SECTION II Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

Chapter 12 Sinus Node Dysfunction

SAROJA BHARATI, NORA GOLDSCHLAGER, FRED KUSUMOTO, RALPH LAZZARA, RABIH AZAR, STEPHEN HAMMILL, and GERALD NACCARELLI

Epidemiology: Nora Goldschlager, Fred Kusumoto, and Rabih Azar Anatomy and Pathology: Saroja Bharati Basic Electrophysiology: Ralph Lazzara Etiology: Nora Goldschlager, Fred Kusumoto, and Rabih Azar Diagnostic Evaluation: Gerald Naccarelli Clinical Electrophysiology: Stephen Hammill Evidence-Based Therapy: Nora Goldschlager, Fred Kusumoto, and Rabih Azar

In the early 1900s Keith and Flack identified the sinus due to the decrease in vagal tone that occurs with node as the region responsible for activation of the increasing age. heart.1 Laslett first suggested sinus node dysfunction as Sinus node dysfunction should be suspected when a a cause of bradycardia in 1909, and during the 1950s patient describes symptoms of fatigue, syncope or pre- and 1960s Short, Ferrer, Lown, and others described syncope, or exercise intolerance and is noted to have the clinical spectrum of sinus node dysfunction that is sinus bradycardia or pauses on the 12-lead ECG or dur- commonly called the “sick sinus syndrome resting sinus ing Holter monitoring. In general, symptomatic sinus bradycardia.”2-5 Sinus node dysfunction can have multi- node dysfunction increases with age, with the incidence ple electrocardiographic manifestations including sinus doubling between the fifth and sixth decades of life. pauses, the bradycardia-tachycardia syndrome, and inap- In one study of approximately 9000 patients visiting propriate sinus node response to exercise (chronotropic a regional cardiac center in Belgium, Kulbertus et al. incompetence). estimated that the incidence of sinus node dysfunction is less than 5 per 3000 people older than 50 years of age.9 However, sinus node dysfunction is more com- Epidemiology monly identified today because of an increased elderly population and increased physician awareness. In a It can be difficult to differentiate sinus node dysfunc- 1997 survey, sinus node dysfunction accounted for tion from physiologic sinus bradycardia in a specific approximately 50% of the 150,000 new pacemakers population. In a study of 50 young adult males, 24-hour implanted in the United States and 20% to 30% of the ambulatory electrocardiographic monitoring revealed 150,000 new pacemakers implanted in Europe.10,11 that 24% of the study group had transient heart rates Although more common in elderly patients, it is less than 40 beats per minute (bpm), pauses up to important to note that several specific younger patient 1.7 seconds while awake, and 2.1-second pauses while groups can also have sinus node dysfunction. First, asleep.6 Similarly, in a study of 50 young adult women, patients with congenital heart disease can have sinus pauses from 1.6 to 1.9 seconds were observed.7 In older node dysfunction. In 39 patients younger than 40 years asymptomatic individuals, transient heart rates less than of age who underwent pacemaker implant for sinus node 40 bpm and pauses of 1.5 to 2.0 seconds were observed dysfunction at the Mayo Clinic, 64% had associated in less than 2%.8 The decreased incidence of nocturnal congenital heart disease.12 The most common condition bradycardia in this normal elderly population is probably was transposition of the great arteries corrected by a 207 208 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

Mustard operation, since this procedure requires exten- surrounding atrial myocardial cells, and the striations sive atriotomies. Second, several familial forms of sinus are scarce but do increase with age. There are no inter- node dysfunction have been identified and account calated discs at the light microscopic level. The cells lie for approximately 2% of patients who present with in a massive amount of thick collagenous and thinner sinus node dysfunction.13-15 Bharati et al. described a elastic fibers.18-22 family with congenital absence of sinus rhythm. Several There are fewer myofibrils at the electron micro- other investigators have described different forms of scopic level as compared with the atrial cells. The sinus node dysfunction that appeared to be geneti- myofibrils are arranged in a disorganized pattern with a cally transmitted.13 Finally, sinus node dysfunction is lesser number of mitochondria, which are also disor- observed in approximately 4% of patients after cardiac ganized. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is poorly devel- transplant.16,17 Some, but not all, studies have found oped, and there is no transverse tubular system. There that a heart from a donor older than 40 years of age are very few fascia adherents and scant gap junctions, is associated with a higher incidence of sinus node and toward the periphery there are transitional cells, dysfunction requiring permanent cardiac pacing.16,17 which finally end in atrial cells.18-20

BLOOD SUPPLY Anatomy The SA node is supplied by way of ramus ostii cavae The sinoatrial (SA) node is situated in the sulcus ter- superioris (SA nodal artery) and reinforced by other minalis between the superior vena cava and the right atrial branches, and branches from the bronchial arter- atrial appendage in a somewhat curved fashion and ies. In addition, Kugel’s artery, a branch from the left extends from the hump of the atrial appendage, taper- coronary artery, also supplies the SA node. The ramus ing toward the inferior vena cava (Fig. 12-1A). The SA ostii cavae superioris originates in about 55% of cases node is a sizable structure, and although it is situated from the right coronary artery and in 45% of cases from epicardially, some of the fibers may extend deep the left coronary artery.18-22 There are nerve cells and intramyocardially. At the gross level, the SA node can- fibers evident in the periphery of the node. Nerve fibers not be dissected. It can be identified at the light micro- are present in the midst of the head of the SA node.18-23 scopic level; it consists of small fusiform cells, distinctly smaller than the surrounding atrial myocardial cells, PATHOLOGY arranged to a considerable extent along the line of the sulcus terminalis but also serpiginously surrounding The anatomic base of supraventricular arrhythmias may the SA nodal artery. The cytoplasm of the cells stain lie in the SA node and its approaches, as well as in the lighter than do the atrial myocardial cells (see Fig. 12-1B). atrial preferential pathways, the approaches to the atrio- The myofibrils are distinctly less prominent than the ventricular (AV) node, and the AV node. Although at

SVC SA node

R. atrium

Intercaval band AB FIGURE 12-1 A, Diagrammatic sketch of location of sinoatrial (SA) node. R. atrium, right atrium; SA node, sinoatrial node; SVC, superior vena cava. B, Transverse section through the SA node and its approaches. Hematoxylin-eosin stain ×50. Arrows point to the SA nodal artery. A, atrial myocardium; SA, sinoatrial node. (From Lev M: The conduction system. In Gould SE (ed): Pathology of the Heart and Blood Vessels, 3rd ed. Springfield, Ill, Charles C Thomas, 1968.) Sinus Node Dysfunction 209 the moment there is no pathologic specificity for any one of the atrial arrhythmias, it would appear that the same type of pathology may be responsible for both bradyarrhythmias and tachyarrhythmias on different occasions.23 Rarely, sinus node dysfunction can be familial13 (Fig. 12-2).

SICK SINUS SYNDROME IN THE YOUNG Although sick sinus syndrome is usually seen in the elderly, it may be seen in the young as well. Pathologically, a marked increase in connective tissue is found, with fat in the approaches to the SA node, the atrial preferen- R tial pathways, and approaches to the AV node. The pen- etrating AV bundle may be septated. In other cases an M increased amount of fat in other parts of the atria, as F well as around the SA and AV nodes, is seen.24

SICK SINUS SYNDROME IN THE ELDERLY-AGING In older patients with sick sinus syndrome, significant coronary artery disease is usually present; however, the basic pathology is variable. An abnormal formation of the atrial septum, resulting in fibrosis in the approaches to the SA and AV nodes and atrial preferential pathways, may be seen, or there may be similar findings within these structures along with fat. With advancing age, FIGURE 12-2 Histologic characteristics of the sinoatrial (SA) nodal area in a 72-year-old male member of a family with there may be loss of cells to a varying extent in the congenital absence of sinus rhythm and a tendency to SA and AV nodes and their approaches and in the develop atrial fibrillation at an early age who collapsed rising surrounding atrial myocardium, with replacement by from a chair and could not be resuscitated. He had a history fat and fibrosis, associated with varying degrees of focal of atrial fibrillation, at first paroxysmal and later chronic for hypertrophy or atrophy of myocardium (Fig. 12-3). In 18 years, but was only mildly incapacitated. Note the frag- addition, arteriolosclerosis, necrosis, or chronic inflam- mented SA node. Weigert-van Gieson stain ×30. F, fat; mation may be present in the atria.25-27 M, atrial myocardium; R, remnant of SA node. (From Bharati S, Surawicz B, Vidaillet, HJ, Lev M: Familial congenital sinus rhythm anomalies, clinical and pathological correlations. SENILE AMYLOIDOSIS Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1993;15:1720-9). This is a type of primary amyloidosis seen in patients older than 80 years of age. It affects the atrial

FIGURE 12-3 Fat accumulation around the SA node and replacement of SA node by fat with almost total separation of SA node from its approaches in an elderly patient with sick sinus syndrome. Weigert-van Gieson stain ×45. F, fat; N, SA node; RA, right atrium. Arrows point to the isolated SA node with marked fat in and around the node. (From Lev M, Bharati S: Age related changes in the cardiac conduction system. Intern Med 1981;2:19-21.) 210 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

F F FIGURE 12-4 Amyloid infiltration of large arteriole in sinoatrial (SA) node in an 83-year- old man with syncope, left bundle branch block, prolonged H–V interval, and a sinus N echo zone with repetitive sinus nodal reen- trance. Weigert-van Gieson stain ×45. At, atrial approaches with amyloid; F, fat; N, SA node with marked fat in and around with amyloid. Arrows point to amyloid in large arteriole. (From Bharati S, Lev M, Dhingra R, et al: N Pathologic correlations in three cases of bilat- eral bundle branch disease with unusual elec- trophysiologic manifestations in two cases. Am J At Cardiol 1976; 38:508-18.)

myocardium including the SA node and its approaches, prototypical, small, structurally primitive pacemaker SA nodal artery, and the arterioles of the atria (Fig 12-4). cells concentrated in the center, larger transitional latent Senile amyloidosis may be associated with sinus brady- pacemaker cells concentrated more peripherally; and cardia, the bradycardia-tachycardia syndrome, and sinus intermingled, nonpacing atrial cells extending into the echo phenomena.27-30 node from the atrial margins of the node in strands that are more prominent in the periphery. The cells within the node are relatively poorly coupled by gap TRANSIENT AND PERSISTENT ATRIAL junctions, and there is substantial interstitial tissue STANDSTILL interspersed among the fascicles of nodal cells.34 The Here one may find arteriolosclerosis of the SA and AV resultant relatively poor intercellular communication nodes with fibrosis and fibroelastosis in the approaches slows the propagation of the impulse from the central to the AV node and within the AV node.29 pacemaking regions toward the periphery of the node. In addition, the coupling of the transitional cells near the margins of the node with the atrial myocardial cells IATROGENIC CONSIDERATIONS is not a smooth continuum but consists of irregular Sinus node dysfunction has been documented following junctions of interweaving strands of transitional cells cardiac surgery in both congenital and acquired heart and atrial cells extending into the interior of the node. disease.30-31 Radiation therapy for Hodgkin’s disease Mapping of electrograms in and around the node has and blunt trauma to the chest wall may result in SA disclosed an apparent “multicentric” initiation of acti- nodal dysfunction.18 vation that more likely represents irregular propagation In summary, pathologic findings in and around the to atrial myocardium than simultaneous generation of SA node, atria, approaches to the AV node, the AV node, impulses at separated sites. The node preferentially con- the AV bundle and the ventricular myocardium are nects to the atrium in the superior aspects of the crista almost always present to varying degrees in chronic or terminalis, and there appears to be conduction block permanent SA node dysfunction. However, isolated exiting the node in the direction of the atrial septum. pathology of the SA node or the atria, or both, may be A dense representation of sympathetic and para- seen. Any pathologic state, such as myotonia dystrophica, sympathetic nerves and ganglia in the node ensures a Kearns-Sayre syndrome, primary or secondary tumor, sensitive autonomic responsiveness.35 With increasing primary or secondary amyloidosis, and numerous other vagal influence, the primary pacemaking site near the diseases that affect the atria or SA node and its superior aspect of the node tends to migrate inferiorly, approaches and the AV node and its approaches may whereas an increasing adrenergic influence produces produce varying clinical forms of SA nodal dysfunction.22 return to the primary dominant pacemaker sites in the superior region of the node. Detailed and sensitive analyses of P wave morphology, as well as mapping of BASIC ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY OF THE the sinus node, indicate a dynamic shifting of pace- SINUS NODE maker sites with changes in heart rate. The structural and functional organization of the sinus node is quite complex, and there are significant differ- Action Potentials ences in the organization of the sinus node among species.32,33 The most extensive studies of the sinus node Small, primitive pacemaker cells in the interior of the have been performed in rabbits. The node contains node generate the dominant pacemaker potentials Sinus Node Dysfunction 211

38 current IK1. These channels are plentiful and open at negative membrane potentials in atrial and ventricular myocytes. They establish a dominance of K+ permeabil- −40 ity in the resting state, thereby determining a resting potential approximating the K+ equilibrium potential −60 SAN (≈−90 mV). The absence of these channels is most complete in the small, central pacemaker cells operat- ing at diastolic potentials between −60 mV and −30 mV. In larger, more polarized transitional cells, IK1 may be present but reduced to varying degrees. The low −50 upstroke velocities of these cells are related to a lack of −70 operating Na channels, those channels that transmit the intense excitatory Na current in atrial and ventricu- lar cells.39 The absence or paucity of this excitatory cur- rent is due to a deficiency of the channels in individual myocytes and the depolarization of the myocytes during diastole to levels of membrane potential at which Na channels, if present, would be inactivated. The smallest −80 cells may lack Na channels entirely. Larger transitional Figure 12-5 Samples of action potentials recorded from cells may contain Na channels and may operate at dias- different regions of the sinus node (SAN) from the center to tolic potentials at which Na channels can be activated to the periphery of the node. provide some excitatory Na current and more rapid upstrokes. The slow and diminutive upstrokes in the primary pacemaker cells are generated by the L-type and show the least polarized maximum diastolic poten- 2+ Ca current (ICaL), which serves as the trigger for tials (−60 to −40 mV), the most rapid rates of diastolic 2+ depolarization with smooth transition from end-diastole release of Ca by the sarcoplasmic reticulum and there- to the upstroke, and the slowest upstroke velocities fore the trigger for contraction in all cardiac cells but is (≈1-10 V/sec), as shown in Figure 12-5.36 Latent pace- the primary excitatory current in depolarized sinus makers are concentrated more peripherally in the nodal cells. This current is slower and far less intense node. These cells are more polarized, show less rapid than the Na current, accounting for the poor upstrokes diastolic depolarization, a more abrupt transition from and slow conduction within the node. The currents diastole to upstroke, and more rapid upstrokes. There producing diastolic depolarization, the fundamental pacemaker potential, comprise a multitude of candi- is a continuous gradation of the properties of transi- 40,41 tional cells from the characteristics of primary pace- dates about which there is no uniform consensus. maker cells to the properties of highly polarized The “funny” current If is a nonspecific cation current surrounding atrial cells with stable resting potentials that is mainly an inward Na current activating relatively slowly at negative membrane potentials in the range of close to −80 mV and upstroke velocities approaching 40 100 V/sec. This gradation of properties is conditioned diastolic potentials. It becomes more intense at more by cell coupling and electrotonic interaction, as well as negative membrane potentials. This current is well by the differing intrinsic properties of myocytes within expressed in sinus nodal cells, responds appropriately the node. Due to the electrotonic influence of atrial to adrenergic and cholinergic stimulation, and thus is cells, the pacemaker capabilities of transitional cells are a plausible candidate as an important pacemaker cur- muted, whereas the more remotely connected interior rent. However, some studies have shown activation at cells are shielded from the nonpacing atrial myocytes, more negative levels than the diastolic potentials of the allowing them to maintain pacemaker dominance.37 primary pacemakers (below −60 mV) and a greater Separation of latent pacemaker cells near the atrial representation in peripheral latent pacemakers. This margins from the atrium and from the centrally located has led some to suggest that If is more active in latent dominant pacemakers result in a faster intrinsic rate in pacemaker cells with a role to maintain pacemaker latent pacemakers freed from the influence of the non- activity and counter the electrotonic influence of stable, pacemaking atrial cells. Cells in other parts of the well-polarized diastolic potentials of atrial cells. The If atrium can also act as backup pacemakers, especially in current is activated by the second messenger adenylate the inferior portions of the node near the coronary cyclase (cAMP), which shifts the voltage activation curve sinus. These pacemaker cells can respond appropriately into a more positive range. It is argued that at physio- to autonomic influence and under abnormal conditions logic levels of cAMP, the voltage activation curve is shifted can usurp control of the heart. The electrophysiological into the range of the diastolic potentials of primary pace- maker cells. properties of these subsidiary pacemakers have not + been as well characterized as those of the sinus node. In the absence of IK1, the delayed rectifier K currents IKr and IKs, which are activated during the action poten- Currents tial, can play a role in the attainment of the maximum diastolic potential by providing the K+ permeability Sinus node pacemaker cells are relatively depolarized that would bring the transmembrane potential close to because of an absence of paucity of channels for the the K+ equilibrium potential at the end of the action 212 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias potential when they are fully activated. As these currents EXTRINSIC CAUSES OF SINUS NODE deactivate in diastole, the membrane potential would DYSFUNCTION drift positive toward the more positive equilibrium potentials of other major ions such a Na, Ca2+, and Cl. Sinus bradycardia can be caused by medications that It has been argued that one or another of the delayed suppress automaticity; these include β-blockers, some rectifier currents is the major pacemaker current.41 calcium channel blockers (diltiazem and verapamil), However, although I has an appropriate autonomic digoxin (especially in the presence of high vagal tone), Ks class I and III antiarrhythmic medications, and sympa- sensitivity, IKr does not. IKs is not prominent in the sinus nodes of all species. tholytic drugs such as clonidine. Sinus bradycardia in 2+ 2+ these cases is frequently transient and reversible once Ca currents, both ICaL and the T-type Ca current (I ), have also been implicated in pacemaker the offending agent is withdrawn. CaT Sinus bradycardias can also be a manifestation of function. ICaL, which has an activation threshold more positive than −40 mV in most cardiac cells, could be systemic illnesses or other extrinsic conditions such as active toward the end of diastolic depolarization in the hypothyroidism; hypoxemia caused by sleep apnea; increased intracranial pressure; or increased vagal depolarized primary pacemaker cells whereas ICaT, with an activation threshold more negative, might be active tone such as occurs during endotracheal suctioning, in earlier phases of diastolic depolarization and in vomiting, and Valsalva’s maneuver. These conditions are important to diagnose, because their appropriate latent pacemaker cells. ICaL responds to autonomic influence in a manner like the sinus node, and recent treatment often results in resumption of normal sinus studies have suggested that the activation threshold node function. may be more negative in sinus nodal cells. The role of ICaT remains uncertain. Other currents that have been INTRINSIC CAUSES OF SINUS NODE 2 nominated include the Na:Ca + exchange current gen- DYSFUNCTION erating inward current as Ca2+ entering the cells during the action potential is extruded in diastole and a newly Intrinsic sinus node dysfunction is usually caused by described sustained inward current. It is possible that degenerative processes involving the sinus node and multiple currents can be involved in pacemaking with SA area. The syndrome is usually acquired but can different roles in primary versus latent pacemaker cells rarely be familial.8 Sinus node dysfunction is present and under different conditions. when inappropriate sinus bradycardia, pauses in sinus Pacemaker activity can be notably influenced by rhythm (sinus arrest), SA block, or a combination of + 49 the acetylcholine-activated K current, IK,Ach, which these exist. The degenerative process and associated markedly increases K+ permeability throughout the fibrosis may also involve the AV node and intraventric- cycle, speeding repolarization, hyperpolarizing the cell, ular conduction system; as many as 17% of patients with and reducing the rate of diastolic depolarization. sick sinus syndrome have evidence of AV block and This current appears to be less sensitive to acetylcholine bundle branch block.50 than the If current in the sinus node. The complexities of pacemaker function remain to be fully clarified. NATURAL HISTORY Contemporary molecular biologic techniques will be powerful tools to clarify the location and function of The natural history of sick sinus syndrome is one of channels in the SA node and their roles in SA nodal spontaneous clinical improvement alternating with pacemaking. periods of clinical deterioration. Patients generally seek medical attention when they are symptomatic from bradycardia. In the majority of cases, the heart rate Etiology spontaneously increases, and symptoms diminish.51,52 However, the clinical course is not predictable. Even Sinus node dysfunction results from various conditions patients with more severe symptoms such as syncope that have in common the capability to depress may remain free of symptom recurrence for years, and automaticity in and electrical conduction from the slightly more than half do not experience another sinus node and perinodal and atrial tissue. These syncopal episode over a 4-year follow-up.53 There is no conditions can be intrinsic, resulting from structural clear explanation for this erratic course of the syndrome. damage to the sinus node, or extrinsic, caused by The autonomic nervous system may play an important medications or systemic illnesses. The manifestation of role in the genesis of symptoms, especially in the trigger sinus node dysfunction is inappropriate sinus or atrial of syncope.53 The prevalence of abnormal responses to bradycardia.42-45 Some patients may also experience carotid sinus massage (pauses exceeding 3 seconds) episodes of supraventricular tachycardias (tachycardia- and tilt table testing is significantly higher in patients bradycardia syndrome). Because the clinical manifesta- who experience syncope than in those who do not, tions of sinus node dysfunction can mimic normal highlighting the contribution of abnormal neural physiologic conditions (bradycardia) or can be caused reflexes in the pathophysiology (Fig. 12-6).53,54 by diseases that do not affect the sinus node (supraven- Although symptoms are common in patients with sick tricular tachycardias), the assessment and management sinus syndrome, survival is usually not affected, even in of patients with suspected sinus node dysfunction can patients who develop syncope.55 Death related directly be challenging.6,46-48 to dysfunction of the sinus node occurs in less than 2% Sinus Node Dysfunction 213

Pause during carotid sinus massage

FIGURE 12-6 Sinus arrest during right carotid massage in an elderly female patient with recurrent syncope with simultaneous three-lead ECG rhythm strip. Note that the pause exceeds 6 seconds and persists beyond the duration of the massage. Numbers on ECG leads II and III indicate duration of intervals in milliseconds (ms).

of patients over 6 to 7 years of follow-up.56,57 However, failure to achieve a heart rate above 100 bpm, or a max- patients with sick sinus syndrome often have comorbid imal heart rate during exercise greater than two stan- conditions that can shorten their life span. Coronary dard deviations below that of a control population.61-63 atherosclerosis is the most prevalent among these In patients with chronotropic incompetence, symptoms conditions, although myocardial ischemia and infarc- may be present only during activity. tion, congestive heart failure, and advanced age are In about 17% of patients with sick sinus syndrome, also common.58,59 In one report, patients with sick sinus overt congestive heart failure may develop,52 which may syndrome had a 4% to 5% excess annual mortality be related or contributed to by the slow heart rate, loss in the first 5 years of follow-up compared with an age of the atrial contribution to left ventricular filling in and sex-matched population.60 However, the mortality patients who develop atrial fibrillation, or loss of AV in patients without other coexisting disease at the time synchrony in patients with implanted ventricular pac- of diagnosis of sinus node dysfunction did not differ ing systems. significantly from that observed in controls. Thus, Syncope or severe presyncope is one of the classical although medical intervention and permanent cardiac manifestations of sick sinus syndrome and occurs in pacing may be required to improve symptoms, no data about 25% of patients. In one prospective trial, the exist supporting that these management strategies actuarial rates of syncope were 16% and 31% after 1 and improve survival. 4 years of follow-up, respectively.51,52 Syncope is usually due to excessive slowing of or transient pauses in sinus rhythm, or sinus exit block with an inadequate escape CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS rhythm (Fig.12-8). In patients with the bradycardia- The clinical manifestations of sick sinus syndrome are tachycardia syndrome, overdrive suppression of the due to both the bradycardia and tachycardia. In the sinus node may occur when the tachycardia terminates, bradycardia-tachycardia syndrome, patients experience resulting in prolonged pauses and syncope. Use of paroxysmal episodes of supraventricular tachycardia, antiarrhythmic medications in these patients, while suc- which can be atrial tachycardia, atrial flutter or fibrilla- cessful in controlling the tachycardia, frequently leads tion, or reentry tachycardia (Fig. 12-7). More than one to worsening of the bradycardia episodes with exacer- type of tachycardia may occur in the same patient. bation of symptoms, and permanent cardiac pacing is Episodes of rapid heart rate can lead to palpitations, required for rate support. angina, and syncope. Conversely, slowing of the heart About one third to one half of patients with sick sinus rate without a compensatory increase in stroke volume syndrome experience episodes of supraventricular leads to a reduction in cardiac output resulting in tachycardia.51,57 Published reports indicate that chronic fatigue, weakness, lightheadedness, and dizziness. atrial fibrillation occurs in about 11% of cases after a Failure of the heart rate to increase appropriately with mean follow-up of 19 months, increases to 16% at 5 years, exercise (chronotropic incompetence), is a manifesta- and to 28% at 10 years.51,52,63 Variables that have been tion of sinus node dysfunction. Proposed definitions for associated with the development of chronic atrial fibril- chronotropic incompetence include failure to reach 85% lation are age; left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; of age-predicted maximum heart rate at peak exercise, presence of valvular heart disease; and ventricular, rather 214 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

Sinus bradycardia A

Bradycardia-tachycardia syndrome B FIGURE 12-7 Panel A, 12-lead ECG during sinus bradycardia in a patient with bradycardia-tachycardia syndrome. Panel B, Tachycardia in the same patient in panel A with rapid and slow atrioventricular conduction as seen on a three-lead rhythm strip. The patient is in coarse atrial fibrillation, which is paroxysmal in nature in this individual. than physiologic atrial or dual-chamber, pacing.63,65 syndrome.51,52 In patients with bradycardia-tachycardia Chronic atrial fibrillation is also more common in syndrome, the incidence increases to 24%.56 Ventricular patients with the tachycardia-bradycardia syndrome who pacing (as opposed to atrial or dual-chamber pacing) have had paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. When atrial and the presence of preexisting cerebrovascular disease fibrillation develops, many patients previously sympto- are also associated with a higher thromboembolic event matic from bradyarrhythmia experience a substantial rate during follow-up.63-65 High-risk patients should be improvement, likely due to the increase in ventricular carefully identified and placed on long-term anticoagu- rate.66 lation therapy. However, not all cerebrovascular accidents Thromboembolic events, which occur in 3% to 9% in these patients are due to embolic events. Elderly of patients, may be a manifestation of sick sinus patients with atherosclerotic cerebrovascular disease Sinus Node Dysfunction 215

05:15:00 Minimum Heart Rate

A SSSS N N N N N

B FIGURE 12-8 Panel A, Sinus bradycardia in a young patient with primary electrical disease and syncope seen on a dual-channel Holter monitor recording. Panel B, Sinus pause in the same patient as in panel A with an escape low atrial or junctional rhythm on another dual-channel Holter recording conducted on a different occasion. Escape rhythms may have a rate slow enough to cause symptoms of cerebral hypoperfusion. may have transient ischemic attacks or frank cerebral P–R interval greater than 240 milliseconds (ms), infarction if bradyarrhythmia or the tachyarrhythmia is complete bundle branch block, development of type I associated with a fall in cardiac output and reduction in second-degree block during atrial pacing at rates of cerebrovascular perfusion. 120 bpm or less, H–V interval prolongation, and second- or third-degree AV block. During follow-up, AV conduction in patients with sick sinus syndrome ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION IN usually remains stable.68-70 In one literature survey of SINUS NODE DYSFUNCTION 28 studies of atrial pacing, an annual incidence of At the time of diagnosis up to 17% of patients with sick second- and third-degree AV block of 0.6% per year was sinus syndrome have evidence of AV conduction system reported.68 A similarly low incidence (4 of 110 patients) disease, although high-degree AV block is unusual, was reported in a prospective trial of atrial versus ven- reported in only 5% to 10% of cases.50,67 The presence tricular pacing in patients with sick sinus syndrome65 of AV conduction disease will affect therapeutic deci- (included were those 70 years of age or younger with sions such as safety of concomitant antiarrhythmic drug P–Q intervals ≤ 220 ms and those older than 70 years of use and pacemaker mode choice. Electrocardiographic age with P–Q intervals ≤ 260 ms); in addition, all and electrophysiological findings suggestive of signifi- patients had normal AV conduction at an atrial pacing cant AV conduction system involvement include a rate of 100 bpm at pacemaker implantation. 216 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

The progression of AV conduction disease is thus asymptomatic individuals, reducing the specificity of usually slow and can be detected by careful clinical and these findings for the diagnosis.6,80,81 electrocardiographic monitoring of these patients. Event recorders are more useful than Holter monitors Extrinsic influences, such as exposure to antiarrhyth- in patients with infrequent symptoms. Patient-activated mics or drugs that can block conduction in the AV node, models exist but are limited to patients who have symp- are more frequently responsible for worsening of AV toms prolonged enough to record the rhythm during conduction than is progressive degeneration within the an event. For patients with little to no warning, a loop conduction system.71,73 recorder event monitor can be used. These recorders can be activated as soon as symptoms occur or after the fact, since the last 45 seconds of ECG recording are SINUS NODE DYSFUNCTION IN ACUTE “frozen.” Newer models that can be automatically trig- MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION gered by bradycardia or tachycardia are available and Sinus bradycardia occurs commonly in patients with useful in some patients. When an ECG diagnosis cannot acute myocardial infarction, especially those with infe- be recorded by less invasive means, implantable loop rior and posterior infarction.74,75 The bradycardia is recorders are useful in patients with recurrent symp- usually due to stimulation of the afferent vagus nerve toms suggestive of a bradyarrhythmia. terminals, which are more common in the inferior and Exercise testing is of limited value in diagnosing sinus posterior ventricular walls. This vagal response can be node dysfunction.49 However, it is useful in differentiat- potentiated by pain and by the use of vagotonic med- ing patients with chronotropic incompetence from those ications such as morphine sulfate and can be associated with resting bradycardia who are able to demonstrate a with a vasodepressor response resulting in systemic normal heart rate increase with exercise. Patients with hypotension. Intravenous atropine usually reverses the sinus nodal dysfunction and chronotropic incompetence vagal effects associated with myocardial infarction. exhibit abnormal heart rate responses to exercise. The In addition to autonomic nervous system influences, increase in heart rate at each stage of exercise may be sinus bradycardia may also be caused by ischemia of the less than normal, with a plateau seen below the max- sinus node or atrial tissue, although this diagnosis is imum age-predicted heart rate. Other patients may rarely made clinically. Sinus node ischemia is also more achieve an appropriate peak heart rate during exercise common in inferior wall myocardial infarction, since but have slow heart rate acceleration in the initial stage the sinus node is usually supplied by the right coronary of exercise or a rapid deceleration of heart rate in the artery. The clinical manifestations are sinus bradycardia recovery stage. These abnormal chronotropic responses in the majority of cases; however, bradycardia alternat- can help identify the cause of exercise intolerance in ing with episodes of supraventricular tachycardia some patients with sinus nodal dysfunction and help has been reported in up to 35% of patients.76 In the determine their pacemaker prescription.82 majority of cases, the sinus node dysfunction is tempo- Autonomic testing of the sinus node includes various rary and normal sinus rhythm returns during the pharmacologic interventions and maneuvers to test hospitalization.76,77 Pacemaker implantation is rarely reflex responses. An abnormal response to carotid indicated. However, patients who experience alterna- sinus massage (pause greater than 3 seconds) indicates tion of bradycardia and tachycardia occasionally may carotid sinus hypersensitivity and may suggest the pres- require long-term antiarrhythmic therapy.76 ence of carotid sinus syndrome. This response may also Both noninvasive and invasive means of diagnosing occur in asymptomatic elderly individuals.83 Heart rate sinus nodal dysfunction are available. Generally the non- response to Valsalva’s maneuver (normally decreased) invasive methods of electrocardiographic monitoring, or upright tilt (normally increased) can also be used to exercise testing, and autonomic testing are used first. verify that the autonomic nervous system is itself intact. However, if symptoms are infrequent, invasive electro- The most commonly used pharmacologic interven- physiological testing may be needed. tion in the evaluation of sinus node dysfunction is the determination of the intrinsic heart rate.84 A low intrinsic heart rate is consistent with abnor- mal intrinsic sinus nodal function. A normal intrinsic Diagnostic Evaluation heart rate in a patient with known clinical sinus nodal dysfunction suggests abnormal autonomic regulation. NONINVASIVE TESTING The diagnosis of sinus nodal dysfunction is rarely made INVASIVE TESTING from a random ECG. If symptoms suggestive of sinus node dysfunction are frequent, Holter monitoring Sinus nodal function can be evaluated invasively with may be useful.56,78,79 Documentation of symptoms by an electrophysiological study. This type of testing is usu- the patient in a diary, while wearing the Holter monitor, ally reserved for symptomatic patients in whom sinus is essential for correlation of symptoms with the heart nodal dysfunction is suspected but cannot be docu- rhythm recorded at the time. In many cases, a Holter mented in association with symptoms by noninvasive monitor can exclude sinus nodal dysfunction as the means. The pacing tests most commonly used are the cause of symptoms if normal sinus rhythm is documented sinus nodal recovery time and SA conduction time. during dizziness, presyncope, or syncope. However, Pacing the atrium at rates faster than the inherent sinus bradycardia and sinus pauses may be recorded in sinus rate is used to record the sinus node recovery time. Sinus Node Dysfunction 217

A delay in the return of spontaneous pacemaker activity Sinus node recovery time is assessed by pacing the heart (overdrive suppression) is a normal finding immedi- at progressively shorter cycle lengths using a pacing ately after cessation of rapid atrial pacing. In patients catheter placed in the right atrium near the sinus node with sinus nodal dysfunction, however, the sinus node and then observing the recovery of sinus rhythm after generally takes longer to recover. A better measure- cessation of pacing. Several protocols have been pro- ment, however, is the corrected sinus nodal recovery posed, but a commonly used protocol is to start pacing time, which is obtained by subtracting the spontaneous the heart at rates slightly faster than sinus rhythm and sinus cycle length before pacing from the sinus nodal increase the rate in increments to a cycle length of recovery time. Thus, a patient with an abnormally long 300 ms (200 bpm), pacing for 30 seconds at each step sinus nodal recovery time could have a normal and waiting approximately 1 minute between pacing corrected sinus nodal recovery time if the resting heart drives. Two common measurements are then made rate is slow.85 The indirect measurement of the cor- following pacing. The maximum SNRT is measured as rected sinus nodal recovery time reflects both SA con- the longest pause from the last paced atrial complex to duction time and sinus automaticity and thus has some the first sinus return cycle. This measurement is made limitations. Indirect sinus nodal recovery time meas- on the recording electrode closest to the sinus node, urements can be confounded by sinus nodal entrance which usually is the high right atrial electrogram. The block during rapid atrial pacing with resultant shorten- second measure is the corrected sinus node recovery ing of the sinus nodal recovery time and by sinus nodal time (CSNRT), which is obtained by subtracting the exit block post pacing, thereby prolonging the meas- sinus cycle length from the SNRT. Several authors have ured sinus nodal recovery time. An abnormal sinus reported normals for SNRT and CSNRT89-93 (Table 12-1). nodal recovery time is not found in all patients with The common upper limit of normal for SNRT is 1500 ms sinus nodal dysfunction, partly due to sinus nodal and for CSNRT is 550 ms (Fig. 12-9). The CSNRT is dysfunction not being a homogenous entity from a simple to use, takes into account the basic sinus cycle pathologic standpoint. Despite these limitations, the length, and is the most commonly used measurement indirect corrected sinus nodal recovery time is employed to assess sinus node function. Importantly, the CSNRT frequently in the evaluation of sinus nodal function. may be normal in the presence of a prolonged SNRT in The SA conduction time, another commonly used patients with sinus bradycardia. For example, patients invasive pacing test, is traditionally measured indirectly with a resting heart rate of 50 bpm corresponding to a from the high right atrium.86,87 Several assumptions sinus cycle length of 1200 ms may have a “prolonged” are used in the calculation, including sinus nodal SNRT of 1650 ms and yet a normal CSNRT of 450 ms. automaticity not being affected by the premature beat, The CSNRT takes into account the resting bradycardia. conduction in and out of the sinus node being equal, Usually, the resting cycle length is achieved within 5 to and the premature atrial beat not causing a shift in 6 beats after termination of pacing, and it is not unusual the principal pacemaker site. An additional limitation to find oscillations in sinus cycle length shortening as of the sinoatrial conduction time test is the need for a far out as 10 beats following termination of pacing.94 regular cycle length in sinus rhythm. Sinus arrhythmia Frequently, the longest post pacing cycle length occurs may make calculation of the SA conduction time by this in the second or third cycle following cessation of method impossible. sinus pacing. This is due to SA entrance block during rapid pacing rates, which results in a shortening of the first recovery interval following the termination of pac- Clinical Electrophysiology ing. The longest pause within the first six beats upon termination of pacing can be used as the measure of Electrophysiological testing for sinus node dysfunction SNRT. These pauses occur most commonly with more is usually reserved for patients with significant symp- rapid atrial pacing rates, making it reasonable to toms suspicious for sinus node disease in whom a continue atrial pacing to a rate of 200 bpm (300 ms documented association between symptoms and sinus cycle length). Measurements of sinus node function node abnormalities cannot be established by noninva- in the electrophysiology laboratory are rarely abnormal sive testing. The three most common tests to assess in patients without clinical disease of the sinus node. sinus node dysfunction are sinus node recovery time, SA conduction time, and assessment of intrinsic heart rate. When used together, these tests have a sensitivity TABLE 12-1 Sinus Node Dysfunction: of 65% to 70% and a specificity of approximately 90%.88 Normal Values A negative test result does not exclude sinus node dysfunction, whereas a positive test result strongly Reference SNRT (ms) CSNRT (ms) SACT (ms) favors intrinsic sinus node disease. Breithardt2 <1480 <508 <120 Mandel3 1040 ± 56 SINUS NODE RECOVERY TIME Delius4 <1400 <525 Josephson5 <550 45-125 The most commonly used test to assess sinus node func- Strauss6 68-156 tion is the sinus node recovery time (SNRT). Cardiac Recommended <1500 <550 <125 pacemaker activity can be suppressed by pacing the heart CSNRT, corrected sinus node recovery time; ms, milliseconds; at faster rates than that of the intrinsic pacemaker. SACT, sinoatrial conduction time; SNRT, sinus node recovery time. 218 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

Total SN Recovery Secondary pause Time

STIM

FIGURE 12-9 Sinus node recovery time after rapid atrial pacing in an elderly male with syncope and sinus bradycardia during electrophysiological testing. Note that the total recovery time is slightly prolonged, but a secondary pause is seen after the first recovery cycle. Numbers on high right atrial recording (HRA) indicate intervals in milliseconds. SN, sinus node; STIM, stimu- lation artefact.

However, patients with documented sinus node disease different zones (see Fig. 12-11): (1) collision; (2) reset; have a high incidence of falsely negative SNRTs during (3) entrance block or interpolation; and (4) reentry. electrophysiological testing. Thus, the test has a low Zone 1 is referred to as the zone of collision, inter- sensitivity but high specificity. ference, or nonreset, since the mechanism of the response is due to a collision of the stimulated atrial impulse (A2) with the spontaneous sinus impulse (A1). SINOATRIAL CONDUCTION TIME In this zone, the return cycle intervals (A2A3) are fully An indirect method to evaluate SA conduction is the compensatory with A1A2 plus A2A3 being equal to response to induced atrial premature depolarizations 2 times A1A1. This response usually occurs when APDs (APDs, Figs. 12-10 and 12-11). This test assesses the fall in the last 20% to 30% of the spontaneous cycle effect of APDs on the timing and duration of the sinus length. The sinus pacemaker is unaffected by A2, and cycle. The method, devised by Strauss,93 involves scan- the subsequent beat occurs “on time.” ning the entire sinus cycle (A1A1) with programmed Zone 2 is referred to as the reset zone, in which the stimulation of single APDs delivered in the high right spontaneous cycle length (A2A3) following the prema- atrium near the sinus node. After approximately every ture beat remains constant, producing a plateau in the eighth to tenth beat of a stable sinus rhythm, the pre- curve. In this zone, the premature beat (A2) causes reset mature beat is delivered with a gradual decrease in the of the sinus pacemaker, resulting in a recovery cycle coupling interval (A1A2), and the subsequent response (A2A3) that exceeds the basic sinus cycle. However, the of the next sinus return cycle (A2A3) is measured. The subsequent return cycle causes less than a compensa- subsequent results are often plotted on a graph (see tory pause with the sum of A1A2 and A2A3 being less Fig. 12-10) comparing the timing of the atrial prema- than 2 times A1A1. Zone 2 typically occupies 40% to 50% ture beat (A1A2) with the first sinus return cycle of the cardiac cycle, and the plateau results from A2 (A2A3). The response of the sinus node falls into four entering the sinus node and resetting the pacemaker Sinus Node Dysfunction 219

FIGURE 12-10 Assessing sinoatrial conduction time (SACT) using atrial premature depolarizations (APDs). The coupling interval of the APD, A1A2, and the return cycle, A2A3, are expressed as percentages of the sinus cycle length A1A1. The zones of collision, reset, interpolation, and reentry are explained further in Figure 12-11. The SACT is determined by subtracting the sinus cycle length, A1A1, from the A2A3 FIGURE 12-11 Schematic ladder diagram demonstrating interval during the plateau or reset phase. This number the- the effect of atrial premature depolarizations (APDs) deliv- oretically represents conduction into and out of the sinus ered during sinus rhythm on the subsequent sinus cycle to node and is then divided in half to obtain sinoatrial conduc- measure the sinoatrial conduction time using the Strauss tion. (Modified from Ward DE, Camm AJ: The current status method. The responses of the sinus node fall into four types of ablation of cardiac conduction tissue and ectopic myocar- based on how the APD interacts with the sinus node. In dial foci by transvenous electrical discharges. Eur Heart J Zone 1, the APD, A2, collides with the sinus impulse and fails 1982;3:267.) to enter the sinus node. This zone is termed the Zone of colli- sion, and the sinus cycle length is not affected (2 × A1A1 = A1A2 + A2A3). In Zone 2, the APD is delivered earlier in the sinus cycle at a point where the impulse is able to depolarize but having no effect on pacemaker automaticity. It has the sinus node and the next impulse, A3, is advanced, or been assumed that conduction into and out of the sinus reset. This is termed the Zone of reset (2 × A1A1 > A1A2 + node is equal. The conduction from the sinus node to A2A3). In Zone 3, the APD, A2, is delivered at even earlier the atrium is the SA conduction time and is calculated coupling intervals and fails to invade or reset the sinus node or affect conduction through the perinodal tissue. The next as the A2A3 interval that results in reset minus the sinus beat, A3, occurs on time, resulting in interpolation A1A1 interval divided by 2. However, isolated studies (A1A2 = A1A3). Zone 4 occurs infrequently when an APD have shown that this assumption is not entirely correct results in a sudden transition to short A2A3 and A3A4 inter- and that conduction time out of the sinus node is vals that are much shorter than the sinus cycle length, A1A1. greater than conduction time into the sinus node.92 This is believed to reflect sinoatrial reentry. (Modified from This has also been confirmed by direct recording of Ward DE, Camm AJ: The current status of ablation of cardiac the sinus node electrogram.95 Despite this and other conduction tissue and ectopic myocardial foci by transvenous limitations, the SA conduction time is reasonably esti- electrical discharges. Eur Heart J 1982;3:267.) mated by the introduction of APDs when a true plateau is present in Zone 2. The measurement of SA conduc- tion time is considered normal if it is less than 125 ms. OTHER TESTS TO ASSESS SINUS NODE Errors in the measurement of SA conduction time may DYSFUNCTION occur if sinus arrhythmia is present, a slow increase in the plateau due to a shift to slower sinus node pacemaker Direct recording of sinus node electrograms and the cells occurs, or there is an increase in conduction time measurement of intrinsic sinus node function following into the sinus node due to refractoriness of the atrial autonomic blockade have both been reported for assess- tissue surrounding the node. ing patients with suspected sinus node dysfunction.95,96 In Zone 3 (interpolation) and Zone 4 (reentry), the Sinus node electrograms are recorded using catheters return cycle (A2A3) is shorter than the spontaneous with 0.5 to 1.5 cm interelectrode distance positioned at sinus cycle (A1A1) in response to the premature beat the junction of the superior vena cava and right atrium (A2). The response in Zone 3 is due to interpolation in the region of the sinus node or a catheter looped in and results from the premature beat encountering the right atrium, allowing firm contact in the region of refractoriness of the tissue surrounding the sinus the superior vena cava and junction with the atrium. node, resulting in sinus node entrance block. SA con- Sinus node recordings can be obtained in 40% to 90% duction time is an insensitive indicator of sinus node of patients studied but do take time and experience disease, but a positive test can help establish sinus node (Fig. 12-12). The high pass filter is usually between dysfunction. 0.1 and 0.6 Hz, the low pass filter between 20 and 50 Hz, 220 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

100 ms

I FIGURE 12-12 Sinus node AVF electrogram potential record- ing at electrophysiological test- V 1 ing. Note the slow upstroke of the prepotential on the unfil- HBE tered atrial electrogram on the bipolar recording obtained at AHV AH V the sinoatrial junction region. (Courtesy S. Saksena).

Sinoatrial electrogram “Sinus node potential”

and the signal gained at a range of 50 to 100 micro- situation, fewer atrial-paced beats would enter the sinus volt/cm. Using this approach, Josephson reports node to suppress sinus node function. Propranolol has obtaining stable sinus node electrograms in only 50% of been demonstrated to increase the SNRT, possibly an unselected population of patients.92 Studies of by decreasing sinus node automaticity. Verapamil and patients with sinus node dysfunction that compare both diltiazem have been shown to have minimal effects on the indirect and direct methods75 show a good correla- sinus node function in normal persons. Antiarrhythmic tion between the directly measured SA conduction time drugs can adversely affect sinus node function in patients and that made by indirect techniques using the intro- with evidence of sinus node disease but, in general, duction of APDs. have minimal effects on sinus node function in normal Autonomic blockade has been used to determine the persons. In general, electrophysiological assessment of intrinsic heart rate (IHR) using a combination of sinus node function should not be performed in the pres- atropine and β-blockers. This testing assumes that auto- ence of drugs known to affect sinus node activity, includ- nomic blockade will remove the autonomic effects on ing digoxin, β-blockers, calcium channel antagonists, sinus node function and unveil unmodulated sinus node and antiarrhythmic drugs. Such drugs may exacerbate activity. A pharmacologic denervation is achieved using sinus node function in patients with sinus node dis- propranolol, 0.2 mg/kg, and atropine, 0.04 mg/kg, to ease and may also adversely influence sinus activity in identify the IHR. The effects usually peak after 5 minutes, otherwise normal patients. and the measurement of IHR is age dependent and Management of patients with sinus node disease is defined by the regression equation: most appropriately conducted using clinical, electro- cardiographic, and long-term monitoring information. IHR = 117.2 − (0.53 × age) bpm97,98 Electrophysiological testing of sinus node function The IHR helps to distinguish patients with true sinus infrequently adds important contributions to the care node dysfunction from those with enhanced parasym- of patients with sinus node disease. A normal test result pathetic tone. Additional studies have demonstrated does not exclude the diagnosis of sinus node disease, that the response to atropine provides as much infor- and an abnormal test is not itself an indication for pac- mation as the combined response to atropine plus ing in an asymptomatic patient. Drugs have an important β-blockade.99 effect on sinus node automaticity and atrial refractori- The direct electrogram used to record sinus node ness and can exacerbate sinus node function in the activity is difficult to obtain, and the technique is rarely presence of SA disease. used in the clinical electrophysiology laboratory. Similarly, measurement of IHR following autonomic blockade is infrequently used. Evidence-Based Therapy

During the past decade, the importance of making EFFECTIVENESS OF DRUGS ON clinical decisions on the basis of evidence from clinical ASSESSMENT OF SINUS NODE FUNCTION trials has been emphasized in clinical medicine. This Digoxin shortens the SNRT in patients with clinical section reviews the available information from clinical sinus node dysfunction.92 This is possibly related to an trials on the efficacy of pacing therapy and the effects increase in refractoriness in the atrial tissue surround- of pacing mode selection in patients with sinus node ing the sinus node, creating SA entrance block. In this dysfunction. Sinus Node Dysfunction 221

EFFECTIVENESS OF PACING THERAPY the VVIR pacing mode to the DDDR pacing mode because of symptoms related to pacemaker syndrome. There is only a single published study evaluating the The Canadian Trial of Physiologic Pacing (CTOPP) effectiveness of pacing therapy versus no therapy or evaluated the effects of pacing mode choice in patients pharmacologic therapy for preventing symptoms in with symptomatic bradycardia.101 The 2568 patients patients with sinus node dysfunction. In the THEOPACE were randomized to single-chamber ventricular pacing study, 107 patients with presumed sinus node dysfunc- or a “physiologic” pacing mode that preserved AV syn- tion (older than 45 years of age with a mean resting chrony (single-chamber atrial pacing or dual-chamber sinus rate < 50 bpm or intermittent sinoatrial block, or pacing). While no significant difference in the annual both, noted during a diurnal ECG on two separate rate of stroke or death was detected (ventricular pacing, occasions, and symptoms thought to be secondary 5.5%; physiologic pacing, 4.9%), the annual rate of atrial to sinus node dysfunction) were randomized to no fibrillation was significantly lower in the physiologic treatment, oral theophylline, or dual-chamber rate- pacing group (ventricular pacing, 6.6%; physiologic 51 adaptive pacing. Patients with severe sinus node pacing, 5.3%). The reduction in atrial fibrillation became dysfunction, defined as symptomatic heart rates less more apparent 2 years after initial randomization. than 30 bpm or sinus pauses greater than 3 seconds, Details on the 40% of patients with sinus node disease were excluded. After an average 18-month follow-up, have not been published, but subgroup analysis syncope had occurred in 6% of patients who received suggested that the indication for permanent pacing pacing therapy and 17% and 23% in the theophylline (sinus node dysfunction or AV block) did not have a and control arms, respectively. In all three groups the significant effect on the annual rate of stroke or death. incidence of atrial tachycardias was similar (26% to 28%). An important caveat for this study is that after 5 years of THEOPACE demonstrates that pacing therapy provides follow-up, while 95% of patients randomized to ventric- symptomatic benefit in patients with sinus node dys- ular pacing were still programmed to ventricular pacing, function. However, it is unlikely that pacing therapy only 75% of patients randomized to physiologic pacing confers a survival benefit, since natural history studies were actually still in a physiologic pacing mode. suggest that sinus node dysfunction by itself does Finally, in the Mode Selection Trial (MOST), 2010 not appear to be associated with an increased risk of patients with sinus node dysfunction were randomized 55 death. to dual-chamber pacing or single-chamber ventricular pacing.102 After a 5-year follow-up, no differences in mortality or stroke were detected, but there was a PACING MODE CHOICE marked reduction in progression to atrial fibrillation, In patients with sinus node dysfunction, bradycardia particularly in patients without a prior history of the can be prevented by single-chamber ventricular pacing arrhythmia; however, the crossover rate to dual chamber (VVI mode), single-chamber atrial pacing (AAI mode), pacing was 31% due to symptoms of the pacemaker or dual-chamber pacing (DDD mode). Several ran- syndrome, and dual-chamber pacing was associated domized studies have evaluated the effects of pacing with improved quality of life. mode in patients with sinus node dysfunction. The first Thus, available data suggest that pacing modes that prospective study, initially published in 1994 with preserve AV synchrony are associated with a reduced follow-up data presented in 1997 and 1998, evaluated incidence of atrial fibrillation, particularly after several 225 patients with sinus node dysfunction who were years. In addition, preservation of AV synchrony is asso- randomized to single-chamber atrial pacing or single- ciated with improved quality of life and a reduction in chamber ventricular pacing.65 After a mean follow-up the incidence of pacemaker syndrome. of 3.3 years, atrial pacing was associated with a signifi- cant decrease in thromboembolic events (atrial pacing: 5.5%; ventricular pacing: 17.4%) and a nonsignificant Management reduction in atrial fibrillation (atrial pacing: 14%; ven- tricular pacing: 23%). In addition, progression of heart The first step in the evaluation and management failure symptoms was observed in 9% of patients in the of patients with sinus node dysfunction is to exclude atrial pacing group and 31% of the ventricular pacing physiologic sinus bradycardia due to extrinsic condi- group. In the Pacemaker Selection in the Elderly tions affecting the sinus node or sinoatrial tissue. (PASE) trial 407 elderly patients (mean age, 76 years) β-blockers, some calcium channel blockers (verapamil were randomized to either the VVIR or DDDR pacing and diltiazem), digoxin, and other medications having mode with a mean follow-up of 30 months.100 In the sympatholytic activity can result in sinus node dysfunc- 175 sinus node dysfunction patients enrolled, the DDDR tion. It is therefore important to carefully review all pacing mode was associated with improved cardiovas- medications taken by the patients, since withdrawal of cular functional status and better quality-of-life scores offending agents usually results in restoration of normal in the role physical, role emotion, and social function sinus function. Other causes of extrinsic sinus node dys- categories of the SF-36 questionnaire. The DDDR pac- function should be investigated and excluded; these ing mode was associated with insignificant reductions include hypothyroidism, sleep apnea, and other systemic in mortality (DDDR, 12%; VVIR, 20%) and incidence diseases. The specific situation in which the bradycardia of atrial fibrillation (DDDR, 19%; VVIR, 28%). For the occurs should be analyzed in order to document brady- entire study group, 26% of patients crossed over from cardia triggered by an increase in vagal tone, such as 222 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias occurs during suctioning or vomiting. Whenever pos- common indication for pacemaker implantation.10 The sible, treatment should be directed toward correcting benefit to be expected from permanent pacing depends the extrinsic condition causing bradycardia. largely on the appropriateness of the indication. Guidelines for pacemaker implantation in sinus node 104 GUIDELINES FOR MANAGEMENT OF dysfunction have been published. Indications for PATIENTS WITH INTRINSIC SINUS NODE permanent pacing in sinus node disease are summarized DYSFUNCTION in Table 12-2. The guidelines emphasize the impor- tance of correlating symptoms and bradycardia when- When intrinsic sinus node dysfunction is suspected, it is ever possible. The principal benefits of pacing therapy important to attempt to correlate symptoms with docu- are prevention of syncope, improvement of symptoms mentation of the arrhythmia, since sinus node dysfunc- due to poor tissue perfusion, and congestive heart fail- tion is common, especially in elderly patients, and may ure due to decreased cardiac output caused by slow not cause symptoms. The intermittency of symptoms heart rates. In an observational series of severely symp- and ECG features characteristic of the syndrome tomatic patients from the 1970s, pacemaker therapy may result in difficulty in establishing a cause-effect improved symptoms of fatigue, lightheadedness, and relationship. A Holter monitor or event recorder may near syncope.105 In a randomized trial from the 1990s be useful to establish the diagnosis, but prolonged conducted to assess the efficacy of pacemakers in monitoring may be required. In selected cases, an patients with sick sinus syndrome, the occurrence of implantable loop recorder that continuously acquires syncope was lower in the paced group over a mean electrocardiographic signals can be used.102 Krahn et al. follow-up duration of 18 months (6% versus 23% for placed implantable loop recorders in 16 patients with controls; P = .02).51 Heart failure also occurred less syncope and negative electrophysiological and tilt table often in patients assigned to pacemaker therapy tests. Fifteen of the patients had recurrent syncope, and (3% versus 17%; P = .05), whereas the incidence of sus- sinus arrest was documented in five patients.102 Invasive tained paroxysmal tachyarrhythmias, chronic atrial electrophysiological studies are usually not required to fibrillation, and thromboembolic events were not dif- specifically evaluate sinus node function. ferent between the groups. Compared with observa- Therapy is aimed at improving symptoms. There is no tional series and retrospective studies, pacemaker evidence that medical therapy or pacemaker implanta- implantation in this randomized trial did not demon- tion improves survival; this is in part likely due to the strate different effects on “minor” symptoms such as low mortality rate related to the bradyarrhythmia per se.51 fatigue, dizziness, palpitation, and New York Heart Association class compared with the “no-treatment” INDICATIONS FOR PERMANENT PACING group; this was due to subjective improvement occurring in the placebo group as early as 3 months following Pharmacologic therapy for bradycardia due to sinus randomization.51 node dysfunction is generally ineffective; pacemaker In some patients, the bradycardia may be iatrogenic implantation is therefore the optimum therapy. In the and exacerbated by medications used to treat supra- United States, sinus node dysfunction is the most ventricular tachycardias. If these medications constitute

TABLE 12-2 Indications for Permanent Pacing in Sinus Node Dysfunction

Class Indications

Class I Sinus node dysfunction with documented symptomatic bradycardia, including frequent sinus pauses that produce symptoms. In some patients, bradycardia is iatrogenic and will occur as a consequence of essential long-term drug therapy of a type and dose for which there are no acceptable alternatives Symptomatic chronotropic incompetence Class IIa Sinus node dysfunction occurring spontaneously or as a result of necessary drug therapy with a heart rate < 40 bpm when a clear association between symptoms consistent with bradycardia and actual presence of bradycardia has not been documented Syncope of unexplained origin when major abnormalities of sinus node function are discovered or provoked in electrophysiological studies Class IIb Minimally symptomatic patients, chronic heart rate < 40 bpm while awake Class III Sinus node dysfunction in asymptomatic patients, including those in whom substantial sinus bradycardia (heart rate < 40 bpm) is a consequence of long-term drug treatment Sinus node dysfunction in patients with symptoms suggestive of bradycardia that are clearly documented as not associated with a slow heart rate Sinus node dysfunction with symptomatic bradycardia due to nonessential drug therapy

Class I: conditions for which there is evidence or general agreement, or both, that a given procedure or treatment is beneficial, useful, and effective. Class II: conditions for which there is conflicting evidence or a divergence of opinion, or both, about the usefulness/efficacy of a procedure or treatment. Class IIa: weight of evidence/opinion is in favor of usefulness/efficacy. Class IIb: usefulness/efficacy is less well established by evidence/opinion. Class III: conditions for which there is evidence or general agreement, or both, that a procedure/treatment is not useful/effective and, in some cases, may be harmful.

From Gregoratos G, Cheitlin MD, Conill A, et al: ACC/AHA guidelines for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Pacemaker Implantation). J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;5:1175-1209; and Gregoratos G, Abrams J, Epstein AE, et al: ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:1703-1719). Sinus Node Dysfunction 223 the only alternative for management of the tachycardia, among studies (1% to 80%), which probably reflects and if the patients are symptomatic from the bradycar- variability in definition rather than a true variability in dia, they should receive permanent pacing. However, if incidence.107,109 In the large randomized trials such as the bradycardia does not produce symptoms, the rhythm PASE and MOST, crossover from single-chamber ventric- per se is not an indication for pacing. ular pacing to dual-chamber pacing due to pacemaker The published guidelines also take into considera- syndrome was approximately 25% to 30%.101,110,111 tion the erratic course of the disease and the difficulty Dual-chamber pacemakers maintain AV synchrony in establishing the cause-effect relationship between and prevent bradycardia from all causes. However, dual- symptoms and arrhythmia. Accordingly, pacing is chamber pacemakers are more complex and rela- considered useful in patients with heart rates less than tively expensive ($5000 to $7000). In addition, since 40 bpm who have symptoms consistent with brady- two intracardiac leads are required, the incidence of cardia, but in whom the correlation between the two lead dislodgement is higher for dual-chamber systems cannot be clearly established. Pacing is not indicated in (dual-chamber, 6%; single-chamber, 2%). asymptomatic patients, patients with bradycardia due to Currently available pacing systems have a rate-adaption nonessential medical therapy, and when symptoms are feature. When rate adaption is programmed “on,” the clearly documented not to be caused by bradycardia. pacing system employs a sensor such as body motion, Permanent pacing is indicated in patients with minute ventilation, Q–T interval changes, or combina- chronotropic incompetence who become symptomatic tions of these to estimate metabolic need. The pace- during activity because of inability to increase heart maker will change the pacing rate depending on input rate and cardiac output. These patients have an improve- from the sensor. This feature is particularly useful for ment in symptoms and exercise tolerance with rate- patients with sinus node dysfunction associated with responsive pacing.9,96 chronotropic incompetence. Pacemakers have moni- toring capabilities that allow the clinician to evaluate the range of heart rates a patient has over a specific PACING MODE SELECTION interval of time. If a blunted range of atrial rates is Single-chamber atrial pacemakers, single-chamber ven- recorded, the presence of chronotropic incompetence tricular pacemakers, and dual-chamber pacemakers will should be suspected. all prevent bradycardia in the patient with sinus node disease. Each pacemaker type is associated with inherent advantages and disadvantages. Single-chamber atrial Sinus Node Dysfunction in pacemakers are simple, relatively inexpensive (approx- imately $3000 to $4000), and maintain AV synchrony. Specific Conditions However, they will not prevent ventricular bradycardia ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION if AV block develops. Up to 20% of patients will have abnormal AV conduction at the time of diagnosis of Sinus bradycardia is common in acute myocardial sinus node dysfunction; these patients are not candi- infarction, especially in inferior and posterior wall dates for single-chamber atrial pacing.50 In a prospec- infarction, where it is usually due to increased vagal tive study of 225 patients with 1:1 conduction at heart tone or ischemia of the SA tissue.16,17 Increased vagal rates less than 100, Andersen et al. found that AV con- tone may also result in transient AV block and hypoten- duction was unchanged from initial evaluation after sion from peripheral vasodilatation. This arrhythmia a mean 5.5-year follow-up.69 The annual incidence of usually does not require treatment unless the patient is second- and third-degree AV block that required symptomatic (hypotension, ischemia, or bradycardia- implantation of a dual-chamber pacing system was only related ventricular arrhythmia). It usually responds well 0.6% per year.69 to intravenous atropine. In symptomatic patients who Single-chamber ventricular pacemakers are also simple are unresponsive to atropine or who have recurrences and inexpensive. They prevent bradycardia in the pres- requiring multiple doses of atropine, temporary trans- ence of AV block but do not maintain AV synchrony. venous pacing may be required. Pacing is usually per- Loss of AV synchrony is associated with a 20% to formed at the right ventricular apex, but where it is 30% decrease in cardiac output and is associated with important to maintain AV synchrony (such as refractory “pacemaker syndrome.”108 Pacemaker syndrome is a hypotension), an additional “J”-shaped electrode can constellation of symptoms that can include dizziness, be placed in the right atrial appendage for dual-chamber chest pain, weakness, effort intolerance, presyncope, pacing. Alternatively, atrial pacing can be achieved using and syncope. The mechanism of pacemaker syndrome a temporary electrode positioned in the proximal coro- is complex but appears to be due to decreased cardiac nary sinus. Sinus node dysfunction occurring during output from loss of AV contraction and retrograde con- acute myocardial infarction is usually temporary, and duction through the His-Purkinje–AV node axis. permanent pacing is rarely required.76,77 Reduced cardiac output leads to reflex sympathetic acti- vation. Atrial contraction when the mitral and tricuspid CAROTID SINUS HYPERSENSITIVITY AND valves are closed also leads to an increase in atrial CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME pressure and release of atrial natriuretic peptide and peripheral venous and arterial dilation. The reported An abnormal response to carotid sinus massage (>3 incidence of pacemaker syndrome has varied widely seconds of asystole) may occur in asymptomatic patients 224 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias and does not constitute an indication for therapy; cor- dual-chamber pacing systems allows programming of relation with symptoms is essential. Up to 64% of different heart rates after sensed and paced ventricular patients with syncope caused by a hypersensitive carotid beats (hysteresis). By programming a pacemaker to syndrome can remain asymptomatic during follow-up; pace at a relatively fast rate on initiation of pacing, therapy should be reserved for patients with recurrent symptoms associated with carotid sinus syndrome can presyncope or syncope.112 Drugs that can enhance the be ameliorated even in the presence of a significant hypersensitive response to carotid sinus massage, such vasodepressor response.118 as digoxin and sympatholytics (clonidine, methyldopa), should be discontinued if possible. VASOVAGAL SYNCOPE The type and success of therapy (pacing versus pharmacologic) are based on the mechanism of syncope. Vasovagal syncope is the most common cause of syn- Pacing is efficacious in the cardioinhibitory response to cope in young people. Lewis, in 1932, used the phrase carotid sinus massage.113-116 In patients with a predomi- “vasovagal” to emphasize the combination of arterial nant vasodepressor response, neither pacing nor anti- vasodilation and bradycardia associated with this cholinergic agents prevent the fall in blood pressure, syndrome.119 While the exact mechanism of vasovagal since this is caused by inhibition of sympathetic vaso- syncope is not known, it does appear that activation of constrictor nerves as well as by activation of cholinergic cardiac mechanoreceptors leads to activation of higher sympathetic vasodilator fibers.116 Elastic support stock- neural centers and reflex withdrawal of sympathetic ings and volume expansion with sodium-retaining drugs tone and increased vagal tone. may be useful for ameliorating symptoms. The most common cause for bradycardia in vasovagal Recent data suggest that unexplained falls in the eld- syncope is sinus bradycardia or sinus arrest. For this erly might be due to carotid sinus hypersensitivity, and reason, although they do not affect the vasodepressor that in some cases pacing therapy may be beneficial.117 component of this syndrome, pacemakers have been A selected group of 175 patients with a history of nonac- used to treat the subset of patients that has particularly cidental falls and significant bradycardia (asystole severe symptoms unresponsive to drug therapy. Two >3 seconds) in response to carotid sinus massage were relatively large randomized studies have evaluated the randomized into pacing-therapy and no–pacing-therapy efficacy of pacing therapy for the treatment of vasovagal groups; after a 1 year follow-up, injurious events were syncope. In the North American Vasovagal Pacemaker reduced by 70% in the pacing-therapy group. Study (VPS-I), 54 patients with severe vasovagal syncope The indications for permanent pacing in the carotid and relative bradycardia (trough heart rate < 60 bpm sinus syndrome are summarized in Table 12-3. Single- during tilt table testing) were randomized to pacing or chamber atrial pacing is contraindicated, since vagal no pacing.120 The study was terminated after 2 years activation frequently results in AV block and absence of when analysis showed that pacing was associated with a ventricular escape rhythm. Although single-chamber an 85% decrease in syncopal episodes. Similarly, in ventricular pacing prevents bradycardia, it can poten- the Vasovagal Syncope International Study (VASIS-I), tially exacerbate symptoms due to the neurohormonal 42 patients with severe drug refractory vasovagal syn- effects associated with the pacemaker syndrome. cope were randomized to pacing or no pacing.121 Only Dual-chamber pacing is therefore preferred, since one patient in the pacing group had syncope, while it maintains AV synchrony regardless of the cause of 14 patients in the no-pacing group had syncope during bradycardia. In addition, the current generation of a mean 3.7-year follow-up. More recently, VPS-II found

TABLE 12-3 Indications for Permanent Pacing In Hypersensitive Carotid Syndrome

Class Indications

Class I Recurrent syncope caused by carotid sinus stimulation; minimal carotid sinus pressure induces ventricular asystole of >3 sec duration in the absence of any medication that depresses the sinus node or atrioventricular conduction Class IIa Recurrent syncope without clear, provocative events and with a hypersensitive cardioinhibitory response Significantly symptomatic and recurrent neurocardiogenic syncope associated with bradycardia documented spontaneously or at the time of tilt table testing Class IIb None Class III A hyperactive cardioinhibitory response to carotid sinus stimulation in the absence of symptoms A hyperactive cardioinhibitory response to carotid sinus stimulation in the presence of vague symptoms such as dizziness, light-headedness, or both Recurrent syncope, light-headedness, or dizziness in the absence of a hyperactive cardioinhibitory response

Class I: conditions for which there is evidence or general agreement, or both, that a given procedure or treatment is beneficial, useful, and effective. Class II: conditions for which there is conflicting evidence or a divergence of opinion, or both, about the usefulness/efficacy of a procedure or treatment. Class IIa: weight of evidence/opinion is in favor of usefulness/efficacy. Class IIb: usefulness/efficacy is less well established by evidence/opinion. Class III: conditions for which there is evidence or general agreement, or both, that a procedure/treatment is not useful/effective and, in some cases, may be harmful.

From Gregoratos G, Cheitlin MD, Conill A, et al: ACC/AHA guidelines for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Pacemaker Implantation). J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;5:1175-1209; and Gregoratos G, Abrams J, Epstein AE, et al: ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:1703-1719). Sinus Node Dysfunction 225 a 30% risk reduction in time to syncope with DDD pacing 20. Bharati S, Lev M: Morphology of the sinus and atrioventricular (P = .14), which was considerably lower than in previous nodes and their innervation. In Mazgalev T, Dreifus LS, 122-125 Michelson EL (eds): Electrophysiology of the Sinoatrial and studies. 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NORA GOLDSCHLAGER, SANJEEV SAKSENA, SAROJA BHARATI, RALPH LAZZARA, GERALD NACCARELLI, STEPHEN HAMMILL, FRED KUSUMOTO, and RABIH AZAR

Epidemiology: Nora Goldschlager Anatomy: Sanjeev Saksena Pathology: Saroja Bharati Basic Electrophysiology: Ralph Lazzara Electrocardiography: Sanjeev Saksena Diagnostic Techniques: Gerald Naccarelli Clinical Electrophysiology: Stephen Hammill Evidence-Based Therapy: Fred Kusumoto, Nora Goldschlager, and Rabih Azar

In 1852, Stannius noted that placing a ligature between 1500 patients older than 65 years of age, AV conduction the atria and ventricles could cause bradycardia in a and intraventricular conduction defects were identi- frog’s heart.1 In the late 1800s Tawara and His identi- fied in 30% of patients.14 Using high-resolution ECG fied the atrioventricular (AV) node and His bundle as the techniques, the increased P–R interval associated with normal conduction axis between the atria and ventri- aging is due to delay in conduction in the AV node cles in humans, and Wenckebach suggested blocked AV or the proximal portion of the His bundle.11 It is conduction as a cause for slow and irregular pulses.2-4 uncommon (4%) for persistent first-degree AV block to progress to second-degree or higher-grade AV block in the absence of associated disease in people younger Epidemiology of Atrioventricular Block than 60 years of age.13 Acquired persistent second-degree and third-degree Transient AV block can be observed in children and AV blocks are almost never observed in normal pop- young adults during sleep5; persistent AV block is ulations regardless of age. The incidence of sympto- unusual. This AV block is usually due to increased vagal matic high-grade AV block is currently estimated to be tone and is often a normal finding. In a continuous 200/million per year.15 monitoring study of 100 healthy teenaged boys, tran- Isolated congenital complete (third-degree) AV sient first-degree AV block was observed in 12% and block is a well-described problem that occurs in approx- second-degree AV block in 11% of the population.5 imately 1 in every 20,000 live births.16 Congenital com- In young adults the incidence of transient AV block plete AV block is the most common manifestation of decreases to about 4% in women and 6% in men.6,7 neonatal lupus erythematosus and appears to be associ- In the normal elderly population, transient type I ated with the development of autoantibodies in the (Wenckebach) second-degree AV block is seen only rarely maternal circulation. Other hereditary conditions asso- (1%), and higher-grade AV block is not observed.8 ciated with AV block are the Kearns-Sayre syndrome Persistent first-degree AV block is rarely seen in (ophthalmoplegia, retinitis pigmentosa) and myotonic young adults. Review of more than 70,000 ECGs from dystrophy.17 young men entering the Canadian and U.S. military demonstrated a prevalence of first-degree AV block of less than 1%.9,10 Electrocardiographic studies have shown Anatomy of the Atrioventricular Bundle increased P–R intervals and an increased incidence of first-degree AV block with aging.9-14 While approxi- The anatomy of the AV node, bundle of His, and the mately 2% of adults older than 20 years of age have atrionodal connections have been substantially rede- first-degree AV block, the incidence increases to more fined.18 In early studies Truex and Smythe described than 5% in people older than 50 years of age.11,13 With extensions of the compact AV node that connected to increasing age, the development of AV conduction dis- atria, the most prominent of which was directed to the orders is more common; in one epidemiologic study of coronary sinus ostium. Anderson and colleagues 229 230 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

Transitional cell zone Tendon Posterior Anterior Penetrating of Todaro Deep superficial bundle Central fibrous body FIGURE 13-1 Schematic diagram of the atrionodal junctional region and the atrioventricular node and surrounding anatomic structures in the human heart. Coronary LBB, left bundle branch; RBB, right bun- sinus Membranous dle branch. (Reproduced from Anderson septum et al: The human atrioventricular junc- tional area: A morphological study of the AV node and the bundle. Eur J Cardiol RBB LBB 1975;3:11.)

Branching bundle Compact Origin of node tricuspid valve

described zones of cellular aggregation at the atrium- LACK OF CONNECTION BETWEEN AV nodal transition region as superficial, deep, and THE ATRIA AND THE PERIPHERAL posterior (Fig. 13-1). Racker described superior, medial, CONDUCTION SYSTEM and posterior atrionodal bundles that converged into the compact node. The properties of these atrionodal This is the most common type of congenital AV block bundles differed from working atrial myocardium. that is seen either with or without an associated con- 19-25 For a more detailed discussion of this subject, see genital cardiac anomaly. In this type of block, the Chapter 14. TABLE 13-1 Causes of Complete Heart Block Pathology of Atrioventricular Block Congenital Complete AV block may be viewed from an etiologic Acquired Degenerative standpoint as falling into two major categories: congenital Fibrosis and calcification and acquired. On the other hand, from an electrophysi- Ischemia and infarction ological standpoint, AV block may be classified accord- Medications ing to the location of the block with reference to the AV β-blockers bundle. Thus, AV block may occur proximal to the Calcium channel blockers Clonidine bundle of His recording site, within the bundle of His Lithium (intra-Hisian), or distal to the bundle of His recording Infectious conditions site. Pathologically, AV block can be considered as Endocarditis being due to or occurring in association with various Lyme disease Diphtheria disease states: (1) congenital heart disease; (2) coronary Toxoplasmosis artery disease; (3) hypertensive heart disease; (4) scle- Syphilis rosis of the left side of the cardiac skeleton (i.e., idio- Chagas’ disease pathic or primary AV block); (5) aortic valve disease; Inflammation (6) collagen diseases; (7) myocarditis; (8) infective Myocarditis Rheumatic fever endocarditis; (9) iatrogenic; (10) tumors of the heart; Rheumatic and autoimmune disease and (11) miscellaneous diseases and altered physiologic Systemic lupus erythematosus states (Table 13-1).19-49 Ankylosing spondylitis Reiter’s disease Infiltrative disease CONGENITAL ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK Amyloidosis Sarcoidosis Congenital AV block may occur in any type of a con- Infiltrative malignancies genital heart disease or it may occur in an otherwise Increased vagal tone normal heart.19-25 Pathologically, there are four types Trauma to the heart Neuromyopathic disorders of congenital AV block: lack of connection between the Other atria and the peripheral conduction system; inter- Hypoxia ruption of the AV bundle; bundle branch disease; Hyperkalemia and abnormal formation and interruption of the Following aortocoronary bypass graft or valve surgery AV bundle. (especially aortic) Atrioventricular Block 231

AV bundle and the beginning of the bundle branches may be normal or deficient as well. Nevertheless, a part of one or both bundle branches is connected to the ven- tricular myocardium. This type of block may therefore give rise to a narrow or wide QRS complex depending on the extent of deficiency of the branching part of the AV bundle.19-25

INTERRUPTION OF THE BEGINNING OF THE BUNDLE BRANCHES This may be a familial form of AV block with beginning of the bundle branches replaced by empty spaces, fat and fibrous tissue. This is a rare type of a bundle branch disease resulting in complete AV block.19-21,23,24

ABNORMAL FORMATION AND INTERRUPTION OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR BUNDLE Interruption in an aberrant conduction system is seen in corrected transposition of the heart (mixed levocardia with ventricular inversion), in which the atria are situ- ated more or less normally. This may be associated with congenital AV block. The block may be due to either deficiency or absence of the AV node and the surround- ing myocardium or interruption within the penetrating FIGURE 13-2 Congenital atrioventricular block in a or branching bundle, or both. In corrected transposition, 49-year-old man demonstrated marked fatty infiltration in the in most cases, the AV bundle is situated anterosuperi- approaches to the AV node and total isolation of the node. orly in the morphologically left ventricle in an abnormal Weigert-van Gieson stain ×17. A, approaches to the AV node location, making it vulnerable to hemodynamic stresses, almost completely replaced by fat and slight fibrosis; C, cen- 19-21,23,24 tral fibrous body; F, fibrosis; MV, mitral valve; N, AV node thereby resulting in interruption. isolated from the atrial approaches; S, right side of the sum- Congenital AV block may occur in any type of mit of the ventricular septum; V, ventricular septum. (From congenital heart disease; however, in corrected trans- Bharati S, Rosen KM, Strassberg B, et al: Anatomic Substrate position there is an increased incidence for its develop- for Congenital AV Block in Middle Aged Adults. Pacing Clin ment. Usually, there is absence of the AV node and the Electrophysiol 1982;5:860-9.) surrounding atrial myocardium, with infiltration of mononuclear cells, calcification, fibrosis, and fat.19,24 myocardium in the distal part of the atria is absent ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION— either completely or in part and is replaced by fat, CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE vascular channels, calcification at times, and mononu- clear cells with fibrosis (Fig. 13-2). The AV node is Complete AV block may occur in association with acute usually deficient or abnormally formed and has no con- or chronic coronary artery disease. In acute myocardial tinuity with the surrounding atrial myocardium. infarction, a distinction must be made between anterior In extreme forms, the AV node may be totally absent. and posterior wall infarction.19-25,26-29 In still other forms, there may be remnants of nodal In posteroseptal wall myocardial infarction, there cells within the central fibrous body. In some cases, the may be infarction of part of the sinoatrial node and its penetrating AV bundle may be deficient as well. The approaches, as well as the approaches to the AV node, block is thus proximal to the bundle of His recording with focal necrosis of the node and the bundle. In some site. The remainder of the conduction system is usually cases there may not be any obvious pathologic change normal. Congenital AV block in an otherwise normally within the conduction system, whereas in others, there developed heart may permit survival to the fourth or may or may not be changes in the AV bundle and the fifth decade of life.25 bundle branches. In contrast to posteroseptal wall infarction, in infarc- tion of the anteroseptal wall, the branching bundle and INTERRUPTION OF THE the bundle branches are usually affected by the necrotic ATRIOVENTRICULAR BUNDLE process. The AV node and the penetrating part of the In this type of less common block, the approaches to AV bundle may be involved in the infarction as well. the AV node and the AV node are normally formed. The infarction is usually extensive in nature; however, However, the penetrating portion of the AV bundle is if the patient recovers, the heart block usually resolves. markedly fragmented. The branching portion of the Chronic AV block after acute myocardial infarction is 232 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias decidedly uncommon. Thus, the site of infarction is more The fibrosis of the left bundle branch is probably important than the site of coronary artery occlusion in related to both mechanical factors produced by the producing lesions in the conduction system. calcific impingement, as well as chronic coronary insufficiency. Clinically, there may be chronic right bundle branch block or left bundle branch block that CHRONIC CORONARY INSUFFICIENCY may progress to chronic complete AV block. In some Chronic coronary insufficiency, with or without previ- cases, small vessel disease within the ventricular septum ous myocardial infarction, may affect various portions in the absence of major coronary artery disease may of the conduction system, predominantly the bundle cause destruction of the branching bundle and the branches that may, over time, progress to complete AV bundle branches. Chronic coronary insufficiency is block. In chronic coronary insufficiency, in addition to the most common cause of bilateral bundle branch an ischemic factor, there are aging changes in the con- block.19-21,23,24,26-29 duction system in the form of sclerosis of the left side of the cardiac skeleton; there may be an abnormal forma- HYPERTENSIVE HEART DISEASE tion of the AV bundle itself. In addition, there may be associated small vessel disease (arteriolosclerosis). Arteriolosclerosis (small vessel disease) of the heart is Thus, in chronic coronary insufficiency, several mecha- frequently present in hypertensive patients, with conse- nisms may play a role in the pathogenesis of AV block. quent conduction disturbances in the form of arteri- In general, in chronic ischemia, the right bundle branch olosclerosis of the sinoatrial node, AV node, AV bundle, is replaced by fibrous tissue; the left bundle branch fibers and bundle branches. The pathologic effects of hyper- are replaced by both the chronic ischemic process and tensive heart disease on the conduction system are related other factors such as a degeneration. For example, to the mechanical forces as well as the arteriolosclerosis calcific mass at the summit of the interventricular sep- process. Since the branching AV bundle is a subendo- tum can impinge upon the branching AV bundle and cardial and superficial structure, it is vulnerable to the the origin of the main left bundle branch (Fig. 13-3). mechanical stress and strain on the fibrous skeleton of the heart produced by hypertensive heart disease. Since hypertensive heart disease affects the entire heart, the pathologic changes and arteriolosclerosis in the sino- atrial node, AV node, AV bundle, and the bundle branches will result in various types of arrhythmias, such as sinus node dysfunction and right or left bundle branch block or complete AV block.19-21,23,24,26-29

AGING CHANGES IN THE SUMMIT OF THE VENTRICULAR SEPTUM With advancing age, the summit of the ventricular septum, the membranous part of the ventricular septum, central fibrous body, aortic-mitral annulus, mitral annu- lus, aortic valve base, and the aortic valve undergo degenerative changes. The pathologic changes include fibrosis, calcification, arteriolosclerosis, fatty infiltra- tion, and loss of conduction fibers with replacement of fibrotic strands. This type of degenerative process is referred to as “sclerosis of the left side of the cardiac skeleton.” It occurs as a result of “stress and strain” in a high pressure system that may affect the adjacent AV bundle and the bundle branches. Frequently, the branching part of the AV bundle, the beginning of the right and left bundle branches, or the main left bundle branch are compressed by calcium and replaced by fibroelastic process, loss of cells, and space formation with or without fat. The main left bundle branch may be totally disrupted from the branching AV bundle. The second part of the right bundle branch may be completely replaced by fibroelastic process. These FIGURE 13-3 Chronic coronary insufficiency with atrioven- changes may result in complete AV block, left bundle tricular (AV) block demonstrating calcification in the summit of the ventricular septum compressing the branching AV bun- branch block, or bilateral bundle branch block. Aging dle and the left bundle branch Weigert-van Gieson stain ×30. of the summit of the ventricular septum usually begins B, AV bundle showing fibrosis and loss of fibers; C, calcific in the fourth decade of life and is accelerated by hyper- mass; LBB, remnant of left bundle branch; V, calcified ven- tensive heart disease, coronary artery disease, and dia- tricular septum. betes mellitus. The branching and the bifurcating part Atrioventricular Block 233 of the AV bundle, the beginning of the main left bundle branch, and the beginning of the right bundle branch are quite superficial subendocardial structures and as such are vulnerable to degenerative changes caused by aging.19-21,23,24,26-29

COLLAGEN DISEASES Since there is a considerable amount of collagen con- nective tissue in the conduction system, varying types of collagen connective tissue disorders may affect the con- duction system to varying degrees. Thus, AV block or bundle branch block may occur in lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, scleroderma, and other mixed types of connective tissue disorders. Depending on the site of involvement of the conduction system, there may be bundle branch block or complete AV block. For example, complete replacement of the AV node by granulation tissue in lupus, fibrotic disruption of bundle branches to varying degrees in dermatomyositis, and granulomas in various parts of the conduction system in rheumatoid arthritis may be seen histologically.19-21,23,24,30,31

MYOCARDITIS Myocarditis of any type, whether acute or chronic, may cause complete AV block. If the patient survives, the heart block usually resolves; chronic AV block after FIGURE 13-4 A 16-year-old asymptomatic girl developed 2:1 myocarditis is rare. Pathologically, in the acute phase of atrioventricular (AV) block with intermittent complete AV the illness, the inflammatory changes in the ventricular block immediately after delivering a full-term healthy infant. myocardium predominate, affecting the distal part of Six weeks later she developed complete AV block and died the conduction system, such as the branching bundle suddenly. Photomicrograph showing mesothelioma of the AV and the bundle branches. Rarely, a part of the conduc- node replacing the AV node and its approaches. Weigert-van tion system may be affected. In general, the conduction Gieson stain ×45. CFB, central fibrous body; N, AV node; system and the surrounding myocardium are involved T, tumor replacing the AV node and its approaches; V, sum- by the inflammatory process. In rare cases, the conduc- mit of the ventricular septum. (From Bharati S, Lev M: The Cardiac Conduction System in Unexplained Sudden Death. tion system is involved more than the surrounding Mt. Kisco, NY, Futura, 1990, p 136.) myocardium.19-21,23,24

INFECTIVE ENDOCARDITIS who may remain totally asymptomatic; sudden death Infective endocarditis of the aortic or mitral valve, or may be the first manifestation. both, may extend to the aortic-mitral annulus, the It is of interest that mesothelioma, although a benign membranous part of the AV septum, and the summit of tumor pathologically, may cause sudden death in the ventricular septum and thereby affect the AV node otherwise normal, young, healthy persons. It is also of and AV bundle to produce AV block.19-21,23,24 interest that the site of heart block produced by the tumor is proximal to the AV bundle, with a narrow QRS TUMORS OF THE HEART complex in the ECG, which is generally considered to have a favorable clinical course.19-21,23,24,32 Any type of tumor that metastasizes to the heart has the potential to affect various parts of the conduction system SURGICAL ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK to a varying degree, resulting in AV block.19-21,23,24,32 One specific type of benign tumor, a mesothelioma or Surgical injury to the AV bundle during repair of a celothelioma of the AV node, has an affinity to affect only ventricular septal defect and ostium primum defect the AV node and its approaches (Fig. 13-4). Although rarely occurs today. On the other hand, AV block occur- rare, the tumor may totally replace the AV node and its ring during closure of defects in hearts with corrected approaches and produce complete AV block with a nar- transposition is seen frequently. Septation of a single- row QRS complex in the ECG. In general, this is a slow- ventricle heart often results in postoperative AV block. growing tumor and may manifest clinically as AV block In general, when the ventricles are inverted or are in from birth to old age. The tumor consists of neoplastic a crisscross position, the AV bundle is situated antero- cells of benign nature with no anaplasia and tends to superiorly, in a vulnerable position for surgical injury. form cysts. The tumor is generally seen in young women On the other hand, a right-sided AV bundle in simple, 234 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias complete transposition of the great vessels or ventricu- greater than in the remainder of the atrial and ventric- lar septal defect may get caught in surgical closure of ular myocardium. the defect. The Mustard procedure for complete trans- position, in which the atrial septum is removed and THE COMPACT ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE a baffle is placed, can lead to distortion of the atrial septum with fibrosis of the approaches to the AV node. Within the central compact node are cells with distinct This may result in AV block and sudden death. Further, electrophysiological characteristics. These characteristics in the Mustard procedure, the sinoatrial node may be of the prototypical AV nodal cells manifested by intra- affected to a varying degree, resulting in supraventricular cellular recordings in multicellular preparations have arrhythmias.19-21,23,24,33-36 been replicated in cells isolated from the AV node, allow- ing determination of the activities of specific currents, pumps, and exchangers.39,40 The amplitudes of resting MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES AND potentials ( 60 mV), APs (85 mV), and upstroke veloci- ALTERED PHYSIOLOGIC STATES − ties (<10 V/sec) are reduced. These cells manifest dias- AV block is known to occur in numerous diseases and tolic depolarization, a high total transmembrane altered physiologic or metabolic states. These include (input) resistance, and relative insensitivity to changes mitral valve prolapse, Marfan’s syndrome, Chagas’ in extracellular K+. They have postrepolarization refrac- disease, Reiter’s disease, Lyme disease, Kearns-Sayre toriness; the absolute refractory period outlasts the AP. syndrome, hemochromatosis, leukemia, alcoholism, The relative refractory period, during which relatively radiation therapy,37 hypothermia, exercise testing, diminished, slowly conducting APs are generated, is pro- introduction of catheters, prolonged coughing, sleep longed during diastole. The amplitudes and upstroke apnea with or without obesity, scorpion bites, and velocities of APs and conduction velocity are strongly posture changes.19 modulated by autonomic activity, increasing with adren- ergic (sympathetic) stimulation and decreasing with cholinergic (vagal) stimulation. The AV node is richly Basic Electrophysiology innervated with vagal and sympathetic fibers. These characteristics of the APs, in large part, account for the It is generally accepted that the AV junction consists of slow conduction and spontaneous automaticity of the the AV node with its atrial connections of transitional compact AV node. fibers and the bundle of His.38 In electrophysiological Important features of the transmembrane potentials considerations of AV block, it is useful to define the AV can be explained by the array and activities of specific junction more broadly, including the atrial connections ionic currents. Like sinoatrial nodal cells, AV nodal cells to the AV node, the AV node, the bundle of His, and lack the ionic current IK1.These potassium ion channels the proximal portions of the bundle branches that are in atrial and ventricular cells are open at strongly negative insulated from ventricular myocardium by fibrous matrix. membrane potentials, providing the dominant potassium Heart block can occur from interruption of conduction ion permeability that maintains the transmembrane in any of these components of the AV junction as defined potential near the potassium ion equilibrium potential. broadly. In this array of components, there is great The absence of these channels in AV nodal cells is respon- electrophysiological and histologic diversity (Fig. 13-5). sible for the relatively reduced resting potential positive The range of conduction velocities, resting and action to the potassium ion equilibrium potential, the insensi- potential (AP) amplitudes, AP durations, and inter- tivity to extracellular potassium ion concentration, and cellular conductivity observed within the AV junction is the high membrane resistance of these cells.

0 SAN 0 0 mV FIGURE 13-5 A representation of mV mV –60 –50 the right atrium and action potentials * –60 0 A from the atrium and atrioventricular FP mV Hb (AV) junction. A, atrial potential; –50 AVN, AV node; BB, bundle branch NH potential; CS, coronary sinus; CT, crista FO TT AVN 0 0 –25 terminalis; FO, fossa ovalis; FP, fast mV –50 pathway and potential; SP, slow path- –50 SP N –75 way and potential; Hb, His bundle and 200 MSBC MP CS potential; IVC, inferior vena cava; TA 0 MP, mid pathway and potential; N, cen- IVC mV tral nodal potential; NH, distal nodal CT –50 potential; TT, tendon of Todaro. SP 200 MSBC Atrioventricular Block 235

AV nodal cells, like sinoatrial nodal cells, lack sodium Until recently, functional definitions of these connec- channels, which provide the excitatory current for atrial tions distinguished a “fast pathway” located at the and ventricular cells; some cells may have channels that anterior-superior aspect of the node and connecting to are inactivated at the low resting potentials.41,42 The the atrium anterior to the fossa ovalis, and a “slow path- excitatory current for AV nodal cells is ICaL, a calcium way” connecting to the node inferiorly and posteriorly current that generates a slow upstroke because it is slower and extending posterior to the isthmus region inferior to and less intense than the Na+ current. L-type calcium ion the coronary sinus os. The terms “fast” and “slow” do not channels require a relatively long period to recover necessarily represent different conduction velocities in from inactivation, hence the postrepolarization refrac- these pathways but different conduction times deter- toriness of the AV node. The potent actions of auto- mined by access and length of the pathways depending nomic stimulation on AV nodal conduction are largely on the site of origin of global atrial activation. In man, due to the modulation of ICaL by adrenergic and cholin- the “fast” pathway is usually but not invariably consid- ergic stimulation via specific receptors and transduc- ered to have a longer refractory period than the “slow” tion systems. This current is enhanced and its kinetics pathway. of activation, inactivation, and recovery are accelerated Recent observations indicate that the atrial connec- by adrenergic stimulation; it is conversely affected by tions to the node are more complex.38 A mid pathway cholinergic stimulation. has been described with deep (in relation to the right AV nodal cells contain the pacemaker current If,which endocardium) connections to the node in its superior may contribute to the automaticity of AV nodal cells. On aspect and connections to the atrium in the septum the other hand, the current Ito, a rapidly activating and posterior to the fossa ovalis. Left-sided connections have inactivating potassium current that produces the notch been described in man.45 The functional interrelation- of the AP (phase I) and is prominent in atrial cells, ships of the pathways in normal AV conduction are not is sparse or absent in AV nodal cells. The repolarizing fully elucidated. It is clear that these pathways, the atria, potassium current IKr is present and probably a major and the AV node can form various configurations of factor in the repolarization of AV nodal cells. The repo- reentry circuits that cause AV nodal reentrant tachycardia. larizing current IKs, a contributor to repolarization in Interruption of the atrial connections to the AV node atrial, ventricular, and His-Purkinje cells, appears to be can produce AV block. absent in AV nodal cells. The potassium ion current I is prominent in Ach, Ado THE BUNDLE OF HIS AND sinoatrial nodal and atrial cells but not in ventricular BUNDLE BRANCHES cells. It is also present in AV nodal cells. Activation of this current by acetylcholine or adenosine drives the The bundle of His and bundle branches, which are insu- resting potential to more negative values, suppresses lated by fibrous matrix from ventricular myocardium, automaticity, and diminishes the AP, thus slowing AV constitute the ventricular aspect of the AV conduction conduction. axis. They function to rapidly disseminate activation to Gap junctions appear to be sparse and smaller in the the ventricular myocardium in a pattern that optimizes central AV node than in atrial and ventricular ejection of blood by a synchronized and coordinated myocardium.43 The gap junctions in the node are com- apex to base contraction.46 Conduction in these tissues posed predominantly of connexin 40 rather than con- is the most rapid of all cardiac tissue, promoting nexin 43, which is dominant in ventricular myocardium. synchronization of activation of distal sites. The archi- The relatively poor intercellular communication in the tecture of the bundle branches and their proximal insu- AV node is probably the result of these gap junction lation promotes apex-to-base contraction and septal-free properties plus a relative increase in the volume of extra- wall synchronization. The APs of these fibers in multi- cellular space surrounding AV nodal cells compared cellular preparations manifest very rapid upstrokes, pro- with atrial and ventricular myocardium. longed plateaus and repolarization, and automaticity. Quantitative measurement of individual currents in isolated Purkinje cells has been relatively limited. THE TRANSITIONAL ATRIONODAL Sodium current is abundant, accounting in part for the CONNECTIONS fast upstroke and the rapid conduction velocity. The The transitional fibers connecting the atrium to the AV ionic basis for the prolonged plateau has not been node aggregate in zones that are functionally relatively determined, but IKs appears to be less active in Purkinje discrete, though not insulated from atrial myocardium. than in ventricular myocardial cells.47 Recent observations indicate that anisotropy is a major The basis for the automaticity of the His-Purkinje determinant of directional conduction in these path- system is debated. Some favor the decay of a potassium ways.44 They extend from the node to and beyond the current activated during the AP as the primary basis for 48 border of Koch’s triangle and connect to the node at automaticity, whereas others favor the current If. As in relatively discrete sites along its margins. the sinoatrial node and AV node, there may be multiple These atrionodal connections have APs with charac- ionic determinants of automaticity. The automaticity of teristics that are intermediate between atrial cells and the His-Purkinje system is more prominent proximally prototypical cells in the compact node. Like the than distally. Automatic firing of the distal Purkinje sys- AV node, these transitional connections may show tem is slow and erratic. As a result, heart block due decremental conduction and Wenckebach type of block. to degeneration and fibrosis of the bundle branches is 236 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias more malignant than heart block caused by interrup- tion of conduction in the AV junction proximal to the bundle of His. Gap junctions are abundant in the Purkinje strands of the bundle branches and their distal ramifications. They are uniformly distributed along the lengths and ends of the fibers promoting good intracellular communica- tion throughout the margins of the cells and rapid conduction. However, the bundle of His fibers appear relatively poorly connected in the transverse dimension so that dissociation within the bundle of His has been observed in experimental animals and in man.49

Electrocardiography of Atrioventricular Block

The earliest diagnoses of AV block were made by clini- cians using irregularities in the pulse rate or a pulse deficit and were later documented by peripheral pulse recordings by Wenckebach and other investigators. While the peripheral pulse and its irregularity, whether periodic or not, can provide the clinician with initial inkling that AV conduction has been compromised, the surface ECG has become the clinical mainstay to diag- FIGURE 13-6 First-degree atrioventricular block with P–R nose type and potential location of AV block. It is con- prolongation and a bundle branch block QRS pattern on sur- face ECG. ceptually convenient to consider the three types of AV block as reflecting delayed conduction in the AV con- duction system (first-degree AV block), intermittent conduction (second-degree AV block), or failure of con- nonconducted P wave may not show significant P–R duction (third-degree or complete heart block). First- prolongation, and if the early cycles are not seen, this degree AV block is characterized by prolongation of diagnosis may be missed. This is occasionally referred the PQ or P–R interval beyond 200 milliseconds (ms) to as atypical Wenckebach conduction. An important (Fig. 13-6). The site of delay may lie in the atrial, AV differential diagnosis is spontaneously alternating con- node, bundle of His, or His-Purkinje system conduction. duction in the slow and fast AV nodal pathways in The associated QRS complex provides insight into the patients with dual AV nodal conduction pathways sites of diseased conduction but is not proof of location (Fig. 13-8). This may masquerade as type 1 block on a of the AV block. There may be evidence of distal con- cursory ECG examination. Furthermore, this may duction disease as seen in Figure 13-6 in the form of demonstrate grouped beating during tachycardias such bundle branch block. Alternatively, a narrow QRS com- as atrial fibrillation and flutter, further confusing the plex would favor conduction delay in the AV node or conduction pattern analysis. Mobitz type 2 second- much less commonly in the bundle of His. However, the degree block is characterized by a lack of P–R interval latter diagnosis should be suspected in calcific mitral prolongation before the nonconducted P wave (Fig. 13-9). valve disease, typically seen in middle-aged women with Importantly, the P–R interval of the subsequently con- syncope or near syncope. Second-degree AV block can ducted beat can be shorter than the subsequent stable be categorized as type 1 (Wenckebach or Mobitz type 1), P–R interval before the nonconducted P wave. This characterized by gradual prolongation of the P–R inter- must be differentiated carefully from the atypical type 1 val followed by a nonconducted P wave (Fig. 13-7). The second-degree block. Type 2 second-degree block can beat following this pause in conduction is characterized be characterized by an occasional nonconducted P wave by a shorter P–R interval, which may prolong in subse- or a series of such P waves when it is referred to as parox- quent beats. Importantly, the last few cycles before the ysmal high-degree AV block. This type of block is typically

FIGURE 13-7 Second-degree type 1 atrioventricular block (Mobitz type 1 or Wenckebach type) showing gradual P–R pro- longation before the noncon- ducted P wave. Atrioventricular Block 237

FIGURE 13-8 Second-degree type 2 atrioventricular block (Mobitz type II) showing absence of P–R prolongation before the nonconducted P wave.

seen in the distal or infra-His conduction system and is localizing the level of block. Several noninvasive inter- often associated with bundle branch block on the con- ventions may also prove helpful, such as vagal maneu- ducted beats on the surface ECG. This is suggestive of vers, exercise, or administration of atropine. These progressive bundle of His and bundle branch involve- methods take advantage of the differences in auto- ment in the pathologic process. Complete failure of nomic innervation of the AV node and His-Purkinje conduction in third-degree AV block or complete heart system.61 While the AV node is richly innervated and block can be localized with some success based on the highly responsive to both sympathetic and vagal stimuli, escape rhythm (Figs. 13-10 and 13-11). A narrow QRS the His-Purkinje system is influenced minimally by the escape rhythm suggests a nodal or bundle of His escape autonomic nervous system. Carotid sinus massage pacemaker and usually localizes the block to the increases vagal tone and worsens AV nodal block. AV node (much less often to intra-His locations). Exercise or atropine improves AV nodal conduction Narrow QRS complexes are typically seen in patients due to sympathetic stimulation. In contrast, carotid sinus with congenital complete heart block, and a stable junc- massage improves infranodal block, while exercise and tional pacemaker may be present for many years (see atropine worsens infranodal block, due to the change Fig. 13-10). More commonly, complete heart block is in the rate of the impulses being conducted through associated with a more distal disease process and an the AV node. idioventricular escape rhythm at rates usually below Exercise testing is a useful tool to help confirm the 40 beats per minute (see Fig. 13-11). The site of AV level of block that is already suspected in second- or third- block can be well directed by careful electrocardio- degree block with a narrow or wide QRS complex. graphic analysis and confirmed by clinical electrophysi- Patients with presumed AV nodal block or congenital ological investigation as indicated later in this chapter. complete heart block and a normal QRS complex will usually increase their ventricular rate with exercise. However, patients with acquired complete heart block Diagnostic Techniques and a wide QRS complex usually show minimal or no increase in ventricular rate. Since the prognosis and treatment differ in AV block An electrophysiological study is indicated in a patient depending on whether block is within the AV node or with suspected high-grade AV block as the cause of syn- infranodal, determining the site of block is important. cope or presyncope when documentation cannot be In many cases this can be done noninvasively. The QRS obtained noninvasively.62,63 In patients with coronary duration, P–R intervals, and ventricular rate on the artery disease, it may be unclear whether symptoms are surface electrogram can provide important clues in secondary to AV block or ventricular tachycardia, and

FIGURE 13-9 Dual atrioventricular nodal pathway V conduction potentially masquerading as second- 5 degree AV block. The ladder diagram shows the inter- vals in milliseconds of the P wave and P–R intervals.

680 680 680 680 680 680

320 60 320 460 320 460 238 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

The electrophysiological study allows analysis of the bundle of His–electrogram, as well as atrial and ventric- ular pacing to look for conduction abnormalities and inducible ventricular tachycardia. The atrio–His (A–H) and His ventricle (H–V) intervals are measured from the I bundle of His–electrogram.64 Atrial pacing techniques are used to help define the site of block and assess AV nodal and His-Purkinje conduction. During decre- mental atrial pacing, the A–H interval normally will gradually lengthen until AV nodal Wenckebach block is noted. The H–V interval will normally remain consis- tent despite different pacing rates. Abnormal AV nodal aVL conduction is defined as Wenckebach block occurring at slower atrial-paced rates than what is normally seen (i.e., >500 ms). To determine whether AV nodal disease is truly present or just under the influence of excessive vagal tone, atropine alone or autonomic blockade with atropine and propranolol can be given to differentiate inherently abnormal AV nodal conduction from vagally V 1 mediated abnormalities. Infranodal block (Mobitz 2) FIGURE 13-10 Congenital complete heart block in a young is present when the atrial deflection is followed by asymptomatic woman with excellent exercise response of the the His electrogram, but no ventricular depolarization junctional pacemaker. is seen. Block below the His is abnormal, unless asso- ciated with very short–paced cycle lengths (350 ms or an electrophysiological study can be useful in establish- less).56 ing the diagnosis. Some patients with known second- or third-degree block may benefit from an invasive study to localize the site of AV block and help determine ther- Clinical Electrophysiology apy or assess prognosis. Once symptoms and AV block are correlated by electrocardiography, further docu- Intracardiac electrophysiological studies in patients mentation by invasive studies is not typically required. with conduction system disease can provide informa- Asymptomatic patients with transient Wenckebach tion about the site of AV block, assess possible mecha- block associated with increased vagal tone should not nisms of syncope in affected patients, and stress the undergo invasive electrophysiological investigation. conduction system by atrial pacing and pharmacologic

0.75 v 0.50 v 3.50 v

vvvvvvvvvvv FIGURE 13-11 Complete heart block during threshold testing in a patient with an implanted 602 601 602 601 602 602 601 602 601 602 883 permanent pacemaker. Note the absence of 1063 an escape idioventricular rhythm. Pacing had to be resumed immediately due to symptoms. Atip- A-ring, bipolar atrial electrogram; Vtip-Vring, Atip-Aring bipolar ventricular electrogram.

Vtip-Vring Atrioventricular Block 239 intervention to help determine the risk for developing block is usually infranodal in the His-Purkinje system. heart block and the need for permanent pacing.50 However, either type of block may occur within or below Patients with conduction disease may present with the node. The exact level of block can be assessed with cardiac syncope believed due to intermittent heart electrophysiological testing (Figs. 13-12 and 13-13). block. However, the conduction disease is often due to Electrophysiological testing can further define if AV myocardial disease such as cardiomyopathy, but the block is due to disease in the His-Purkinje system or syncope can be due to ventricular tachycardia. In this delayed conduction within the AV node in patients who situation, both the conduction disease and propensity present with first-degree AV block on their resting ECG to malignant ventricular arrhythmia can be assessed to and have associated bundle branch block. determine more appropriate therapy.51 During electro- Patients with a 2:1 or higher degree of AV block can physiological assessment of patients with significant have the site of block in the AV node or His-Purkinje conduction disease, the presence of intact ventricu- system. Block in the AV node is often treated by altering loatrial conduction can be assessed to help determine the patient’s medications, while block in the His-Purkinje the type of pacemaker to be used. Patients with intact system usually requires permanent pacing. The exact ventriculoatrial conduction should have a dual-chamber level of block in such patients can be determined at pacemaker placed to avoid pacemaker syndrome or the time of electrophysiological testing and appropriate pacemaker-mediated tachycardia. therapy initiated.

FIRST-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR HIS-PURKINJE DISEASE NODAL BLOCK Abnormal conduction within the distal conduction sys- The most common cause of P–R interval prolongation tem is referred to as infranodal or distal-to-His conduction is delay in conduction through the AV node. This can disease. Conduction delay in the His-Purkinje system is be identified readily at the time of intracardiac study by clinically important because of the risk for progressing measuring the A–H interval and assessing the response to complete heart block and need for permanent to pharmacologic testing. The A–H interval represents pacing. Usually, patients who will benefit from a per- conduction through the AV node and is measured manent pacemaker can be identified clinically based on from onset of the atrial electrogram to onset of the noninvasive ECG recording, either short or long term, bundle of His–electrogram as recorded by the bundle and correlation of symptoms with ECG abnormalities. of His–catheter. The normal A–H interval should not Conduction disease in the His-Purkinje system can be exceed 130 ms (Table 13-2). Most commonly, a pro- assessed by measuring the H–V interval. The H–V inter- longed A–H interval is due to either residual drug effect val is determined as the conduction time between the (β-blocker, calcium channel blocker, digoxin, antiar- onset of the His electrogram recorded by the His-bundle rhythmic drugs) or enhanced vagal tone. Atropine can catheter and earliest ventricular activity recorded by be administered to reverse vagal tone to help deter- either intracardiac or surface electrograms and usually mine whether intrinsic AV nodal conduction disease is consists of a sharp single deflection on the recording present in the absence of AV nodal–blocking drugs. (see Fig. 13-12A). The normal H–V interval is between A prolonged A–H interval with AV node Wenckebach 35 and 55 ms (see Table 13-2). Shorter intervals are due during slow atrial pacing (<100 bpm) in the presence to ventricular preexcitation or recording the right bun- of vagal blockade with atropine implies intrinsic AV dle electrogram instead of the His-bundle electrogram. nodal conduction disease. First-degree intra-His block can be demonstrated by atrial extrastimuli during programmed stimulation (see Fig. 13-12B). Typically, split His potentials are SECOND-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR seen (indicated as H1 and H2 on the figure). Type 1 BLOCK second-degree block within the His-Purkinje system can Type 1 second-degree AV block (Wenckebach) usually occur and is demonstrated by progressive beat-to-beat occurs within the AV node. Type 2 second-degree AV increases in the H–V interval prior to infra His block (see Fig 13-12C). This type of block is uncommon. Type 2 second-degree block within the His-Purkinje block is TABLE 13-2 Electrophysiological Intervals: more common and is usually associated with bundle- Normal Values branch block, a prolonged H–V interval at rest, and the development of either spontaneous or pacing Reference P–A (ms) A–H (ms) H–V (ms) induced infra His block during electrophysiological test- ing (Fig. 13-13). This constellation of abnormalities of Dhingra52 9-45 54-130 31-55 the His-Purkinje system most often warrants permanent Gallagher53 24-45 60-140 30-55 Fisher54 10-45 55-130 30-55 pacing. At times, intracardiac recordings may demon- Josephson55 — 60-125 35-55 strate a split His potential with the clear recording of Recommended 25-50 50-130 35-55 two His deflections separated by approximately 15 to 25 ms. Block can occur between the two His potentials, A–H, interval from the onset of the atrial electrogram to the onset of the His electrogram recorded by the His catheter; H–V, interval from the onset of the and, although this problem is rare, it should be treated His electrogram to earliest ventricular activation; P–A, interval from the onset as second-degree infranodal block with permanent of atrial activity to the atrial electrogram recorded by the His catheter. pacing. 240 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

02 03 04

II

aVF

V1

V6

HRA

HBP H H HBD

A I

aVF

V1

RA

HBp H H1 H2

HBd

B FIGURE 13-12 Panel A, Normal atrioventricular conduction with sharp well-defined His bundle (H) recording and normal H–V interval. HBD, distal His bundle; HBP, proximal His bundle; HRA, right atrial electrogram. Panel B, First-degree intra-His block on atrial extrastimulation. Note the low amplitude His potential (H) and the split His potentials (H1 and H2) on the dis- tal His bundle recording. While there is a hint of a His bundle electrogram on the proximal recording, H1 is only seen in the distal recording. HBd, distal His bundle; HBp, proximal His bundle; RA, right atrial electrogram.

BUNDLE BRANCH BLOCK third-degree infranodal block, and treatment with per- manent pacing should be individualized.56 Asymptomatic The H–V interval reflects the shortest conduction time patients with an H–V interval of 70 to 100 ms have a 4% from the His bundle to the ventricle and is often used annual incidence of complete heart block and probably to assess the state of the remaining conducting fascicles in should be paced, whereas asymptomatic patients with patients with chronic bundle branch block. For example, an H–V interval of greater than 100 ms have an 8% patients with chronic left bundle branch block who annual incidence of complete heart block and should have a prolonged H–V interval have damage to the undergo implantation of a permanent pacemaker.57-59 remaining right fascicle represented by the H–V inter- Patients with spontaneous pacing-induced distal-to-His val prolongation. Typically, asymptomatic patients with block at slow rates have a high incidence of subsequent an H–V interval of 55 to 70 ms have a 1% annual inci- complete heart block and sudden death and should dence of progression to spontaneous second-degree or be paced.56 Atrioventricular Block 241

100 mm/s 200 ms I

aVF

V1

V6

HV 105 ms 185 ms AH AH AH HIS

RV

C FIGURE 13-12 (cont’d) Panel C, Demonstration of spontaneous type 1 second-degree atrioventricular block (Wenckebach) in the His-Purkinje system in a patient with P–R interval prolongation, left axis deviation, and left bundle branch block. During sinus rhythm, the A–H interval remains fixed and the H–V interval prolongs from 105 milliseconds (ms) to 185 ms before block distal to His. I, aVF, V1, V6, surface ECG leads; His, electrogram recorded from the His-bundle region; RV, right ventricular electrogram.

The value of stressing the His-Purkinje conduction by conduction for predicting long-term outcome remains using intravenous procainamide was assessed in a study unclear. by Girard and associates.60 Seventy-nine patients who underwent electrophysiological testing received intra- COMPLETE HEART BLOCK venous procainamide. An abnormal response to pro- cainamide (defined as an H–V interval >80 ms) was Electrophysiological testing has a minimal role in the observed in only 3% of 37 patients with a normal base- assessment of patients with complete AV block, espe- line H–V interval of less than 55 ms, 48% of 27 patients cially if they present with a slow escape rhythm and with mild H–V prolongation (56 to 70 ms), and in all a wide QRS complex, indicating a ventricular escape 15 patients with moderate H–V prolongation (>70 ms). focus. Such patients require pacing. Patients with com- Procainamide induced distal-to-His block in 14% of plete heart block proximal to the His bundle usually patients studied for syncope and in 2% of patients have enhanced vagal tone, inferior myocardial infarction studied for ventricular tachycardia. Syncope as the with ischemia of the AV node, or AV nodal block due to indication for electrophysiological study and left bun- drugs such as β-blockers, calcium channel blockers, or dle branch block on the ECG were the best predictors digoxin. In these situations, electrophysiological testing of subsequent distal-to-His AV block. There was a strong is usually not required as the diagnosis and further linear correlation between post drug and baseline H–V management is handled clinically. Similarly, the role of intervals. This linear response to procainamide and electrophysiological testing in patients with congenital published prospective studies support pacing patients complete heart block has not been determined, and the with syncope who have a baseline H–V interval of greater test usually does not provide helpful information on than 70 ms. This study concluded that procainamide which to base clinical management. infusion during electrophysiological study of patients Electrophysiological studies usually do not make a with undifferentiated syncope should be reserved for significant contribution to the management of patients those patients with mild H–V prolongation of 55 to 70 ms with documented AV block and associated symptoms of in duration. The exact sensitivity and specificity of atrial altered consciousness as the decision to implant a pace- pacing and IV procainamide to stress His-Purkinje maker is made clinically. However, in selected patients 242 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

I

II

aVF

V1

V6

HRA

A–H 85 ms 130 ms 165 ms 90 ms

HBE1 HHH H

RVA

FIGURE 13-13 Demonstration of induced type 1 second-degree atrioventricular (AV) block (Wenckebach) in the AV node in addition to distal-to-His block in a patient with left axis deviation and right bundle branch block. During atrial pacing at 133 bpm, the A–H interval prolongs from 85 milliseconds (ms) to 165 ms before block in the AV node. The second and third beats demonstrate block distal to His. This illustrates multiple levels of conduction system disease in this patient. I, II, aVF, V1, and V6, surface ECG leads; HBE1, electrogram recorded from the region of the His bundle; HRA, high right atrial electrogram; RVA, right ventricular apex electrogram. with conduction disease, including bifascicular block, history of AV block. In general, permanent pacemak- prognostic information can be gained from invasive ers are implanted in patients with symptomatic AV electrophysiological testing to assess the integrity of the block and in patients with asymptomatic AV block due His-Purkinje system and the risk for developing com- to His-Purkinje disease.65 plete heart block. In addition, assessment of the elec- trical properties of the AV conduction system and inducibility of ventricular arrhythmias in patients with Pacing Mode Choice syncope and heart disease can be extremely helpful in determining appropriate management. Prospective data on the effects of pacing mode choice in patients with AV block are limited. Both single-chamber ventricular pacing and dual-chamber pacing will pre- Evidence-Based Therapy vent bradycardia in patients with AV block. However, only dual-chamber pacing maintains AV synchrony. Dual- While retrospective studies provide useful information chamber pacing also reduces the incidence of pace- that can often help in hypothesis generation, they fre- maker syndrome. Despite these potential advantages, quently exaggerate the benefit of treatment. It is always the importance of dual-chamber pacing in patients with preferable to base clinical decisions, if possible, on data AV block has not been well established, particularly from prospective randomized trials. However, no in the elderly. prospective randomized trials have evaluated the efficacy In the Pacemaker Selection in the Elderly (PASE) of pacing therapy in patients with AV block since there trial, 407 elderly patients (mean age 76 years) were ran- are no alternatives to pacing therapy for the patient with domized to either the rate-adaptive ventricular inhib- symptomatic AV block (not due to reversible causes). In ited (VVIR) or rate-adaptive dual chamber (AV) addition, it is difficult to assemble large groups of inhibited/triggered (DDDR) pacing mode.66 In the 201 asymptomatic patients with specific types of AV block. patients who had pacing systems implanted for AV Recommendations for permanent pacemaker implan- block, no reduction in mortality, stroke, or atrial fibril- tation are based on observational studies on the natural lation was observed. In contrast to the patients with Atrioventricular Block 243 sinus node dysfunction, dual-chamber pacing was not TEMPORARY PACING associated with improvement in quality-of-life indices. In the Canadian Trial of Physiologic Pacing (CTOPP), In the hemodynamically unstable patient with AV block, 2568 patients with symptomatic bradycardia were the clinician must identify any rapidly reversible causes. randomized to single-chamber ventricular pacing or a Reversible causes include hyperkalemia, hypoxia, “physiologic” pacing mode that preserved AV syn- increased vagal tone, and ischemia. While treatment for chrony (single-chamber atrial pacing or dual-chamber reversible causes is initiated, it must be decided quickly pacing).67 AV block was the indication for pacing in whether temporary pacing will be required for the approximately 60% of the patients. Physiologic pacing hemodynamically unstable patient. Temporary pacing was not associated with a reduction in stroke or death is most quickly initiated by transcutaneous passage of due to cardiovascular disease, which was the study’s current between two specially designed pads placed on primary end point. Interestingly, physiologic pacing was the chest wall. Patch position is the most important associated with a reduction in the development of factor for determining effectiveness of transcutaneous chronic atrial fibrillation even in those patients with pacing. The cathode should be placed on the left chest pacing systems implanted for AV block.68 A large over the cardiac apex, and the anode placed on the back prospective study recently examined the importance of between the spine and scapula or anteriorly just above pacing mode selection in elderly patients with AV the right nipple. Currents of 20 to 140 mA are usually block.69 In the United Kingdom Pacing and Clinical required to capture and activate the ventricles. Using Events (UK-PACE) Trial, patients older than 70 years of the correct technique, transcutaneous pacing is effec- age with AV block were randomized to the ventricular tive in more than 90% of cases and associated with very 71,72 inhibited (VVI), VVIR, and DDD pacing modes. Patients few complications. However, transcutaneous pacing were followed for at least 3 years. The primary end cannot be used for prolonged periods because of point was all-cause mortality, although other secondary patient discomfort and unreliability of capture due to outcomes such as atrial fibrillation, heart failure, impedance changes. stroke/transient ischemic attack/thromboembolism, If temporary pacing must be used for more than pacing system revision, cardiovascular events such as 30 minutes, transvenous pacing should be initiated since angina or myocardial infarction, exercise capacity, it is far more stable and better tolerated. With transve- and quality of life were also evaluated. A composite nous pacing, intravascular access is obtained, usually end point of all outcomes was also examined. Patient through the right internal jugular vein, and a pacing recruitment occurred from 1995 to 1999, and the trial catheter is positioned into the right ventricle. The pac- terminated in September 2002 with a median follow-up ing catheter is connected to a pulse generator; ventric- of 4 years.69 Of the patients, 504 were randomized to VVI ular capture can usually be obtained with currents of pacing, 505 to VVIR pacing, and 1012 to DDD pacing. 1 to 2 mA. Transvenous pacing can be used for long Some patients remained in the randomized mode: periods with minimal complications (<2% once venous 71 96.6% of VVI patients, 96.4% of VVIR patients, and access is achieved). 87.7% of DDD patients. There was no difference in all-cause mortality or time to atrial fibrillation or other PERMANENT PACING cardiovascular events. There was an increased stroke risk with VVI pacing (hazard ratio 1.58), but no differences Once the patient is stabilized, the clinician must assess were elicited in any other secondary end points or whether the AV block will be permanent. There are sev- composite end point. This trial suggests that the elderly eral conditions where persistent AV block will gradually patient derives limited and specific benefits and fails resolve. In approximately 10% to 15% of patients with to obtain other favorable results compared with the inferior and posterior wall myocardial infarctions, tran- younger patient with DDD pacing. This may reflect sient second-degree, advanced, or complete AV block more advanced atrial and cardiovascular disease status will be observed.75 In almost all cases the AV block will or other variables. resolve, and permanent pacing is not required. The use In summary, it is unlikely that any randomized trial of fibrinolytic therapy has not altered the incidence will be performed to evaluate the efficacy of pacing of AV block in inferior wall myocardial infarction. therapy in patients with AV block. Although the evi- Approximately 8% to 10% of patients with Lyme disease dence for the usefulness of dual-chamber pacing in will have transient AV conduction abnormalities due to patients with AV block is incomplete at present, most myocarditis involving the AV nodal region. AV block patients with AV block should receive a dual-chamber usually resolves within several weeks, and permanent pacing system.65,70 pacing is almost never required. Acute rheumatic fever can also present with AV block that is expected to resolve after several weeks.75 Management of Atrioventricular Block INDICATIONS FOR PERMANENT PACING When AV block is identified, management requires a search for reversible causes, an assessment of hemody- Indications for permanent pacing in acquired AV block namic stability to determine whether temporary pacing is have been published by a Joint Committee of the required, and, finally, a decision on whether permanent American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American pacing will be necessary. Heart Association (AHA) in 1984, 1991, 1998, and 2002.65 244 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

TABLE 13-3 Indications for Permanent Pacing in SECOND-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR Atrioventricular Block BLOCK Symptomatic second-degree AV block is a class I indica- Asymptomatic tion for pacing regardless of type of block. The use of First-degree Pacing not indicated pacing therapy for asymptomatic patients with second- Second-degree Pacing not indicated if type 1 second-degree degree AV block is controversial and depends on the AV block with a narrow QRS complex is present Electrophysiological study should be considered type (site) of AV block. if type 1 second-degree AV block with a wide In general, type 1 second-degree AV block associated QRS complex is present with a narrow QRS complex (<0.12 sec) is due to block Pacing if type 2 block is present in the AV node, and the current published guide- Third-degree Pacing lines do not recommend pacemaker implantation in Symptomatic Pacing regardless of type the asymptomatic patient. In a study of 56 patients with documented chronic second-degree AV block due to AV nodal conduction delay, those without associated The ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guidelines use the stan- cardiac disease had a benign course while those with dard three-group classification schema. Class I indica- associated cardiac disease had a poor prognosis due to tions are conditions for which there is evidence or progression of underlying cardiac disease rather than 79 general agreement that a given procedure or treatment to the development of sudden bradycardia. However, in is beneficial, useful, and effective. Class II indications another retrospective study of 214 patients with second- are conditions for which there is conflicting evidence degree AV block, survival and requirement for pacing or a divergence of opinion about the usefulness/ were not different among patients with type 1 and type 2 efficacy of a procedure or treatment. Class II has been heart block, and the presence or absence of bundle further divided into class IIa, where the weight of branch block did not appear to aid in the prediction of 80 evidence/opinion is in favor of usefulness/efficacy, and survival. In view of these conflicting data, it is prudent class IIb, where usefulness/efficacy is less well established to closely monitor patients with type 1 second-degree by evidence/opinion. Class III indications are conditions AV block and a narrow QRS complex for symptoms and for which there is evidence or general agreement that a for progression of conduction tissue disease (e.g., devel- procedure/treatment is not useful/effective and, in some opment of fascicular block or QRS widening). If type 1 cases, may be harmful. Despite some shortcomings,76 the second-degree AV block is associated with a wide QRS ACC/AHA/NASPE guidelines provide a useful frame- complex (>0.12 sec) AV block will be located in the AV work upon which management is based. The indica- node in 30% to 40% of patients and in the His-Purkinje 81,82 tions for permanent pacing in symptomatic patients with system in 60% to 70% of cases. In these cases an second- or third-degree AV block are often straight- invasive electrophysiological study is often required to forward (Table 13-3). Controversial indications involve identify the site of block. If intra-Hisian or infra-Hisian mostly asymptomatic patients.76,77 The decision to block is identified, a pacemaker should be implanted implant a pacemaker in asymptomatic patients is more since these conditions usually progress to complete 83 difficult and requires knowledge of the pathophysiol- heart block within 5 years. ogy and natural history of AV block. As a general rule, Type 2 second-degree AV block probably always occurs since escape rhythms from ventricular tissue are unreli- in His-Purkinje tissue. Asymptomatic patients with type 2 able, a pacemaker should be implanted in asympto- AV block usually do develop symptoms and will require 84,85 matic patients if AV block occurs in His-Purkinje tissue. permanent pacing. In 2:1 second-degree AV block, every other P wave conducts, preventing comparison of consecutive P–R THIRD-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK intervals. The QRS complex provides a clue as to the Symptomatic third-degree AV block is a class I indica- site of block: A narrow QRS complex is associated with tion for pacing therapy. For asymptomatic patients, the His-Purkinje block 30% of the time, and a wide QRS current guidelines use a rate cutoff, with escape ven- complex is associated with His-Purkinje block approxi- 85 tricular rates less than 40 beats per minute designated mately 80% of the time. In the asymptomatic patient as a class I indication and ventricular rates greater than with 2:1 block, maneuvers to alter the conduction ratio 40 beats per minute designated as class IIa. Although between the atria and ventricles (such as exercise, this distinction may seem reasonable, one must confirm atropine, or continuous ECG monitoring) may allow whether the patient is truly asymptomatic; in some localization of the site of block. However, in some cases cases symptoms associated with third-degree AV block electrophysiological evaluation to determine the site of are subtle. More importantly, prognosis depends on the block will be required. stability of the escape rate pacemaker rather than the actual rate; escape rhythms from ventricular tissues (wide FIRST-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK QRS complexes) are inherently unstable. In practice, acquired third-degree AV block not associated with If first-degree AV block is severe, atrial activation and any reversible causes is usually considered a class I indi- contraction can occur while the ventricles are contract- cation for permanent pacing regardless of whether ing in response to the previous atrial contraction, which symptoms are present or absent. leads to an inappropriate rise in atrial pressures and Atrioventricular Block 245 symptoms similar to the pacemaker syndrome. In this Group guidelines have stated that the only indication situation symptoms can be significant even with exer- for the VVI and VVIR pacing modes is atrial fibrilla- cise since the P–R interval does not shorten appro- tion/flutter with AV block or slow ventricular priately with adrenergic stimulation. The current response.70 The VVI and VVIR pacing modes may also guidelines65 classify symptomatic first-degree AV block be appropriate in patients who are incapacitated and as a class IIa indication for pacemaker implantation. inactive, as well as those with other medical problems Asymptomatic first-degree AV block is a class III indica- associated with a short life expectancy. tion for pacing. The one exception to this recommen- dation is the asymptomatic patient with first-degree AV DDD AND DDDR MODES block, abnormal QRS axis due to left anterior or left posterior fascicular block, and neuromuscular disease.70 The DDD pacing mode prevents bradycardia and pro- Neuromuscular diseases such as myotonic dystrophy vides AV synchrony in patients with AV block. Although and Kearns-Sayre syndrome are associated with pro- less important for exercise-related increases in cardiac gressive AV block; since development of complete heart output, several studies have demonstrated that AV syn- block can be unpredictable, a permanent pacemaker is chrony is associated with improved symptoms at baseline justified. levels of activity. A large randomized study (UK-PACE) that compares the VVI and DDD pacing modes in eld- erly patients (older than 70 years old) with second- PACING MODE CHOICE degree or third-degree AV block has been reported.69 Three pacing modes (DDD, VDD, and VVI) can be Although the DDD pacing mode is the most complex, used to prevent bradycardia in patients with AV block most guidelines recommend this pacing mode in (Fig. 13-14). patients with AV block since it maintains AV synchrony regardless of the cause of the bradycardia. VVI AND VVIR PACING VDD AND VDDR MODES In the VVI or VVIR pacing mode, bradycardia is pre- vented, and if rate adaption is programmed “on,” the Although the DDD pacing mode provides AV synchrony, heart rate will increase with exercise. However, in nei- its use requires the presence of a separate atrial lead. ther of these pacing modes is AV synchrony present. Recently, a single lead that has both ventricular and atrial The importance of AV synchrony is controversial in electrodes has been developed; the ventricular elec- patients with AV block, since the main contribution to trodes are in direct contact with the right ventricular increased cardiac output with exercise is heart rate endocardium, while the atrial electrodes “float” in rather than AV synchrony, and the incidence of pace- the right atrium. When used with a pacemaker in the maker syndrome is lower in patients with AV block VDD pacing mode, this lead allows sensing of atrial compared with patients with sinus node dysfunction. activity and ventricular pacing. In the presence of However, it seems intuitively reasonable that in the normal sinus rates, AV synchrony is maintained using a presence of organized atrial activity, the VDD and DDD less complex system. However, if sinus bradycardia pacing modes are most appropriate. In fact, since the develops, AV synchrony is lost since the atria cannot be early 1990s the British Pacing and Electrophysiology paced (see Fig. 13-14).

Sinus pause

AV block FIGURE 13-14 Responses of various modes in a patient with complete atrioventricular (AV) block and a sinus pause. First row, Baseline rhythm strip before pacing shows complete heart block. In addition, there is a sinus pause. VVI mode Second row, Same strip with a pacing system in the VVI pac- ing mode. Bradycardia is prevented, but AV synchrony is not present. Third row, In the VDD pacing mode, atrial activity is sensed by the pacemaker (*), which initiates the AVI AVI AVI A–V interval and maintains AV synchrony. However, when a VDD mode sinus pause occurs, since the atria are not paced, ventric- ular pacing occurs, and AV synchrony is lost. Fourth row,

In the DDD pacing mode AV synchrony is maintained AVI regardless of the cause of bradycardia. When a sinus pause AVI AVI AVI Ap occurs, an atrial stimulus (Ap) is provided. DDD mode 246 Cardiac Rhythms and Arrhythmias

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