In view of the fact that the Congress had affirmed learned with interest in that connexion of the national the appointment of an independent General Rapporteur workshop recently held in India, with the support of and in consideration of the arrangement whereby the the United Nations, on the utilization of research in reports on the four agenda items had been adopted within policy development in the social defence field. There the respective sections, the closing plenary meeting was were also suggestions that the United Nations should divided into three parts. The first period was devoted itself intensify international research, and particular to the presentation of verbal summaries of the final attention was given to cross-national comparative reports on the four agenda items, delivered by the re• studies. spective Rapporteurs; and the analysis of the Congress 238. In recognizing the importance of developing proceedings, presented by the General Rapporteur. The adequate awareness of the place for research in policy second part was reserved for the closing addresses of the development in the social defence field, the suggestion representative of the Secretary-General of the United was put forward that the United Nations should convene Nations, the heads of a representative number of dele• a conference of ministers of justice. The successful gations, the President of the Congress and the Chairman experiences of the Council of Europe in convening of the Japanese Organizing Committee. Those addresses European conferences of ministers of justice supported were followed by the formal closing of the Congress. the wisdom of such a conference on a world-wide level. 241. In their reports, the Rapporteurs of the four sec• tions highlighted the main issues that had been faced in . " 8. CONCLUSIONS their meetings and the conclusions that had been drawn, including any recommendations for future action. Their 239. Different countries and regions of the world have reports are fully covered in this report on the Congress different problems of social defence. No universal plan (paragraphs 61-239). for social defence is therefore conceivable; each country must solve its problems in the light of its own tradition. 242. The General Rapporteur followed the section The principles and methods of scientific research, however, spokesmen, stressing that his analysis of the Congress are valid everywhere. The following specific conclusions would be personal and in no way an official review of the were reached in connexion with organization of research proceedings. He recalled, however, that he had been the for policy development in social defence: first head of the Social Defence Section of the United Nations, and he observed that with him at the Congress (1) When empirical science is thought to be useful to were four of his successors. He called upon the Organi• those who formulate or implement policy, research zation to set up a series of working groups to implement workers should be called upon to assist them in their the Congress recommendations. Beginning with agenda difficult task; item (3), he reviewed the progress of the work of the (2) While the practical utility of research findings Congress on the Standard Minimum Rules for the may not be readily perceived at the time they are made, Treatment of Prisoners, welcoming the flexible and re• pure research, which may appear to have no immediate alistic attitude of the discussions and suggesting that the practical value, should not be neglected; next United Nations Congress should receive the first (3) Mutual distrust, often found between policy- progress reports on the discharge of responsibility for ^makers and research workers, should be dispelled, possibly promoting international progress in correctional work. through joint seminars, workshops and conferences; Concerning participation of the public in the prevention (4) Governments should establish research and plan• and control of crime and delinquency (agenda item (2)), ning bureaux and institutes to gather facts and to carry he felt that the excellent work of the Congress called out research needed by the Government. Universities for the formation of a working group to scrutinize the and other academic and scientific institutions should report, to evaluate the practical significance of so many be utilized for this purpose, when appropriate, without existing schemes and to select the best among them for imposing restrictions on them that would hamper free international promotion. Sir Leon also felt that there inquiry; needed to be a working paper for the implementation of (5) Systems of criminal statistics, based on the decisions the recommendations concerning research in relation of all public agencies dealing with crime or offenders, to policy development (agenda item (4)); he felt there should be established, because they are an essential source should be more United Nations support of the research of information on which planned social action can be work currently being undertaken throughout the world based; and suggested the dissemination of information on exist• (6) There is imperative need for the training of research ing centres and facilities. Welcoming the study of social workers and for the employment of such workers by defence policies in the context of national development policy-making oigans. Universities should be called upon planning (agenda item (1)) he, nevertheless expressed to provide appropriate training programmes. United concern that social defence as an entity might be lost Nations agencies, such as the regional and research if the integration of planning and the co-ordination of institutes, should provide research training fellowships official policies went too far. He suggested that links had and, in their work programmes, provide research training to be developed between social planning and social courses, seminars and workshops aimed at utilizing defence, but he hesitated to go far beyond that step. research for policy development in social defence. Lastly, Sir Leon drew attention to the limitations of the

— 29 — United Nations structure in meeting an expanding inter• 246. The United Nations Social Defence Research national need for crime prevention. He dwelt on the Institute at Rome was ready to play a central role in the smallness of the Social Defence Section and the need lor advancement of action-oriented research, which was so structural change. He hoped it would be possible to have badly needed for policy-making and programme develop• a working group of high quality to connect one Congress ment in social defence. with the next. A fuller summary of the General Rappor• 247. The Congress had shown clearly that social defence teur's address is given below (paragraphs 268-295). must be the concern of the community and the country 243. Speaking as the representative of the Secretary- as a whole, and that it had become a problem requiring General, Mr. Kurt Jansson, congratulated all participants considerable expenditure on the part of Governments. on what had been the most hard-working conference in Mr. Jansson suggested, therefore, that officials and bodies his international experience. It had reached notable at the national level concerned with the allocation of conclusions at a very crucial time, when the United a country's financial and human resources should be Nations was entering its Second Development Decade. involved in future Congresses, with a view to convincing The reassessment of the very meaning of the term "devel• them that investment in social defence was investment opment" had just been completed by the international in progress and development, and not a diversion of community, and he read to the Congress the statement funds to a marginal field from which no substantial of objectives for the Second United Nations Develop• returns could be expected. That would be particularly, ment Decade and the Declaration on Social Progress and important for developing countries where social defence Development. Those documents stressed the fact that the in general, continued to be outside of the plans controlling final goal of all development was not merely economic development expenditure. He expressed the hope tha growth, but the well-being of the individual and, in a wider future social defence Congresses might eventually serve sense, social justice and equal opportunity. The social as an international forum not only for professional dis• aims currently being adopted gave full recognition to cussions among specialists on social defence, but, for the importance of policies and measures for the preven• debate and "confrontation" between specialists and those tion and control of crime and delinquency. Coming at responsible for making decisions affecting the use of the threshold of the Second Development Decade, the resources and the quality of life in all its aspects. Fourth Congress had dramatically attracted the attention 248. In their final addresses, all representatives of of the world to the great need to intensify international countries and groups of countries expressed great satis• action in the field of social defence. For the first time in faction with the organization and work of the Congress the history of such Congresses, more than half of the and congratulated the Japanese Organizing Committee Government delegations represented developing countries. and the Secretariat of the United Nations for their 244. Mr. Jansson promised the Congress a vigorous, excellent work. systematic and careful follow-up of its work by the 249. Speaking on behalf of the participants from all United Nations. The Advisory Committee of Experts, the socialist countries represented at the Congress, appointed by the Secretary-General to provide substantive Mrs. Daskalova (Bulgaria) expressed their highest satis• advice on social defence activities, would meet imme• faction with the work done by the Congress, which had diately after the Congress to review its results and to provided an opportunity for lively and useful discussions make recommendations to the Secretary-General and on very important issues between representatives of the Commission for Social Development for appropriate countries with different social systems in a climate of action arising therefrom. At its next session, in March co-operation. She hoped that the work of the Congres 1971, the Commission would, for the first time in fifteen would be followed up and its recommendations trans• years, undertake a major policy discussion on crime and lated into action. delinquency, on the basis of the report of the Congress 250. Mr. Traynor, head of the delegation of the United and a policy paper prepared by the Secretariat, setting States of America, also expressed gratification with the out the major problems and issues concerning criminality results of the Congress and stressed that participants in the context of social change and development, and had the responsibility for ensuring the implementation submitting proposals for international action in the future. of the recommendations of the Congress and expanding The Economic and Social Council would consider the the frontiers of social defence in their own countries. He Commission's report in May 1971 and would report emphasized that social defence must be given new thereon to the General Assembly at its twenty-sixth emphasis in over-all national planning. session. 251. Mr. Aydalot (France) stressed the need to ensure 245. Arrangements had already been made for the that material progress should not, in the future, be appointment of two interregional advisers on social accompanied by an increased crime rate. There was a defence to be available at short notice to provide expert need to achieve a balance between the individual's rights advice on social defence to any country requesting it. and those relating to the protection of society, especially Every effort would be made by the United Nations in the light of the recent trend towards violent demonstra• Secretariat to strengthen international assistance at the tions by young people. The responsibility, however, regional and country levels, and he noted that the Advisory should not be left to Governments alone. He made an Committee for the United Nations Asia and Far East appeal to the time-honoured values of moderation, toler• Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment ance, beauty, peace and love. of Offenders had held a highly successful meeting during 252. Mrs. Shah (India) said that her delegation was the Congress. reassured to hear from the representative of the Secretary-

— 30 — General that the recommendations of the Congress would Africa south of the Sahara and to increase technical not remain a dead letter. She urged States Members of assistance in social defence to the developing countries the United Nations to continue to take an interest in of Africa. UNAFEI and to give it financial support. 259. Mr. El-Din (United Arab Republic), speaking 253. Mrs. Anttila (Finland), speaking on behalf of on behalf of the Arab delegations present, said that he the Scandinavian countries, expressed their gratitude hoped due attention would be given to the safeguarding to the host Government for the generous hospitality of human rights, particularly in connexion with the extended to the participants in what had been an extre• implementation of the Standard Minimum Rules. He mely well-organized Congress. While the meeting had was confident that the Secretary-General would ensure drawn attention to some of the serious problems facing that all regions should be represented on the Advisory the world today, the picturesque surroundings had made Committee of Experts which would follow up the work possible a respite from those pressing concerns. The ideas of the Congress. The Arab League was very concerned voiced at the Congress and the memories of their sojourn with social defence matters, and he hoped that the United in Japan would remain with the participants. Nations would provide the technical assistance it required. 254. Mr. Soler (Argentina) said that the Congress 260. Mrs. Ramaholimihaso (Madagascar) expressed must be viewed as a further successful step in the progres• the hope that the recommendations of the Congress sive endeavour, begun in the eighteenth century, towards would promote a general desire to find solutions to social the treatment of offenders on a technical basis and in a defence problems. She was concerned that no resolutions way consistent with human dignity. had been proposed and that it had been left to the discre• 255. Mr. Lopez-Rey (Bolivia), commenting on the tion of the participants to follow up the Congress recom• excellent work being done by the United Nations Asia mendations; she wished to propose that a standing and Far East Institute, said that more institutes of a secretariat of the United Nations Congress on the Pre• regional nature were required, for instance, in Latin vention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders should America. He was confident that the United Nations be established to ensure continuity of the work. would pay due attention to social defence policy. The 261. Mr. Muipatayi (Democratic Republic of the nature of the conclusions and recommendations of the Congo) said that, in view of the increasing crime rate in Congress showed that its work was not concluded; the the developing countries, it was important that they participants should endeavour to ensure that the recom• should not commit the same errors as the developed mendations should be implemented in their own countries. countries had done. He suggested that the United Nations Proper attention should also be accorded to social should establish an African social defence research and defence in national requests for technical assistance, training institute and that the developed countries, since the provision of United Nations aid depended through the United Nations, should provide technical upon the priority assigned to it by the respective Govern• assistance to help the developing countries to combat ments. crime. 256. Mr. Manca (Italy), said that the sadness at the 262. Mr. Bouba (Central African Republic), speaking conclusion of the meeting was offset by the satisfaction on behalf of the other French-speaking States of Central with the results achieved. The work of the Congress had Africa, endorsed the proposal for a standing Congress been both intensive and fruitful, and its success had secretariat to carry forward the work from one meeting been due in large measure to its scientific approach and to another. excellent organization, for which he thanked the host 263. Mr. Cole (Sierra Leone) fully subscribed to the Government and the United Nations Secretariat. He felt proposals submitted by the representatives of Uganda that the optimism with which he was returning home was and Madagascar for continuing action on the Congress well justified. work not only in Africa, but in the Secretariat of the 257. Mr. Graham-Harrison (United Kingdom) em• United Nations. He felt that the Declaration adopted by phasized that it was of crucial importance that the report the Congress was merely a starting-point, and he trusted of the Congress should not remain a point of rest, but that the participants would return to their countries with that it should rather be a point of departure. He hoped a firm determination to persuade their Governments the lead given by the Congress would be energetically to put into effect the ideas put forward by the Congress. followed by all countries and by the United Nations, He proposed that a cable should be sent to the Secretary- both centrally and regionally, to the greatest extent that General of the United Nations, expressing appreciation resources permitted. for the work done by the United Nations Secretariat in 258. Mr. Okwaare (Uganda) pointed out that the preparing for, and ensuring the success of, the Congress. presence of participants from so many countries was It was so decided and the following cable was sent to the evidence of the concern throughout the world over the Secretary-General by the President of the Congress: problem of crime. The Congress had provided a deeper "The Fourth United Nations Congress on the Prevention insight into the question of how to deal with that problem. of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders instructed me, He proposed that a continuing Congress secretariat at its final plenary session held on 26 August, to convey should be established inmediately to continue the work to you by cable the congratulations of the Congress on of the Congress and that the United Nations Social the superb organization and the very fine preparations Defence Section should be expanded and allocated made for this Congress. The Congress was particularly increased resources. He appealed to the United Nations impressed with the learned working papers, the way to establish a United Nations social defence institute for in which section and plenary sessions were conducted,

— 31 — the appropriate choice of representatives from the various Committee, then made a closing statement in which he geographical regions and the technical excellence of the thanked the representatives for the expressions of Congress servicing. I am instructed to say that the parti• appreciation voiced and expressed gratitude to the United cipants were most grateful to the United Nations for a Nations and to all participants for their fruitful co-oper• really outstanding piece of work. Many participants ation, which had assured the significant results the Con• believe this to have been a Congress marking a new gress had achieved. dimension in international co-operation for crime pre• vention." 266. On behalf of the Government of Canada, 264. Mr. Cornil (International Society for Social Mr. Grossman extended a formal invitation to the Defence, International Council on Social Welfare, United Nations to convene the Fifth United Nations International Society for Criminology), speaking on Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment behalf of the non-governmental organizations and the of Offenders in 1975 at Toronto. individual participants, noted that the non-governmental 267. On behalf of the Congress, the President expressed organizations had an important role to play in encour• appreciation to the Government of Canada and Mr. Gross• aging public participation in the prevention and control man for that generous offer, which he then placed before of crime. He welcomed the statement of the representative the meeting. The proposal to hold the next Congress at of the Secretary-General concerning the follow-up being Toronto was accepted by acclaim. After expressing his planned for the work of the Congress. The crime situa• gratification with the results of the Congress, the Pre• tion in the economically developed countries was alarm• sident thanked the participants and all those who had ing, and he hoped that under the leadership of the ensured the success of the work; and he declared the United Nations a strengthened programme of work Fourth United Nations Congress on the Prevention

268. Sir Leon Radzinowicz began his address by mental ends. But the effectiveness of international con• expressing his gratitude to the President of the Congress ventions could be overrated. The United Nations Insti• and the Japanese Organizing Committee, to the Execu• tute for Training and Research had attributed national tive Secretary, and to all those who, like the Chairmen failures to ratify human rights conventions largely to of the four sections and other participants, had contrib• the following causes: (a) newly independent countries, uted to the success of the Congress and to his comfortable called upon for the first time to ratify international stay in Japan. He felt it to be a great honour to have been treaties, might lack as yet the expert legal and adminis• invited by the United Nations to be Genera] Rapporteur trative staff to examine the implications; (b) the consti• for the Congress; and recalling that he had been the tutions of many countries made ratification of such first head of the Social Defence Section of the United agreements a slow and difficult process; (c) ratification Nations, he noted that four others who had since suc• sometimes requires alteration of existing national law; ceeded him in that position were present at the Congress. (d) regional treaties covering similar ground might 269. Sir Leon then followed with an analysis of the already exist; (e) there might be clashes between national work of each section, beginning with agenda item (3). ministries of law (or justice) and of foreign (or external) affairs; (f) political, social or economic situations in particular States might be a bar to certain provisions of THE STANDARD MINIMUM RULES FOR THE TREATMENT OF the treaties. PRISONERS IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN 274. To those obstacles to ratification must be added THE CORRECTIONAL FIELD the difficulties of enforcing conventions even when ratified—difficulties only too similar to those of enforcing 270. The first international "set of general Rules" on unpopular criminal laws, and only too similar in their the treatment of prisoners had been proposed and drafted consequences. Moreover, the wrangling and the proce• in England for the International Prison Commission dural complications involved in a convention might well as long ago as 1925. Since then, work on the Rules had prove fatal to the Rules as such. One's endurance, in• been pursued consistently and in many directions. terests and resources were not limitless; and unless one 271. The scientific and professional organizations, the directed them to what was immediately practical, they specialized agencies, the League of Nations, the Inter• would soon wither. national Penal and Penitentiary Commission, the Secre• 275. For all those reasons, Sir Leon stated, it was tariat of the United Nations, the First United Nations good that the report on agenda item (3) showed a flexible Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment and realistic attitude. It might be that, to secure enforce• if Offenders, the Benelux Commission, the Council of ment of the Rules in individual cases, it would be neces• Europe through its Special Committee on Crime Problems sary for countries to bring prisoners within the jurisdiction —all those bodies and others had worked on the Rules of an ombudsman, or of bodies like the French Conseil at one time or another. Penological thought had been d'Etat or the Japanese Civil Liberties Bureau; or perhaps meticulous, and the bulk of the Rules had grown from courts should accept more responsibility (as some had the fifty-five articles endorsed by the League of Nations done in the United States of America) for appeals from in 1934 to the current total of ninety-four. prisoners against breaches of their civil rights. Neverthe• 272. Revision of the Rules had taken three directions. less, even apart from such, additional safeguards, the First had been changes in particular sectors of the Rules, Prison Rules could have a major function in penal in particular, classification and treatment, discipline and evolution. restraint, work, religious care, prison staff and after-care. 276. Their adoption had never been more urgent. The Secondly, attempts had been made to distinguish between expansion of prison systems had failed to keep pace with the rules relating to basic human rights and those con• the increase of crime, and especially of serious crime. cerned with more detailed aspects of prison regime or That failure had been due in part to lack of foresight, in treatment. Thirdly, there had been concern with en• part to over-optimism about alternatives and in part to forcement of the Rules. the low priority given to prison reform. It would be very 273. Important as they were, those preoccupations valuable if the United Nations could carry out a new could be carried too far: "le mieux est Vennemi du bieri". international census of prison populations throughout It would be justifiable and practicable to incorporate the world. In addition, the upsurge in crime might well several of the modifications in form and substance, pro• provoke calls for greater severity. That factor made it posed during the past twenty years, into the existing essential to preserve the balance by evolving guarantees draft of the Rules, giving greater prominence to funda• and checks in the penal sphere, in the interests not only

— 33 — of prisoners, but of staff. A strong sub-committee of the but they were sometimes a reflection of public doubt and Advisory Committee, or still better, a small authorititative insecurity, reflecting a sense of emergency, a political working party, should be set up to give the final touches device to rally society behind a regime, an ideology or to the Standard Minimum Rules and to present them a slogan. The building-up of an effective system of crimi• to the appropriate authorities of the United Nations for nal justice might be jeopardized if any expectation were their speedy adoption and gradual implementation. to be created that public participation would supply a 277. The next United Nations Congress, instead of substitute for the professional and technical skill needed debating the question again, should receive the first in modern societies to deal with crime, with other un• progress reports on the efforts to promote prison reform desirable forms of deviant dehaviour and with threats throughout the world. to public order. The mobilization of adequate resources of money, manpower and skill, for the purposes of cri• minal justice, which even the most affluent societies PARTICIPATION OF THE PUBLIC IN THE PREVENTION found so obdurate a problem, would be made even more AND CONTROL OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY difficult if the belief were to gain ground that that for• midable task could be discharged by cheaper means and 278. Sir Leon began his analysis of the report on agenda by short cuts. item (2), participation of the public in the prevention and control of crime and delinquency, by stating that such 281. Nevertheless, Sir Leon stated, the report on participation could mean many things, from the jury, agenda item (2) showed that in many parts of the world treasure of liberalism, to the sordid exploits of the Ku forms of public participation in controlling crime had KIux Klan. First, it affected the whole spectrum of con• played, and were continuing to play, a fruitful and socially trol: direct prevention, criminal law and procedure; inspiring role. The topic should be retained on the agenda police; courts; treatment; discharge and after-care of of the United Nations; indeed, a working group should offenders; central direction, planning and research. And be established to scrutinize it. Its first responsibility the mass media were being used to intensify it. Secondly, should, perhaps, be to select a few of the most significant its influence took different forms: public action might be schemes of public participation in the control of crime direct or indirect; sustained or sporadic; expanding, currently operating in the world, and to sponsor a tho• static or contracting; isolated from the official machinery rough and honest evaluation of each of them. Such a or co-operating with it: competitive or supplementary. study would be of value to all countries, irrespective of Thirdly, its form depended largely upon the diversity of their current involvement. cultural, political and social situations existing indifferent countries at different stages of their development. The ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT developing countries were moving towards unity and AND SOCIAL DEFENCE consistent legal systems, with formal procedural safe• guards and official systems of enforcement. At the same 282. In analysing the report on agenda item (4), orga• time, they were anxious to retain what was best in the nization of research for policy development and social traditional norms and controls. The major developed defence, Sir Leon observed first that the United Nations countries, at the other extreme, were trying to recover has consistently endeavoured to promote criminological 1 something of the feelings of local identity and mutual research. Regionally and nationally, there had been a responsibility, and to bring them into partnership with similar growth of interest. Directors of criminological the modern systems of crime control. Yet, the virtues of institutes had been meeting at Strasbourg under the aegis liberalism, the recognition of the rights of individuals and of the Council of Europe. In the United States of America, groups to their varying beliefs and ways of life, brought there were plans to organize criminological research as a beneficial awareness of the pitfalls of attempts by one a national commitment. Those plans included the pro• group to "rehabilitate" those of another. posals advanced in the report of the President's Commis• sion, Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967); the 279. Public participation could not be assumed to be report entitled A National Programme of Research, good in all circumstances; nor could it be rejected alto• Development, Test, and Evaluation, prepared by the Insti• gether. It was necessary to distinguish gradations in its tute of Defence Analysis (1968); and to the first report appropriateness and efficiency, in relation to different of the recently established National Institute of Law kinds of participation and at different historical stages of Enforcement and Criminal Justice (1970). Directors of development. Some forms could be considered to be, criminological research centres in North America were in general, desirable (for example, the visiting and after• care of prisoners). Some were usually dangerous (such as assumption by the public of the duties of the police or the imposition of penalties by untrained laymen). 1 See, for example, Second United Nations Congress for the Some should only be undertaken by way of experiment, Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (United with careful weighing of the evidence and regular review. Nations publication, Sales No.: 61.IV.3); International Review All should be subject to scientific and detached revalua• of Criminal Policy, No. 23 (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 65.IV.4): the discussion on research in Third United Nations tion at intervals. Congress for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders 280. It was also important to acknowledge that public (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 67.IV.1); International participation could never become a major instrument of Review of Criminal Policy, No. 28 (United Nations publication, Sales No'.: 70.IV.9); and'workine papers prepared for the Fourth crime control. Calls for its increase reflected official United Nations Congress. KvotoT 1970 (A/CONF.43/1; A/CONF. recognition of the need for allies in combating crime; 43/2; A/CONF.43/3T A/CONF.43/4).

— 34 — coming together for critical assessments. In Canada, the gical centres and institutes already in existence in many Committee of Corrections (1969) had outlined a project Member States: and thirdly, to help to improve them, for the organization of research. England (United King• to enable them to profit from each other's experiences, dom), like Japan, had an outstanding official research as well as their own, and to promote their spread across unit, and smaller research units were developing in the world. Sir Leon stated that the report on agenda Australia and New Zealand. Outside the English- item (4) provided a powerful case for the setting-up of speaking world, many other examples could be given, a working group or a committee under the auspices of including the re-emergence of criminological research the United Nations, with those objectives in view. It in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. was also high time to bring the subject of the training 283. It was not, therefore, surprising, Sir Leon said, and status of criminological researchers to the forefront. that much of the discussion of methodology and organi• zation seemed commonplace. There could scarcely be SOCIAL DEFENCE POLICIES IN RELATION any disagreement on a number of questions: TO DEVELOPMENT PLANNING {a) That distinction between so-called "basic" and "applied" research currently had little real meaning; 285. Sir Leon opened his discussion of the report on (b) That there was need to have criminological re• agenda item(l), social defence policies in relation to search carried out in universities, as well as in ministries; development planning, by stating that the United Nations, (c) -That, as far as possible, research should always be in its earliest years, had seen social defence primarily in planned to anticipate any new piece of legislation; terms of specific problems, such as trends in crime and (d) That it was imperative to set up research whenever methods of treating offenders. Similarly, national plan• ew experiments were launched; ning had been seen in terms of specific needs, such as (e) That it was essential to pursue research as a con• the rebuilding of industries or homes for refugees, which tinuing process in all the most important sections of had called mainly for economic solutions and massive criminal justice, criminal law enforcement and treatment; material resources. (f) That research, in order to be fruitful, must be 286. As the vision had widened on both sides, the two conducted with the aid of different methods and promoted had been brought closer together. The Meeting of Experts from different points of view; and if specialists from on Social Policy and Social Planning (Stockholm, 1969) different disciplines were not actually working together had welcomed a new recognition that economic develop• in teams, there still was need to have at least some of ment was only one aspect of social development and that each of them available for consultation; planning which concentrated upon that aspect alone was (g) That long-term, medium-term and short-term self-defeating. It had stressed that the marginal groups projects should be shrewdly distributed because there was, in a country—especially the young among them—must and would continue to be, a scarcity of highly qualified be brought into the full stream of development. While researchers and of ample financial means, and because not denying the importance of the economic goal, it theTe should be a sense of urgency about criminological had emphasized the dangers of seeking it with blinkered work; concentration. (A) That results of research should not be kept secret, 287. It was that basic shift from purely economic to but should be published and made the subject of wide broader social objectives that had brought social defence discussion and criticism; policies closer to development planning. Planning was (i) That the researcher and policy-maker were two dif• no longer merely a matter of first aid, or of economic ferent kinds of animal: there might be a difference, and assistance. It aspired to guide all aspects of social develop• deed sometimes a clash, between their approaches; ment, to control destructive by-products of change even (/) That research should be presented in a readable while fostering creative potentialities. Crime was a kvay so as to be understood and appreciated by those by-product: it was not a separate problem or a superim• outside a necessarily restricted circle of experts; posed pattern, but part of the warp and weft of social (k) That research relating to one particular country development; and its remedies were to be looked for would gain in significance and appreciation if it could be not only in specific measures, but in the very processes :ompared with similar research carried out in another by which the texture of society was woven. :ountry. 288. Since the third Congress at Stockholm, the United 284. Methodological problems of great complexity Nations had devoted much thought to persuading ind importance remained, of course, and should be countries not to deal with social defence in isolation from vigorously explored by appropriate scientific bodies. It development planning as a whole. It would be helpful vas vital, however, that criminologists in general should if the United Nations could produce, and keep up to lot become obsessed with the purposes and mechanics date, a small manual on social change, social planning )f research. The most urgent task for the United Nations and social defence. n that sphere, in pursuance of the work done on agenda 289. Sir Leon said that the only point on which he tem (4), was, first, to ascertain what Governments were ventured to disagree with the report on agenda item (1) ;oing to do to adopt systematic criminological research was the proposition that "social defence planning should >f high quality as an essential national commitment and be an integral and essential part of planning for national s an integral part of governmental machinery: secondly, development". That view appeared too rigid and sweeping. o acquire a much more thorough and critical knowledge Each of the elements essential to advanced social develop• han was currently available at the official criminolo• ment—industrialization, urbanization, population growth,

— 35 — a higher proportion of young people, mobility, willingness During the past two decades, the Social Defence Section to take risks and the rest—had been branded crimino• had not been enlarged. Applications for technical assis• genic. Though none caused crime on its own, and even tance in social defence had decreased alarmingly. Of the combinations did not cause crime in all cases, yet they four regional institutes accepted as basic objectives, only might be associated with it. one had been established. Although the United Nations 290. Nevertheless, none of the major features of devel• Social Defence Research Institute at Rome had begun opment was likely to be abandoned, or even pushed into to function at the beginning of 1968, much hard thinking second place, for the sake of crime prevention. With was still needed to clarify its real functions in practical limited resources, some pa".u rns of crime might have to terms. Each of the quinquennial Congresses left behind be accepted as "costs" of development. Nor was there a tremendous amount of work. Sir Leon pointed out that any certainty that greater prosperity would bring a reduc• he had suggested seven undertakings arising out of the tion in crime. Nor were there specific measures of social Fourth Congress alone; and there was always the next policy that could guarantee such a reduction. Moreover, Congress to be planned. A standing working committee he observed that since social planning was so much of high quality was required to connect one Congress vaster a complex than social defence, the fusion of the to the next. Further thought should be given to the two might mean the disappearance of the latter as a organization of regional conferences; and, in selecting matter of special and specialist concern. Lastly, too close topics for discussion, it might be timely to scrutinize an integration might give the public the dangerous more thoroughly the work of police and prison staff. impression that dealing with crime called for no more 294. The very status of social defence within the strua than a form of social service. ture of the United Nations gave rise to uneasiness. Hv 291. Ma.ny activities of social defence, especially in queried whether the Advisory Committee of Experts the machinery of justice and the treatment of offenders, could be extended to become a commission for the called for study and solutions sui generis. Hence, the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders, on a warning that social planning must not be allowed to par with the Commissions on Human Rights or Narcotic take the place once held by the search for the causes of Drugs. It was the very fact that the Secretariat of the crime: it must not be considered the key to all problems, United Nations had achieved so much that was worth the one answer to crime that would make all other while in difficult circumstances that prompted one to answers redundant. The need for police, for courts, for press for fuller recognition and support for that phase probation, for devices for the treatment of offenders, of their endeavours, both from the United Nations even for prisons, would remain. So would the need to Organization as a whole and from individual States. investigate their working, to evaluate their effectiveness, Social defence had found its place in the Declaration on to weigh up their costs, and constantly to seek more Social Progress and Development and in the programme potent devices for the control of criminality. of the Second Development Decade. It deserved a new deal. 292. Summing up, Sir Leon stated that what was needed was the building of genuine links and reliable 295. In his opening address, the Under-Secretary- bridges between social planning and social defence, at General for Economic and Social Affairs had emphasized the central and local levels and in all countries, whether the grave international responsibility for meeting the developing or developed. But one should not go beyond disturbing manifestations of crime. The other aspect of that point. that responsibility was in many ways more grim than crime itself. In 1781, Sir Samuel Romilly had said c John Howard's book, The State of Prisons\ "What h. INTERNATIONAL PROSPECTS singular journey! ... to compare the misery of men in 293. As concerned international prospects in social different countries, and to study the arts of mitigating defence, Sir Leon posed the question whether the United the torments of mankind". That misery, Sir Leon stated, Nations was in a position to carry endeavours further. still prevailed.

- 36 - PART THREE. SUMMARIES OF LECTURES

I. Criminality and deviance in a changing world Convention of 1963 on offences commited aboard aircraft. Such penal measures might not be very effective, 296. The first lecture, on criminality and deviance in however, because usually political offences were involved, a changing world, was delivered by Mr. Paul Cornil, which hampered extradition. In the same context, terrorist Honorary Secretary-General of the Ministry of Justice, action against airlines, jeopardizing plane, crew and pas• Belgium. He explained his lecture as an attempt to trace sengers, also used threats. In that case also political the frontier between two ideas closely linked in the custom, factors were often, if not always, operative. Criminology law, morality and language of each country, namely, tried to meet that challenge not only by preventive mea• criminality, a juridical concept; and deviance, a construct sures, but by criminalizing those acts, which undoubtedly of sociology. He pointed out that traditional methods of constituted a "social danger". social defence were no longer adequate to meet the new 300. Mr. Cornil observed that another grave form of demands of -technological change and that legislators crime long known, but currently assuming new and dis• had too often found refuge in more laws and new prohi• quieting forms, was the kidnapping of children followed bitions which created so many crimes that it was impossible by blackmail or an attempt to obtain a high ransom. The to control them; a large number of offenders against old life of the hostage was in danger; and, as in the Lindbergh and new laws were never detected or prosecuted. One of case in 1932, the payment of the sum demanded might the main reasons for that failure was the application of not prevent the child's killing—sometimes because of the repressive methods not only to criminal acts, but to fear of detection and the danger to the offenders of deviant behaviour which required other forms of control. leaving a living witness. Seizure of hostages, often the 297. Mr. Cornil went on to describe the two central holding of notables, such as diplomats or foreign officials, concepts of his lecture. Crime was defined by reference has increasingly been used to bring pressure to bear on a to the law, as being a violation of the law; deviance might Government, e.g., for the release of political prisoners. be taken as behaviour that was beyond the range of the Any negative reaction by the authorities could endanger individual variations from the "normal" tolerated by a the life of the hostage and throw discredit upon a Govern• culture. Like deviance, the legal definition of a crime ment unable to protect diplomats on its soil. changed continuously for, though fixed by law, the idea 301. Recourse to violence occupied an equally impor• of crime changed as the law was affected by social changes. tant place in serious crime of common law—especially Some forms of behaviour were no longer considered in the United States of America. Such violence could take "criminal"—a phenomenon known as "decriminaliza• multiple forms, some of which were out-of-date, such as tion"; on the other hand, some forms of behaviour could the forcible recruitment or "shanghaiing" of sailors for be made punishable or be more severely punished than ships of the "white-slave" traffic. Apart from spectacular before, and that was "criminalization". crime?, however, the Presidential Commission had des• 298. The repression of a crime diminished when it cribed a powerful and clandestine network of criminals was punished less severely than provided for by the operating all kinds of business and protection rackets criminal law, as in cases of adultery or certain types of in the United States of America. Corruption of certain petty theft. Decriminalization assumed a more radical public authorities was often accompanied by brutal form when the law itself was formally repealed, as in the intimidation, but it could also be more insidious. The case of suicide, which had been prohibited by French fight against it, according to the Commission, called for Ordinance in 1670, but which had ceased to be prohibited a national strategy and might even involve methods a century later. Homosexuality, prostitution and vagrancy intruding on the private lives of citizens by monitoring were also cases in point. telephones or a variety of "bugging" devices. 299. Criminalization was as frequent as decriminaliz• 302. Those few examples of serious criminal activities ation. The prohibition of alcohol in the United States showed that if the forms of criminality and the serious• of America in 1920 was an example of the criminalization ness of crime changed with development, the volume of of a problem. Recent events were good examples of the crime did not necessarily diminish with technical progress demand for the criminalization of certain acts, notably or with improvements in levels of living. the hijacking of aircraft. Hijacking could be subdivided 303. In addition to criminality—and sometimes within into the "derouting of aircraft" and "acts of terrorism it—one found a growth of social ailments reflected in against the security of aerial navigation". As concerned abnormal and deviant dehaviour. In that connexion, the derouting of aircraft, which had become common of Mr. Cornil gave two typical examples which, though late, the general notion was to have penal measures taken quite different, would permit conclusions to be drawn by the countries adhering to the Tokyo International as to the effectiveness of remedial measures. He de-

— 37 — scribed deviance, first in relation to driving. In quoting towards decriminalization was manifest. In the United figures for the tremendous growth in the number of States of America, the President's Commission set up in vehicles, transforming the ways of life and causing the 1967 had proposed the radical decriminalization of death of many people in road accidents, Mr. Cornil said drunkenness; and there was a feeling that criminal that while one could not hope to suppress that develop• justice could not deal with it. Certainly public opinion ment, it was not necessary to accept the situation fatalistic• had ceased to regard drunkenness alone as a crime so ally. Although one might be forced to adapt the trend that it currently fitted more properly into the category of urbanization to the motor-car, and that adaptation of deviance. The number of offences committed under involved improvements in motor-cars, roads and cities, the influence of alcohol, however, indicated that it the primary factor in accidents would remain the human would not disappear altogether from the penal law. More one. It was necessary to get the driver to avoid dangerous important was the recent problem of the use of chemical conduct, but the complication was that in the majority drugs or narcotics of a natural origin. There was legisla• of cases, a dangerous driver risked his own life first and tion to regulate the medical use of those products and to did not seem intimidated by the fear of death. What penalize their irregular use. Many industrialized countries deterrence could then be expected of a medium prison were experiencing a growing vogue of consumption of term for an offence that did not carry a dishonourable drugs, among which hard drugs, such as heroin, occupied stigma? The efforts of legislators were directed mainly an important place. The problem was the physical and towards preventive regulations. They expected the driver, psychological dependence of the drug addict, which kept for example, to ensure that he should have the physical him at the mercy of the supplier. Mr. Cornil stated that and psychological qualifications for driving in accordance repressive measures against addicts, as well as suppliers* with the United Nations Convention on Road Traffic impeded preventive action. Drug addiction made illegal of 1968. That requirement, however, did not go very became secret, drugs became more expensive and the far since the interested person was the worst judge of addict had to find the money by illegal means, becoming a his physical condition and ability to drive. More useful seller himself, or obtaining it through theft, fraud or was legislation prohibiting driving under the influence prostitution. Since addicts seeking the money by illegal of alcohol, which offence showed a tendency to become means did not usually have previous criminal experience, a crime in the full sense. One might well use the same they were likely to resort to the crudest forms of crime, measures against persons taking the wheel while very such as street "mugging" with violence, which created tired or under the influence if hallucinatory drugs, but a widespread feeling of public insecurity. convenient methods for detection and measurement of 307. That secondary criminality was promoted, if not those conditions were not yet available. created, by the excessive criminalization which struck at 304. Obviously, traffic offences were somewhat dif• the user as well as the supplier. To escape that vicious ferent from criminality. In most cases, the penalty was circle, the United Kingdom had recently decided to a fine to be paid on the spot. If the acts were serious and provide legally drugs to the addicts, as an experiment, were repeated, Mr. Cornil said, it appeared that the thus avoiding the need to act illegally to obtain drugs and temporary or permanent cancellation of the driver's cutting out the black market in their sale. licence was appropriate—although legal safeguards must 308. In concluding, Mr. Cornil stressed that there was be provided to ensure that such measures should be taken a great difference between those two social dangers, only when justified by a real incapacity for normal driving. criminality and deviance, and that they must be controlled 305. In that context, traffic offences might be decrimi• by different means. Penal measures against culpable nalized on the grounds that the traffic police were fighting motor-car drivers would only bring failure; and, in deviant conduct more than crime. Thus, in 1968, the dealing with the drug problem, repressive measures Federal Republic of Germany had removed traffic would wreak havoc, leading many deviants to criminal offences from the penal code. There were, however, many behaviour. He urged a reorganization of effort to separ• problems still to be solved. ate, as far as possible, the treatment of deviants from the measures to control criminality. 306. Mr. Cornil went on to describe the relationship between drug addiction and deviance. The drug problem, although not a new one, had reached huge proportions II. Crime and the penal system in some countries, and exceptional preventive and repres• sive measures were needed to cope with it. The reasons 309. The second lecture, on crime and the penal system, that drugs were taken varied greatly. They might be was delivered by Mr. Manuel Lopez-Rey, Professor of employed for medical reasons, for aesthetic reasons, in Criminal Law and Criminology, Bolivia. He said that sports, to create a feeling of euphoria or to relieve pres• the purpose of his lecture was to show that with some sures of all kinds. Abuse of coffee, tea or tobacco might exceptions, the penal system of the current time did not also be dangerous; but such abuse did not appear to correspond to current and future evolution of society; justify restriction despite the evidence of a connexion that it was, in general, obsolete and manifestly unjust; between smoking and disease. By contrast, the abuse of and that, as a whole, it was a contributing factor to the alcohol had invoked legislation in many countries. increase of crime. While the medical doctor was concerned about the danger 310. The organization and functioning of any penal of an individual becoming dependent on alcohol, the system was mainly determined by certain factors: (a) the legislator had long been concerned about public drunken• concept and extent of crime; (b) the socio-economic and ness. Nevertheless, that was an area in which the tendency political structure of society; (c) the kind of criminal

— 38 — policy adopted; (d) the role played by criminology and penal source, originating in a kingdom which had long allied disciplines. since disappeared. There were, however, two codes 311. Mr. Lopez-Rey dealt with each of those factors —that of Sweden (1965) and that of the German Demo• in turn. Crime was essentially a socio-political concept cratic Republic (1969)—which Mr. Lopez-Rey thought defined by criminal law which performed a socio-poli• to be short, concise, flexible and relatively free of casuistry. tical function, i.e., that of protecting the historical con• 316. Even model penal codes raised two questions: a tinuum of a particular society in which the individual general one concerning the validity of penal models in a was not the only element to be considered. His co-exis• rapidly changing society; and a technical one, whether a tence with other elements made the protection of human penal code should deal with tieatment and correction, rights imperative. Therefore, crime and criminal justice, including probation. While national penal codes did not though related to socio-economic structures and develop• exclude some transplantation of what was done elsewhere ment, went beyond both; and the socio-political character or the retention of part of what had been inherited or of crime as a concept made it clear that the prevention created, such areas should conform to the penal needs of of crime and the treatment of offenders could not find the current and immediate future of the country con• their solution solely in the process of economic and social cerned: the drafting of a legal code demanded as much development. collection of facts and formulation of projections as the 312. One of the greatest difficulties was to decide the planning of national economic development. objective of the criminal policy. For many, that objective 317. Mr. Ldpez-Rey then considered the slowness of was still the rehabilitation of the offender, which had, the administration of justice as a result of antiquated in most cases, failed utterly because many offenders were court machinery, cumbersome criminal procedures, not interested in being rehabilitated as long as the socio• unjustified habits and practices in the legal profession political system remained the same; others could not be and the growing extent of crime as a socio-political rehabilitated; and no penal system would ever be able phenomenon. The "negotiated plea of guilty", as used to counteract in short periods of time the impact of in the United States of America, shocked the honest unfavourable general living conditions. The objective first offender, discredited the penal system and made could not be social defence, which was, at best, equivocal the promised rehabilitation more suspicious than ever. and relied too much upon a prophylaxis which frequently Nor did it prevent frequent delays in the administration ignored the limits imposed by human rights. Mr. Lopez- of justice, ranging from six months to two years. That Rey said that the only feasible and justifiable purpose of practice, together with abusive arrest, detention and criminal policy was that of ensuring justice. bail practices, accounted in part for the chronic over• 313. One of the great obstacles for effective criminal crowding of most jails and prisons in the United States, policies was the lack of financial resources. France, in in spite of accelerated probation and parole systems. 1969, had assigned less than 1 per cent of its total budget 318. Though the "negotiated plea of guilty" was not to the "administration of justice"; and the developing practised in the United Kingdom, there, too, a slowness countries annually spent over $6,000 million on arma• was spreading through the system. Mr. Lopez-Rey then ments, in comparison with which the amount devoted gave examples or slowness in procedure in other countries to criminal policy was ridiculous. —France, Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, Iran, Thai• 314. In dealing with the subject of criminology, land, India, Ghana and Liberia. Mr. Lopez-Rey suggested that although it had contributed 319. With respect to the prison system itself, there were to a better knowledge of the crime problem, it reflected, still too many countries in which no prison administration with some exceptions, an image of society which no longer existed or what was regarded as such was run by the existed. Even assuming that criminology, as a discipline, army, gendarmerie or the police, or reduced to a small was scientifically sound, a distinction must be made be• section of the ministry of justice. The huge closed penal tween that soundness and the attitudes and preoccupations institution still prevailed, currently disguised as a complex of criminologists, whether from the right or from the or satellite institution. To the modern mind, the contem• left. Distinction was also necessary between "establish• porary criminal justice machinery, rather than inspiring ment" criminology—government-directed criminology— respect and understanding, was a contributing factor to and independent criminology. For financial reasons, the crime, as well as an expression of socio-political injustice. latter was not always as independent as it claimed to be. 320. On the problem of juvenile delinquency, Mr. Ld• The shortcomings would be considerably reduced if a pez-Rey said that the concept evolved around a fictional substantial part of criminological research were part of meaning of "child", which should be abandoned. That a planned criminal policy set up jointly by governmental did not mean that juveniles should be treated as adults; agencies and those in charge of research in criminology, but the growing role of youth in contemporary society criminal law, penology, criminal justice and allied fields. and the fact that crime was a socio-political concept 315. Mr. L6pez-Rey then dealt at length with the penal meant that the individualization of the treatment of system. He held that many penal codes were obsolete and offenders could not be based on the dividing line of a gave many examples derived from modern codes. He particular age-limit. The determinant must be the role traced aspects of a considerable number of penal codes played by the individual in society and his personal and to the Italian, or Zanardelli, Code of 1888, which was environmental conditions. Currently, the so-called "child" largely based on the Sardinian Code of 1859, so that an wa - trying hard to reform a society that, in many respects, appreciable number of countries of different and even had failed: it was therefore naive to say that the growing opposing characteristics shared to a great extent the same protest and intervention were subcultural expressions.

— 39 — 321. The triple correlation between the socio-political in illicit narcotics traffic in 1968, that Canada had recently structure, the socio-political character of crime and the set up a committee to inquire into the use of psychotropic socio-political role of the individual led to the conclusion drugs (excluding heroin and opium) and that there was that the individual was always responsible in accordance grave concern about the involvement of youth in the with a system of social expectations and roles; i.e., in drug problem, the data were still so inadequate that it the same way that society was expected to take care of was very difficult to known whether to join the alarmists the individual, the latter was expected to take care of or the optimists. Some would say that there could be a society. It was that concept of social responsibility which "drug problem" problem. Certainly, very little was known, should replace the current concept of criminal respon• and there often was an unwillingness to rethink the older sibility. In other words, criminal responsibility should concepts while witnessing a drastic change in the not be based, as it currently was, on the individual act phenomenon. as an isolated act. 325. Mr. Khalifa then dealt with the reasons for the 322. Lastly, dealing with penal sanctions, Mr. Lopez- recourse to drugs and the problem of addiction, pointing Rey criticized the transformation of the non-payment out that character and personality factors were at work of fines into imprisonment. That practice was a significant in the selection of addicts, as well as the environmental source of criminal injustice throughout the world. He circumstances which made addiction a form of socially was critical also of short-term imprisonment, which, by learned behaviour. its time limitation, excluded the prospects of rehaoili- 326. Drug abuse, including alcohol and its spread, tation. He calculated that the average daily world prison should be viewed in a larger context as one of the current population (excluding political prisoners) was from central problems. In that perspective, it affected a greatei 1.5 million to 2 million; and that of that number, about population than when it was conceived as limited to 1.3 million were imprisoned for less than six months, addicts. It was by no means a recent phenomenon. Every actually, in many cases for less than three months. Of community, perhaps, had its quota of drug use of some the remainder, only a small segment was kept long enough kind; the selection depended upon many factors—reli• to attempt real rehabilitation. Moreover, there was a gious, geographical, economic, developmental. At any growing problem of foreign prisoners in national penal rate, Mr. Khalifa believed that the use or abuse of drugs institutions as a result of improving transport facilities, had always been " functional". Merton's "anomie" unilateral aid, commercial ties, political relations, tourism, concept was apposite in that connexion, viewing pressures etc. In those cases, rehabilitation was even more of a towards deviancy as being created by the frustration of problem. A new policy permitting sentences on foreigners aspirations to reach higher cultural goals. Thus, thirst to be served in the offender's own country was required, and hunger might be relieved by the chewing of the coca and that policy could be achieved by international leaf, or drugs might be a means of compensating for agreements or reciprocity. inability or unwillingness to function adequately in a society. The studies of the National Centre for Social 323. Looking to the future, Mr. Lopez-Rey observed and Criminological Research at Cairo had revealed a that the two main tasks to be undertaken were, first, to close association in people's minds between hashish determine, not necessarily with arithmetical exactness, and relaxation. Sexual abilities were said to be heightened the amount of crime that a given society could tolerate by hashish, though that was debatable; it affected the without being seriously disrupted; and, secondly, to plan imagination, which was in itself important. criminal justice in accordance with current and foreseeable trends in which the role of technology and science in 327. Mr. Khalifa set forth the concept that society creating a better life style should be scrutinized. Both was currently confronted with a problem of a dua tasks presupposed a considerable reduction of what were character or, as some writers had put it, there were two currently labelled as criminal offences: 40 per cent of subcultures of drug users—the heroin (narcotics) and the crimes currently accepted (mostly petty offences) the psychedelic. In the United States of America, it had could probably be taken care of by insurance or compen• been suggested that the "junkies" (narcotics users) sation systems. represented a cross-section of the socially, economically and culturally deprived, while "hippies"—the most visible group of psychedelics—derived largely from the middle classes. Those groups overlapped, however, and ILL Some social aspects of drug abuse there could be changes from the psychedelic group to the narcotics group due to circumstances encouraging addic• 324. The third lecture, on some social aspects of drug tion or to the availability of the drugs. Indeed, availability abuse, was delivered by Mr. Ahmed Khalifa, Chairman was one of the most important factors in the epidemiology of the Executive Board of the National Centre for Social of drug use. and Criminological Research, United Arab Republic. 328. While not assuming the existence of the two drug Introducing his subject, Mr. Khalifa observed that the subcultures, Mr. Khalifa was convinced that the drug extent of drug addiction or drug abuse, and its increase wave should not be viewed as a homogeneous pheno• or decrease, should be viewed with extreme caution. So menon exhibiting identical traits in all its aspects. The little was known about the proportions of reputed drug deprived had always had a high delinquency rate and a offenders to the total population that despite the fact cultural climate favourable to drug abuse; on the other that reports of the International Criminal Police Organ• hand, an angry younger generation was seeking ways to ization (INTERPOL) showed an increase of 30 per cent have different experiences, rather than deserting life.

— 40 — 329. The lecturer then turned to the issues of legal progress might be in a broadly based programme of philosophy and incrimination, tracing the differing views economic and social advancement. on the relationship between law and morality which 334. Mr. Khalifa then gave details of the production affected the approaches to the drug problem. There were of coca leaves, cocaine and the opium poppy, with some those who would ascribe every kind of evil to drug-taking, data on governmental action being taken to impose in a kind of "dope-fiend" mythology. Others believed acreage and yield quotas. The United Nations Commis• the law to have gone too far in incriminating the practice. sion on Narcotic Drugs was considering a draft protocol Again, there was the concern with the broader social for the international control of psychotropic drugs. He consequences of the wide use of psychedelic drugs—its asked who could have much hope in that respect, in restriction of more worth-while activities, its effects on view of the current state of affairs as concerned drugs education and the drift to irresponsible behaviour. One already internationally controlled. must also consider the problem of alcoholism which 335. In conclusion, Mr. Khalifa reminded his audience was more widespread than drug-taking. There were said that there was a drift into a pill culture so that even to be some 6 million alcoholics in the United States of happiness was not something to be pursued and attained; America, as against some 60,000 narcotics addicts. It it was only something to be swallowed. Hallucinations was believed that the effects obtained by the moderate, had replaced insight. Nobody could possibly fail to see use of marijuana can be equated with those obtained that there was a kind of affinity between the drug revo• from the moderate use of alcohol; yet, marijuana was lution and the sexual revolution, and both appeared to classified as a narcotic and imprisonment was the penalty be associated with the current emancipatory movement for its possession and use. of youth. The fact that one must face up to was that the 330. The cry, therefore, was to "legalize pot" simply world was being "revolutionized", regardless of whether because its use had become so widespread and, as with one liked it. The drug wave might not be altogether an alcohol, only its abuse attracted the disapproval pf the evil thing. It might be a reminder that the current social community. Those opposed to such legislation argued system needed readjustment and re-evaluation. that cannabis dependence—however mild—led to the use of harder drugs, such as heroin; that it led to crime; and that, although it was less of a problem than alcohol, there IV. Prison administration and planning for development was no sense in adding to society's problems—one in an African setting chemical escape-valve was enough. 331. Mr. Khalifa thought that legalization of cannabis 336. The fourth lecture, on prison administration and would not solve the problem and that any solution reached planning for development in an African setting, was concerning one type of drug would not solve the drug delivered by Mr. F. L. Okwaare, Commissioner of Prisons, problem in its entirety. On the other hand, he observed Uganda. He explained that he would try to give a current that law making and the strict enforcement of legislation general picture of the Uganda prison administration could not be the answer to social evils. He also believed within its legal framework and its administrative struc• that the idea of drug offences constituting a disease ture, showing its functions, activities, policies, philoso• which needed curative measures was practically unrea• phies, practices and treatment programmes. Throughout lizable. The relapse rate from hospital treatment of addicts his lecture, he emphasized the relevant changes that had was high, though not known exactly, and rehabilitation taken place since the independence of Uganda in 1962. was extremely difficult. 337. Mr. Okwaare explained that penal systems in 332. It would be necessary to look elsewhere for a developing countries were in a transitional phase in rational drug control programme based on a thorough which they were developing principles very different understanding of the phenomenon. The important cluster from those of the colonial era. In Uganda, each successive of drug abusers no longer comprised those persons five-year development plan period left the correctional in need of medical treatment. The battlefield was no service in a different shape and form of progress. Those longer, given the new trend in drug abuse, the books of policies and philosophies which, from experience and law or the wards of hospitals. It had become a socio- careful evaluation, had proved effective were consolidated cultural battle fought against a drug subculture which and extended. Those which had been proved ineffective was trying to develop within modern society, and one were discarded and others were initiated. could no longer close one's eyes to the defects of society 338. Mr. Okwaare pointed out that the principal aims which gave rise to such fearful side-effects. of any prison service might be summarized as the secure 333. Modern society had become possessed by posses- confinement of inmates, the ultimate protection of society si veness; and a ramified structure of organized crime through humane treatment; correction, reformation and directed the illicit traffic in drugs, buying or "buying-off" rehabilitation on discharge to prevent recidivism. In people in politics, administration or the underworld, in Uganda, those objectives were being pursued in harmony order to supply drugs throughout the world. The raw with nation-building and the promotion of more general materials were still being cultivated openly or in secret. economic and social development. The lack of control could be traced chiefly to an inade• 339. The institutional vocational training programmes quate administrative structure, to difficulty of access to for inmates were integrated, for example, with the national production areas and to the local significance of opium philosophies, policies and guilding principles contained and coca leaves as cash crops in poor agricultural econo• in the Common Man's Charter promulgated by the mies. In those circumstances, the only hope of substantial President of Uganda.

— 41 — 340. The dynamic changes in the Uganda Prison endeavour to overcome practical difficulties in the way of Service comprised a shift from closed urban institutions their application, in the knowledge that they represented to very large prison farms, from urban employment to as a whole, the minimum conditions acceptable to the vigorous and productive work on the farms; and from United Nations. purely custodial duties to correction, reformation, 345. Recalling an earlier statement. Mr. Okwaare treatment, vocational training and rehabilitation. Funds pointed out that one of the most important features of were currently being provided for welfare, rehabilitation institutional treatment and vocational training pro• and after-care services for the inmates. The Prisons grammes was their integration in national development Welfare, Rehabilitation and After-Care Division had policies. In that connexion, it was of interest to observe been established. Technical and professional staff had that the economy of Uganda depended, to a very great been employed, and their numbers increased, by the extent, upon agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry- department in such fields as agriculture, animal husban• raising, fisheries and some industries; and that provision dry, poultry-raising, fisheries, engineering and industrial had been made to modernize their methods. Since the management. Prison industries had been expanded and majority of the population lived in rural areas, the pattern diversified. Lastly, the prison was constructing its own had been to discourage the dispersion of rural popula• new buildings and facilities instead of relying on contrac• tion to urban settings. That objective had been served, tors or the Ministry of Works. inter alia, by the establishment of the twelve large prison • 341. The Minister of Internal Affairs had the task of farms. directing, guiding and co-ordinating the activities of the 346. From the point of view of the national economy Prison Service, the police and immigration officials, all the prisoner population represented a substantial labouy of which came under his jurisdiction. The Commissioner force; there was wisdom in applying that labour force of Prisons administered the service subject to the provi• to the empty lands available in the rural areas. sions of the Prison Act (and the rules and regulations Mr. Okwaare stated that the country believed in partici• made under that Act), the Habitual Criminals Act, the pation by prison inmates in the accelerated transforma• Reformatory School Act, any other relevant legislation; tion of its economy, which was designed to intensify and, of course, the general direction of the Minister. production by extending the areas under cultivation, as 342. Within the prison service, Mr. Okwaare said, well as to improve the prisoners' social and physical well- there were three levels of administration: headquarters; being prior to their return to society upon completion of regional; and institutions. The four regions coincided their sentences. with the governmental administrative regions, and an 347. The twelve large prison farms were open institu• Assistant Commissioner of Prisons was assigned to each tions varied in size from 3,000 to 15,000 acres. The number as regional commander, to supervise and inspect the of inmates varied between 400 and 700, depending upon institutions in his area. the acreage of the farm. The farms had proved relatively 343. The Uganda Prison Service was composed of forty cheap to build because, in addition to the construction establishments, of which thirty-three were institutions. All work, the inmates produced such building materials as but one of the institutions could be classified as medium bricks, tiles, building-stones, sand and timber. security institutions; the exception was a maximum 348. The urban institutions were reserved for inmates security prison. Currently, there was a total daily average with a record of repeated escapes and the chronically population of 15,000 inmates out of the country's popula• ill. Otherwise, all convicted prisoners are transferred to tion of 9.5 million people. The institutions were classified the farms, provided that their state of health as certified according to the records of the offenders as first offenders by a medical officer would permit such transfer. The> or recidivists. All persons remanded by the courts were establishment of the farms had helped to generate consi• admitted to urban prisons where they were classified derable agricultural development in the rural areas. They and then transferred either to other large urban industrial acted as a demonstration to the general public that one institutions or to large prison farms, according to the could earn a good living from agriculture, and they were vocational training programme suited for them. used by the Ministry of Agriculture for the multiplication 344. In general, the treatment of prisoners in Uganda of seed for distribution to farmers throughout the country followed the principle of the Standard Minimum Rules and for the testing of new varieties of crops. In general, for the Treatment of Prisoners. Mr. Okwaare went the prison farms served the economy by producing cash through the main prison rules to illustrate the extent to crops for conversion into commodities that enabled which they were in accord with international principles Uganda either to reduce imports, earn foreign exchange relating to reception, custody, treatment, entertainment, or set up industries. sports and recreation. Due to a shortage of psychiatrists 349. Mr. Okwaare pointed out that there had been and psychologists in Uganda, however, application of ready recognition of the remoteness of the prison farms the rule pertaining to the appointment of such specialists and the inconvenience entailed for the staff and their to help reception boards with classification awaited the families. The Government of Uganda, through the establishment of the Departments of Psychiatry and Ministries of Health and Education, had contributed to Psychology at Makarere University at Kampala. In the improving local conditions by providing canteen and meanwhile, inmates who needed psychiatric treatment, recreational facilities, drugs for dispensaries and appro• such as the criminally insane and psychopaths, were priate school accommodation. The inmates had the attended by the psychiatrists in the national hospitals. advantages of being residents of rural areas—often where In Uganda, the Rules had served to stimulate a constant their families and relations were within easy reach.

— 42 — 350. The objectives of the prison industries and handi• V. The role of the Soviet legal system crafts in the urban institutions of Uganda were basically in the prevention of crime the same as those of the prison farms. The industries were being expanded each year, to cope with the demand 355. The fifth lecture, on the role of the Soviet legal for more articles. The concept of "workshops" was being system in the prevention and control of crime, was replaced by that of "factories", each of which could delivered by Mr. Boris Alekseevich Victorov, Deputy- employ from 150 to 200 inmates, as compared with from Minister of the Interior of the Union of Soviet Socialist forty to sixty inmates employed by a workshop. The Republics. lecturer stated that the output of the industry was 356. Mr. Victorov emphasized that the Soviet legal diversified, and the standard and quality of the products doctrine was based on the major Marxist-Leninist were extremely high and make for competition. premise that the elimination of private property in the ways and means of production, the eradication of the 351. The Government of Uganda believed that a exploitation of one person by another, and the resolution realistic approach to the reformation and rehabilitation of social antagonisms led to the disappearance of basic of offenders was achieved by the elaborate training of social roots of crime. In a socialist society, all the activity senior officers, who were appointed by the President, of the people leading to the production of material and and of junior custodial staff. With that end in view, the spiritual goods, the ethics, legal system and law itself Uganda Prison Staff College had been established and have one aim: to contribute to a fuller and more adequate equipped with all the necessary facilities and an up-to-date development of the material and spiritual needs of all the library. The authorities concerned did not believe that members of society. changes in the institutions could be achieved by in- service training of prison personnel or short courses. 357. The years of Soviet power had brought important Instead, officers were trained for periods of from three changes in the structure of criminality. There had been months to four years or more in such related fields as a substantial decrease in particularly dangerous crimes. penology, criminology, management and prison admin• Professional crime had been completely expunged, mass istration. The training centres to date had been in banditry had been brought to an end and massive acts Australia, India, Israel, Japan, the United Kingdom and of violence were virtually non-existent. A citizen could the United States of America, to whose Governments the live without fear for his life and security. Government of Uganda was extremely grateful. In addi• 358. Mr. Victorov observed, however, that the com• tion to the training centres in those countries, senior plete extirpation of criminal behaviour appealed to be officers were enrolled in Makarere University or in a lengthy and complex process. The most immediate universities in the States of East Africa. reason for criminal acts in the Soviet Union was mental retardation or an inadequate adjustment to life, caused 352. Concerning planning in an African setting, several by serious shortcomings in family and school education. arguments had been advanced accusing planners and Many people were still under the influence of the views professionals in the field of crime of working separately and habits characteristic of the ideology and psychology without proper co-ordination of their activities. It had of the former socio-economic orders. The lecturer been said that planners did not recognize that economic expressed the view that the reasons for crime would tend growth and social changes generated crime; that measures to disappear with the gradual improvement of the ma• for crime prevention were not incorporated into the over• terial well-being and level of culture of the Soviet people. all national development plan; that planners did not provide those responsible for law and order with the 359. All those factors were taken into account in relevant plan data so as to permit the prediction of the planning the policy for the prevention and control of amount of crime that might accompany economic growth crime in the Soviet Union. The development process in and social changes and thus the formulation of effective the USSR had not been accompanied by any increase measures for the prevention of crime. of crime. This was due in part to the constant efforts made to balance economic development by appropriate 353. Such statements did not apply to Uganda. On measures to increase the social and cultural well-being the contrary. Mr. Okwaare made it clear that there was a of the people. Among those efforts were many special great deal of collaboration between the Ministry of actions taken by Slate organs, such as the militia, courts Planning and Economic Development and the National and procurator's offices; by voluntary organizations, Planning Commission, on the one hand, and those res• such as people's groups for public order and comradeship ponsible for law and order—Ministry of Internal Affairs, courts; or by commissions for juveniles, organized by the police, the prisons, Attorney General's Chambers, local Soviets, etc. Director of Public Prosecutions, Judiciary, Ministry of 360. In the Soviet Union, punishment, though obvi• Culture and Community Development—on the other. ously a very important factor in the fight against crime, 354. In addition, Uganda had a wealth of data for was, none the less, not considered to be a major instru• institutional planning, such as statistics on admissions, ment of social control, but rather a subsidiary one. The discharges and typology of offenders; and the country's concept of punishment was defined by the existing penal research unit at the Prisons Headquarters evaluated code. previous programmes and enabled those concerned 361. The Soviet penal and penitentiary system had to formulate plans. All those activities, concluded abandoned any such narrow approach to the legal Mr. Okwaare, were in line with the ideologies and philo• process as the search for a culprit with the intention of sophies contained in the Common Man's Charter. punishing him. The task of the legal process had been

— 43 —

4 broadened to include the discovery of the reasons and commissions for juveniles, gave help to persons released motives that induced a person to commit a criminal act. from prison; and supervised other mass organizations With those reasons and motives known, all possible for crime prevention and control, for example, the so- measures were taken to neutralize them as inducements called "supervisory commissions" at correctional insti• to criminal behaviour for other persons. Soviet law tutions. Those commissions, consisting of volunteers, reserved for the courts the right to give orders to the controlled the regime of the correctional institutions, institutions and establishments involved, to plan for the supervised the work for the rehabilitation of the inmates, immediate eradication of conditions that had proved to helped those who had been released from prison, and be criminogenic fo certain persons. wrote appeals to the courts urging them to reconsider 362. Mr. Victorov stated that the Soviet legal system some cases, when the inmate had been singled out for acknowledged the principle of "necessary defence", good behaviour and work. interpreted as the defensive action of an individual against 368. In the Soviet Union, there were more than 5 mil• a criminal act endangering his life or security. Necessary lion volunteers, who helped official law enforcement defence could be applied by an individual not only for bodies to prevent and control crime, and who worked self-defence, but for the defence of other people, or when actively for the rehabilitation of former prisoners. The damage to State or communal property was likely or most active voluntary bodies were the people's groups State or communal interests were in jeopardy. The Soviet for public order and the comradeship courts. Not long public was well acquainted with the many cases in which ago, the comradeship courts had adopted a new proce• brave defensive actions on the part of individuals had dure, according to which one of the members of such a prevented the commission of serious crimes. court or some activist was assigned to supervise the Jif} 363. The Soviet Penal Code made the punishment for and behaviour of a person who had been brought before murder much more severe when the victim or victims the court, and whose actions provided a basis for unfavour• were fulfilling their duties or trying to prevent a criminal able criminological prognosis. The conduct of such a per• act. Even a threat to a person performing his duty was son was observed closely over a period of time and evalua• prosecuted by law. ted from the point of view of its potential threat to society. 364. One very effective means of crime prevention 369. Law enforcement authorities, by means of the in the USSR was the Soviet Administrative Code. mass media, public lectures and symposia, interpreted According to that Code, the different organizations of for the public the meaning and content of the Soviet the criminal justice system might have recourse to "warn• legal system and attracted attention to the necessity of a ings". Such a warning might be issued to persons who collective stand against the deviant behaviour of persons preferred not to work, who were often being charged likely to commit a criminal act. with antisocial behaviour on the streets, or who were 370. In conclusion, Mr. Victorov observed that, in spite known to their communities as excessive drinkers, etc. of the evident success achieved with the Soviet policy They were put on record by militia bodies and warned for the prevention and control of crime, many problems that their behaviour was a nuisance to other citizens, and still remained to be solved. But the most spectacular if they committed a crime, their previous behaviour progress in that field could be realized only when social might be considered an aggravating factor. Such a defence activity assumed the dimensions of massive warning and recording of persons prone to antisocial attempts on the part of the population to prevent crime behaviour had often proved to be effective in helping an and to eliminate its causes. individual to control his behaviour. 365. Mr. Victorov pointed out that in the Soviet Union, VI. The changing role of the law much attention had been given to the rehabilitation of the in protecting prisoners' rights offender. It was accepted that that process should begin at the earliest stage in the investigation of the criminal 371. The last lecture, on the changing role of the law act. Even at the level of state law enforcement, the autho• in protecting prisoners' rights, was delivered by Mr. Roger rities were trying to develop the positive aspects of a J. Traynor, former Chief Justice of California, United criminal's intentions. That process continued throughout States of America. Mr. Traynor traced those changes to the time the criminal was kept within a correctional an ever-widening interpretation, by the United States institution. Supreme Court, of the rights guaranteed by the fourth, 366. A law had recently been adopted in the Soviet fifth, sixth and eighth amendments to the Constitution Union which regulated the rehabilitation of delinquents of the United States. By applying those rights to the who had committed crimes which were not very dangerous states, the Court had extended protection not only to and who were liable to a term of imprisonment of up to the accused undergoing a criminal process, but to pri• three years. According to that law, they might not be soners convicted of crime and undergoing sentence. imprisoned; on the contrary, they would be given the 372. The case of Mapp v. Ohio, decided in 1961, had chance to show, by their work and behaviour outside the begun that trend. In that case, it had been held that the correctional institution, that they had changed. Great care fourth amendment prohibition against illegal searches was also taken of persons who had served their terms and seizures applied not only in Federal criminal proce• of imprisonment and were returning to normal life. ^ dure, but in state criminal procedure. In the following 367. Mr. Victorov stated that the responsibility for ten years, the Bill of Rights had been made applicable to the policy of crime prevention lay solely with the local the states in the following specific instances: the right Soviets. They organized and supervised the work of the to counsel; the privilege against self-incrimination, the

— 44 — right to confront witnesses; the right to a speedy trial; had been the recent decision of the courts that the beating the right to trial by jury and the prohibition against of prisoners was a cruel and unusual punishment and double jeopardy. Judicial concern had not been limited contrary to the provisions of the United States Constitu• to accused adults, but had extended to juvenile delin• tion. The concept of cruel and unsual punishment had quency proceedings. The paternalistic approach to the also been extended to include the circumstances, in which juvenile offender had been replaced by a more legally prisoners were kept in confinement. The court had simi• oriented concern for his rights, as well as his welfare. larly concluded that control of the prison administration In a sweeping opinion, the Supreme Court had concluded by convicts under the so-called "trusty" system and the that, in proceedings from which detention could result, racial segregation of prisoners fell under the same category the juvenile must be afforded sufficient notice to prepare and were legally proscriptive. It had given the system a a defence and must be advised of his right to remain silent limited period of time to submit a plan to comply with and of his right to confront and cross-examine witnesses. the constitutional requirements. 373. Mr. Traynor asserted that a similar concern for 377. In the United States of America, an especially the rights of the accused was beginning to arise with difficult problem confronting the prison administration respect to the rights of the convicted. Prior to that devel• was how to meet the demands made by small groups of opment, it had been, in general, accepted that the pri• inmates, arising from the asserted requirements of their soner, in being convicted of a crime, forfeited all personal religious beliefs. Every effort was being extended to rights and was a "slave of the state". Consequently, afford freedom of worship without jeopardizing the whenever prisoners had complained of mistreatment, security and order of the prison institution. Mr. Traynor the courts had assumed that the issue was beyond their pointed out, however, that in a country entertaining a competence and had relegated it to the level of adminis• pluralistic approach to religious worship, that situation trative discretion. Only in rare cases had a prisoner been posed many problems; nevertheless it was believed that given the opportunity to air his grievances in a court of ultimately those problems would be solved. law. Although the general rule remained that a court 378. There were definite indications that the court would not intervene unless a complaint alleged some would continue to be involved in matters that had usually violation of a right established by the Constitution or been considered to be within the administrator's discre• by rule of law, there had been a noticeable trend in recent tion. The granting of time off for good behaviour had years to interpret complaints more broadly. been one area of intervention. Deprivation of civil rights 374. The first right of the prisoner, which was clearly had been another, and the court had prohibited the prison and unmistakeably guaranteed, was his right to have authorities from inflicting punishment without some reasonable access to the judicial system. By such access attention being paid to due process. In one instance, the was meant all the aids required by the prisoner to present court had granted the petitioner money damages as a meaningful plea to the courts. The opportunity to have compensation for such violations. One court had required access to counsel and to obtain the pertinent law-books that the inmate be provided with counsel in disciplinary was recognized as essential. At the same time, a delicate proceedings. balance must be maintained to accommodate rights and 379. Mr. Traynor stated that the central theme that responsibilities that appeared to clash head on. Mr. Tray• appeared to be evolving from all these legal decisions nor pointed out that one issue remained undecided: was that the courts would no longer tolerate an arbitrary meaningful representation required that the confidential proceeding devoid of the basic elements of fairness. nature of the attorney-client relationship be respected. Furthermore, there were some tangible indications that Prison officials, however, felt that it was necessary to significant improvements would come about in the near inspect all correspondence to prevent the smuggling of future. There had been unprecedented co-operative contraband, the formulation of escape plans and the efforts by the three branches of the criminal justice system disruption of prison administration. —the police, the courts and corrections—involving 375. A significant decision in that sensitive area had numerous exchanges of experience and ideas. In a number been made in 1969, when the Supreme Court had struck of instances, judges, police, probation officers, correc• down an administrative rule that prevented one prisoner tional personnel, lay citizens and prisoners had partici• from helping another in the preparation of a petition for pated in programmes within penal institutions, in cir• judicial relief. It had held that such a rule was unconsti• cumstances calculated to place them in situations as tutional, for it prevented an indigent and illiterate prisoner closely akin as possible to that of a prisoner. from access to the courts when no reasonable alternative 380. More specific programmes to develop an under• was open to him. Another significant encroachment in standing of life behind bars had included the setting-up that area had been made by providing legal assistance to of sentencing institutes, where the rationale of sentencing prisoners. Such provision had had a twofold effect; it was discussed; and the introduction of courses in law had allowed law students a meaningful clinical experience schools that emphasized a non-legal approach and while, at the same time, it had given the inmate access included instruction in psychiatry, sociology, criminology to trained legal advice from a source that in no sense and related subjects. was beholden to the prison system. Further, such pro• 381. Mr. Traynor closed with the confident prediction grammes had had a favourable impact on prison morale that when the United Nations Congress on the Prevention by providing a legitimate safety-valve for an inmate's of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders convened in frustration. 1975, there would be great progress to record in the role 376. Even more significant, in terms of prison morale, that the law had played in protecting prisoners' rights.

— 45 — ANNEXES

Annex J

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

NOTE: The information concerning participants is, as a rule, given in the working language in which it was communicated to the Secretariat. The names of participants are listed in alpha• betical order. In some cases, the names of participants appear several times in this list because they attended the Congress in several capacities; the professional titles of such persons are only given in the first listing of their names.

1. Representatives of Governments

ALGERIA John Purcell, Acting Controller of Corrective Institutions for Papua and New Guinea, Port Moresby Ahmed Derradji (head of the delegation), Secretaire general du Charles Robert Wright Webster, Chief Probation and Parole Ministere de la Justice, Alger Officer, State of Western Australia, Perth Hamini Nait Abdelaziz, Ministere de l'lntiiieur, Alger Said Yacine, Ministere de 1'Interieur, Alger Mustapha Zerrouki, Directeur de I'Application des Peines et des BARBADOS Regimes Penitentiaries, Ministere de la Justice, Alger Hildegarde Weekes, Senior Probation Officer, St. Michael

ARGENTINA BELGIUM Bernardo Beideiman, Director del Instituto de Investigaci6n Paul Cornil, Secretaire general honoraire du Ministere de la Criminol6gica, Universidad Museo Social Argentino, Buenos Justice; Professeur a l'Universite" de Bruxelles Aires Jean Duprdel (head of the delegation), Secretaire general du Juan Carlos Garcia Basalo, Subdirector Nacional, Servicio Peni- Ministere de la Justice, Bruxelles tenciario Federal, Buenos Aires Siverin-Carlos Versele, Juge au tribunal de premiere instance; Omar Lima Quintana, Rector de la Universidad de Mordn, Directeur du Centre de Sociologie du Droit et de la Justice, Castelar University Libre de Bruxelles Florencio Ortega del Campillo, Subsecretario de ia Desarrollo de Comunidades del Gobierno de Mendoza, Mendoza BOLIVIA Jose Ramos, Sub-prefecto, Servicio Penitenciario Federal, Buenos Aires MaDuel Lopez-Rey, Professor of Criminal Law and Criminology, Sebastian Soler (head of the delegation), Profesor de Derecho, Institute of Criminology, Cambridge University Buenos Aires

BRAZIL AUSTRALIA Paulo J. da Costa (head of the delegation), Professor of Criminal Philip Harrison Allen, Judge, Supreme Court; Chairman, Parole Law, University of Sao Paulo Board of the State of New South Wales, Sydney Joao Bernardino Gonzaga, Professor, University of Sao Paulo Mary Daunton-Fear, Secretary of the Australian Crime Preven• Frederico Meira de Vasconcellos, Consul General of Brazil, tion, Correction and After-Care Council, Adelaide Kobe, Japan Gerald S. F. Harding, First Secretary, Australian Embassy, Tokyo BULGARIA Peter Ronald Loof, Principal Legal Officer, Executive Branch, Attorney-General's Department, Canberra Nicola Anguelov, Ministre adjoint de Plnterieur, Sofia Walter R. McGeechan, Commissioner of Corrective Services, Svetla Daskalova (head of the delegation), Ministre de la Justice, State of New South Wales, Sydney Sofia John C. Maddison (head of the delegation) Minister of Justice, Ivan Nenov, Professeur de droit pdnal, Universite de Sofia State of New South Wales, Sydney Norval Morris,* Julius Kreeger Professor of Law and Crimi• BYELORUSSIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC nology, University of Chicago Ivan O. Pastrevich (head of the delegation), Attorney-General, Minsk * Later resigned from the delegation to accept United Nations Ivan O. Timoshenko, Deputy Minister, Ministry of Interior, consultancy. Minsk

— 46 — CAMBODIA * CHINA

Doeur Nouth Kimsan, Conseiller, Ambassade du Cambodge, Chen-ou Chow, Warden, Taipei Prison, Taiwan Tokyo Shei-lie Chu, Director, Department of Prison Administration, Ministry of Justice, Taipei, Taiwan Yang-chih Kao, Chief, Legal Research Division, Ministry of CANADA Justice, Taipei, Taiwan R. G. Blackburn, Foreign Service Officer, Department of External Tsuh-rung Lai, Chief Procurator, Yunlin District Court, Taiwan Affairs, Ottawa Chiu-sui Lin, Secretary, Executive Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan Tao-yuan Wang (head of the delegation), Vice-Minister of Justice, J. E. Blanchard, Attorney General, Province of Prince Edward Taipei, Taiwan Island, Charlottown Tseng-sung Wu, Section Chief, Department of Criminal Affairs, Frederick J. Boyer, Executive Director, Department of Tourism Ministry of Justice, Taipei, Taiwan and Information. Province of Ontario, Toronto John Braithwaite, Director, Correctional Planning Branch, Department of the Solicitor General, Ottawa COLOMBIA Joseph R. Carriere, Deputy Commissioner, Royal Canadian Hernando Pazza, First Secretary, Colombian Embassy, Tokyo Mounted Police, Ottawa Norman Chalmers, Director, Department of Justice, Toronto Jirome Choquette, Ministere de la Justice, Province du Qudbec, CZECHOSLOVAKIA Quebec Jaroslav Micke, First Secretary, Embassy of the Czechoslovak Edgar H. Gerhart, Attorney General, Province of Alberta, Socialist Republic, Tokyo Edmonton Allan Grossman, Minister of Correctional Services, Province of Ontario, Toronto DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Phyllis G. HasJam, Executive Director, Toronto, Elizabeth Fry Bruno Bonyeme, Directeur, Services P£nitentiaires, Ministere Society, Toronto de la Justice, Kinshasa Bernard Jean, Minister of Justice, Province of New Brunswick, Jean Ikoma, Premier Secretaire, Ambassade de la Ripublique Fredericton democrat ique du Congo, Tokyo Gerald L. Kristianson, First Secretary, Canadian Embassy, Tokyo Constantin Kadimba, Sous-Directeur, Service de 1'Enfance Delin- J. C. Aubert La Ferriere, Directeur regional du Service pdniten- quante, Ministcre de la Justice, Kinshasa tiaire canadien, Laval, Quebec Francois F. Mateta, Secretaire general, Ministere de la Justice, Jean-Paul Lavallde, Juge en chef, Cour du bien-€tre social de Kinshasa Montreal Frederic M. Muipatayi (head of the delegation), Directeur de Cy P. MacDonald, Minister of Welfare, Province of Saskatche• Cabinet, Ministere de la Justice, Kinshasa wan, Regina Pierre R. Tshilenge, President du Tribunal des Enfants, Kinshasa Malcolm A. Matheson, Deputy Director of Corrections, Pro• vince of British Columbia, Vancouver Frank Patrick Miller, Chairman, Canadian Corrections Associa• DENMARK tion, Ottawa Robert D. Stanbury (head of the delegation) Minister without Niels Madsen (head of the delegation), Permanent Secretary of Portfolio, Ottawa State, Ministry of Justice, Copenhagen T. George Street, Chairman, National Parole Board, Ottawa Dr. Georg K. Sturup, Director, Herstedvester Detention Centre, R. H. Tavener, Deputy Minister of Health and Social Services, Albertslund Province of Manitoba, Winnipeg Jean-Marie Thibault, Director, Financial Services, Department DOMINICAN REPUBLIC of the Solicitor-General, Ottawa Leoncio Ramos, Secretaria de Estado de Relaciones Exteriores, Santo Domingo CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Jean-Pierre Bouba (head of the delegation), Directeur de la Divi• FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY sion des Etudes Administratives et Juridiques, Bangui Philippe Crozon-Cazin, Directeur adjoint, Police Nationale, Ernst Benda, Member of Parliament, Bonn Bangui Anne-Eva Brauneck, Professor of Law and Criminology, University of Giessen Peter Cramer, Professor, Ruhr University of Bochum, Querenburg CEYLON Siegfried W. Engel, Chief, Division for Crimino-therapeutics, Institute of Criminology, University of Heidelberg D. G. B. De Silva, First Secretary Ceylon Embassy, Tokyo Dietrich Lang-Hinrichsen, Professor, University of Mainz Hans Lehnhard, Counsellor, Federal Ministry of the Interior, CHILE Bonn Klaus Meyer, Counsellor, Federal Ministry of Justice, Bonn Ram6n E. Coo Baeza, Capellin mayor de Servicio de prisiones, Dietrich Oehler, Professor of Law, University of Cologne Santa Lucia Heinz Pensky, Member of Parliament, Bonn Alejandro Gonzalez Poblete (head of the delegation), Subsecre- Walter Stree, Professor of Criminal Law, University of Miinster tario de Justicia, Santiago Richard Sturm (head of the delegation), Deputy Director, Penal Law Division, Federal Ministry of Justice, Bonn Heinrich Thiesmeyer, Ministerial Counsellor, Federal Ministry of Justice, Bonn Alfons Wahl, State Attorney at the Federal Supreme Court, * Now known as the Khmer Republic. Karlsruhe

— 47 — FINLAND Hamid Al-Saadi, Professor of Criminal Law, University of Baghdad Inkeri Anttila, Director, Institute of Criminology, Ministry of Sadek Haider, Vice-President, Court of Appeal, Baghdad Justice; Professor of Criminal Law, University of Helsinki Adnan Rauf Hassan, Assistant Director-General of Police, Karl Johan Lang (head of the delegation), Director-General, Baghdad Prison Administration, Ministry of Justice, Helsinki Muhammed Noori Kadhim, Member of the Codification Council, Ministry of Justice, Baghdad FRANCE

Paul Amor, Premier Avocat general a la Cour de Cassation, Paris ISRAEL Marc Ancel, President de Chambre a la Cour de Cassation, Paris Gabriel Bach, State Attorney, Jerusalem Pierre Arpaillange, Directeur des Affaires criminelles et des Meir Gavish, Counsellor and Charge" d'Affaires a.i., Israeli Graces, Ministere de la Justice, Paris Embassy, Tokyo Maurice Aydalot (head of the delegation), Premier President de la Moshe Arie Kurtz (head of the delegation), Director-General, Cour de Cassation, Paris Ministry of Social Welfare, Jerusalem Jacques Bigay, Magistrat, Ministere de la Justice, Paris Arie Nir, Commissioner of Prisons, Jerusalem Pierre Epaud, Directeur des Ecoles et Techniques de la Police nationale, Ministere de Tlnt^rieur, Paris Henri Le Corno, Directeur de PAdministration penitentiaire, ITALY Ministere de la Justice, Paris Adolfo Beria di Argentine, Juge, Membre du Conseil Superieur Jean-Rene Ledoux, Chef du Service de l'Education surveillee, de la Magistrature Italienne, Milan Ministere de la Justice, Paris Enzo Capaccioli, Professeur de Droit, Universite de Florence Giovanni R. Coronas, PreTet, charge des services speciaux a la GABON Direction Generate de la Suretd, Rome Alfred Boucah, Deuxieme Conseiller, Ambassade du Gabon, Giuseppe di Gennaro, Juge a la Cour d'Appel, Directeur du Paris Service de la Recherche, Ministere de la Justice, Rome Martin F. Magnaga, Deuxieme Conseiller, Ambassade du Gabon, Dr. Benigo di Tullio, Directeur de l'lnstitut d'Anthropologie Tokyo Criminelle, Universite de Rome Theophile Mboro Assogho (head of the delegation), Premier Dr. Franco Ferracuti, Professeur de Criminologie, Universite Conseiller, Ambassade du Gabon, Tokyo de Rome Luigi Frey, Professeur d'Economie Politique, University Catho-

HOLY SEE lique du Sacr£ Caeur, Milan Pietro Manca (head of the delegation), Directeur general de 1'Ad- Msgr. Giuseppe Ferraioli (head of the delegation), Auditor, ministration penitentiaire, Ministere de la Justice, Rome Apostolic Nunciature to Japan, Tokyo Ettore Maselli, Directeur, Bureau des Affaires Penales, Ministere Hajime Machino, Associate Professor, Sophia University, Tokyo de la Justice, Rome. Fr. Joseph Llompart, Professor, Sophia University, Tokyo Giovanni Noccioli, Directeur general des affaires penales, Minis• tere de la Justice, Rome HUNGARY Pietro Nuvolone, Professeur de droit pdnal, Universite de Milan Dr. Bruno Pannain, Professeur de M6decine Legale, d'Anthro• J6zsef Godony (head of the delegation), Director, National pologie Criminelle et de Psychologie, Universite de Camerino, Institute for Criminology, Budapest Naples Istvan Kiraly, Head of Department, Ministry of Justice, Budapest Gian Domenico Pisapia, Professeur de procedure pdnale, Uni• Gyorgy Rudas, Head of Department, Ministry of the Interior, versity de Milan Budapest Luigi Sparano, Directeur, Division des Affaires legislatives et d' la Documentation a la Direction generate de la Surety, Ronv INDIA Renato Tulli, Chef de Service, Ministere de I'lntdrieur, Rome Romano Vulpitta, Deuxieme Secretaire, Ambassade d'ltalie, Surath Venugopal Rao, Deputy Director, Central Bureau of Tokyo Investigation, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi Jyotsna H. Shah (head of the delegation), Director, Central Bu• Salvatore Zhara Buda, Juge a la Cour d'Appel, Rome reau of Correctional Services, New Delhi

IRAN JAMAICA Dudley Allen, Chief Probation Officer, Ministry of Youth and Hamid Eksir, Chief of Prisons, Police Department, Bureau of Community Development, Kingston Prisons, Teheran Abbas Hedayat-Vaziri, Counsellor, Imperial Iranian Embassy, JAPAN Tokyo Yoosef Rais-Samii (head of the delegation), Under-Secretary, Yoshitsugu Baba, Attorney-at-Law; Former Prosecutor-General, Ministry of Justice, Teheran Tokyo Yahya Sotoudeh, Disciplinary Prosecutor of Judges, Teheran Shigemitsu Dando, Member of Legislative Council, Ministry of Hamid Zahedi, Deputy Minister, Ministry of Science and Higher Justice; Professor of Criminal Law, Tokyo University, Tokyo Education, Teheran Taira Fukuda, Managing Director, Japan Criminal Law Society ; Professor, Tokyo University of Education, Tokyo Tanemoto Furuhata, President, Japan Society of Criminology; IRAQ Director, National Research Institute of Police Science, Tokyo Hamid Ismail Al-Ani (head of the delegation), Under-Secretary, Takeshi Gotoda, Director-General, National Police Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Baghdad Tokyo Abdullatif Al-Jumayli, Assistant Director-General of Security, Nihachiro Hanamura, Senior Managing Director, Federation of Baghdad Economic Organizations, Tokyo Toshiyuki Hasegawa, Director, Security Division, Criminal Keiji Takamatsu, Director, Criminal Affairs Bureau, National Affairs Bureau, National Police Agency, Tokyo Police Agency, Tokyo Iichiro Hatoyama, Director, Budget Bureau, Ministry of Finance, Hachiro Tanigawa, Secretary-General, Japan Federation of Bar Tokyo Associations, Tokyo Tadahiro Hayama, Director, Correction Bureau, Ministry of Shiro Toyama, Director, Family Bureau, Supreme Court, Tokyo Justice, Tokyo Minoru Tsuda (head of the delegation), Vice-Minister of Justice, Yasuharu Hiraba, Professor of Criminal Law, Kyoto University Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Ryuichi Hirano, Dean of Faculty of Law and Professor of Tatsusaburo Tsuji, Director, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Ministry Criminal Law, Tokyo University of Justice, Tokyo Masayoshi Honda, Director, Research and Training Institute, Tadashi Uematsu, Member of Legislative Council, Ministry of Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Justice; Professor Emeritus, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo Takeshi Imamura, Director, Social Education Bureau, Ministry Mamoru Urabe, Judge, Tokyo District Court, Tokyo of Education, Tokyo Yoshiho Yasuhara, Deputy Vice-Minister of Justice, Ministry Kazuhiko Ishihara, Chief, Secretarial Section, Ministry of Justice, of Justice, Tokyo Tokyo Kenzo Yoshida, Director, Immigration Bureau, Ministry of Taketoshi Iwamura, Deputy-Director, Youth Bureau, Prime Justice, Tokyo Minister's Office, Tokyo Yutaka Yoshida, Deputy Secretary-General, General Secretariat Eiji Kageyama, Managing Director, Japan Chamber of Commerce of the Supreme Court, Tokyo and Industry, Tokyo Tiaki Kasiwagi, Professor of Criminal Law, Nagoya University, JORDAN Nagoya Daijiro Kikkawa, President, Japan Federation of Bar Associa• Yahia Haddad, Dean, School of Social Work, Institute of Social tions, Osaka* Work, Amman Kameji Kimura, Member of Legislative Council, Ministry of Abdullah Khatib, General Director of Social Welfare Depart• Justice, Professor of Criminal Law, Komazawa University, ment, Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour, Amman Tokyo Fujikazu Kinpara, President, Japan Federation of Civil Liberties Commissioners, Civil Liberties Bureau, Ministry of Justice, KENYA Tokyo Shiro Kuriya, President, Japan Federation of Big Brothers and T. M. Kasango, Senior Superintendent of Police, Nairobi Sisters, Tokyo Harrison K. Kilonzo, Assistant Commissioner of Prisons, Nairobi Shiro Matsui, Vice-President, Japan Federation of Bar Associa• J. E. Mungai, Senior Superintendent of Police, Nairobi tions, Tokyo Andrew K. Saikwa (head of the delegation), Commissioner of Hideko Miyagawa, President, Japan Federation of Women's Prisons, Nairobi Associations for Rehabilitation Aid, Tokyo Jameson Amos Siika, Senior Superintendent of Prisons, Nairobi Sumio Miyazaki, Member of Special Committee on Criminal Gideon M. Thuo, Assistant Commissioner of Prisons, Nairobi Law, Legislative Council, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Mitsuyoshi Muneoka, Senior Managing Director, Kansai Office, KUWAIT Federation of Economic Organizations, Osaka Tsuneo Muramatsu, Chairman, Committee on Correctional Adnan Mohammed Aldoory, Professor, Department of Sociology Science, Correction and Rehabilitation Council, Ministry of and Philosophy, University of Kuwait Justice, Tokyo Muhamed A. Al-Hamad, Superintendent C.I.D,, Kuwait Atsushi Nagashima, Director, United Nations Training Co• Abdullatif AJ-Thuwaini (head of the delegation), Under-Secretary, operation Division, Research and Training Institute, Ministry Ministry of Interior, Kuwait of Justice, Tokyo Hassan Ashmawi, Legal Expert, Kuwait Dr. Katsumi Nishida, President, Medical Correctional Associa• tion of Japan; Warden of Hachioji Medical Prison, Tokyo Masahiro Nisibori, Director-General, United Nations Bureau, LEBANON Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo Seiichiro Ono, Special Adviser to the Minister, Ministry of Dib Darwiche, Conseiller a la Cour de Cassation, Beyrouth Justice, Tokyo

Kosho Otani, President, National Association of Voluntary LIBERIA Prison Chaplains, Kyoto Sakae Otani, Vice-President of the National Federation of Reha• George Henries, Solicitor General, Monrovia bilitation Aid Associations, Tokyo Chihiro Saeki, Member of Special Committee on Criminal Law, LIBYA Legislative Council, Ministry of Justice, Kyoto Teiichiro Sakamoto, Director, Children and Families' Bureau, Abdelaziz Sultan Abousoud, Director, Central Department for Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo Criminal Research, Tripoli Chihaya Sato, Director, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Supreme Court, Othman Omar Ben Aroer (head of the delegation), General Direc• Tokyo tor of the Research Department, Ministry of Labour and So• Shigeyuki Shimizu, Director, Youth Bureau, Prime Minister's cial Affairs, Tripoli Office, Tokyo Abdulwahab Siala, Assistant Director, National Centre for Yasuyoshi Shiono, Director, Rehabilitation Bureau, Ministry of Criminal and Legislative Research, Tripoli Justice, Tokyo

Matsusuke Shirane, Chairman, Rehabilitation Committee, Cor• MADAGASCAR rection and Rehabilitation Council, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Nobuko Takahashi, Director-General, Women's and Minors' Lucile Ramaholimihaso, Conseiller, Ambassade de Madagascar, Bureau, Ministry of Labour, Tokyo Tokyo

— 49 — MALAYSIA Ottar Lund, Secretary-General, Ministry of Social Affairs, Oslo Helge Restad, Director of Prison Administration, Oslo Abdul Hamid bin Muhamad, Assistant Commissioner of Police, Kuala Lumpur Adnan bin Haji Abdullah (head of the delegation), Assistant PAKISTAN Director of Social Welfare, Ministry of Welfare Services, Sadiq Ahmad Chaudhuri, Inspector General of Police, Rawal• Kuala Lumpur pindi Ibrahim bin Haji Mohamed, Deputy Commissioner of Prisons, Taiping PANAMA

MEXICO Antonio G. Suarez Sierra, Embajador de Panama en Jap6n, Tokio Sergio Garcia Ramirez, Subdirector General de Gobierno, Secretarfa de Gobemaci6n, Mexico D.F. PHILIPPINES Dr. Francisco Nunez Chavez (head of the delegation), Jefe del Departamento de Prevention Social, Secretaria de Goberna- Dylan Dizon, Co-ordinator, Bacolod Youth Welfare Programme, ci6n, Mexico D.F. Bacolod City Eloisa Garcia, Secretary, Senate Committee on Justice, Manila MONGOLIA Felipe Kalalo, Assistant Chief, Committee Consultants, House of Representatives, Manila Nyamsuren Aliasuren, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ulan Bator Arcadio Lozada, Chief of Police, Bacolod City Sodnombaljiriin Budragchaa (head of the delegation), Head of Teodulo C. Natividad, Congressman, Quezon City the Department of Militia, Ulan Bator Cecilia Mufloz Palma, Associate Justice, Court of Appeals, Damdingiin Dorz, Head of Section, Department of Militia, Ulan Manila Bator Conrado V. Sanchez (head of the delegation), President, Philippine Bar Association, Makati MOROCCO Alejo S. Santos, Director, Bureau of Prisons, Muntinlupa, Rizal Rev Enrique L. Victoriano S. J., Executive Secretary, Catholic Adib Taieb, Embassy of Morocco, Tokyo Bishops Commission for Social Action (NASSA), Pasay City Manuel D. Yngson, Jr., Senior Technical Assistant, Senate of the Philippines, Manila NETHERLANDS

Pier Allewijn, Director-General, Prison Administration, The POLAND Hague W. Buikhuisen, Professor, State University of Groningen PrzemysJaw Mackowiak, Judge, Ministry of Justice, Warsaw Willem Duk (head of the delegation), Counsellor General, Tadeusz Pietrzak, Under-Secretary of State, Ministry of Internal Ministry of Justice, The Hague Affairs; Head of the People's Militia, Warsaw Klaas Groen, Head of Department for Special Residential Youth Jerzy Smoleriski, Public Prosecutor; Head of the Office for Welfare, Zoetermser Research on Problems of Crime, Warsaw Rijk Rijksen, Professor, University of Utrecht Stanislaw Walczak (head of the delegation), Minister of Justice, H. W. van Hijlkema, Director, Child Welfare Department, Warsaw Ministry of Justice, The Hague

PORTUGAL NEW ZEALAND Manuel Cabaleiro de Ferreira (head of the delegation), Professcf^ Harold Eric McCombe, Director, Crime Prevention, National of Penal Law, University of Lisbon Police Headquarters, Wellington Eduardo Correia, Professor of Penal Law, University of Coinbra Eric Alderson Missen (head of the delegation), Secretary of Jose" Guardado Lopes, Director General of Prison Services, Justice, Wellington Lisbon

REPUBLIC OF KOREA NICARAGUA Mun Ki Chu, Public Prosecutor; Division Chief, Seoul District Francisco d'Escoto Brockmann, Ministro-Consejer, Embajada Public Prosecutor's Office de Nicaragua, Tokyo Yung Kyoo Kang (head of the delegation) Minister, Korean Miguel d'Escoto Mufioz (head of the delegation), Embajador Embassy, Tokyo de Nicaragua en Jap6n, Tokyo Duck Moon Kim, Director, Correctional Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Seoul NIGERIA Ki Doo Kim, Professor, College of Law, Seoul National University Tae Zhee Kim, First Secretary, Korean Embassy, Tokyo F. S. Giwa-Osagie (head of the delegation), Director of Prisons, In Ho Kwqn, President, National Training School for Correctional Lagos Officials, Seoul Mohammed Hayatuddini, Deputy Permanent Secretary, Ministry Kum Dong Lee, Superintendent, Inchon Juvenile Correctional of Internal Affairs, Lagos Institution Hung Su Paek, Superintendent, Anyang Correctional Institution, NORWAY Seoul Do Hyung Park, Chief of Section, Correctional Bureau, Ministry Kristian Bloch, Secretary-General, Ministry of Justice, Oslo of Justice, Seoul Per Hoybrlten (head of the delegation), Under-Secretary of Jae Hak Park, Chief of General Affairs Section, Ministry of State, Ministry of Social Affairs, Oslo Justice, Seoul

— 50 — Won Ho Park, Supreme Prosecutor and Director, Prosecution Carl O. A. Borjeson, Head of Division, Ministry of Justice, Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Seoul Stockholm Carl-Henrik Ericsson, Head of Department, National Correctional Administration, Stockholm REPUBLIC OF VIET-NAM Torsten Eriksson, Director-General, National Correctional Admi• Tran Trong Du (head of the delegation), Avocat general pres la nistration, Stockholm Cour d'Appel de Saigon Sven G. O. Fischier, Head of Administrative Division, Ministry Nguyen Hong Nhuan, Avocat a la Cour, Expert a 1'Offke du of Justice, Stockholm President de la Republique, Saigon Lennart Geijer (head of the delegation), Minister of Justice, Nguyen Toai, Avocat general pres la Cour d'Appel de Hue Stockholm Ingvar Gullnas, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Justice, Stockholm Erik Nyman, Deputy Director General, National Correctional ROMANIA Administration, Stockholm Carl G. Persson, Director General, National Swedish Police loan-Constant Manoliu (head of the delegation), Vice-President Administration, Stockholm de la Cour Supreme, Bucarest Laurentiu Tamas, Directeur, Procureur en chef, Procurature Holger Romander, Attorney-General, Stockholm Knut Sveri, Professor of Criminology, University of Stockholm generate, Bucarest

SWITZERLAND SAUDI ARABIA Francois Clerc, Professeur de Droit Penal, University de Neu- Mohamed Ali Andergiri, Chief, Criminal Investigation Depart• chatel et de Fribourg, St. Blaise ment, Ministry of the Interior, Riyadh THAILAND

SIERRA LEONE Pote Bekanan, Commissioner of Central Investigation Bureau, Police Department, Ministry of the Interior, Bangkok Christopher O. E. Cole (head of the delegation), Chief Justice, Puang Suwanrath (head of the delegation), Under-Secretary of Freetown State, Ministry of the Interior, Bangkok Rosalind O. Forde, Principal Social Development Officer, Ministry Pong Thanusiri, Chief, Research Division, Department of Cor• of Social Welfare, Freetown rections, Ministry of the Interior, Bangkok James E. Mahoney, Attorney-General, Freetown

TURKEY SINGAPORE Melih Ezgii, Director-General for Penal Affairs, Ministry of Justice, Ankara Peter Y. Szeto, Deputy Superintendent of Police, Singapore Niyazi Kalenderli, Counsellor, Turkish Embassy, Tokyo Kemal Tekerek, Director General of Prisons and Detention

SOMALIA Houses, Ministry of Justice, Ankara Necati Volkan (head of the delegation), Secretary of State, Ismail Ahmed, Commandant of Prisons, Mogadiscio Ministry of Justice, Ankara Musa Haji Deria (head of the delegation), Attorney-General, Mustafa T. Yiicel, Deputy Director-General for Prisons and Mogadiscio Detention Houses, Ministry of Justice, Ankara

SOUTH AFRICA UGANDA

Willem M. da Preez, Assistant Commissioner of Prisons, Pretoria Mohamed Hassan, Senior Assistant Commissioner of Police, Johannes C. Steyne (head of the delegation), Commissioner of Kampala Prisons, Pretoria J. N. Kawuki, Commissioner of Community Development, Probation and Welfare Services, Kampala

SPAIN S. J. O. Kego, Assistant Commissioner of Prisons, Kampala Eric P. Kibuka, Lecturer, Makerere University, Kampala Jose Antonio Barrera Maseda, Jefe de los Servicios Tecnicos Ezra N. Majalya, Senior Superintendent of Police, Kampala Jurjdicos, Direcci6n General de Instituciones Penitenciarias, George J. Masika, Director of Public Prosecutions, Kampala Madrid Saulo Musoke, Puisne Judge, High Court of Uganda, Kampala Marcelino Cabanas (head of the delegation), Secretario General Fabian Luk Okwaare (head of the delegation), Commissioner of Tecnico, Ministerio de Justicia, Madrid Prisons, Kampala Jesus Gonzilez del Yerro, Director General de Instituciones Alex Owor, Senior Superintendent of Prisons, Kampala Penitenciarias, Madrid Mathias Ssendegeya, Assistant Chief Registrar, High Court of Joaquin Martin-Canivell, Juez, Madrid Uganda, Kampala FernaDdo Moreno Herrera, Ministro-Consejero, Embajada de Espafia, Tokio UKRAINIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC

Valentin T. Kolomietz (head of the delegation), Head, Depart• SWAZILAND ment of Correctional Institutions, Ministry of the Interior, Kiev Grigory A. Reka, Head, Division of the Supervision of Correc• Ruben L. Mkatshwa, Deputy Director of Prisons, Mbabane tional Institutions, Procurator General's Office, Kiev

SWEDEN UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Dr. Ulla Bergkwist, Chief Medical Officer, National Correctional Grigoriy Z. Anashkin, Chairman, Court Collegium for Criminal Administration, Stockholm Cases of the Supreme Court of the USSR, Moscow

— 51 —

5 Igor I. Karpets, Head of Department, Ministry of the Interior of Norman A. Carlson, Director, Bureau of Prisons, Department the USSR, Moscow of Justice, Washington, D.C. Vladimir N. Kudriavtsev, Head, Institute of Criminology, Moscow Emanuel Celler, Chairman, Committee on the Judiciary, United Nikolai P. Malshakov, Senior Research Worker, Institute of States House of Representatives, Washington, D.C. Criminology, Moscow Edward Dubel, Consul, American Consulate General, Osaka, Evgeny P. Popov, Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, Japan Moscow Edward R. Finch, Jr., Attorney, New York Nikolai A. Struchkov, Deputy Head, Higher School of the William Fort, Judge, Court of Appeals, State of Oregon, Salem, Ministry of the Interior of the USSR, Moscow Oregon Anatoly A. Tkachev, Head, Department for Foreign Relations, Robert Gemignani, Commissioner, Youth Development and Ministry of the Interior of the USSR, Moscow Delinquency Prevention Administration, Department of Health, Boris A. Victorv (head of the delegation), Deputy Minister, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C. Ministry of the Interior of the USSR, Moscow Marion L. Gribble, Office of International Conferences, Depart• Sergei V. Zotov, Translator, Moscow ment of State, Washington D.C. Leon Higginbotham, Jr., United States District Judge, Phila• delphia, Pennsylvania UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC Richard J. Hughes, Chairman, American Bar Association Com• Mohamed Niazi Hatata, Director-General of National Security, mission on Correctional Facilities and Services, Newark, New Cairo Jersey Aly Nour-El-Din (head of the delegation), Attorney-General, Douglas Inglish, Bureau of International Organization Affairs, Cairo Department of State, Washington, D.C. Ahmed Fathy Sourour, Professor of Law, Cairo University Katherine L. Kemp, Office of Economic and Social Affairs, Department of State, Washington, D.C.

UNITED KINGDOM Robert J. Kutak, Attorney, Omaha, Nebraska Peter P. Lejins, Director, Institute of Criminal Justice and Crimi• , Stanley Bowen, Crown Agent for Scotland, Edinburgh nology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland Joan D. Cooper, Chief Inspector, Children's Department, Home Elizabeth C. McAllister, Office of International Conferences, Office, London Department of State, Washington, D.C. Brian C. Cubbon, Assistant Under-Secretary of State; Controller Richard A. McGee, President, Institute for the Study of Crime (Administration), Prison Department, Home Office, London and Delinquency, Sacramento, California John V. Dance, Chief Executive Officer, International Section, Herman G. Moeller, Deputy Director, Bureau of Prisons, Depart• Home Office, London ment of Justice, Washington, D.C. Francis L. T. Graham-Harrison (head of the delegation), Deputy Elmer K. Nelson, Jr., Professor, School of Public Administration, Under-Secretary of State, Home Office, London University of Southern California, Los Angeles Michael H. Hogan, Superintending Inspector, Probation and Lawrence W. Pierce, Visiting Professor of Criminal Justice, State After-Care Department, Home Office, London University of New York Sir Ronald Johnson, Secretary, Scottish Home and Health Milton G. Rector, Director, National Council on Crime and Department, Edinburgh Delinquency, New York Bcti Jones, Chief Adviser on Social Work to Secretary of State George Reed, Chairman, Board of Parole, Department of Justice, for Scotland, Edinburgh Washington, D.C. Tom S. Lodge, Assistant Under-Secretary of State; Director of George H. Revercomb, Associate Deputy Attorney General, Research and Statistics, Home Office, London Washington, D.C. Albert R. Prosser, Adviser on Social Development, Ministry of E. Preston Sharp, General Secretary, American Correctional Overseas Development, London Association, Washington, D.C. Roger J. Traynor (head of the delegation), former Chief Justice of Advisers: California, Professor of Law, University of Virginia Juma Ali, Deputy Commandant of Police (Abu Dhabi) Richard W. Velde, Associate Administrator, Law Enforcement Gloria McPhee, Executive Council Member for Health, Welfare Assistance Administration, Department of Justice, Washington, and Prisons, Department of Health and Welfare, Paget D.C. (Bermuda) Albert C. Wagner, Director, Division of Correction and Parole, Edwin S. Haydon, Registrar of the Supreme Court (Hong Kong) State of New Jersey, Trenton, New Jersey John W. D. Hobley, Acting Solicitor-General (Hong Kong) Charles E. Wiggins, Member, Committee on the Judiciary, United Lawrence Holt-Kentwell, Assistant Director of Social Welfare States House of Representatives, Washington, D.C. (Hong Kong) Gilbert R. Pickett, Commissioner of Prisons (Hong Kong) George A. R. Wright-Nooth, Deputy Commissioner of Police UPPER VOLTA (Hong Kong) Romuald Kafando, Directeur de la Justice, Ministere de la Justice, Hamad bin Kassim Althani, Chief Superintendent, State Police Ouagadougou (Qatar) Abdulla Jaida, Director, Department of Labour and Social Affairs (Qatar) URUGUAY

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Aurelio Pastori, Erobajador de Uruguay en Jap6n, Tokio

Myrl E. Alexander, Professor, Southern Illinois University James V. Bennett, Bethesda, Maryland VENEZUELA George J. Beto, Director, Department of Corrections, State of Juan Manuel Mayorca (head of the delegation), Director de Texas, Huntsville, Texas Prevencion del Delito, Caracas John Marshall Briley, Senior Vice-President, Owens-Corning Roberto Yepes Boscan, Director de Prisiones, Caracas Fiberglas Corp., Toledo, Ohio

52 YUGOSLAVIA ZAMBIA

Josip Brncic (head of the delegation), President, Federal Council Bothwell Imakando (head of the delegation), Commissioner of for the Administration of Justice, Belgrade Prisons, Kabwe Milan Milutinovic, Dean, Faculty of Law; Director, Institute of Rodgers Bwembya Lukutati, Research and Training Officer, Criminology, University of Belgrade Ministry of Labour and Social Services, Lusaka

2. Special invitees

Prince and Princess Takamatsu Nobuo Naritomi, President, Japan Federation of Bar Associations, Kazuto Ishida, Chief Justice, Supreme Court, Tokyo Tokyo Juhei Takeuchi, Prosecutor-General, Tokyo Masao Okahara, Superintending Prosecutor, Osaka High Public Prosecutor's Office Buichi Amano, Deputy Prosecutor-General, Tokyo Ichiro Osawa, Superintending Prosecutor, Tokyo High Public Tokutaro Kimura, President, National Federation of Volunteer Prosecutor's Office Probation Officers Associations and Japan Rehabilitation Aid Taro Otake, Parliamentary Vice-Minister of Justice, Tokyo Association Katsuyoshi Shinzeki, Chief Judge, Osaka High Court Hiromu Morishita, President, Kyoto Chamber of Commerce and Seitaro Takehara, former Vice-Minister of Justice Industry Kiyoshi Tomii, Mayor, Kyoto City

3. United Nations Children's Fund and specialized agencies

UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN'S FUND INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION T. Nakanishi, Assistant Director, ILO Tokyo Branch Office Yehia Darwish, Resident Director, UNICEF, Bangkok Dr. Constantina Safilios-Rothschild, UNICEF consultant, New WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION York Dr. Boris A. Lebedev, Chief, Mental Health Division, Geneva

4. Intergovernmental organizations

COUNCIL OF EUROPE

Norman Bishop, Head, Division of Crime Problems, Legal Directorate, Strasbourg

LEAGUE OF ARAB STATES

Abdel-Wahhab El-Aschmaoui, Director of the Social Department and Executive Secretary of the Pan-Arab Organization for Social Defence, Cairo Mohamed Salah Eldin Farid, Representative of the League of Arab States in Japan, Tokyo

5. International non-governmental organizations invited to the Congress

(a) Non-governmental organizations in consultative status HOWARD LEAGUE FOR PENAL REFORM with the Economic and Social Council Anne Allen, Member, Executive Committee, London, United Kingdom Category II Donald H. Goff, General Secretary, Correctional Association of New York, New York, N.Y., United States of America

ALL INDIA WOMEN'S CONFERENCE INTERNATIONAL ALLIANCE OF WOMEN Mary Clubwala Jadhav, Leader, Women's Council, Madras, India Taeko Arai, Member, League of Women Voters of Japan, Tokyo, Protiva Mitter, Voluntary Social Worker, Calcutta, India Japan

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DEMOCRATIC LAWYERS Martin Ennals, Secretary-General, London, United Kingdom Igor I. Karpets, Vice-President, Moscow, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Yasoji Kazahaya, Lawyer, Tokyo, Japan CATHOLIC INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR SOCIAL SERVICE Ikuzo Maeno, Assistant Professor, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka, Marie-Louise Marck, Inspectrice principale du Service Social et Japan de la Probation, Administration Penitentiaire, Ministere de la Naoto Nakata, Lawyer, Tokyo, Japan Justice, Berchem, Belgique Kenichi Nakayama, Professor, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PENAL LAW Shufu Yoshimasu, General Secretary, Japanese Association of Criminology, Tokyo, Japan Gerhard O. W. Mueller, Professor of Law, New York University, New York, N.Y., United States of America Ivan Nenov, Professor of Law, Sofia University, Sofia, Bulgaria INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SOCIAL DEFENCE Marc Ancel, President, Paris, France INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF YOUTH MAGISTRATES Adolfo Beria di Argentine, Secretaire General, Milan, Italie Paul Cornil, Vice-President, Bruxelles, Belgique Udai Saroj Sah, General Secretary, All India Railway Magistrates' Yvonne Marx, Directeur adjoint de la Section de science crimi- Association, Varahasi, India nelle de 1'Institut de droit compare de Paris; Secretaire general de la Revue de science criminelle et de droit p£nal compare^ INTERNATIONAL CATHOLIC CHILD BUREAU Paris, France Pietro Nuvolone, Vice-President, Milan, Italie Jan M. D. H. Van Nuland, Executive Secretary of the International Gian Domenico Pisapia, Milan, Italie Programme for Prisoners' Children, Louvain, Belgium Girolamo Tartaglione, Conseiller a la Cour de Cassation, Rome, Italie INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS SeVerin-Carlos Versele, Secretaire General Charge de la redaction du Bulletin, Bruxelles, Belgique Per-Erik Fiirst, Judge, Vice-President of the Swedish Section of the Commission, Stockholm, Sweden INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CHILD WELFARE

INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS Dr. Luke Shu Miyazawa, Chief, Medical Affairs, National Muv shino Gakuin, Urawa, Japan Jacques Moreillon, Delegue, Geneve, Suisse Jan M. D. H. Van Nuland, Louvain, Belgium

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON SOCIAL WELFARE PAN-PACIFIC AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA WOMEN'S ASSOCIATION

Paul Cornil, Bruxelle, Belgique Kiyoko Yuasa, Conciliation Commissioner, Kyoto Family Yuichi Nakamura, Dean and Professor, Japan School of Social Court, Kyoto, Japan Work, Tokyo, Japan

SALVATION ARMY INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL POLICE ORGANIZATION Charles Pdan, Commissioner, Bern, Switzerland Masao Sekizawa, Chief Superintendent, Criminal Research and Statistics Section, Criminal Investigation Bureau, National Police Agency, Tokyo, Japan SOCIETY FOR COMPARATIVE LEGISLATION Marc Ancel, President, Paris, France INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN Yvonne Marx, Paris, France

Dorothy Flaherty, Board Member, Canadian Corrections Asso• ciation, Ottawa, Canada IJWORLD UNION OF CATHOLIC WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS Yoshiki Tatsumi, Volunteer Consultant, Kurihama Special INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN LAWYERS Reformatory, Kamakura, Japan

Lee S. Penland, Senior Research Attorney, California Supreme Court, San Francisco, California, United States of America WORLD UNION OF ORGANIZATIONS FOR THE SAFEGUARD OF YOU Joann Porter Toll, Arnoldshain, Federal Republic of Germany Renee A. Cornil, Prdsidente du Comite de Contact des CEuvres Emilie Wanderer, Attorney-at-Law, Las Vegas, Nevada, United de Sauvegarde de l'Enfance et de la Jeunesse, Bruxelles, States of America Belgique

INTERNATIONAL LAW ASSOCIATION WORLD WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION

Ryuichi Hirano, Tokyo, Japan Masako Munakata, First Vice-President, Tokyo, Japan Sumi Ono, Recording Secretary (Japan), Tokyo, Japan INTERNATIONAL LEAGUE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN Kyo Sakata, Vice-President of Japanese Chapter, Osaka, Japan

Koichi Nishida, Secretary-General, Japan Civil Liberties Union, WORLD YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION Tokyo, Japan Yoichiro Yamakawa, Lawyer, Toranomon Law Office, Tokyo, Michiko Watanabe, Attorney-at-Law, Tokyo, Japan Japan Roster

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR CRIMINOLOGY INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON ALCOHOL AND ADDICTIONS

Paul Cornil, Vice-President de la Commission scientifique, Donald H. Goff, General-Secretary, Correctional Association of Bruxelles, Belgique New York, New York, N.Y., United States of America Benigno di Tullio, President honoraire, Rome, Italie

Dr. Franco Ferracuti, Membre du Conseil de direction et de la INTERNATIONAL POLICE ASSOCIATION Commission scientifique, Rome, Italie Denis Szabo, Directeur du Departement de criminologie, Uni• Andre P. Baumgartner, Inspecteur Principal de Police, Geneve, versity de Montreal, Canada Suisse

— 54 — INTERNATIONAL PRISONERS AJD ASSOCIATION (b) Other non-governmental organizations

Badr-El-Din Ali, Professor of Sociology, University of Louisville,

Louisville, Kentucky, United States of America INTERNATIONAL PENAL AND PENITENTIARY FOUNDATION Yoshitsugu Baba, Vice-President, Tokyo, Japan G. Richard Bacon, President, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America Yoshitsugu Baba, Vice-President, Tokyo, Japan Ruth P. Baker, Executive Director, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United Francois Clerc, Tresorier, St.-Blaise, Suisse States of America Jean Dupreel, Secretaire GdneVal, Bruxelles, Belgique Alfons Wahl, President-Designate, Federal Prosecuting Attorney, Thorsten Sellin, President, Gilmanton, New Hampshire, United Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany States of America

6. Individual participants

ARGENTINA Archie M. Kirkpatrick, Executive Director, John Howard Society of Ontario, Toronto Jose" Roberto Forn, Abogado, Asesor Juridico, Aeroltneas Peter Lindores, National Director of Correctional Services, 'Argentinas, Buenos Aires Salvation Army, Toronto Rosalia Z. de Lima Quintana, Abogada, Castelar Madge Lindsay, Social Worker, Oshawa W. Little, Executive Assistant to the Solicitor-General, Ottawa AUSTRALIA D. Craig Reid, Executive Director, John Howard Society of Alberta, Calgary David Biles, Lecturer in Criminology, University of Melbourne, Archibald Whitelaw, President, John Howard Society of Ontario, Victoria Toronto Colin W. Campbell, Comptroller General of Prisons, Perth, William H. Young Soon, Professor of Sociology, University Western Australia of Winnipeg Charles R. Constable, Parole Officer, Department of Corrective Services, Belmore, New South Wales Gwen Graves, Senior Research Psychologist, Institute for Mental CHILE Health Research and Post-Graduate Training, Parkville, Victoria Waldo del Villar B., Profesor Derecho Penal, Universidad de Bernard C. Manion, Deputy Principal, Christian Brothers College, Valparaiso Leederville, Western Australia Anthony J. Restuccia, Solicitor, Companies Prosecution Section, CHINA Department of the Attorney General, New South Wales, Milson's Point, New South Wales Lung-wen Chang, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Peter Sinclair, Public Relations Officer, Justice Department, Chin-hsin Chen, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Sydney, New South Wales Ten-tsan Chen, Lawyer, Tainan, Taiwan Chen-ou Chow, Warden of the Taipei Prison, Taiwan Shi-tsum Chum, Lawyer, Taipei, Taiwan AUSTRIA Kuang-shun Fan, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Ernst Moerk, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Fresno State Chao-chu Fu, Lawyer, Taipei, Taiwan College, California, United States of America Te-ching Han, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Lenz Hermann, Professor of Forensic Psychiatry, University of Chen-fu Hsu, Lawyer, Taipei, Taiwan Linz Sen-kuei Hsu, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Yuh-min Kau, Attorney and Counsellor-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Chung-hsien Lai, Lawyer, Taipei, Taiwan BRAZIL Hong-chin Lei, Lawyer, Taipei, Taiwan Jose A. A. da Cruz Rios, Head, Institute of Social and Economic Ming-i Liaw, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Development, Rio de Janeiro Maw-sheng Lin, Director, National Bar Association, Taipei, Virgilio Luiz Donnici, Director, Institute of Penal Science, Rio Taiwan de Janeiro Tzu-pei Lin, General Secretary, Taiwan After-Care Association, Taipei, Taiwan Chin-yun Wang, Director-General, Bar Association of Tainan, CANADA Taiwan Burke M. Barker, Professor of Law, University of Alberta Ching-tang Wen, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Annie G. Black, Missionary Teacher, Jogakuin College, Hiro• Chung-chin Wu, Taipei, Taiwan shima, Japan Tseng-sung Wu, Section Chief, Department of Criminal Affairs, Dorothy Cass, Children's Aid Society of Toronto Ministry of Justice, Taipei, Taiwan Frank J. Faubert, Ministerial Assistant, Department of State, Nong-ou Yang, Lawyer, Taipei, Taiwan Ottawa Pai-lin Yen, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Maurice Gauthier, Directeur General, Probation et des Etablis- Yun-huan Yin, Standing Supervisor, National Bar Association, sements de Detention, Ministere de la Justice, Province de Taipei, Taiwan Quebec, Quebec Chin Yuan, Attorney-at-Law, Taipei, Taiwan Leo R. Hackl, Deputy Minister, Department of Correctional Services, Province of Ontario, Toronto COSTA RICA Robert J. King, Director of Correctional Services, Department of Justice, Province of New Brunswick, Fredericton Victor M. Obando, Abogado y Notario, San Jose"

— 55 — DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO ISRAEL

Guy Houchon, Professeur, Directeur du Centre de criminologie Zvi Berinson, Justice, Supreme Court of Israel, Jerusalem et pathologie sociale, University Lovanium, Kinshasa Gaspard Mokolo, Conseiller, Ministere de la Justice, Kinshasa ITALY Anne-Zoe Seke, Educatrice Sociale, Lubumbashi Jean Seti, Fonctionnaire a la Presidence de la Rdpublique, Antonio Brancaccio, Juge a la Cour de Cassation, Rome Kinshasa Ludovico Canzoni, Roma Dr. Serafino Procaccini, Psychiatre, Institut de Prdvention et des FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Peines, Naples. Vincenzo Proto, Juge, Rome Herbert Hill, Public Prosecutor, Hoffnungsthal Armin Kaufmann, Professor of Penal Law, Bad Honnef Klemens Potthoff, Senior Public Prosecutor, Hennef/Sieg JAPAN Albert Scholl, Regional Director, Welfare Services of Baden- Junji Abe, Professor of Law, Meiji University, Tokyo Wijttemberg, Stuttgart Shiro Adachi, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Helmut Schulenberger, Social Worker, Berlin Court Hans Voelkel, Government Official, Berlin Sajuro Akamatsu, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Court FRANCE Nobuharu Aoki, Superintendent, Musashino Child Education and Training Home, Urawa Gunilla Turpin de Criss6, Assistante, University de Paris Mikio Arai, Chief, Supervision Section, Rehabilitation Bureau Robert Vouin, Professeur de droit, University de Paris Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Chuzo Arakawa, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Family Court Shigeo Arita, Warden, Nara Juvenile Prison Erich Bucholz, Head, Department for Penal Law, University Kyoichi Asakura, Legal Counsellor, Correction Bureau, Ministry of Humboldt, Berlin of Justice, Tokyo Hans Heilborn, Chief of Department for Legislation and Criminal Takakazu Azuma, Prosecutor, Osaka District Public Prosecutor's Law, Ministry of Justice, Berlin Office Gunter Lehmann, Director of Section, German Academy " Walter Shogo Chiba, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Ulbricht" of Law and Public Administration, Berlin Court Peter Przybylski, Prosecutor, Berlin Shuzo Ebata, Director, First Criminological Research Division, Udo Wolf, Chief Editor (Law Journal), Berlin Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Tatsuo Endo, Professor of Psychology, Kyushu University, GREECE Fukuoka Takashi Eto, Assistant Professor of Law, Meijo University, Stefanos Anagnostakis, Professor of Law, University of Salonica, Nagoya Athens Giichiro Eura, Warden, Osaka Prison George Th. Nicodotis, Director, Criminological Research Centre, Megumu Fujii, Chief, Osaka Probation Office Athens Hatsutaro Fujiki, Research Staff, Research and Legislature Reference Department, National Diet Library, Tokyo Demonsthene Mirasyezis, Attorney-at-Law, Athens Hideo Fujiki, Professor of Law, University of Tokyo Hatsutaro Fujita, Research Officer, Judicial Affairs Section, GUYANA National Diet Library, Tokyo Cecil N. Murray, Chief Probation and Welfare Officer, George• Taro Fujita, Chief, Wakayama District Public Prosecutor's Office town Kanpei Fujiyama, Warden, Fuchu Prison, Tokyo HAITI Toru Fukui, Director, Tokyo Regional Correction Headquarters Toshimitsu Fukutomi, Research Officer, Criminological Research Chavanncs Douyon, Psychologue, Centre de Psychiatric, Port- Division, Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, au-Prince Tokyo Motoki Funabashi, Deputy-Mayor of Kyoto City INDIA Nobuo Goto, Director, Osaka Regional Correction Headquarters Tadao Goto, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Family Toraskar Vasudev Krishnaji, Deputy Inspector General of Court Prisons, Poona Hiroshi Hamagaki, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka K. A. Naqvj, Professor, Delhi School of Economics, University Family Court of Delhi Masako Hamanaka, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Sudarsan Singha, Superindendent, Central After-Care Home, Family Court Orissa Jin Hara, Chief, Juvenile Section, National Police Agency, Tokyo Jai K. P. Sinha, Assistant Director, Institute of Public Adminis• Kiyoshi Hara, Public Prosecutor, Osaka District Public Prose• tration, Patna University cutor's Office Manas R. Sinha, Director, Indian Institute of Asian Studies, Matchiko Harano, Executive Secretary of the League of Women Bombay Voters' Bureau, Tokyo Hisashi Hasegawa, Warden, Kyoto Detention House

INDONESIA Koreyuki Hashido, Chief, General Affairs Section, Kyoto District Public Prosecutor's Office Mr. Soetarman, Head, Special Affairs Section, Directorate Jazaburo Hashimoto, Professor, Faculty of Education, University General of Prison Affairs, Djakarta of Utsunomiya

— 56 — Kentaro Hashimoto, Managing Director, National Federation Taeko Kanda, Vice-President, Japan Big Brothers and Sisters of Volunteer Probation Officers Association, Tokyo Movement, Shizuoka-ken Mitsuo Hashimoto, Chief, Child Care Section, Children and Koji Kasahara, Executive Director, National Federation of Families Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo Societies for Prevention of Crime, Tokyo Takujiro Hayachi, Family Court Social Investigator, Nara Family Kyuya Kashiwabara, Director, Kinki Police Regional Head• Court quarters, Osaka Ichiji Hayashibe, Deputy Director-General, Social Education Tojiro Kato, Chief Secretarial Officer, Rehabilitation Bureau, Bureau, Ministry of Education, Tokyo Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Takemitsu Hemmi, Associate Professor, School of Mental Health, Yoshiki Kato, Prosecutor, Gifu District Public Prosecutor's Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo University Office Kenyu Higo, Headmaster, Wakaba Child Education and Training Ryozo Katsuo, Public Prosecutor, Supreme Public Prosecutor's Home, Kobe Office, Tokyo Kokichi Higuchi, Director, Second Criminological Research Keishiu Katsura, Secretary-General, Kinki Regional Parole Division, Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Board, Osaka Tokyo Makio Katsurajima, Research Officer, Criminological Research Seisaku Hirai, Legal Counsellor, Correction Bureau, Ministry Division, Research and Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, of Justice, Tokyo Tokyo Hiizu Hiraide, Attorney-at-Law, Tokyo Shigeo Kawaguchi, Family Court Social Investigator, Himeji Yasushi Hirao, Director, Research and Training Institute for Branch of the Osaka Family Court Correctional Officials, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Yoko Kawahara, Lecturer, Buddhist College, Kyoto Tamao Horibe, Counsellor, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Ministry Hideharu Kawai, Director, Public Safety Division, Supreme of Justice, Tokyo Public Prosecutor's Office, Tokyo Kunihiro Horiuchi, Prosecutor, Gifu District Public Prosecutor's Yoshihiko Kawamoto, Foreign Liaison Officer, Information Office and Liaison Office, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Toshiyuki Hyotani, Chief, Information and Liaison Office, Shigeo Kifuji, Public Prosecutor, Niigata District Public Prose• Ministry of Justice, Tokyo cutor's Office Yosoji Ibayashi, Chief Prosecutor, Otsii District Public Prosecu• Tsuneo Kikkawa, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Hosei, tor's Office Tokyo Tada-Atsu Ichihara, Judge, Kobe Family Court Nobuo Kikuchi, Judge, Tokyo Family Court Koichi Kikuta, Assistant Professor of Law, Meiji University, Teizo Ichikawa, Chief, Third Division, Osaka Regional Correction Tokyo Headquarters Eisaku Kimura, Chief, Juvenile Section, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Naoji Ichinomiya, President, Kyoto Bar Association Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Terumasa Ide, Chief, Investigation Section, Ministry of Justice, Masarai Kimura, Human Rights Administrator, Civil Liberties Tokyo Bureau, Tokyo Masatoshi Ikeda, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Shizuko Kimura, Professor of Criminal Law, Seikei University, Family Court Tokyo Hiraku Ikoma, Public Prosecutor, Osaka District Public Prose• Minoru Kinoshita, Director, Cultural Affairs and Tourist cutor's Office Industry Department, Kyoto City Government Ryofu Imai, Chairman, National Association of Prison Chaplains, Toshio Kishimoto, Chief, Legal Affairs Bureau, G.R.I., Naha Tokyo Tatsuo Kobayashi, Superintendent, Kyoto Juvenile Classification Masato Inada, Managing Director, National Federation of Home Volunteer Probation Officers Association, Tokyo Sadataka Kogi, Professor, Department of Education, University Toshihide Inada, Counsellor, Correction Bureau, Ministry of of Sophia, Tokyo Justice, Tokyo Tokuo Kogure, Professor, Hokkaido University, Sapporo Aiichi Inoue, Vice-President, National Federation of Rehabilita• Dennai Kojima, Chief, Amnesty Section, Rehabilitation Bureau, tion Aid Associations, Nagoya Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Masaji Inoue, Professor Emeritus, Kyushu University, Fukuoka Moriaki Komatsu, Superintendent, Naniwa Juvenile Training Yasumasa Inui, Chief, Nara Probation Office School, Osaka Hiroaki Ishida, Superintendent, Kyoto Medical Training School Yukiharu Komoda, Chief Officer, Prevention of Crime Office, for Juvenile Delinquents Hyogo Prefectural Police Headquarters, Osaka Kotaku Ishido, Assistant Professor of Law, Chukyo University, Gisho Kongo, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Nagoya Court Kanae Ishihara, Chief, Kobe District Public Prosecutor's Office Hisao Koyama, Warden, Shiga Prison, Otsu Jiro Ito, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Family Court Hitoshi Koyama, Lawyer, Civil Liberties Commissioner, Nagoya Akira Itoda, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Ritsumeikan, Katsumi Kubo, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Kyoto Court Hiroaki Iwai, Professor of Sociology, Tokyo Metropolitan Kinuko Kubota, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Seikei, University Tokyo Keisuke Iwai, Research Officer, Rehabilitation Bureau, Ministry Fumihiko Kunishima, Director, Kyoto Prefectural Police Head• of Justice quarters Sister Kiyoko Iwashita, Professor, Counsellor of Nakano Prison, Keiki Kurami, Chief, Security Section, Correction Bureau, Tokyo Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Ainoshin Izumi, Warden, Kyoto Prison Shundo Kurimoto, Managing Director, National Federation of Ryoichi Izumimoto, Chief, Otsu Probation Office Volunteer Probation Officers' Associations, Tokyo Shuji Kakizaki, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Family Chikashi Kurozasa, Chief, Prison Industries Section, Correction Court Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Kunio Kanemitsu, Budget Examiner, Budget Bureau, Ministry Kei Kusaka, Head of Second Division, Osaka Regional Correction of Finance, Tokyo Headquarters Furnio Kanazawa, Professor, Hiroshima University Yoko Kuwahara, Lecturer, Buddhist College, Kyoto

— 57 — Hiroshi Maeda, Chief, Criminal Affairs Section, Criminal Affairs Taro Ogawa, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Asia, Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Tokyo Rev. John S. Maeda, Catholic Prison Chaplain, Toyonaka Haruo Ogyu, Executive Director, Correctional Association of Toshiro Maeda, Professor at Sophia University, Tokyo Japan, Tokyo Masao Marui, Chief Judge, Osaka Family Court Masayoshi Ohno, Associate Professor of Law, Osaka University Jokai Marukawa, Assistant Director, National Federation of Sadao Ohsaka, Prosecutor, Otsu District Public Prosecutor's Voluntary Prison Chaplains, Nagoya Office Kazuma Matsuda, Judge, Kyoto Family Court Yoichi Ohtsubo, Executive Director, Japan Rehabilitation Aid Dr. Toyoji Matsukura, Professor of Legal Medicine, Osaka Association, Tokyo University Seitaro Ohtsuki, Director, Crime Prevention Division, Kyoto Ryoichi Matsumoto, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Prefectural Police Headquarters Family Court Akira Okamoto, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Toshio Matsumoto, Chief, Nakadachiuri Police Station, Kyoto Court Koya Matsuo, Associate Professor, University of Tokyo Genzo Okamoto, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Yoshiko Mibuchi, Judge, Tokyo Family Court Family Court Yasutada Minato, Director, Public Welfare and Labour Division, Ichiro Okamoto, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Family Kyoto Prefecture Court Akira Mitsui, Chief Judge, Chiba Family Court Toshiaki Okumura, Faculty Member, United Nations Asia and .Makoto Mitsui, Lecturer, Faculty of Law, Kobe University Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treat• Shuichi Miyake, Chief, Crime Prevention and Juvenile Division ment of Offenders, Fuchu, Tokyo National Research Institute of Police Science, Tokyo Yoshio Okusawa, Instructor, Research and Training Institute Keisei Miyamoto, Specialist, Fuchu Prison, Tokyo for Correction Officials, Nagoya Mibuko Miyamoto, Voluntary Leader, Juvenile Section, Aichi Shinzo Okuto, Chief Judge, Kyoto District Court Prefecture! Police Headquarters, Nagoya Sakae Okuyama, Chief Police Officer, Juvenile Section, Prevention Noboru Miyazaki, Judge, Kofu Family Court of Crime Department, Prefectural Police Headquarters, Kyoto Koichi Miyazawa, Professor of Law, Keio University, Tokyo Yukio Omura, Counsellor, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Kakutaro Momose, Warden, Rehabilitation Aid Hostel, Kyoto Justice, Tokyo Shigeyuki Monji, Chief Prosecutor. Osaka District Public Prose• Junshyo Ota, Chairman, Rehabilitation Aid Hostel, Kyoto cutor's Office Yosie Ote, Counsellor, Kyoto Family Court Tadashi Morishita, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Dr. Masao Otsu, Director, Medical Correctional Association of Okayama Japan, Urawa Soichi Morita, Judge, Tokyo Family Court Teruhiko Rokushika, Chairman, Rehabilitation Aid Hostel, Yuriko Murakami, Volunteer Consultant, Hiroshima Kyoto Rev. Antoine Issei Nagai, Missionary, Hiroshima Yoshinori Sadaoka, Probation Officer, Kobe Probation Office Ken Naito, Professor of Law, Tokyo Metropolitan University Heigo Saito, Judge, Osaka District Court Toshitaro Naka, Lawyer, Tokyo Shuitsu Saito, Deputy Superintending Prosecutor, Osaka High Yoshikatsu Naka, Professor of Kansai University, Osaka Public Prosecutor's Office Tatsuhisa Nakagaito, Superintendent of Educational Affairs Masahanu Sakabe, Chief, Gifu Probation Office of Kyoto City Haruhiko Sakamoto, Chief, Crime Prevention Section, Kyoto Yoshihiko Nakamori, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Prefecture Police Headquarters University of Tokyo Tokutaro Sakamoto, Judge, Kyoto Summary Court Kazumi Nakamura, Instructor, Research and Training Institute Sachio Sakamura, Assistant Professor, Maritime Safety Academy, for Correction Officials, Osaka Hiroshima Makoto Nakamura, Public Prosecutor, Kobe District Public Jin Sakata, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Prosecutor's Office Court Toshio Nakano, Superintendent, Nagoya Juvenile Classification Gishin San-Nomiya, Director, Education and Social Welfare^ Home Section, Honganji Temple, Kyoto Bunsaku Nakao, Notary Public, former Director of Correction Yoji Sasaki, Professor, Faculty of Law, Tohoku Industry Univer• Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo sity, Sendai Katsuzo Nakata, Judge, Kobe Family Court Hiromasa Sato, Chief, Second Narcotic Section, Ministry of Osamu Nakata, Professor, Department of Criminal Psychology Health and Welfare and Forensic Psychiatry, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Jiro Sato, Warden, Osaka Detention House Shigeji Nakatsuji, Chief, Supervision Section, Kobe Probation Masahiko Sato, Professor of Law, Tohokugakuin University, Office Tokyo Ryoichi Nakazawa, Chairman, Kinki Regional Parole Board, Michio Sato, Counsellor, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Osaka Justice, Tokyo Tsutomu Nando, Public Prosecutor, Osaka District Public Tsukasa Sato, Assistant Professor of Law, Asia University, Prosecutor's Office Tokyo Haruo Nishihara, Professor of Law, Waseda University, Tokyo Iwao Seki, Chief, Criminal Affairs Division, Kyoto District Katsuhiko Nishimura, Professor of Law, Okayama University Public Prosecutor's Office Toshio Nishio, Chief, Investigation and Liaison Section, Otsu Tsutomu Seki, Professor, Kanagawa Prefecture Dietetics College, Probation Office Yokohama Masayuki Nishioka, Counsellor, Rehabilitation Bureau, Ministry Hiroshi Sekino, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family of Justice, Tokyo Court Hideo Niwayama, Associate Professor, Chukyo University, Tamotsu Sengoku, Counsellor, Youth Bureau, Prime Minister's Nagoya Office, Tokyo Toshiki Odanaka, Assistant Professor, Tokyo Metropolitan Kuniji Shibahara, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, University University of Kobe Sadamu Odawara, Deputy Budget Examiner, Budget Bureau, Yukio Shigemori, Chief, General Affairs Section, Rehabilitation Ministry of Finance, Tokyo Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo

— 58 — Rikiwo Shikama, Head, Social Affairs Division, United Nations Tokuhiro Tatezawa, Family Court Social Investigator, Tokyo Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo Family Court Echo Shimada, Vice-President, National Federation of Volunteer Kusakabe Tatsuo, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Probation Officers Associations, Osaka Family Court Niro Shimada, Assistant Judge, Nagoya District Court Yutaka Terashita, Guidance Officer, Kyoto Juvenile Guidance Zenji Shimada, Chairman, Chubu Regional Parole Board, Nagoya Centre Kunio Shimazu, Managing Director, Kyoto Chamber of Com• Kiyohiro Tobita, Public Prosecutor, Juvenile Section, Criminal merce Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Tsuyoshi Shimomura, Chief Officer, First Planning Office, Pre- Shinichiro Tojo, Public Prosecutor, Tokyo District Public Pro• fectural Police Headquarters, Osaka secutor's Office Shizuo Shimura, Managing Director, National Federation of Zen Tokoi, Public Prosecutor, Tokyo High Public Prosecutor's Voluntary Prison Chaplains, Tokyo Office Masahiro Shiomi, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Chiwaki Tokuoka, Superintendent, Izumi Juvenile Training Family Court School, Osaka Masato Sugahara, Lawyer, Osaka Takeshi Torikai, Director, Public Welfare Bureau, Kyoto City Shuji Sugai, Probation Officer, Osaka Probation Office Government Sadatoshi Sukegawa, Vice-Chairman, National Federation of Masahide Tsuji, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Family Volunteer Probation Officers' Associations, Sapporo Court Kazuo Suzuki, Professor, Tokyo Dental College Mamoru Tsunashima, Chief Liaison Officer, International Shig'etsugu Suzuki, Associate Professor of Law, Kobe University Affairs, Minister's Secretariat, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Toshio Suzuki, Chief Prosecutor, Matsuyama District Public Tokyo Prosecutor's Office Shokichi Ueno, Professor Emeritus, Medical Faculty, University Tsuneo Suzuki, Assistant Judge, Tokyo Family Court of Tokyo Yoshio Suzuki,-Counsellor, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Ministry Sigeo Umayahara, Professor of Criminal Law, Komazawa Uni• of Justice, Tokyo versity, Tokyo Kin-ichi Suzumura, Vice-President, National Federation of Volun• Tatsunori Umiji, Public Prosecutor, Tokyo High Public Prose• teer Probation Officers* Associations, Nagoya cutor's Office Masaji Tachibana, Assistant Research Officer, Research and Hikotaro Usuda, Chief Prosecutor, Kyoto District Public Pro• Training Institute, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo secutor's Office Seiich Tada, Chairman, Kanto Regional Parole Board, Tokyo Sasatesu Usui, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Family Taro Takahashi, Judge, Kyoto District Court Court Yoshio Takahashi, Director, Nagoya Regional Correction Hiroshi Watanabe, Juvenile Research Officer, Safety Bureau, Headquarters National Police Agency, Tokyo Hideo Takamura, Member, Social Section, United Nations Kayoko Watanabe, Voluntary Leader, Juvenile Section, Public Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo Security Section, Hyogo Prefectural Police Headquarters, Hobe Shoichiro Takamuro, Assistant Chief Officer, Second Narcotic Shuji Watanabe, Budget Examiner, Budget Bureau, Ministry of Section, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo Finance, Tokyo Koichi Takano, Judge, Tokyo Family Court Kuniyuki Yagi, Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Chuo, Gakuki Takashima, Assistant Professor of Law, Ryukoku Uni• Tokyo versity, Kyoto Yutaka Yagi, Chief Prosecutor, Nagoya District Public Prose• Shinshiro Takeda, Chief, Kinki District Narcotic Control Office, cutor's Office Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo Kunihiko Yamada, Assistant Police Inspector, First Juvenile Shingi Takemura, Associate Professor, Faculty of Medicine, Section, Crime Prevention Department, Tokyo Metropolitan University of Tokyo Police Agency TsunchisaTakeyama, Commissioner, Central Deliberative Council Masuo Yamaguchi, Chief, Foreign Affairs Section, Kyoto City for Mental Hygiene, Tokyo Government Haruo Takikawa, Judge, Osaka High Court Kanichi Yamamoto, Chief, Kobe Probation Office Ko Takuwa, Superintendent, Osaka Juvenile Classification Home Yoshiaki Yamamoto, Prosecutor and Chief, General Affairs Shuzo Tamaki, Voluntary Leader, Juvenile Section, Osaka Division, Kyoto District Public Prosecutor's Office Prefectural Police Headquarters Riujiro Yamanaka, Superintendent, Kanto Medical Training Hiroshi Tamiya, Professor of Law, Rikkyo University, Tokyo School for Juvenile Delinquents, Tokyo Noriaki Tamura, Chief, First Investigation Section, Criminal Kaoru Yamasaki, Chief Judge, Kyoto Family Court Investigation Bureau, National Police Agency, Tokyo Ryotaro Yamasaki, Family Court Social Investigator, Osaka Tatsumi Tamura, Faculty Member, United Nations Asia and Far Family Court East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment Zongyo Yamashita, Managing Director, National Federation of Offenders, Fuchu, Tokyo of Volunteer Probation, Officers' Associations, Tokyo Tetsugai Tanabe, Chairman, Kyoto Volunteer Probation Officers' Masaharu Yanagimoto, Superintendent, Uji Juvenile Training Associations School, Kyoto Hideo Tanahashi, Warden, Kasamatsu Women's Prison Kazuo Yasuda, Superintendent, Nakamiya Prefectural Hospital, Masayuki Tanaka, Chief, Tokyo Probation Office Osaka Nori Tanaka, Chief, Investigation and Liaison Section, Rehabili• Michio Yasuda, Chief, General Affairs Section, Criminal Affairs tation Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Bureau, Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Yuichi Tanaka, Chief of Crime Prevention and Juvenile Section, Minoru Yoda, Chief, Educational Section, Correction Bureau, Safety Bureau, National Police Agency, Tokyo Ministry of Justice, Tokyo Kenji Tani, Judge, Kyoto Family Court Kouichiro Yokoyama, Professor of Law, Aichigakuin University, Akira Tanigawa, Faculty Member, United Nations Asia and Far Nagoya East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment Jun-ichi Yoshida, Counsellor, Criminal Affairs, Bureau, Ministry of Offenders, Fuchu, Tokyo of Justice, Tokyo David Tanushi, Volunteer Probation Officer, Osaka Kango Yoshikawa, Judge, Osaka High Court

— 59 — Makoto Yoshimaru, Chief, Second Criminal Affairs Section, Vo Van Gan, Judge, Saigon Supreme Court, Tokyo Tai Pham Huu, Deputy Chef de Cabinet, Supreme Court, Saigon Katsumi Yoshimura, Chief, Juvenile Section, Kyoto Prefecture Hoang Tuan Loc, Judge, Saigon Police Headquarters Tiet Tran Minh, Chief Justice, Saigon Toshio Yoshimura, Vice-President, National Federation of Mrs. Tiet Tran Minh, Lawyer, Supreme Court of Viet-Nam, Rehabilitation Aid Associations, Osaka Saigon Yukio Yoshimura, Leader, Rehabilitation Aid Hostel, Osaka Nguyen Trong Ninh, Chief, Personnel Bureau, Prison Depart• Tohru Yoshinaga, Assistant Chief Prosecutor, Kyoto District ment, Saigon Public Prosecutor's Office Bao Luong Tan, Judge, Saigon Eiji Yoshino, Chief, Kyoto Probation Office Bui-Van-Thanh, Chef de Cabinet, Cour Supreme, Saigon Tokujiro Yoshino, Warden, Nagoya Prison Trudc Tru6ng-Van, President of Justice, Saigon Iwao Yotsuya, Judge, Tokyo Family Court Jin-ichi Yuki, Member, Social Affairs Division, United Nations SOUTH AFRICA Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo Harutoshi Yunose, Family Court Social Investigator, Kyoto Jan H. Steyn, Judge, Supreme Court, Cape Town Family Court

SPAIN MALAYSIA Rev. Manuel Hernandez, Counsellor of Prisons and Reforma• Singh Charan, Chief, Research Section, Prison Administration, tories, Kamakura, Japan Taiping Manuel Iglesias Corral Presidente, Academia Jurisprudencia de Sazlega, La Coruna

NETHERLANDS Enrique Mapelli y Lopez, Abogado, Madrid Dr. Jesus Pintos Perez, La Corufia Dr. Georg W. Arendsen Hein, Medical Director, Psychothera• Jesus Pintos Uribe, Abogado, La Coruna peutic Hospital for Neurotic and Psychopathic Patients, Juan Velasco Viejo, Arquitecto, Madrid Ederveen

SWEDEN NEW ZEALAND Erik Alexanderson, Member of Parliament, District Judge, Lidingo, John L. Robson, former Secretary of Justice, Wellington Nils M. Altahr-Cederberg, Chief Protective Consultant, Falun John A. Seymour, Senior Lecturer in Law, University of Auckland Thorborg Anderson, Regional Director for Female Prisons, Allan K. Wilson, National Secretary, New Zealand Prisoners' Frovi Aid and Rehabilitation Society, Wellington Karin E. Branden, Psychiatric Social Worker, Stockholm Nils Eriksson, Production Engineer, Correctional Services, Vas-

PAKISTAN teras Ruth L. Hamrin-Thorell, Member of the Board of the National Shamsul Haque, Deputy Assistant Director of Social Welfare, Swedish Correctional Administration, Uppsala Government of East Pakistan, Dacca Ulla B. Hard af Segerstad, Assistant Protective Consultant, Lund Nils Jareborg, Assistant Professor in Criminal Law, University

PHILIPPINES of Uppsala Sivert R. JSrnebeck, Chief Officer, Norrtalje Prison Jose G. Burgos, Jr., crime reporter, The Manila Times, Manila Ove Kjellgren, Legal Adviser, Swedish Confederation of Trade Apolinar Fojas, Professor, Philippine College of Criminology, Unions, Stockholm Manila Sergej Mirelius, Prison Architect, Stockholm Francisco Ruivivar, Jr., Chief, Reception and Diagnostic Centre, Alvar Nelson, Professor of Criminal Law, University of Uppsala Bureau of Prisons, Rizal Anita E. Persson, Social Worker in correctional institutions, Pedro P. Solis, Chairman, Board of Trustees, Philippine College Akersberga of Criminology, Manila Karin M. Ringberg, Legal Adviser, Ministry of Justice, Stock• Tomas Trinidad, Professor, Philippine College of Criminology, holm Manila Per O. Ryding, Judge, Court of Appeal of Skane and Blekinge, Marcos Valentin, Jr., City Fiscal, Manila Malmo

POLAND Clay A. Svensson, Chief Officer, Harnosand Prison

Remigiusz Bierzanek, Professor, Department of Social Sciences, THAILAND University of Warsaw Abha Bhamorabutr, Chief, Vocational Training Division, Depart• ment of Corrections, Ministry of the Interior, Bangkok REPUBLIC OF KOREA UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC Doo Sung Lee, President, Civil Rehabilitation Agency, Seoul Jae Yoon Park, Secretary-General, Civil Rehabilitation Agency, Mahmoud Saheb, Chairman, Board of Directors, Cairo Prisoners Seoul Aid Association Joon Ik Park, Chief, Planning Division, Ministry of Justice, Ahmed Khalifa, Chairman, Executive Board, National Centre Seoul for Social and Criminological Research, Cairo

REPUBLIC OF VIET-NAM UNITED KINGDOM

Tran-An-Bai, Judge, Saigon Elizabeth F. Dacre, Voluntary Social Worker, Day Magistrate, Nguyen Ngoc Chan, Inspector of Corrections, Saigon Brighton

— 60 — Abdullah H. Dawood, Deputy Commissioner General of Abu C'Ceal Coombs, Vice-Chairman, Washington Council of the Dhabi for Expo 70, Osaka, Japan National Council on Crime and Delinquency, Yakima, Wash• Duncan Fairn, Training Officer, House of Lords, London ington Rev. Arthur Hoyles, Secretary, Methodist Church, Committee Frances Curry, Primary teacher, Stockton, California for Prison Chaplains, Hayes End, Middlesex Mario d'Angeli, Professor, Social Welfare Department, San Frank McNair Lieschine, Governor, H.M. Borstal, Dover Francisco State College, San Francisco, California Benedict Lorraine, Psychologist, Stamford House, Remand Home, Edna O. Davis, Juvenile Probation Officer, Florence, Arizona London Bobbye Dean, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Peter Marshall, Chief Superintendent, Crime Prevention Section, Loretta DePonio, Advisor, Heart Line Inc., Detroit, Michigan Metropolitan Police, London Grace Dunbar, Parole Supervisor, Arizona State Department of Rosalind Messenger, Chairman, Board of Visitors, H.M. Prison, Corrections, Phoenix, Arizona Blundeston, Suffolk Marie Durbin, Criminology student, Napa, California Peter Charles Neivens, Chief Superintendent, Metropolitan Christopher F. Edley, Programme Officer-in-Charge, Government Police Force, London and Law Programme, Ford Foundation, New York, N.Y. Sir Leon Radzinowicz, Wolfson Professor of Criminology; Robert A. Ellison, Commissioner of Public Safety, Virgin Islands Director of the Institute of Criminology, University of Cam• Ralph W. England, Jr., Professor of Sociology, University of bridge Rhode Island, Kingston, R.I. Geoffrey Robson, Magistrate, Endon, Stoke-on-Trent Richard C. Ericson, Executive Director, Correctional Service of James Aikman Smith, Sheriff, Substitute of the Lothians and Minneapolis, Minnesota Peebles, Edinburgh Rev. Byron E. Eshelman, Protestant Chaplain, San Quentin, Robin D. Swann, Chief Production Engineer of Prison Industries, California Lindfield, Sussex Thomas G. Eynon, Professor of Criminology and Corrections, Dr. Keith R. "H. Wardrop, Consultant in Forensic Psychiatry; Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois Director, The Douglas Inch Clinic of Forensic Psychiatry, Paulette B. Fetner, Deputy Probation Officer, Los Angeles County Glasgow Probation Department, Santa Ana, California Carl Flaxman, Regional Director, Office for Civil Rights, United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Dallas, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Texas Paul C. Friday, Lecturer, Department of Sociology, University Alexander Ackerman, Supervising Deputy Probation Officer, of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Compton, California Sidney Friedman, Senior Research Criminologist, Public Systems, Benedict S. Alper, Visiting Lecturer in Criminology, Boston Inc., San Jose, California College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts Stella S. Geranen, Teacher, Stockton, California Albert Axelrod, Superintendent, Highfields, Residential Group Gayle Gladous, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Center, Hopewell, New Jersey Louise P. Grier, Parole Agent, Detroit, Michigan John G. Baker, Secretary-Treasurer, International Prisoners Aid Phylis Hammer, Juvenile Probation Department, Tucson, Arizona Association, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin Frank E. Hartung, Professor of Sociology, Wayne State Uni• Dennis Sheldon Barron, Deputy Probation Officer II, Van Nuys, versity, Detroit, Michigan California Adair M. Hoult, Deputy Probation Officer, Los Angeles County Lovell Bixby, Consultant, Joint Commission on Correctional Probation Department, Santa Monica, California Manpower and Training, Arlington, Virginia Walter Ing, Probation Supervisor, Family Court, Honolulu, Victor Bluestein, Chief, Community Planning and Development, Hawaii Department of Corrections, Sacramento, California Sanford Jaffe, Programme Officer, Ford Foundation, New York, Lynden Bowden, Jr., University of Arizona, Phoenix, Arizona N.Y. Jon G. Bowman, Trustee, National Council on Crime and Delin• W. Ervin James, President, Houston Bar Association, Houston, quency, Bellevue, Washington Texas Ernest Brawley, Correctional Captain, Lafayette, California Rev. Muriel James-Brawley, Psychotherapist, Lafayette, Cali• Lowcl! Cable, Juvenile Delinquency Programme, Tucson Office fornia of Economic Services, Tucson, Arizona Anne Jeffery, Student of criminology, Sacramento State College, Martha B. Cable, Counsellor, Public Schools, Tucson, Arizona Oakland, California Emmett Cahill, Executive Director, John Howard Association, Margaretta D. Jeffery, Teacher, Group Worker, Oakland, Cali• Honolulu, Hawaii fornia Susan Cameron, Graduate student, University of Arizona, James Jeffery, Criminology student, Oakland, California Tucson, Arizona Ann D. Jenkins, Graduate student in correctional administration, Kenneth S. Carpenter, Juvenile Delinquency Specialist, United University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona States Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. Richard L. Jenkins, Professor of Child Psychiatry and Chief, Gene E. Carte, Office of Law Enforcement Administration, Child Psychiatry Service, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa Berkeley, California Elmer H. Johnson, Professor, Center for the Study of Crime, . Edward R. Cass, Vice-Chairman, New York State Commission Delinquency and Corrections, Southern Illinois University, of Correction, New York, N.Y. Carbondale, Illinois Michael A. Castillo, Supervising Deputy Probation Officer, Nell A. Johnson, Librarian, University of Arizona, Tucson, Sylmar, California Arizona Rex B. Christensen, Probation Director, Los Angeles County Robert S. Johnston, California Youth Authority, Sacramento, Probation Department, California California W. B. Clayton, Chairman, Committee on Citizen Participation, Paul W. Keve, Commissioner of Corrections, State of Minnesota, American Correctional Association, Dallas, Texas St. Paul, Minnesota Marshall B. Clinard, Professor of Sociology, University of Wis• George Killinger, Director, Institute of Contemporary Correc• consin, Madison, Wisconsin tions, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas Bernard Cohen, Rand Social Scientist; Assistant Professor, Dr. Leonard Kingsley, Chief Psychologist, Queens Guidance Queen's College, New York, N.Y. Center, Brooklyn, New York

— 6 1 — Mary Knudten, Instructor of Sociology, Valparaiso University, Julian Rose, Parole Officer, Riversdale, N.Y. Valparaiso, Indiana Mordechai Rotenberg, Lecturer in Criminology, University of Richard D. Knudten, Professor of Sociology, Chairman, Depart• California, Berkeley, California ment of Sociology, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana Ellen Ruth, Student, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Eileen R. Kobrin, Executive Director, Prison Service Committee Eugene P. Schwartz, Executive Secretary, National Conference of Southern New Jersey, Cherry Hill, New Jersey of Public Youth Agencies, University of Missouri, St. Louis, Elizabeth Kominek, Registered nurse in psychiatry, Salt Lake Missouri City, Utah Kenyon J. Scudder, Consultant Western States, Osborne Asso• Peter Konz, Vice-President and Director for Asia, International ciation, Balboa Island, California Legal Center, New York, N.Y. Tai Shigaki, Director of Staff Training, Minnesota Department Fred Kyle, Supervising Deputy Probation Officer, Los Angeles of Corrections, St. Paul, Minnesota County Probation Department, Saugus, California Joan D. Shryock, Lecturer, Police Science and Administration, Robert S. Lancaster, Probation Officer, Sylmar, California Sacramento State College, Sacramento, California James Low, Security Police Supervisor, San Fancisco, California A. LaMont Smith, Deputy Director, Arizona Department of Donald E. J. MacNamara, Professor of Criminology and Correc• Corrections, Phoenix, Arizona tions, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, N.Y. Robert L. Smith, Chief, Correctional Planning and Development, Dr. Eric Marcus, Psychiatrist, Los Angeles, California Department of the California Youth Authority, Sacramento, S. Jane Matthews, Teacher, Stockton, California California Eileen McGrath, Teacher, Camp Counsellor and Recreation Harry A. Snyder, Director, Bureau of Correction, Department Leader for Youth, Boston, Massachusetts of Justice, Camp Hill, Pennsylvania Sandra K. Meen, Student in Criminology, University of Arizona, Lyman Stansky, Counsellor and Attorney-at-Law, New York, Tucson, Arizona N.Y. William Melnicoe, Professor of Police Science and Administra• Doris R. Sutton, Teacher, Tucson, Arizona tion, Sacramento State College, Sacramento, California Mary Swartz, Member, Bucks County, Association of Correi> June Morrison, Associate Professor, Department of Public tions, Doylestown, Pennsylvania Administration, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Dr. John A. Talbott, Director, Division of Community Psychiatry, Orville C. Morrison, Chairman, Folger Adam, Glen Riddle, St. Luke's Hospital Center, New York, N.Y. Pennsylvania Susan W. Talbott, research assistant, St. Luke's Hospital Center, Larry J. Moss, Public Safety and Criminal Justice Analyst, City New York, N.Y. Planning Commission, New York, N.Y. Jack H. Taube, Deputy Probation Officer, Van Nuys, California Carroll Munz, Research assistant, Linguist, New York, N.Y. Richard Traub, Deputy Probation Officer, Pacific Palisades, Stanley J. Nadratowski, Probation Officer, New Baltimore, California. Michigan Betty B. Umphress, Criminology student, Sacramento State Abraham G. Novick, Executive Director, Berkshire Farm for College, Sacramento, California Boys, Canaan, New York Melwin Wallace, Chairman, Corrections and Law Enforcement, Robert Orin, Graduate student in correctional administration, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Shelma M. White, Senior Deputy Probation Officer, Sacramento, Leonard Orland, Associate Professor of Criminal Law, University California of Connecticut, West Hartford, Connecticut David J. Winton, Member, Board of Directors, Correctional Betty Parker, Student in correctional administration, University Service of Minnesota, Minneapolis of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Harry H. Woodward, Jr., Director, Correctional Programmes, Louise Paul, Senior Supervising Clerk, Probation Office, Sacra• Stone-Brandel Center, Chicago, Illinois mento, California Zora N. Zensky, Community Health Nurse, graduate student, Donna Peirano, Teacher, Stockton, California University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona William Pincus, President, Council on Legal Education for Louis Ziskind, Executive Director, Jewish Committee for Per• Professional Responsibility, Inc., New York, N.Y. sonal Service, Los Angeles, California Houshang Poorkaj, Associate Professor of Ciminology, California

State College, Fullerton, California VENEZUELA Jeffrey L. Prather, Teacher-in-Charge, Brooklyn Adult Training Center, New York, N.Y. Orlando Contreras, Director, Centro de Investigaciones Penales John P. Reid, Professor of Law, New York University y Criminol6gicas, Universidad de Carabobo, Valencia Mary Ann Richardson, Supervisor-Instructor, Cornell Medical Francisco Burgos Finol, Director del Centro de Investigaciones Center, New York, N.Y. Criminoldgicas, Universidad del Zulia Max M. Rogers, Presiding Judge, Administrative Judicial District Juan Mendoza Pimentel, Profesor, Universidad Central de of Texas, Huntsville, Texas Caracas.

Annex II

RULES OF PROCEDURE OF THE CONGRESS

I. CONGRESS MEMBERSHIP interested intergovernmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations in consultative status with the Economic and Social Rule 1 Council; (c) Individual participants having a direct interest in the field The Congress shall include three categories of participants: of social defence, including representatives of criminological (a) Delegates officially designated by their Governments; institutes and of national non-governmental organizations con• (b) Representatives of United Nations specialized agencies, cerned with social defence matters.

— 62 — Rule 2 Rule 11

Each Government invited by the United Nations which proposes The United Nations Secretariat and the host Government shall to participate in the Congress shall communicate the names of have sole responsibility for making all the arrangements for its delegates to the Secretary-General via official channels. The plenary and section meetings of the Congress, including inter• name of the head of the delegation and of the delegates who in pretation and translation. his absence are authorized to cast the vote of the delegation shall be communicated to the Secretariat upon registration at the III. OFFICERS Congress.

Rule 12 Rule 3 The Congress shall elect a President and up to a maximum of Each specialized agency, intergovernmental organization and fifteen Vice-Presidents. The election of an honorary President non-governmental organization which proposes to participate in and honorary Vice-Presidents will be at the discretion of the the Congress shall communicate the names of its representatives Congress. to the United Nations Secretariat. Nominations for President may be made by any delegation and will be retained if seconded by another delegation. If two or Rule 4 more candidates are so nominated, a vote shall be taken in accordance with the provisions of rule 29. Persons who meet the requirements for Congress membership For the posts of Vice-Presidents, a list may be presented jointly as determined by the Secretariat may attend the Congress as by any three delegations for election by the Congress at its first individual participants if their applications have been accepted plenary meeting. If two or more lists are so presented, a vote by the United Nations Secretariat. shall be taken in accordance with the provisions of rule 29.

Rule 13 II. ORGANIZATION OF THE WORK OF THE CONGRESS The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall designate, in advance of the Congress, a Chairman, Vice-Chairman and Rule 5 Rapporteur for each section, and in their selection regard shall be had to an equitable geographical distribution of posts. The The Congress shall consider the items included in the agenda Secretary-General may appoint a General Rapporteur and General prepared by the Secretariat of the United Nations on the advice Consultants if such posts are deemed appropriate for the pro• of the Advisory Committee of Experts on the Prevention of ceedings of the Congress. The list of officers so designated shall be Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. placed before the Congress at its first plenary meeting for affirmation. Rule 6

The work of the Congress shall be conducted in plenary and Rule 14 section meetings, in accordance with a programme prepared by If the Chairman finds it necessary to be absent during a meeting the Secretariat of the United Nations. or any part thereof, the Vice-Chairman acting as Chairman shall have the same powers and duties as the Chairman. Rule 7 If the Chairman or any other officer of the section must with• draw from the Congress, the Secretary-General shall designate The Congress shall establish four sections corresponding to a new officer for the post. the four agenda items. Sections I and HI will hold their meetings simultaneously; and, subsequently, sections II and IV will hold simultaneous meetings. IV. CONDUCT OF BUSINESS

Rule 8 Rule IS At the opening of the Congress, the representative of the Participants shall have the choice of taking part in the work Secretary-General of the United Nations shall preside until the of up to two sections. These sections shall be sections which do Congress has elected a President. not meet at the same time; no participant will be registered for meetings to be held simultaneously on the same day. Only those registered for a particular section will be recognized by the Rule 16 Chairman as qualified to speak in that section. The President of the Congress shall declare the opening and closing of each plenary meeting, accord the right to speak, direct • Rule 9 the discussion in plenary meeting, ensure the observance of these rules, put questions and announce decisions. He shall rule on In section meetings, the discussions shall be under the control points of order and, subject to these rules, shall have control of the Chairman. At the discretion of the Chairman, discussions of the proceedings. He may call a speaker to order if his remarks may be initiated or guided by a panel designated in advance of are not relevant to the subject under consideration. His decision the Congress by the United Nations Secretariat from among on relevance shall be final. the registrants with due regard to geographical representation. Rule 17 Rule 10 If the President is absent from a meeting or any part thereof, The deliberations of each section shall be synthesized by its he shall designate a Vice-President to take his place. A Vice- Rapporteur in a report, which shall be presented to the Congress President acting as President shall have the same powers and duties in a plenary meeting. Summary records will not be provided. as the President.

— 63 — Rule 18 of the sections, review the progress of the Congress and make recommendations for furthering such progress. It shall also have The President may limit the time allowed to each speaker and the authority to decide on the submission to the Congress of any the number of times each participant may speak on any question. question not closely related to the agenda items. It shall also have He may request that each participant who wishes to take part final authority to decide what matters shall be submitted to the in the discussion should complete, in advance of the meeting, a Congress. speaker's form indicating briefly the subject of his intervention. When debate is limited and a participant has spoken his allotted time, the President shall call him to order without delay. Rule 26 The Steering Committee shall comprise the President of the Rule 19 Congress, the representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the representative of the host Government, the If the time allotted to the item under consideration does not Chairmen of the four sections, the representative of the host permit the Congress to hear all participants who signify their Government for the next Congress and the Executive Secretary desire to speak, the Presiding Officer may accord the right to of the Congress. The Steering Committee may co-opt up to five speak to only a limited number of participants. In the choice of additional members to participate in its meetings. participants on the speakers list, due regard shall be had to geo• graphical representation and the points which each speaker proposes to discuss. Rule 27 The Steering Committee shall elect its-own Chairman, Vice- Rule 20 Chairman and Rapporteur, and set the schedule of its meetings.

Each section shall be presided over by a Chairman whose powers and functions shall be similar to those of the President Rule 28 of the Congress at plenary meetings, as provided in rules 16 and 18. The decisions of the Steering Committee shall be made by a majority of members present and voting. Rule 21

In section meetings, the right to speak shall first be accorded VI. VOTING by the Chairman to persons selected from the panel or from persons who have completed a speaker's form in accordance with rules 18 and 20, and in the ensuing general discussion all partici• Rule 29 pants shall have the right to ask for the floor, subject to the pro• In plenary meetings, voting shall be confined to Government visions of rules 18 and 20. The Chairman's decision on recogni• delegations, each of which shall have one vote. The vote of each tion and order of speakers shall be final. delegation shall be cast by the head of the delegation or by a duly authorized delegate. The vote shall normally be taken by show Rule 22 of hands, but any delegation may request a roll-call. The roll-call shall be taken in the English alphabetical order of the names of The representative of the Secretary-General, the Executive delegations, beginning with the delegation whose name is drawn Secretary, or any officer of the Secretariat designated by either by lot by the President. of these officials may, at any time, make oral as well as written statements concerning any question under consideration by the Congress. Rule 30 Decisions of the Congress shall be made by a majority of Rule 23 Government delegates present and voting. The delegations which abstain from voting are considered as not voting. Any proposal on matters pertaining to the substance of an agenda item shall not be submitted to or entertained by the Congress if it requires adoption by voting. The Presiding Officer Rule 31 of any mieting may, however, ascertain the sense of the meeting Subsequent to any vote taken in accordance with rule 29, the on matters not relating to the substance of an item on the agenda. Presiding Officer may request, for consultative purposes, that the views of individual participants and of the representatives Rule 24 of specialized agencies, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations be expressed by show of hands. A proposal for adoption by the Congress cannot be submitted for consideration at a plenary meeting unless it is sponsored by Rule 32 not less than three delegations and cleared by the Steering Com• mittee in advance of the plenary meeting. The text of any such In section meetings, all participants have the right to vote. proposal shall be circulated to the participants twenty-four hours Decisions shall be made by a majority of participants present and before is discussed and voted upon, unless the Congress decides voting. otherwise.

VII. LANGUAGES V. STEERING COMMITTEE Rule 33 Rule 25 English, French, Russian and Spanish shall be the workind The Steering Committee shall be the governing body of the languages of the Congress. Simultaneous interpretation to ang Congress. It shall assist the President in the general conduct of from any of these languages shall be provided in section and ple• the work of the Congress, ensure the co-ordination of the work nary meetings.

— 64 — Participants from the host Government may make speeches sooner as practical after the close of the Congress to the parti, in Japanese. In this case, the host Government shall provide for cipants as well as to all States Members of the United Nations- interpretation into one of the working languages. Interpretation into the other working languages by an interpreter of the Secre• tariat of the United Nations may be based on the interpretation IX. GENERAL PROVISION given in the first working language.

Rule 35 VIII. REPORT OF THE CONGRESS

Rule 34 Any question not specifically covered by these rules shall be settled by the Presiding Officer following as closely as possible The report of the Congress shall be prepared by the Secretariat the rules of procedure of the functional commissions of the of the United Nations and distributed within six months or Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.

Annex HI

LIST OF DOCUMENTS

Unless otherwise indicated, the basic documentation for the Congress listed below was published in English, French, Russian and Spanish. A Congress Handbook, prepared in four languages by the Japanese Organizing Committee, was distributed to all participants. The reports made by the Rapporteurs were also made available to all participants in the four languages. Minutes of the plenary and section meetings were prepared for the use of the officers of the Congress and its secretariat only. The basic documentation for the Congress was as follows: A/CONF.43/1 Social defence policies in relation to development planning Working paper prepared by the Secretariat A/CONF.43/2 Participation of the public in the prevention and control of crime and delinquency Working paper prepared by the Secretariat A/CONF.43/3 The standard minimum rules for the treatment of offenders in the light of recent developments in the correctional field Working paper prepared by the Secretariat A/CONF.43/4 Organization of research for policy development in social defence Working paper prepared by the Secretariat A/CONF.43/L.I Health planning in relation to social defence planning Paper prepared by the World Health Organization English, French ST/SOA/SER.M/25 International Review of Criminal Policy No. 25 English, French and Spanish (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 68.IV.7) ST/SO A/SER. M/26 International Review of Criminal Policy No. 26 English, French and Spanish (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 70.IV.1) ST/SO A/SER.M/27 Internationa! Review of Criminal Policy No. 27 English, French and Spanish (United Nations publication, Sales No.: 70.IV.7) ST/SOA/SER.M/28 International Review of Criminal Policy No. 28 English, French and Spanish (United Nations publication Sales No.: 70.IV.9) A/CONF.43/NGO/1 Criminalite" et developpement Paper submitted by the following organizations: International Penal and Penitentiary Foundation; International Society for Social Defence French A/CONF.43/NGO/2 Report submitted by the International Union of Child Welfare English A/CONF.43/NGO/3 La participation du public a la prevention du crime et a la lutte contre la delinquance Paper submitted by the International Penal and Penitentiary Foun• dation French A/CONF.43/NGO/4 Comparison of the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners with the text of the Rules relating to non-delinquent detainees

— 65 — drafted by the medico-legal commission of Monaco at the request of the International Committee of the Red Cross Report submitted by the International Commission of Jurists English A/CONF.43/NGO/5 A pilot study on Standard Minimum Rules Report submitted by the International Prisoners Aid Association English A/CONF.43/NGO/6 Do the police — or can the police — obtain the public's participation in the prevention of crime? Report submitted by the International Criminal Police Organization English, French and Spanish A/CONF.43/NGO/7 The problem of prisoners' children Report submitted by the International Catholic Child Bureau English, French and Spanish

For the general information of Congress participants, a list of documents and publications of the United Nations and the specialized agencies on the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders was also distributed.

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