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Towards a Deeper Understanding of Daily Prayer in Fourth-Century Cappadocia

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Towards a Deeper Understanding of Daily Prayer in Fourth-Century Cappadocia Worshiping with Angels – Towards a Deeper Understanding of Daily Prayer in Fourth-Century Cappadocia Submitted by John Graham Field to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Theology, July 2017. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. John Graham Field 1 Abstract Fourth-century Cappadocia was a pivotal time and place for the Christian church. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the development of the daily office of prayer within that context. The comparative methodology of Anton Baumstark is examined in some detail, as is the proposal by Paul Bradshaw that liturgical scholars should adopt the her- meneutics of suspicion. Based on the latter, a methodology for the analysis of texts is derived from the socio-rhetorical exegesis of Vernon K. Robbins. The idea, formerly current, that the daily office derived from synagogue worship, is examined in the light of modern scholarship and shown to be fallacious. Other influences from Judaism and paganism are, however, found but these are seen to be at a fundamental level. A major movement in fourth-century Christianity was the development of monas- ticism in which the Cappadocian Fathers, particularly Basil of Caesarea, played an important part. The out-dated belief that monasticism originated in the Egyp- tian desert, from where Basil adopted it, is examined in the light of recent schol- arship and rejected. Instead, existing Anatolian monastic practice, and the influ- ence of Basil’s sister Macrina must be acknowledged, with the consequence that the daily office of Cappadocian monastics is seen to have developed from do- mestic prayer. Two major texts from Basil are examined. His so called ‘Longer Rule’ provides a scheme of daily prayer times which has had major influence. His letter number 207 has been seen as a description of an all-night vigil for a Cathedral congrega- tion, but in-depth analysis shows that this is a monastic dawn service. Evening prayer, and in particular the lamp-lighting hymn known as Phōs Hilaron, is considered. Two distinct Christian lamp-lighting ceremonies are identified. Var- ious proposed origins are examined with the conclusion that in the case of the Phōs Hilaron, a domestic origin is most likely. Finally, particular aspects of the Cappadocian Fathers’ theology of worship are examined, demonstrating a strong eschatological theme. 2 Contents Abbreviations 6 1. Introduction 1.1 General Introduction 7 1.2 Background 9 1.3 Sources 18 1.4 The State of Study. 21 1.5 Outline of dissertation: research aims and their relation to previous scholarship 25 Part I – Methods and Backgrounds for Understanding Daily Prayer 2. Methodological Considerations in Liturgical Study. 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Anton Baumstark and Comparative Liturgy 36 2.3 The comparative method - a brief history 42 2.4 Can the Organic Model apply to cultural studies? 45 2.5 Paul Bradshaw’s Observations on Methodology 50 2.6 The hermeneutics of suspicion and socio-rhetorical exegesis. 55 3. The Question of Jewish Influence on Early Christian Worship 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 The Temple. 70 3.3 The Essenes 73 3.4 The Synagogue. 76 3.5 Synagogue origins 77 3.6 The Liturgy of Synagogue / Proseuchē 84 3.7 Synagogue Study of Scripture 85 3.8 Synagogue Prayer before 70 CE 87 3.9 Synagogue Prayer after 70 CE 89 3.10 Liturgical Poetry 93 3.11 Psalmody 93 3.12 Worship in the New Testament. 96 3.13 Conclusions 107 4. Possible Pagan Influence on Early Christian Worship 4.1 Introduction 110 4.2 Pagan Domestic Prayer 110 4.3 Roman Religion 113 4.4 What is Common to Pagan Practice? 117 4.5 Greco-Roman Prayer 118 4.6 Conclusions 127 5. Monasticism and its Beginnings in Fourth Century Cappadocia 3 5.1 Introduction 130 5.2 The Older Understanding of Monastic Development 131 5.3 Urban Asceticism 135 5.4 Idle Beggars 141 5.5 Pontus and Cappadocia 150 5.6 Eustathius of Sebaste and Ascetic Extremism 153 5.7 Macrina 154 5.8 Basil – The Legitimization of the Ascetic Life 157 Part II – Understanding the Cappadocian Office in its Context 6. Monastic Life in Pontus and Cappadocia. 6.1 Introduction 161 6.2 Macrina – The Growth of an Ascetic Life 164 6.3 Basil – The Organisation of Ascetic Life 171 6.4 The Life of Psalmody 177 6.5 A Psalmodic Movement 180 7. The Times of Prayer 7.1 Introduction 182 7.2 Origen 182 7.3 Tertullian 186 7.4 Cyprian 189 7.5 Apostolic Constitutions 191 7.6 The Desert Monastic Office of Upper Egypt 195 7.7 The Desert Monastic Office of Lower Egypt – The Evidence of Cassian 203 7.8 Times of Prayer in Basil’s Asceticon, Translation. 207 7.9 Times of Prayer in Basil’s Asceticon, Discussion 212 7.10 Conclusions 221 8. Dawn Prayer 8.1 Introduction 223 8.2 The Antiphon 224 8.3 Scholarly Perceptions of Letter 207 229 8.4 Basil, Letter 207: To the Clergy of Neocaesarea, Translation. 231 8.5 Basil to the Clergy of Neocaesarea, A Socio-rhetorical Reading 235 8.6 The Basis of Conflict 238 8.7 Points of Contention – ‘Citizens of Heaven’ 240 8.8 Points of Contention – ‘Psalms’ 244 8.9 Points of Contention – ‘A Manner of Singing’ 251 8.10 An All-Night Vigil? 255 8.11 Conclusions 264 4 9. Prayer in the Evening 9.1 Introduction 266 9.2 The Lighting of Lamps in Pontus and Cappadocia 266 9.3 Phōs Hilaron 268 9.4. Other Christian Lamp-Lighting Ceremonies 274 9.5 The Origin Question - Pagan Light Cult? 281 9.6 The Origin Question - Jewish Lamp-Lighting ? 286 9.7 The Origin Question – Conclusions 291 9.8 The Angel of Peace 295 9.9 The Structure of Evening Prayer 299 9.10 Conclusions 300 10. Towards an Understanding of Cappadocian Theology of Prayer and Worship 10.1 Introduction 302 10.2 Origen – Right Attitudes and Divine Omniscience 303 10.3 Basil – Tradition of Praxis, Tradition of Doctrine 310 10.4 Gregory of Nyssa – the Psalms as a way of life. 319 10.5 Worshipping with Angels 322 11. Overall Conclusions 330 Bibliography 332 5 Abbreviations CSEL Corpus Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum GNO Gregorii Nysseni Opera. Hors. Reg. Regulations of Horsiesios. Inst. Rule of Pachomius: Precepts and Institutes JPS The Jewish Publication Society, Hebrew-English Tanakh. Jud. Rule of Pachomius: Precepts and Judgements Leg. Rule of Pachomius: Precepts and Laws LXX The Septuagint. NIV The New International Version of the Bible in English. NRSV The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible in English. PG Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Graeca of J-P Migne. PGM Papyri Graecae Magicae, or Geek Magical Papyri. PL Patrologia Cursus Completus, Series Latina of J-P Migne. Pr Rule of Pachomius: Precepts. LR Longer Rule, or Great Asceticon of Basil of Caesarea. VSM Vita Sanctae Macrinae, Gregory of Nyssa’s Life of Saint Macrina. 6 1. Introduction The aim of this thesis is to achieve a deeper understanding of daily prayer in fourth century Cappadocia. In order to do this, it asks two broad questions: I. What context does one need to grasp in order to understand the Cappodocian evidence about prayer? and II. What can one establish about the practice, nature, origins and significance of daily prayer from our Cappodocian sources? The first question, treated in Part I, relates both to issues of scholarly method and to questions about the ancient context. The chapters in Part II answer the second question. Here, we will first discuss terminology, before sketching out the Cappadocians’ background, introducing our main sources, indicating the status quaestionis and giving an overview of the structure of the whole thesis. 1.1 General Introduction The customary understanding of the phrase Divine Office is that it refers to Christian daily prayer conforming to a regular pattern and distinct from what might be called ‘sacramental’ worship.1 Since it provides a pattern of prayer at particular times of day, scholars have also called it the Daily Office or the Liturgy of the Hours. An office is usually perceived as essentially communal in nature and this continues to be the case even though a single individual might pray it. As such, it is of a more or less formal character specified by some sort of authority, as its name implies. The term ‘office’ is also sometimes used for a single component service of the daily scheme but, in order to avoid confusion, it is preferable to use the terms ‘service’ or ‘synaxis’. The latter originally referred to any assembly or gathering but now, more usually, to a single element of the daily office.2 This definition excludes individual prayer of a personal nature and group worship organised on a spontaneous basis. This is why we follow other scholars in preferring the term ‘daily office’, rather than ‘daily prayer’. However, we are concerned here with a period when offices were developing from diverse earlier worship practices and, as we shall see, questions surrounding that development are contentious. It is thus neither possible nor desirable to draw strict boundary lines separating private, family, or communal prayer, nor the earliest versions of 1 Paul F Bradshaw, ‘Daily Prayer’ in Paul F Bradshaw (ed), The New SCM Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship, (London: SCM Press, 2002) 140.
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