ARCTIC PLANT COMMUNllTY - SOIL ASSOCJATIONS MAPPING USING SPOT IMAGERY: TRUELOVE LOWLAND, DEVON ISLAND, N.W.T.

by Steve Guillemette

Graduate Program in ~PP~Y

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Faculty of Graduate Studies The University of Western Ontario London, Ontario January 1998

0 Steve Guillemette 1998 National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1*m of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Weiiingtoci Street 395. rue Wellington OttawaON K1AW Ottawa ON KiA ON4 Canada Canada

The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/fih, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.

The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor subsîantid extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation, A plant community - soil associations mode1 is created to assist in the making of plant w~munity- soi1 maps using SPOT satellite imagery of the Truelove Lowland, Devon Island, N.W.T. Investigations of associations are done in samphg sites dong toposequences. The vegetation is classified according to plant communities modïed from Muc and BLiss (1977) and Svoboda (1977). The CdanSystem for Soi1 Classincation (C. S.S.C., 1992) was used to classe soils to the Subgroup level. The satellite data was simplified using a supeMsed classification and two band combinations were used to define plant cornmunities and associatesi soils. Pixel by pixel accwacy assessrnent was also performed on final maps. Resulting associations were found to be predictable in weil- drained and poorly-drained conditions, but less predictable when classified in terms of landscape components. Two maps were produced at a scale of 1:25000. This methodology can be used to efficiently map plant comunities and mils in areas where such associations exist.

Keywords: plant-soi1 associations, SPOT satellite imagery, High Arctic oasis, Tmelove Lowland, Devon Island, N. W.T. Genuine thanks to my advisor, Dr. Roger H. King. His patience, respect and advice were always appreciated while his special sense of humor and spontaneous French expressions are forever good memones. Merci Roger, you have been the perfect advisor and fnend! Thank you îo Dr. C.M. Pearce, Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, who provided the preprocessed SPOT imagery for the study ara and in this way made this thesis possible. Financial support for field studies in the Truelove Lowland were provided by Northem Scientific Training Program gants. Logistical support was provided by the Polar Continentid Shelf Project and base camp faciiities were supplied by the Arctic Institute of North Arnerica. The Science Institute of the Northwest Territories granted the scientific research pexmit . Soi1 lab analyses were pefiormed with the help of a number of lab assistants: Bryan Watson and Barb Armstrong. Cindy Blacklock, the soii technician, was very helpful. Thank you, Cindy! Anglo-Franco culture discussions were great! Jithe field, thanks to Jeff Rogers and LeeAnn Fishback. Thank you to Dr. Brian Luckrnan for granting me a research assistant job on my first visit to the campus in February 1994. Everything started from there.

Merci beaucoup a toute ma fdeet arni(e)s. Particulierement, à mes parent, Claude et Aline, et mon fière, Charles. Votre support moral fit très apprécié. Finalement, cette Maitrise aurais été impossible sans toi, Elizabeth. Merci du fond du coeur pour la correction de chaque page (142), les conseils "scientifiques" et sunout pour ton support et amour inconditionelle. Je t'aime. TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF FXAMINATION ABSTRACT ACKNOWIXDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER I= INTRODUCTION

2.0 Introduction 2.1 CIimate 2.2 Sudcial geology and tiistory of the landscape development 2.3 Plant wrnrnunities 2.4 Soils 2.4.1 Arctic soi1 c~~cationand mapping problems 2.4.2 The Cryosolic soil ûrderl 2.4.3 Soi1 mapping in the Truelove Lowiand 2.5 Plant wmrnunity - mil association^ 2.6 Concluding statement

CHAPTER III: DEVELOPMENT OF A PREDICTlVE MODEL OF PLANT COMMuNIIY- SOIL ASSOCIATIONS

3 .O Introduction 3.1 Field methods 3.1 .O Introduction 3.1.1 Study area 3.1.2 Sarnpling site locations 3.1.3 Sampling method 3.2 Labotatory methods 3.3 Results and diScussion of relaîionships beîween plant comrnunities and soils 3.4 A plant community - soi1 assoCiations mode1 3.5 Concluding statement CHAPTER IV= METHODOLOGY OF SENSXNG AND MAPPRïG PLANT COMlMUNITY - SOIL ASSOCIATIONS 4.0 Iutroduction 4.1 ûutline of the basic steps in mapphg plant CO& - soi1 assoCiations 4.2 Materials 4.3 Image preprocessing 4.4 Image enbaocanad 4.5 Image transforms and results 4.6 Image classification 4.6.1 Prelioiinary classification and gnxnad truthing 4.6.2 Supgvised ckdïc8tion and mappiag ara 4.7 &el by pkd ecairacy essessmeot of the ciassified images 4.8 Concluding staternent

CHAPTER V: GROUNI) TRUTEIING OF THE SPOT SATEIJiITl3 IMAGERY 62 5.0 Introduction 62 5.1 Laboraiory methods 62 5.2 Field methods 64 5.3 Multi-spectral irnagery and deconsiderations 64 5.4 Desaiption ami discussion of visually recognisable gromd covers 65 5.5 Concluding statement 70 CHAPTER VI: SELECHON AND INVESTIGATION OF IMAGERY SPETriR CIASSES

6.0 Introduction 71 6.1 Methodology of the sefection of image classes and di& training samples 71 6.1.1 Selection of image classes 71 6.1-2 Training samples 72 6.2 ùivestigaiion of the spechal values of the nine classes 75 6.3 Concluding statement 77 CHAPTEX VIL PRODUCTION OF PLANT CO-- SOIL ASSOCIATIONS MAPS 7.0 Introduction 7.1 Results of the supervised classifications 7.2Discussion 7.3 Concluding statement

CHAPTlER VIII: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 90 8.1 The investigation of plant wrnmunity - soi1 associations 90 8.2 The capabilities of SPOT for mapping plant community - mil assoCiations 91 8.3 The production of plant commuoity - soi1 aSSOciations maps 92 8.4 Recommendations for fûture research 93 APPENDIX 1 The Cryosoiic soil ciassincation 96

APPENDIX 2 Sarnpling site descriptions 97

APPENDIX 3 Chanid and physical soi1 data for samphg sites 115

APPENDM 4 Laboratory soi1 analyses 124

APPENDM 5 Assessrnent of the necessity of the carbonate rernoval pretreatment for the Particle Size Analysis

APPENDM 6 Information on topographie grid survey of the Truelove Lowland 129 APPENDM 7 Detailed information on control points used for geometric correction 130

APPENDM 8 Location of J. Rogers' plant community transect two (in progress) on a geocorrected false color image of the Truelove Lowland 131

APPENDIX 9 Raw Spectral data of nine land cover classes in four bands: green-red-near idkared and green-red-stretch near infhred 132

APPENDM 10 SupeMsed classification results with the moist humrnocky sedge-moss meadow class

APPENDIX 11 Recladcation of the superviseci classification of G-R-NIR into map showing the extent of macro scale cryoturbated soüs in the study area 134

REFERENCES CITED 135

'Worthem Canada U unlikely to becorne the home of millions of people, but it is the dominant areai components of the country and for reasons of political sovereignty, enwonmental protection, and social and economic good, it is necessary to know its naîure."

-Dey and Richards (198 1, p.70) LIST OF TABLES

TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE

Major and rninor plant co~nmunitiesof the Tmelove Lowland 11

Docurnented soils in the Truelove Lowland 20

Soils and vegetation relationships on the Alaskan Arctic Slope 23

Soils and vegetation relationships in the vicinity of Howard Pass, Alaska

Correlation of plant communities and soil subgroups in the Truelove Lowland by Walker and Peters ( 1977)

Results of examination of plant communities and mils almg the West Phalarope Lake transect

Results of examination of plant communities and soils dong the East Phalarope Lake transect

Results of examination of plant communities and soils dong the East Fish Lake transect

Results of examination of additional sampling sites 40

Correlation table of plant communities - Cryosolic soi1 associations in sampling sites

Associations of plant cornmunities and soi1 subgroups arranged acwrding to moishire gradients on the study area according to sampling sites examinations 43

Cornparison between Walker and Peters (1 977) and plant cornmunity - soi1 associations identifiai in this project 45

Results fiom the Ground Tmthing of the SPOT false color image 66

Land cover classes sampling size and the spectral bands used for tracing the polygons

Legend of both G-R-NIRand G-R-SNIR maps 79 TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE

7.2 Results of the superviseci classification using two combinations of bands 82

7.3 Correlation and acauacy assessrnent dong a pronle between field vegetation cornrnunity units (Rogers, in progress) and classified plant cornmunities 84

7.4 Adjusted areal extent (%) cumparison, between previous plant cornmunity maps of the Truelove Lowland and plant cornmunity rnaps produd in this study 87 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE

2.1 Location of the Truelove Lowland, Devon Island, N. W.T.

2.2 Pattern of plant cornmunities in relation to a raised beach and adjacent meadow

2.3 Pattern of plant communities in relation to a granite rock outcrop and adjacent slope and rneadow

2.4 Mapping scale and type of soii survey

2.5 The Cryosolic Order

2.6 Diagram of six major types of soi1 development in the Truelove Lowland

3.1 Photographs showing a typical raised beach toposequence and its landform components

3 -2 The plant comrnunity - soil associations study area

3 -3 Location of sampling sites in the Tnielove Lowland

3 -4 Sarnpling sites location within landform components dong the three rai& beach toposequences in the Truelove Lowland

3.5 Photographs showing the sharp change in plant comrnunity and soi1 conditions between the meadow and the raised beach lower foreslope

3 -6 Plant wrnmunity - soi1 associations mode1 dong an idealised raised beach toposequence in the Truelove Lowland

4.1 SpectraI reflectance of Earth-suface materials associated with SPOT bands

4.2 Schematic representation of the manipulations of the satellite imagery

4.3 The plant community - soi1 associations mapping area

5.1 Ceocorrected false-wlor of the Truelove Lowland 63 FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE

6.1 Location of tralliing sarnple polygons on the geocorrected false color image of the Truelove Lowland 73

6.2 Spectral plots for vegetated ground cover training samples radiance data on the Truelove Lowland, July 29, 1989 76

7.1 Geocomected image resuiting fiom the SUpe~dclassification of SPOT'S green, red, and near-infiareci band images 80

7.2 Geocorrected image resulting nom the supewised classi£kation of SPOT'S green, red, and stretch near-infiared band images 81 1. Research contert Can a new application be ddoped, using satellite LMgery to &ciently and accurate1y map arctic tundra plant codesand soils at the metime? In this thesis, it d be shown that associafions betweai plant ammunifies and sob can be dete-ed, modeled and mapped, based only on the recognition of plant communities, as a test area, on SPOT satellite imagery using the Truelove Lowland, Devon Island, N.W.T.. Scientists have long recognised the Iùik between the distri'bution of arctic plants and soils. Furthemore, a link also exist between the distributions of arctic plants, arctic mils, and arctic landscape features. In this thesi$ linked plant comrnunities and mil types are identifid as plant community - soii associations. The choice of satellite irnagery over aerial photography in this study was based on the competency of the itnagery and automateci image classification technique in sensing and c1-g tundra plant cornmunifies. Moreover, cm the Arctic) '"because of the vast am, difEcult field conditions, rernoteness, and sparseness of the human poptdatio~it would appear that the most signifiant understanding, and certainly the only repetitive large area surveillance, can be achieved solely through the interpcetation of rernotely sensed data using satellite irnagery and compter-assistai analysis" (Dey and Richards, 198 1, p.70). New mapping studies seeking to delineate more than dace features could benefit ffom plant cornmunity - soil associations mapping. In the years to corne, plant cornrnunities and soils d come even more under the &y of scientists and the public, as Arctic environmentai issues, such as climate change, land use, native land claims, development, and environmental damage emerge. In relatively wann climates, it is well known that the recognition of the plant species provides dues as to the nahire of the underiying substrates. In the Arctic, this relationship is also known and is predictable. As Lev (1996, p. 154) points out, "examination of the plant cover of the soil hdps to discaii and explain the rmderiying soil vaciabiiitf'. While most studies look at the dation between plant and soil hman edaphic point of view (Drew and Shank, 1965; Walmsley and Lav)ailicb, 1975a,b; Miller and AIpert, 1984; MArbn et al., 1989; Gros et aL, 1990), this study is interesteci in the codaiion between arctic tundra plant - soi1 associations. Depiction of aSSOCiâtions betweai the type of soii and the type of arctic tundra plant community has been doamemted on the Alaskan Arctic Slope and in the Truelove Lowland, Devon Island. However, the work on the Arctic Slope (Tedrow and Cantlon, 1958; MacNarnara, 1%4) used both plant @es and genetic soi1 classifications that were inappropriate, as it did not recognise large sale and small scale variations of plant and soil conditions (Lm, 1996) and the presence of fiost-disairbed so5. Moreover, the resulting studies daimed that the predictability of associafions was poor in poorly-drained conditions. In the Truelove Lowland (High Arctic), with nmilar plant-soi1 conditions as Law Arctic (King, 1995), a more appropriate classification systern has been used to relate rnacro- and micro-de variations of plant cornrnmity and soi1 associations, including the presence of 603-dishirbed =ils (Walker, 1976; Walker and Peters, 1977). Associations were mapped using the plant community concept (patterns of vegetation) as dehed by Bliss (1977) for vegetation classification and using the Canadian Soil Classification System and the pedon concept for soi1 classification (Canadian Soi1 Survey Committee (C. S. S.C.), 1992). The resulting associations were again found to be predictable, but les so in pooriy drained areas. However, no mention of Wonzones between associations was made in their work This thesis will examine the accwacy of the associations proposed by Walker and Peters (1977). To better descni the associations, a modined version of the Muc and Bliss (1977) and Svoboda (1977) classification of plam communities is used, together with the Canadian Soit classification System (C.S.S.C., 1992). In addition, the present study will consider ail plant community - mil associations in the study area, by using sampling sites located dong tnuisects and in locations ofparticular interest. The Truelove Lowland was selected as a test site for several reasons. First., the highly diversifid soiis and associateci plant cornmunities provide the variability required for the present catr'bration and mapping exercise. Seand, the intensive research that has occurred ldyduring the last 30 years, especdy on sob (King, 1%9; Walker, 1976; Waiker and Peters, 1977; Som, 1988; Kdly, 1989; Som 1991; Kelly and King, 1995; luschkm 1995; Lw, 1996), plant communities (Muc and BLiss, 1977; Svoboda, 1977; Muc, 1977; Pearce, 1991)), and the study of plant codty- soil associations (Walker, 1976;Walka and Peters, 1977) provides a foundaîion for mepping plant community and soil dations. Moreover, the oppomuiity to use the Truelove Lowland base camp f2icilities of the Arctic InstiMe of North America (A1.N.A) made this study logisticaUy possible. Sampling sites dong toposequences and other specitic locations were selected to examine the nature of the plant mmmunïty - mil asochiions in both well and pdydrained conditions. Speci£ic samphg sites were also investigated within traosition u~esbetween assoaations to ver@t the location of hundaries. Traditionally, high arctic vegetation and mil mapping exercises have involved exiensive field work with long sesions of aeriai photo-interpretation (Muc, 1977; Waiker, 1977; King, 1969). This research is a prelinrinary attempt at using satellite imagery to recognise, at a sale of 1:25000, arctic plant communities, and to mfer soi1 type based on associations. Moreover, the satellite data combined with information on the piant community - soil associations in the shidy area wili be used to Unprove maps meated by Muc (1 977) and Pearce (199 1). The use of satellite imagery, very popular in the Arctic for environmental monitoring, has just begun to be appiied to mapping tundra hab'bts of muskox, watdowi, and shorebïuds (Fek and Binney, 1989; Ferguson, 1991; Pearce, 1991; Markon and Derksen, 1994; Gratto-Trevor, 1996; Momson, 1997). Although the multi-spectral capabiities of the irnagery clearly aiiow recognition of different plant cornmunifies, the acairacy of the computer-assisted classification is still questionable because of the lack of acavdcy assessments and the nature of the accuracy aSSeSSments. However, producing a final map at the sale of 1:25ûûû of only plant cornmunifies using satellite imagery in the study area would be a near-sighted way of looking at the landscape. A field donof plant comrnunity - soil associations in the study area dows the present mapping exercise to artend its view to include both plant mmrnunities and associated soils, and to produce a plant community - soi1 model. In this way, in a selected mapping area that encompasses ail plant communities present in a plant community - soil association model plant cornmunifies wiii be sensed and classified, and existing soil associations may be inckided in the kgend. A pixel by pixel acwacy assessment will be carried out for the ~Iassifiedplant communities, in order to prode a pom'ble new methodology in acauacytestuig.

1.2 Shidy objectives Three major objectives are central to solving the research question posed in this saidy. The first major objenive is to undertake an investigation of macro-scale arctic tundra plant wmmunities, soils, and theu association in a representative part of the Truelove Lowland. The minor objectives that satisQ this objective are: a. to examine classification and mapping of the Lowland's plant communities and soils; b. to examine the plant community - mil associations in the Truelove Lowland; c. to derive a predictive mode1 of plant comrnunities and associateci soi1 conditions in the Lowland. The second major objective is to ascertain the capabüities of SPOT multi-spectral imagery to recognke plant cornrnunities and to identw the plant communities to be used in defïning plant community - soi1 associations. The minor objdves that satie this objective are: a to ground ththe SPOT satellite imagery obtained for the Truelove Lowland; b. to iden- and characterise digital training samples of chosen plant cornmunifies in the Lowland; c. to establish a disaimmating spectral signature for each of the identifid plant cornmunifies in the Lowland. The third major objective is to produce composite plant community - soi1 associations maps using satellite imagery in accordance with the previously derived plant cornrnunity-mil aSSOciations rnodel. The minor objectives that this objective are: a to use a supenised cMcation and two combinations of spectral bands; b. to determine the accuracy of the resulting maps and to recommend the best cornbidon of spectral bands for general use. 13 Thesis orgniution The thesis coosists of eight chapters. Chapter II examines the Truelove Lowland ecosystem. Climate, surficial geology and history of the landscape development are described, foilowed by a discussion of the previously mapped plant cornrnunities, soils, and observed plant community - soil associations. Chapter III investigates the associations between every plant community and soiî type in the study area. A predictive mode1 is created. Chapter N outlines the basic steps invoIved in the sensing and classiwg of plant comonioity - mil aSSOciatiofl~using SPOT irnagery adcornputer image processing techniques. Ciaapter V examines the visual reconnaissance (gound tnithing) of the Mse color imagay in the Tnielove Lowiand. Chapter VI evaiuates the spectral separability of seiected imageiy classes. Chapter W discusses the use of SPOT knagery for mapping plant cornmut&y - mil classes and assases its acairacy. Chapter Vm contains the conclusions and recommendations for fuhire shidy. CBAPTER II

THE TRUELOVE LOWLAND ECOSYSTEM

2.0 Introduction In the High Arctic or Polar Desert zone (Tedrow, 1973), soi1 and vegetation have the reputation of being poorly developeû. This is generally due to a number of causes: the presence of a relatively young parent material as a consequence of relatively recent continental deglaciation, a substrate with continuous pemafkost, a harsh arctic chate, and poor drainage. However, within these regions, areas called High Arctic "oases" are found. They are characterised by nurnerous lakes and ponds, a warmer micro-clirnate, and a relatively high biological productivity (Bliss, 1977). The Truelove Lowland, Devon Island (75" 33N, 84' 40'W) (Figure 2.1) is one nich area where vegetation cover is extensive, mils are relatively well developed and distinctive plant comrnunity - soi1 associations exist. The Truelove Lowland was chosen as a major study site for the International Biologicai Program (IBP) (Bliss, 1977). It is the third largest of five coastal lowiands dong the north shore of Devon Island, created by poa-glacial rebound foliowing ice retreat. The Lowland is a low-lying area isolateci on the north, west, and part of the south side by shoreline (24 km). On the eastem and southern sides, two steep cliffs rise 200-300 meters to a barren plateau that lads 17-20 kilometers inland to the Devon Ice Cap. The Lowland landscape contains more than 500 water bodies (Bliss, 1977). including three major lakes (Immerk Lake, 96 ha; Phalarope Lake, 155 ha; Fish Lake, 101 ha) that comprise 22% of the area of the Truelove Lowland. The other 78% of the landscape can be generally described as a senes of roihg hills, which are in fact raised beaches, and some rock outcrops in the northem and the south-eastern part of the Lowland. The Lowland is located in the continuous permafrost zone, with a permafrost thickness of at least 21 1 meters (Brown, 1977). The surface marine and lacustrine sediments are covered with a variety of pattemed ground features. FIGURE 2.1 Location of Truelove Lowland, Devon Island, N.W.T. 2.1 Climate AU the polar regions have Surface weather systems causeci by the cold-cored ciraunpolar vortex, which creates low precipitation and low temperatures. This vortex is strongest in the winter and weakens in the summer, producing low precipitation in the warmer season when cyclones of the arctic fiontal belt traverse the Tmelove Lowland (Courtin and Labine, 1977). Although no long-term weather records exist for Devon Island, a nearby weather station at Resolute Bay shows annual mean temperatures of - 16.2 OC and a mean annual precipitation of 130 milheters. In local terms, for 10 months of the year (Courtin and Labine, 1977), the island's surrounding water remains fiozen, leading to minimal evaporation and precipitation. On Truelove Lowland there are distinctive, highly diversified vegetation and soii conditions (plant cornmunity - soi1 associations) that could not exist at these high latitudes without the presence of a relatively wann micro-climate. From micro-climatological studies, Courtin and Labine (1977) suggest that the relatively wami climate of the Truelove Lowland is probably due to the heating and sheltering of the surrounding cWs. Most of the ciimate data consists of daily weather reports from the local base camp in the surnrner seasons dating back to 1960 (Ng,1996). King (1969) noted a mean annual air temperature of -15.9°C, which is higher than at Resolute Bay. Sumrner temperatures varied between 2.8 to 9.5 OC during four summers starting in 1970 (Courtin and Labine, 1977). The precipitation in the Truelove Lowland is considerably higher than that recorded at weather stations near Devon Island. The total annual precipitation was estimatecl to be about 185mm (30% liquid) by Rydén (1977) on the Truelove Lowland in the years of 1970 to 1973. The snowmelt usuaiiy begins in late May to early June and is generaliy complete over most of the Lowiand by July (Kelly, 1989; Ng, 1W6), while snow precipitation usually begins in late August or early September (Rydén, 1977).

2.2 Surficiai geology and histoy of the landscape development The geologic stratigraphy of the ara is charactensed by two main units (Krupicka, 1977): the older unit is a Precambrian cornplex of grandites and granitic gneiss, while the younger is a composed of Cambnan dolomites. To the east of the Truelove Lowland, the escarpment and plateau is formed rnainly of 180-200 meters of dolomite, underlain by the Precambrïan basement complex The dolomitic plateau's slopes are mostly covered with talus materiai, due to its susceptibility to erosion. The escarpment to the south is composed of the Precambrian cornplex. Most of the Luwland is mantied with Pleistocene deposits. In addition, some Precambrian rock outcrops are present dong the northem wast, at the mouth of the Guily river, and dong the lower Truelove Vaiiey. Dolomite outcrops on Rocky Point. Previous research indicates that the coastai lowlands were fonned by post glacial- rebound following ice retreat in the late Pleistocene (Law, 1987). With uplifi, lagoons were cut off fkom the sea by offshore bars. The offshore bars formed beach ridges and the lagoons eventuaiiy became shailow lakes and ponds. The marine limit has been located by King (1991) at 86 meters and emergence began approximately 10300 years ago (Law, 1987). The three major lakes in the Lowland were fonned during coastal emergence, as weU as some smaller bains including Loon Lake, Swamp Lake and the Beschel Lakes system, as weil as hundreds of ponds. in this way, the Truelove Lowland is mantled by a senes of marine deposits, wnsisting of a sequence of approximately twenty well-drained raiseci beaches and adjacent lacustrine deposits that are now poorly-drained meadows, and hundreds of water bodies (Figure 2.1). The raised marine deposits comprise stratified sands, gravels, and mixtures of sand and grave1 (Walker and Peters, 1977). Between the raised beaches, the low-lying meadows are characterized by undifferentiated lacustrine material which is generaliy moderately coarse-textureci, with occasional silty textures (Walker, 1976). With time, there has been weak soil development in the meadows and faster soil development on the better drained beach ridges. No longer under water, the marine and lacustrine parent materials became exposed to the fkigid high arctic clirnate and developed surface periglacial pattemed ground feahues. The periglacial features on the Lowland are present in ail forms and have been mapped by King (1969) according to Wasburn's (1956) classification. The most cornrnon features belong to the "nonsorted nets" category, which encompasses mudboils, vegetation nets (dry or inundated), earth hummocks, peat hummocks, and thufiirs (Washbum, 1956). Aiso present in the Lowland are "sorted polygons" and "nonsorted polygons", which include ice wedge fissure polygons and dessicated polygons respectively. The moa impressive example of the presence of a periglacial environment is the ice-cored, polygonated peat plateau (200 m S-W of the A1.N.A base camp) studied by Somr (1991).

2.3 Plant communities In the Tmelove Lowland, the complex mosaic of plant communities has been classifieci (Muc and Bliss, 1977) and mapped (Muc, 1977) and has been depicted in detail by Svoboda (1977) on raised beaches. To accommodate for the extreme diversity and variation of vegetation cover at both smd and large scales, Muc and Bliss (1977) identifieci many plant communities based on plant species composition, where a particular percentage of surface cover of the plant species in a square meter was recognised . In the Lowland, Muc (1977) mapped most recognisable plant comrnunities at a sale of 1: 15000, based on the interpretation of aerial photographs and the "ground tmthing" of air photos at a scde of 15000. Sixteen plant communities were recognised on the basis of uniforni physiognomy (outward appearance). Because of the scale used, plant cornmunities could only be delineated if larger than approxhately 100 m2 on the ground which, for example, would exclude the recognition of plant communities in ice- wedge depressions and any ciifferences between upper slope and crest aishion plant-lichen plant cornmunities (Svoboda, 1977). The mapped plant cornmunities were described by Muc and Bliss (1977) in the Lowland (Table 2.1). However, only five major plant comrnunities were present in the study area (Table 2.1) and they were depicted according to their topographic relationship in two dominant environments, the "raised beach-adjacent meadow" (Figure 2.2) and the "granitic rock outcrop and adjacent slope and meadow" (Figure 2.3). These topographic variations are cornmon in the Arctic, as the local redistribution of moisture translates into clear community patterns (Zoltai and Johnson, 1979; Peterson and BiIlings, 1980; Miller and Alpert, 1984; Matthes-Sears et al., 1988). The raid beach - adjacent meadow mode1 TABLE 2.1 Major and Minor plant communities, general location, and their respective species composition in the Truelove Lowland (Muc and Bliss, 1977)

Major plant comrnunities General map % Minor plant communities General map % (dominant species) location area (dominant species) location area Hummocky seâge-moss meadow Meadow 20.5 Wet sedge-moss meadow Along streams and 2.1 Carex stans, Eriophorum augustifolium Carex stans, Drepnocladus revolvens ponds Frost-boil sedge-moss meadow Meadow 18.4 Raised centre ice-wdge polygon S-Wbase camp, >OS Eriophorum triste, Carex menbranacea Carex stans, Carex menbranacea East Beschel creek Dwarf shbheath-moss Precambrian rock 12.4 Hummocky graminoid meadow Near N-W and S-W N.A. Rhacomitrium luncrginosum, OU~C~O~S Arctagrostis latl/olia, Coast Casslope terragona Drepanocladus revolvens Cushion plant-moss Raised beach Mid 6.9 Graminoid-moss meadow East cliff face N. A. D~yasintegrofolia, and Lower dopes Luzula confusa, Hierochloe alpina Carex rupestris, Saxifraga Cushion plant-lichen Raised beach crests 5 Herb-moss snowbed Lee of rock N.A. Dvas integrifolla, Alectoria pubescens and upper slopes Phippsia algida, Bryum cryophilum outcrops FIGURE 2.2 General pattem of plant cornrnunities and soils in relation to a raised beach and an adjacent meadow (from Muc and Bk,1977; Fig.2)

Soi1 unit : Regmlic Brunisolic Gleysotic Glqsolic Sntic shc Staac - Turbtc -+ Cryosol to fibnc Cryosol Cryosol Cqd ûqpnoCryosol

FIGURE 2.3 General pattem of plant communities and soils in relation to a granitic rock outcrop and an adjacent meadow (from Muc and Bliss, 1977; Fig. 1)

tE In- -1 1 meadow Frost-boil sedge-moss meadow %il[nits: Littiic -+ Regosolic --, Gleywlic -Gleysolic Regmlic Smic Tuhic Cryml Turbic Satic Cryxal to Fibric Cryosol Cryosol olgmo Cryosol encompasses most of the major plant communities (4/5) found on the Truelove Lowland (Table 2.1) because of their large range of moime levels, soi1 conditions, and the large extent of raised beach - meadow toposequences. One apparent problem with the Muc (1 977) map, is that "Peat Plateaus" (Somr, 1991). labeled as "ice-wedge polygons", have not been mapped in detail. One evidence of this can be observed in Walker's (1976) soi1 map, where Teat Plateau" (Somr, 1991), labeled as "aishion plant-lichen to hummocky sedge-moss meadow" (encompassing the plant cornmunities found in these areas), is identified in many more locations than on the MUC(1977) rnap. Plant cornmunities of the Truelove Lowland were recently sampled by Pearce (1991) who detected "no major changes in the distribution of the plant communities, as mapped during the IBP studies" (p.52), even after 15 years. Using a different mapping technique, Pearce (1 99 1) mapped the Truelove Lowland plant comrnunities using SPOT imagery. The author was able to separate plant comrnunities (Muc and Bliss, 1977) using superviseci digital classification wmbined with ground truthing. Because the object of Parce's study was to delineate prime muskox habitats, only three plant communities were identified: hummocky sedge- moss meadows, fiost-boil sedge-moss meadows, and raised beach communities. The resulting rnap including plant communities and rock outcrops has an overall accuracy of 68%, not based on an areal coverage cornparison of plant communities with the Muc (1977) map. The use of multi-sensor satellite images and digital classification to map arctic tundra envkonrnents is not a new technique and has been used successtùliy by many scientists to rnap from 3 to 17 classes of land cover in the Low Arctic (Taniocai and Kristof, 1976; Feh and Binney, 1989; Ferguson, 1991; Markon and Derksen, 1994; Gratto-Trevor, 1996; Momson, 1997). This technique allows the recognition of difFerences in arctic tundra vegetation physiognomy (plant communities or habitats such as wet sedge meadow, moist sedge meadow, haophytic sedge-grass meadow, moist grass- sedge, dwarf shnib graminoid, mosdpeat, etc.). However, its effeaiveness is dependent by the wide variety of image ground resolutions and spectral sensors on board different satellite platfoms. Classifications were accomplished using satellite platfoms such as Landsat MSS (4 bands, 70 m ce1 resolution) and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) (7 bands, 30 m cell resolution) by Felk and Binney (1989) and Ferguson (1991), Gratto- Trevor (1995), and Morrison (1 997). However, the use of SPOT imagery (3 bands, 20 m celi resolution) as used by Pearce (1991) and Markon and Derksen (1994), with its improved ground resolution, has proven usefiil for identifjing large scale vegetahve ground wvers. The sale of satellite mapping is known to be more suitable for assessing plant comrnunities and habitats rather than the distribution of individual plant species. Although, relatively to Landsat plat6orms, SPOT'S high ground resolution and subsequently improved spatial mapping capabilities has been compared to small and medium scale air photographs (Butiner and Csiuag, 1989). However, SPOT lacks the spectral resolution of Landsat TM. Although the accuracy of arctic tundra vegetation mapping is still questionable because very few arctic studies have tested their mapping accuracy, the existing acairacy assessments are encouraging: broad mapping accuracy is on the order of 88% (Taniocai and Knstof, 1976) using Landsat MSS, and detded mapping accuracy is on the order of 87% with SPOT (Ferguson, 1991) and 90% with Landsat TM (Momson, 1997) when comparing the number of well classified pixels against the field training samples (error or confusion matrix). However, in these three studies, the accüracy of the plant cornrnunity classification can be misleading since water classes, which are usually classified usually with 10W accuracy, were incorporated into the total calculation of accuracy.

2.4 Soils 2.4.1 Arctic soil classification and mapping problems A number of problems have been expenenced when classifying and mapping soils in the Tundra, Subpolar Desert or Polar Desert zones. Fust, not only is there soil variabiiity at a macro-scde, such as dong raised beach catenas, but also at a micro-sale (Lw, 1996). in the Truelove Lowland, micro-scale variations wuld include ice-wedge fissure soils and variations in soi1 physical and chernical propenies between earth hummocks (Lw, 1996) caused by penglacial features and soi1 sensitivity to moisture conditions. In the Low Arctic, Tedrow and Cantlon (1958) explain that "minor regionai differences of climate have much less effèct on soil pattern than local micro-variations in drainsge"(p.172). W~thina distance of a meter, a wide spectrum of soi1 conditions and plant species is commoniy found in Point Barrow, Alaska wggins, 195 1). Thus, as suggested by Tedrow and Cantion (1 958), one meter soil variability is impossible to map at nomial soii survey scales, unless an abnorxnal scale of air photos is used (4500). However, this is not practical for a normal soi1 survey (sec Figure 2.4). Another arctic soil mapping problem in the past is related to the use of specific genetic soü classifications (Tedrow et al., 1958; Tedrow and Cantion, 1958; Drew and Tedrow, 1962; Tedrow and Brown, 1962; Brown and Tedrow, 1964). While they provideci a fiamework for separating soils based on development, they Failed to dxerentiate between cryoturbated and the non-cryoturbated soils, both common in the permafkosted areas. This differentiation is of major importance in the Tnielove Lowland, since cryoturbation is present in 50% of the Lowland soils (Walker, 1976). In order to incorporate the effects of cryoturbation in arctic soii classification, Drew and Tedrow (1962, p. 116), fiom work on the Alaskan Arctic Slope, proposed "that arctic soils be classifieci in terms of both genetic soi1 profle and the kind of the pattemed ground (e.g. type A: Arctic Brown with stone rings, type B.. .etc). However, the complexity of associating every pattemed ground features with every genetic soil was much too complicated to be of much use. Thus, King (1969) in the Truelove Lowland, and a number of other scientists working in dEerent locations, associated periglacial features with soi1 map units. Moreover, in order to avoid a mapping problem, they used mapping scales between '%eq detailed" to "reco~aissance"level (Figure 2.4): for example, Prince Patrick Island: Tedrow et ai. (1968); Inglefield Land, Greenland: Tedrow (1970); Lake Hazen camp area: Day (1964); Resolute Bay and Cornwallis Island: Cmickshank (1971); Okpilak River region, Alaska: Brown (1966). Another arctic soil rnapping problem is that the visual recognition of specific soils can be impossible: the obiiteration of the "nord" A-B-C sequence of horizons by cryoturbation within the active layer is a form of "cannibalisation" (Tedrow, 1968) that makes the soil classification and mapping difficult (James, 1970). as does the generally subdued level of pedogenesis in the Lowland (Kelly, 1989). In weli drained areas, Kelly (1989) found that on two raised beach crests, the identification of soils was dficult because of subdued development due to the relatively harsh climate at these sites. In poorly drained soils, soi1 identification is difndt due to the immature soi1 developrnent caused by the regionai chtecombinai with poor drauiage (Tedrow and Cantlon, 1958). As a result of the complexïty, of soil variability at micro and macro scale, the omnipresent cryoturbation, and the Mculty of visuai recognition, detailed arctic soi1 classification can only be achieved by a new classification system that would classe soils at an appropriated scale and that would recognise fiost processes.

2-4.2 The Cryosolic soi1 Order The Cryosolic Order was first introduced in 1973 by the Canadian Soil Survey Committee and wnsists of three Great Groups and nine Subgroups (Figure 2.5). At the Great Group level, this soi1 classification attempts to accommodate both the patterned ground/frost processes classification problem (with Turbic and Static) and at the Subgroup level it differentiates soils accordmg to degrees of development and the nature of the material (Brunisolic, Regosolic, Gleysolic, Organo) based on chernical and physical characteristics. Similarly, the use of the pedon concept by the Canadian Soil Survey Committee (1973) to some extent helped to overcorne the soi1 variation problems created by the presence of penglacial features. The pedon, as the smallest three dimensional unit of sot is particularly usehl in recognising the omnipresent cyclic variation of arctic soils in space and the extent of cryoturbation, and provides a fhnework within which to classifi pennafrosted mils at a pradcal mapping scale. In this way, the mapping problem created by micro-sale variations, can be overcome by detennining the spatial variability of contiguous groups of similar pedons called a polypedon.

2.4.3 Soil rnapping in the Truelove Lowland In the Tmelove Lmwland, the first attempt at mapping the soils was by King (1969) using the only available arctic soi1 classification at that tirne, that of Tedrow et al. (1 958). King identined four soi1 categones: "shallow", "weli drained", "poorly drained", FIGURE 2.5 The Cryosolic Order*

Cryosolic

GREAT Static Cryosol Turbic Cryosol Organo Cryosol GROUP

SUBGROUP Regosolic Brunisolic Gleysolic Regosolic Brunisolic Gleysolic Fibric Mesic Humic Static Static Static Turbic Turbic Turbic Organo Organo Organo Cryosol Cryosol Ciyosol Cryosol Cryosol Cryosol Cryosol Cryosol Cryosol

* See Appendix 1 for more details and "organic soilsn. To incorporate the ornnipresent periglacial features present in association with the soi1 units, a splt notation systern was used accordiig to the Washburn's classification (1956). Eleven soi1 units were identifiai at a sale of 15000 and used to produce a soi1 map at a sale of 1:20000. More recently, Walker (1976) (Walker, 1977) produced a soii composite map at the Subgroup level ushg what was then a tentative Cryosolic Order (C.S.S.C., 1973) "to overwme signifiant mapping problems" (Waker, 1976, p. 1). Detailed site study and air- photo (1 5000) interpretation was done to produce 24 map units at the sale of 1: 15000. In the legerd, map units were labeled with landscape features, such as parent materiai characteristics, texture, landfonn, drainage class, associated periglacial features, and associated vegetation. A spiit notation systern was used to combine map units with dope classes. Although the eight classes of soils in the Cryosolic Order were found in the Truelove Luwland (Table 2.2) (Walker, 1976), only six were of major extent (Figure 2.6). Walker (1976) relaxed the classification for organic and Brunisolic soils. For organic soils (Organo), he loosened the Cryosoiic Order thickness rules (>40cm) by recognising that organic soils lack a vertically continuous horizon within the active layer. To classify the Brunisolic Cryosols, he recognised that Bmnisolic features must be present over 6û% of the pedon. Regosolic Static Cryosol, Regosolic Turbic Cryosol, Bninisolic Static Cryosol, and Brunisolic Turbic Cryosol mapping units (moaly Polar desert soils accordiig to King, 1969) were found in weU drained areas on raised beach crests and slopes. In poorly drained meadows, map units encompassing Gleysolic Static and Turbic Cryosols (Tundra soils according to King (1969) and Organo Cryosols (Peat and Bog soils according to King (1 969)) were found. Walker (1 976) observed t hat cryoturbated Cryosols represent close to 50% of the Lowland meadows, and are Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols with frost-boil features.

2.5 Plant community - soil associations In the Arctic, after ctite, topography and its effect on drainage conditions (soil moisture) is generally believed to be the most important factor contributing to pedogenesis at both macro and micro scales (Tedrow et al., 1958; Tedrow and Cantlon, 1958; Walker, TABLE 2.2 Documenteci Cryosolic mils in the Truelove Lowland. (Walker, 1976; Waker and Peters, 1977)

Soils (C.S.S.C., 1973) Regosolic Static Cryosols Regosolic Turbic Cryosols Bnuiisotic Static Cryosols B runisolic Turbic Cryosols Gleysolic Staîic Cryosois ûieysolic Turbic Cryosols Fibk Organo Cryosols (wet peat) Glacic Fibric Organo Clyosols (dry peat) FIGURE 2.6 Diagmmmatic representaaon of six major types of soi1 development. arranged according to moisture gadient, occuring in the Truelove Lowland. Each soi1 is classified to the subgroup Ievel (C.S.S.C., 1973) (hmWaiker and Peten, 1977. Figure 6)

Moisture WET gradient DRY hn%e Rapidly Weil-md well Irnperfedy Pooriy- V. pdy- V. poorly- cb drained dnined hed v. pooriy pdy @Y (CSSâ 19781 drained dnined hned

0-7

-10 - s >YP -10 - -30 - m Frozen -40 - Ck -50 - mm -60 - Frozen -70 - -90 - 1 -90 - Subpup Regosolic BmnisoIic Brunisolic Gleysolic Gleysolic Fibric cl&fiucion SMc Sntic Tuhic Turbic Suôc Opo (CSS-C- Iw3) Cryosol Cryosol Cryosol C~osol Cryosol CqosoI 1976; Zoltai and Johnson, 1979; Birkeland, 1984). Similarly, it is believed to be the most important factor wntributing to tundra plant growth at both the macro and micro scales (Tedrow and Cantlon, 1958; Walker? 1976; Zoltai and Johnson, 1979; Peterson and Billings, 1980; Biiss and Svoboda, 1984; Miller and Alpert, 1984; Matthes-Sem et al., 1988; Marion et al., 1989; Gross et al., 1990; Bhss et al., 1994). Since the development of soil and vegetation seems to respond to specific soil moisture conditions at both the macro and micro des, botanists and pedologists have found and desaibed associations be~weenarctic plant commUNties with specific soil types and their moisture conditions. In this way, plant commun@ - soil associations may be useM in understanding the arctic ecosystem and, more importantly, in making inferences about this particular ecosystem during soi1 mapping exercises. Arctic plant comrnunity - soil associations have been identified in Alaska by Marion et al. (1989), Tedrow and Cantlon (1958) (Table 2.3), and MacNamara (1964) (Table 2.4). However, the most comprehensive plant community - soil association model in the High Arctic was that proposed for the Truelove Lowland by Walker and Peters (1977) (Table 2.5) who combined Muc and Bliss3 (1977) classification of plant communities with the Canadian soil classification for Cryosols. They showed that the plant communities correspondeci to soi1 at the subgroup level. This relationship between plant wmmunities and soi1 aibgroups was arranged according to a moisture gradient. An obvious discrepancy with the model is the use of the term "cushion plant-lichen on rubble" associated with Regosolic Static Cryosols which was not precisely defined in the Walker and Peters (1977) studies. The use of this terrn is also questionable since no soil mapping unit associated with that type of plant community had been previously mapped by Walker (1976). Moreover, the stated moisture conditions (dry to wet) of associations are vague, in the way that no specific moisture conditions are quantifieci. Another obvious problem is that the associations do not encompass al1 recognisable plant cornrnunities and soils in the study area (e.g Glacic Fibnc Organo Cryosol with cushion plant-lichen to hummocky sedge-moss meadow (Walker, 1977) (the ice-wedge polygon community (Muc and Bliss, 1977)). TABLE 2.3 Vegetation-soi1 relationships, on the Alaskan Arctic Slope, dong a moisture gradient ranging fiom standing water on the right to extreme dry on the left. (Tedrow and Cantlon, 1 958)

SHRUB Normal UPLAND -TYPES MARSH ' Vegetation 4 MEADOW - - TYPES- Sequence BARREN ' TYPES WET MEADOW ' - TYPES - - TYPES + Soi1 Catena LITHOSOL-ARCTIC BROWN-ARCTIC BROWN-ARCTIC BROWN-UPLAND-MEADOW-HALF-BOG-HYDRO - OPEN and shailow phase mod. well-drain. TUNDRA TUNDRA BOG SOLS SOLS WATER ROCK SOILS SOLS SOILS

Bog Soil With BOG SOlLS BOG SOILS BOG SOLS V~~~OUS in rclativcly dry incrcasing dryness innormalaiituntdd withh t 4 Moisture cnwUnmen1 cnvimnisd WLrnufICC Level

Vegetation species composition according to Tedrow and Cantlon (1 958) 1 Barren: Sparse cover of lichen, mosses 2 Upland meadow: D~yasinlegrifoIia D.octopetala, Vacciniunr vih-idaea, Salix phlebophylla, among ot hers 3 Wet meadow: Eriophorum vaginatuna, ssp. spissum, Carex bigelowii, Dicranum spp., Betula nana ssp., among ot hers 4 Marsh: Carex aqualis, C.rotunda~a, C. rarijlora, C. Spp., Eriophorurri angusli/olium, E. scheuchzeri, among others TABLE 2.4 Soils and vegetation nlationships in the vicinity of Howard Pass, Aiaska. (Adapted MacNarnara, 1964)

Plant Communities Associated Sois (~edrowand Canlon, 1%8) Dryas-lichen barreos Rock land-Lithosol

Eriophom-heath Upland tundra

Meadow tundra

Organic mils

Wet meadow

Regosols TABLE 2.5 Correlation of plant communities and soi1 subgroups arranged according to moisture gradient on the Truelove Lowland, Devon Island (Waiker and Peters, 1977; Table 8, p.57)

Moisture Plant commUNties Soii classification to the gradient (MW,1975) Subgroup level (C.S.S.C., 1973)

Dry Cushion plant-lichen on @le MisceUaneous mils > Regosolic Static Cryosois

Cus hion plant-lichen Bninisolic Static Cryosols> Regosolic Static Cryosols

Dwarf shrub heath-moss community Lithic Ragosolic Static Cryosols

Cushion plant-moss community Brunisolic Static Cqfosols

Cushion plant-moss with frost-boil Brunisolic Thic CryoçoIs > Regosolic Turbic Cryosols community

Frost-boii sedge-moss meadow Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols

Wet Hummocky sedge-moss meadow Gleysolic Static CryosoIs > Fbric Organo CrymIs

Wet sedge-moss rneadow Fibric Organe Cryosols > Gleysolic Static Cryosols In assembhg an arctic plant community - soi1 mode1 a basic question is raiseci: how accurate and predictable are the associations? For weU drained soils, Tedrow et al. (1958) and Walker (1976) agree that the relationship between plant comrnunities and soil types is very predictable. Correlation between soil type and vegetation for poorly drained arctic soils, however, codd pose a problem: "On Tundra and Bog soils, a spectrum of plant communities exists that ranges fkom those dominateci by species associated with well drained sites to those dominateci by species associated with very wet soils" (Tedrow and Cantlon, 1958, p. 172) (Table 2.3). In other words, since the moisture content of Bog and Tundra varies, the resulting variation in vegetaîion type makes it difficult to associate a particular plant species with a specific soil condition. For example, a Bog soi1 located on a topographic high will have relatively well drained conditions compared to a ''normal" Bog soi4 and therefore will be occupied by a difFerent plant comrnunity (Table 2.3). Nevertheless, in the Truelove Lowland, organic soils found with different moisture conditions (dry or wet) have been separateci within the Canadian Systern of Soi1 Classification (C. S. SC, 1992). King (1969) ciassified difFerent organic soils with different moisture contents as "Dry peat" (dry) and "Half Bog" (wet), and Walker (1976) classifieci organic mils in two categories: Fibric Organo Cryosols (wet) and Glacic Fibric Organo Cryosois (w). The relationships arnong soils plant communities, and drainage are quite predictable in the Truelove Lowland (Walker, 1976) and this relationship would fit a dope sequence comprising raid beach crest, upper foreslope, lower foreslope and meadow (Lev, 1996). However, in poorly drained conditions, the relationship becomes less predictable (Walker, 1976), although for dEerent reasons than those discussed by Tedrow and Cantlon (1958). According to Walker (1976, p.108). in poorly drained areas ''soi1 dinetences, from a classification viewpoint, remain considerable while vegetation dierences become more subtle compared to drier sites7'. For example, he recognises one plant community calleci cchumrnockysedge-moss rneadow" that is related, not to one specifk soi1 type, but to two types of soi1 (Gleysolic Static Cryosol and Fibric Organo Cryosol) (Table 2.5). In pedosted areas, the presence of penglaciai landforms has a positive but micro-de effî on plant community - soii associations: it encourages the micro- variation in soi1 moisture and therefore, the dinerentiation of plants and soils. However, these micro-variations plant community - soil associations were not mapped by King (1969) or Walker (1977) because the rnapping scale used in these studies was too small.

2.6 Conduding sûttement As show in the literahire review, we now have the capability of mapping plant cornmunities in the Truelove Lowland very quickly, and efficiently, using SPOT imagery. Moreover, as demonstrated by Walker (1976) and Waker and Peters (1 977), associations between plant comrnunities and soil types seem to be predictable in well-drained conditions in the Lowland, but are less predictable in poorly drained meadow conditions. Thus, their work, although not complete, provides a framework for a revised plant cornmunity - soil association mode1 in which both well and poorly drained conditions can be investigated in detail for plant comrnunity - soi1 mapping using SPOT imagery. The purpose of this investigation is to test this new application of SPOT imagery to map associations and to produce a more complete map of meadow and raised beach environments, in tems of the number plant comunities mapped, compared to the plant comunity maps produced by Muc (1 977) and Pearce (1 991). CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMEIYT OF A PREDICTLVE MODEL OF PLANT COMMUNITY - SOlL ASSOCIATIONS

3.0 Introduction This chapter investigates the nature of the associations between plant cornmunities and soils within the Truelove Lowland. The existence of plant community - soi1 associations have been investigated by Walker (1976), Walker and Peters (1977) and Lev (1996), and, in this chapter, are studied in detail at several sampling sites. The Walker and Peters (1977) correlation between plant comrnunities and sds (Table 2.5) is verified and improved upon, and finaily, a plant community - soil associations mode1 is created. Field methods provide the evidence for associating the plant cornmunities with soils, while the laboratory methods serve mainly to classify the permafrost soils to the subgroup level (Canadian System of Soil Classification, C.S.S.C., 1992). In this study, plant comrnunity - soii associations will serve as a reference for a subsequent study involving the prediction of soil type and condition based on plant comrnunity recognition.

3. 1 Field methods 3.1.0 Introduction A six-week field season dunng the summer of 1995 involved a study of plant comrnunity - soi1 associations (July 6 to July 21) at a nurnber of sampling sites. Field methods, in sampling sites, permitteci the verification and the improvement of pre-existing associations by conscientious examination of the nature and bounduies of recognised plant cornmunities (Muc and Bliss, 1977) and mils (Waiker, 1976) dong raised beach toposequences (raised beach and adjacent meadows) and their landform components (Figure 3.1); the consideration of all recognisable plant communities; and the consideration of all previously classified soiis present in the study area according to the pedon concept and the C.S.S.C. (1992). FIGURE 3.1 P hotographs showing a typical raised beach toposequence and it s landform components: Crest (A) Upper foreslope (B) Lower foreslope (C) Meadow @). 3.1.1 Study am The plant community - soi1 associations study area on the Truelove Lowland is located in the central pari of the Lowland (Figure 3 -2) covering an approxhate area of 25 km2(5 km x 5 km). This area, away firom the coast and rock outcrops, permits a focused study of the meadows and beach ridges. In this way, multiple toposequences containkg a series of plant communities and sods permit an examination of plant cornmunities - soi1 relationships to permit their mapping in a logicai fhnework. This study area does not conth "dwarf shbheath-moss" plant communities (Muc and Bliss, 1977; Muc, 1977) and their associateci rock substrate (Walker and Peters, 1977).

3.1.2 Sampling site locations Line transects, with 22 sampling sites, were used to study three raised beach - adjacent meadow toposequences. These toposequences represent the greatest change in moisture gradient within the study area, thus permitting the observation and sarnpling of a broad range of vegetation cornmunities and soiis in a relatively small and manageable area. The 22 sampling sites were sarnpled within visually recognised, pre-existing landform components representing a specific dope position and plant community type on the raised beaches (crest, upper foreslope, lower foreslope, upper backslope, lower backslope, meadow, wet meadow (water saturatecl), and high centre ice-wred polygon. The West Phalarope Lake transect (Figure 3.3) is a unique toposequence because of the relatively smd area over which the plant communities and their distinct boundaries can be observed (Figure 3.4). Over a distance of 238 m and altitude ranging between 3 and 6 m ASL (Above Sea Level), the raid beach and adjacent meadow contain a representative sequence of plant communities. The water drains west into the coastal area. Sampling sites were identifieci with nurnbers fiom 1 to 8. The East Phalarope Lake transect is located between Phalarope Lake and Fish Lake (Figure 3.3), and comprises a series of toposequences which are within the Phalarope Lake catchent (Figure 3.4). ûver a distance of 5 16 m, the altitude changes slowly between 4 and 11 m, producing a low slope gradient which results in a more FIGURE 3.2 The plant community - soi1 associations study area FIGURE 3.3 Location of sarnpling sites (transect and additional) within the plant community - soi1 study area

Sampling sites dong transeets: A West Phalarope Lake Transect (238 rn) Sampling sites 1 to 8 Y Beach B ,: East Phalarope Lake Transect (5 1 6 m) ..i: Ridges ..fi* Sampling sites 21 to 28 -3 C East Fish Lake Transect (480 m) Sampling sites 31 to 36 FIGURE 3 -4 Approximate sarnpling site locations within landform components along the three raised beach toposequences

West Phalarope Lake transect ~andlonn Meadow Meadow components 1 US F*UBSj i 1 ! 1 j. 1 i Phalarope Lake

Sampiing rte mm reiative , mant commurury soi1 depm baundaw

East Phalarope Lake transect 1 ~anefomi Wet Meadow Meadow Raised beach co~nents Meadow LFÇ, C 7 I i l

1 I Phalarope Lake

2.5 --

East Fish Lake transect

Fish Lake

sampling ste I Plant cormunity wm dawe Wu* Approx. O sail depth dom drainage and large homogeneous plant communities and soi1 conditions. Sarnpling sites dong this second tramest were identified with nwnbers fiom 2 1 to 28. The East Fish Lake transect, located between Fish Lake and Middle Beschel Lake (Figure 3.3), can be described as a typid toposequence starting in the rneadow leadkg to a sdridge, a smd pond, and to the main raid beach foreslope and crest (Figure 3.4). The low slope gradient is created by the altituciinal variation of 10 m over 480 m. Samphg sites dong this third transect were identified with numbers nom 3 1 to 36. In order to consider two plant community - soi1 associations that were not found in the aanse*s but were present in the study are% and in order to get a plant community - soi1 representation outside the transects, ten additionai sites were also exarnined (50, 60, 6 1, 7 1 to 77) (Figure 3.3). These ten sampling sites were also sampled within visually recognised, pre-exisîhg landfonn components representing a specific slope position and plant community type on the raid beaches (crest, upper foreslope, lower foreslope, upper backslope, lower backslope, and meadow). Moreover, the additional sampling also allowed the base transect sample size of 22 to be augmenteci with ten additional sampling sites to support the plant community - soi1 association model. The sampling size of 32 sites was limited by the length of the field season. However, it was judged, by field reconnaissance, to be adequate in providing representative associations of al1 plant wmmunity and soils present in the study area.

3.1.3 Sampling method For sarnpling sites on transects and the additional sites, plant communities and their boundaries correspondhg to specific landform components were first identified by ground reconnaissance and inspection of the Muc (1977) plant cornmunity map. This map is still valid, since according to Pearce's (1991) observations, no major change in distribution of plant the plant communities has occurred in the time since they were mapped by Muc (1977). Therefore, the map of Muc (1977) and plant community information of Muc and Bliss (1977) d be used as the basic plant mmrnunity reference. The associated Cryosolic soi1 to the subgroup level was identified using a total of 22 sarnphg sites on three transede (sampling sites #1 to 8, 21 to 28, 31 to 36) and ten additional sampling sites (sampling sites # 50, 60, 61, and 71 to 77). In this way, plant comrnunity - soi1 associations were determineci. Field and laboratory results nom these sites are available in Appendix 2 and 3. W~thineach landfonn component, it is assumed that plant wmmunities and soi1 variability are negiïgible and uniform. This assurnption was tested by doing field checks within landscape components. For plant comrnunities, this was done by visual cornparison with the Muc (1977) map and soils were identifid using minor soi1 inspection pits. Because this field study looks at features dong toposequences, a sde more detailed than that used in the Muc (1977) and Muc and Bliss (1977) is used. This sale is comparable to the study deused by Svoboda (1977). It is therefore, possible to dserentiate the "cushion plant-lichen (crest)" and "cushion plant-lichen (slope)" communities (Svoboda, 1977) within Muc and Bliss' (1977) "cushion plant-lichenyy comrnunity. The two cornmunities cm be visually differentiated because of their different average percent cover of vegetation (1 520% vernis 35-4Ph) (Svoboda, 1977, p. 190- 191). These differences can generaily be observed in the raised beach slope and crest positions. This is7 however, not always the case since the "cushion plant-lichen (slope)" community is sometimes found on raised beach crests (Walker, 1977, map unit Il). Therefore, it seems appropriate to lirnit the confusion over slope position by theoretically choosing a name. In this way, this study will use the term "lichen-cushion plant" and "cushion plant-lichen" for the aishion plant-lichen (crest) and cushion plant-lichen (slope) communities, respectively. Moreover, the "ice wedge polygon" community of Muc and Biiss (1977) or equivaient "aishion plant-lichen to humrnocky sedge-moss meadow" community (Waiker, 1976, 1977) located on the polygonated peat plateaus of-Somr (1 99 1) (hi& centre ice-cored polygons), will be identifid by the more precise name: "peat plateau" cornrnunity. In accordance with the guidelines of the Canadian Soil Information System's Manuai for describing soils in the field (Canadian Soil Survey Cornmittee, l978), the site characteristics, the plant community name and soi1 descriptions, were compiled for each sampling site. Sites were provided with location in relation to each transect start (aiways the western point) as detennined by tape measurement; an approltimate elevation determllied fkom the Truelove Lowland Digital Elevation Mode1 (Rogers, in progress); slope class and aspect; landform and parent matenal (Walker, 1977); plant community (modifieci from Muc and Büss, 1977; Svoboda, 1977). and My, a soii profile description. Soils were sampled in order to classe thern accordhg to the C.S.S.C. (1992) and the pedon concept. One volumetric soi1 sample (242.9 cm3) was taken fiom each recopisable soil horizon and stored in a doubled polythene bag. For unrecognisable soil horizons, soi1 samples were taken incrementally. In addition, samples were taken of silt aitans and mottled zones for fiitwe mdy.

3.2 Laboritory methods The Iaboratory soil analyses, which included measurements of Total Organic Carbon, Total Carbonates, and Pyrophosphate-Extractable Iron and Aluminum, were necessary to classitjr the sampled soils to the subgroup level (C.S.S.C., 1992). Other analyses, such as moisture content, bulk density, pH, and particle size analysis, were not needed for the present soil classincation, but were done to provide routine soil information. These analyses were perfonned both in the field lab in 1995, and dunng the winter and spring of 1996 in the U.W.O.Pedology Lab. A detailed description of standard laboratory procedures, and accuracy/precision estimates of each analysis are provided in Appendix 4.

3.3 Results and Discussion of relationships between plant communities and soils The information gathered for the samphg sites (Table 3.1, Table 3 -2, Table 3.3, Table 3.4) demonstrated a predictable relatiowhip between plant communities and sols in the study area in both raiseci beach and meadow conditions (Table 3.5). On the raised beach, the mils under lichen-cushion plant communities were found to be Regosolic Static Cryosols, with one exception where Brunisolic Static Cryosols were present. Moreover, the Brunisolic Static Cryosols were found almost uniquely under the aishion plant-lichen and cushion plant-moss cornmunities. In the meadow, each plant community corresponds to one type of soil. The mils under the cushion plant-moss with frost-boils wmmunities were found to be uniquely Brunisolic Turbic Cryosols. The soils under the humrnocky TABLE 3.1 Resulis of axainimiion of plant cominunities and soiis along the West Phalarope Lake transecl

Landform Raised beach Meadow 1 Meadow components

Plant Hummocky sedge-moss L-CP qLGzzrmeadow cornmunilies' meadow Iy-1

Soils" Gleysolic Static Cryosols BSC BSC RSC BSC / Gleysolic Slalic Cryosols

TOPO- sequence

according to modified Muc and Bliss (1977) and Svoboda (1977) '* Canadian System of Soil Classification (C.S.S.C., 1992)

CP-M: Cushion plant-moss LFS: Lower foreslope CP-L: Cushion plant-lichen UBS: Upper backslope L-CP: Lichen-cushionplant UFS: Upper foreslope BSC: Brunisolic Static Cryosols C: Crest RSC: Regosolic Static Cryosols TABLE 3.2 Results of exaininuiion of plaiii coinmunities and soils aloiig the East Plialarope Lake trunsect

Landform Lower Meadow Upper Meadow flaised beac h components LFS C Plant hummochy sedge-moss meadow Wet sedge-moss CP-M CP-L communi,ies. meadow Hummocky sedge-moss meadow

Soils" FOC ? GSC Gleysolic Static Cryosols Gleysolic Statlc Cryosols BSC BSC

I TOPO- sequence -

According to modified Muc and Bliss (1977) and Svoboda (1977) ** Canadian System of Soi1 Classificalion (C.S.S.C., 1992)

CP-M: Cushion plant-moss US: Lower foreslope CP-L: Cushion plant-lichen C: Cresl BSC: Brunisolic Slatic Cryosols TABLE 3.3 Results of exainiiiation of plant communities and soils dong the East Fish Lake trünseçi

Raised beach ' Landform Lower Meadow Upper Meadow components UUFS Plant Hurnrnocky sedge- Frost-boil sedge-rnoss rneadow CP-L HSMM cP- !.,-Cf cornmunilies' rnoss rneadow M

Soils" Gleysolic Static Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols Cryosols BSC GSC BSCRSC \ \ TOPO- \ sequence '\

According to rnodified Muc and Bliss (1977) and Svoboda (1977) "C.S.S.C. is the Canadian System of Soil Classification (C.S.S.C., 1973)

CP-L: Cushion plant-lichen HSMM: Hurnmocky sedge-moss rneadow UUFS: Lowerlupper foreslope CP-M: Cushion plant-moss LFS: Lower foreslope L-CP: Lichen-cushion plant C: Crest BSC: Brunisolic Static Cryosols GSC: Gleysolic Static Cryosols RSC: Regosolic Static Cryosols TABLE 3.4 Results of the examination of additional sampling sites

Sampling Landform component Plant communities Soils sites (nmdiiïed Muc and Bk, (C.S.S.C., 1992) 1977; Svoboda, 1977) 50 High centre peat plateau Glacic Fibric Organo ice-cored polygons Cryosol 60 meadow fiost-hi1 sedge-moss Gleysolic Turbic meadow Cryosol 61 raidbeach cushi on plant-moss Brunisolic Turbic lower backslope with fkost-boas CryosoI 71 raised beach crest aishion plant-iichen Bnuiisok Static Cryosol 72 meadow fkost-boil sedge-moss Gleysolic Turbic meadow Cryosol 73 meadow hummocky sedge-moss Gleysolic Static rneadow Cryosol 74 meadow hummocky sedge-rnoss Gleyçolic Static meadow Cryosol 75 raid beach cushion plant-moss Brunisolic Static lower foreslope Cryosol 76 meadow hummocky sedge-moss Gleysolic Static meadow Cryosol 77 raised beach crest lichen-cushion plant BrunisoIic Static TABLE 3.5 Correlation table of the nature of the plant communities - soils associations for sampling sites

Lichen- Cushion Cushion Cushion Hummocky Frost-boil Wet sedge- Peat cushion plant- plant-moss plant-moss sedge-moss sedge-moss rnoss meadow plateau Svoboda, 1977) plant lichen with fiost- meadow meadow ,'... boils

..m. ..m. ....

1 Regosolic Static Cryosols

Bninisolic Static Cryosols

1 Brunisolic Turbic Cryosols

Gleysolic Static Cryosols

1 Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols Fibric Organo Cryosols (wet peat)

Glacic Fibric Organo Cryosols / (ice-cored dry prit) sedge-moss meadow co~2mUNtieswere found to be Gleysolic Static Cryosols. The soils under the fiost-boil sedge-moss meadow commdties were found to be uniquely Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols. The soils under the wet sedge-moss rneadow community were found to be Fibric Organo Cryosols. Fiy,the soils under the peat plateau comrnunities (cushion plant-lichen to hummocky sedge-moss meadow, Waiker, 1977) was found to be Glacic Fibric ûrgano Cryosols. Study site sraminations and evidence shown in Table 3.5 has revealed very predictable relationships between plant cornmunities and sois in the study area and that in both well drained and poorly drainecl conditions. This evidence of associations of plant communities and soi1 subgroups can be summarised, in a similar fashion to Waker and Peters (1977) (Table 3.6). Moreover, information conceming the boundaries has never been documented before. The observed boundaries between plant communities on the toposequences were relatively sharp (within 1 m), especially between the intersections of meadow cornmunities and the raised beach lower dope communities. Similady, the soil boundaries were relatively sharp (within 1 m) and generally were within a meter of the plant community change. The synchronicity between the plant cornmunity and soil types was particularly obvious at the division between the meadow and the lower slopes of the raid beaches (Figure 3.5). For example, sampling site 26 data (Appendix 2), which covers the transition fiom raid beach lower foreslope to meadow conditions, clearly show the existing trend that the cushion plant-rnoss and underlying Brunisolic Static Cryosols (Figure 3.5, B) change into the hummocky sedge-moss meadow community underlain by Gleysolic Static Cryosols (Figure 3.5, A). This abrupt change between raid beach dope and meadow plant cornmunities in the Kigh Arctic, has only been rnentioned previously by Miller and Aipert (1984), who did not document the soil variability. In general, the strong associations between plant cornmunities and soils revealed by this study confirms and refines the relationships reporteci by Walker and Peters (1977) (Table 3.7). On the raised beach ridges, the separation of the "lichen-cushion plant" communities from the "cushion plant-lichen" community, based on Svoboda's work, was usehl since they are underlain by two different soü types (Table 3.7). This suggests that the organic matter provided by the higher vegetation biomass of the "cushion plant- TABLE 3 -6 Associations of plant communities and soil subgroups arranged according to moisture gradient in the study area accordhg to shidy site examinations

Moisture Plant comrnunities; Soi1 classification to the gradient (modined MW and Bliu, 1971; subgroup level (c.s.s.~,1992) Svoboda, 1977)

Dry Lichennishion plant Regosolic Static Cryosols> Bninisolic Static Cryosols

Cushion plant-lichen Bdsolic Siatic Cryosols

Cushion plant-moss community Bxunisolic Static Cryosols

Cushion plant-moss frosc-boil Bninisolic Turbic Cryosols

Ffost-boii sedge-moss meadow Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols

Wet Hunutle sedge-moss meadow Gleysolic Static CryosoIs

Wet sedge-moss meadow Fibric Organo Cryosols?

DV Peat plateaus Glacic Fibric Organo Cryosols FIGURE 3.5 Photographs showing the sharp change in plant community and soi1 conditions between the meadow (A) and the raised beach lower foreslope (B). TABLE 3.7 Compatison between Walker and Peters (1977) and present research plant community-soi1 associations, according to moisture gradient and position on the catena, in the study area.

Moisture Position on catena Plant communities Dominant>subdominant soils Dominant>subdominant mils gradient (Svoboda, 1977; (modified Muc and Bliss, 1977; (Walker and Peters, 1977) according to this study Muc, 1977) Svoboda, 1977)

Dry Raised beach crest Cushion plant-lichen Brunisolic Static Cryosols> and upper slope Regosolic Static Cryosols

Raised beach crest Lichenashion plant Regosolic Satic Cryosols> Bnurisolic Static Cryosols

Raised bach Cushion plant-lichen N.A. Brunisolic Static Cryosols crest and upper slope

Transition lower slope Cushion plant-moss Bmnisolic Static Cryosob Bdsolic Static Cryosols

Transition lower dope Cushion plant-moss Brunisolic Turbic Cryosols > Bnidsolic 'hrbic Cryosols> frosî-boil Regosolic MicCryosols Regosolic Turbic Crymls

Upland meadow Frost-boil sedge-moss meadow Gleysolic ïùrbic Cryosols Gleysolic Twbic Cryosols Peat plateau N.A. Glacic Fibnc Organo Cryosols Wet Moist meadow Hummocky sedge-moss meadow Gleysolic Static Cryosols > Gleysolic Static Cryosols Fibric Organo Cryosols

Wet meadow Wet sedge-moss meadow Fibric Organo Cryosols > Fibric Organo Cryosols? Gleysolic Static Cryosols Gleysolic Static Cryosols lichen" communities (Svoboda, 1977) could provide supplementary organic matter which formeci the development of Brunisoüc mils. Moreuver, most of the "lichen-aishion plant" cornrnunities were atnliated with the immature, dominant Regosolic Static Cryosols; however, sampling site 77 was associateci with Brunïsolic Static Cryosols. This exceptional site showed relatively more mature soi1 development, with a relatively sparse surface vegetation of lichen and cushion plants. This relatively advanced degree of soi1 development has been observed by other researchers on the Truelove Lowland. Kelly (1989) and Walker (1 976) documented the presence of subdorninant Brunisolic Static Cryosols on raid beach creas where Bninisoiic characteristics are extremely subdued (sampling site 77, Appendix 2 and 3). However, its explanation remains controversial. Rejecting the little organic matter of the poor cover of vegetation as the main soil forrning factor, the age could be a factor, as the sampling site is located on one of the oldest raised beach crests on the Truelove Lowland (approximately 8700 years B.P., Kelly, 1989). However, Kelly and King (1995) did not find significant relationships between the age of raised beaches in the shidy area and the degree of soil development, suggesting that the "soil development is dominated by the lithologic variations in beach materials" (Kelly and King, 1995, p.69). Sampling site 77, with a dolornitic lithology (located next to the dolornitic escarpment) would, according to Kelly and King (1995), have better developed soils as a result of the migration and accumulation of silt in the profile. Contrary to what was suggested by Walker and Peters' (1977) plant community - soil associations (Table 3.7), no evidence of Regosoüc Static Cryosols was found on upper slopes (under the cushion plant-lichen community), - ody Bmnisolic Static Cryosols were found. The ashion plant-moss communities found on the mid-lower slopes of the raised beaches can also be associated with Brunisolic Static Cryosols, and at none of these sites did cryoturbation dominate (W3) the pedon. This co~sWdker's (1976) and Waiker and Peters' (1977) findings. As observed by Waiker (1976) and in the present study, these higher-slope Bninisolic Static Cryosols are relatively different from the lower dope wuntetparts thaî have shallower profiles, darker colors with higher TOC values, and a higher concentration of exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg and K) (Walker, 1976). In meadow conditions, as was observeci by Walker and Peters (1977),the "fkost- boil sedge-moss rneadow" community is uniquely underlain by Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols. The "hummocky sedge-moss meadow" comrnunity, shown in sarnpling sites 1, 2, 8, 2 1, 22, 25, 26, 32, 33, 73, 74, and 76, is uniquely associated with Gleysolic Static Cryosols, instead of both Gleysolic Staîic Cryosols and Fibric Organo Cryosols, as suggested by Walker and Peters (1977). The sampled "cushion plant-moss with fiost boil" community showed dominant Brunisolic Turbic Cryosols and subdorninant Regosolic Static Cryosols, confmnhg the results of Walker and Peten (1977). On the other hand, the identification, in the field, of the mils associated with the wet sedge-moss meadow cornmunities was problematic. The reason for this is that the depth of thaw of the pennafiost was too shallow (0.2-0.3 m) at these sites to permit an observation of either the 40 m of C mineral horizon needed for ~Iassificationas a Gleysolic Static CryosoI or the greater than 40 cm of organic material needed for the soil to be classifiai as a Fibric Organo Cryosol classification (CSSC, 1992). However, Walker (1976) classifieci mils beneath "hummoclcy sedge-moss meadow" and "Wei sedge-moss meadod' cornmunities as Fibnc Organo Cryosols, without measuring the average thickness of the peat. He recognised organic soiIs as those lacking a vertically continuous horizon within the active layer (C.S.S.C., 1973). According to the C.S.S.C. (1992) guidelines, under wet sedge-moss meadow cornmunities (hi& water table (Muc and Bliss, 1977)), it is impossible to distinguish between Fibric Organo Cryosols and Gleysolic Static Cryosols. Soils associated with "wet sedge-moss meadow" cornmunities in this study must be classified as Fibric Organo Cryosols, until fûrther in-depth investigation of the peat can prove otherwise. Of the range of plant comrnunities present in the shidy area, "peat plateau" was the only plant community found overlying the Glacic Fibric Organo Cryosols, in agreement with Walker's (1977) map unit 72 (cushion plant-lichen to hummocky sedge-moss meadow cornmunities). This mil differs fiom the Fibric Organo Cryo~lsby three features: it is ice-cored, polygonated by ice-wedge fissures, and the soil moimire conditions are relatively drier in the raid part of the plateau. This association between the "peat plateau" community and a specific soi1 was not considered in the plant community - soi1 correlation of Walker and Peters (1977).

3.4 A plant community - soil associations mode1 The relationship between plant communities and Cryosolic soils classifieci to the Subgroup level in the plant comrnunity - soi1 study area can be visualiseci as a raiseci beach - adjacent meadow toposequence (Figure 3.6) where the variations in soils, plant communities, and moisture conditions are in concordance. In this general modei, the predictaôiiity of soils according to plant communities was found to be excellent, in both raised beach and meadow environrnents. This level of predictability was accomplished by combining the cushion plant-lichen with cushion plant-moss communities and recognisuig al1 plant communities present in the study area A problem of the representation of plant communities - soils dong a generaiised toposequence, as found by Walker (1976) and the present research, is that plant community - soi1 associations, such as the "cushion plant- lichen - Brunisolic Static Cryosols" are found in the çtudy area on both beach crest and slope positions. nius, on the field, the soil predictions are best made purely on plant wmmunity - soi1 associations (Table 3.5) and not on slope positions, contrary to what was suggested by Lev (1996).

3.5 Concluding statement Prior study of major plant wmmunity - soil associations studies in the Arctic (Tedrow and Cantlon, 19%; MacNarnara, 1964;Walker, 1976; Walker and Peters, 1977) have emphasised the poor reliability of plant community - soil associations in poorly drained areas. This study stresses that, although not perfect, the possibility of predicting soils and their boundaries from the plant comrnunity cover is generally very good in both well drained and poorly drained conditions (Table 3.5). Moreover, it was found that, although plant community - soi1 associations can be generalised and displayed as a toposequence (Figure 3.6), mils are best predicted by simply looking at the type of plant community wver (Table 3.6), which seem to generally reflect soil conditions. This FIGURE 3.6 Plant comintinity - soi1 associaiions mode1 along aii idealisad raised beach/meadow toposequenci: in the Trualove Lowlend

1. Liclicn- cushion phni 2. Cushioii plant- lichen

7. Wci scdgc-iiioss 3. Cushion plant-nioss iticadow

, Rcgosolic Staiic Cryosols> 6. 1-Iuiiiiiiockyscdgc- Bmnisoiic Siatic Cryosols 4. Cusliiori plriiit-iiioss I~IOSSillcadow with frost-bail

5. Frost-boil scdgc- inoss nicüdow 3. Bruiiisolic StaiiçCryosols 4. Brunisolic Turbic 5, Cilcysolic Turbic Cryosols Cryosols 6,(ilcysolic Stiitic C'ryosols

7. 1:ibric Orgürio C'ryosols '!

* l'ci11 ~\BIc~Ius-~~~~c~cI:ibric Orguiiu C'ryosols iissuciiitioiis iirç hiiiid in iiisiidow mus usuully dong liikc riiiirgiiis ils içe-corcd dry pciit, rypiciil ol'tlic pciiiy polygonal pliitciiu iirçiis (Sonir, 199 I ). demonstrateci correlation between plant communities and mils is an improvement on that of Walker and Peters (1977, p. 57) (Table 3.7) in tenns of the number of associations recognised and their predictability. The presnit plant community - soi1 associations describe specinc environmentai relationships that exist in the Truelove Lowland, and should be very usafor predicting mils to the subgroup level. The next chapter attempts to infer the distribution of soils in the study area fiom the delineation of their associated plant communities using SPOT imagery. METHODOLOGY OF SENSING AND MAPPING PLANT CO- - SOIL ASSOCIATIONS

4.0 Introduction The goal of this chapter is to describe the materials and basic methodology used to map the plant communities and associateci soik of the Truelove Lowland using satellite imagery. SPOT imagery cm be classifieci hto plant community classes (and associated soils) within a study area, at a detailed sale (1:25000), using a digital image classification techniques. Demonstration of similar techniques has been done by other studies on the Trueiove Lowland (Pearce, 1991) and in other Arctic areas and with difEerent satellite platforms (Felix and Binney, 1989; Ferguson, 1991; Markon and Derksen, 1994; Gratto- Trevor, I 996; Momson, 1 997).

4.1 Basic steps in mapping plant community-soii associations The present methodology used a series of logical steps to map the plant communities and soils in the Truelove Lowland. Details of the steps are given in the following paragraphs and chapters. The raw SPOT imagery had to be preprocessed and enhanced to provide the analyst with workable imagery. Second, two maps, a false color image assisted by an unsupe~sedclassification, were created to provide the analyst with ground tnithing elements to check on the ground. Third, a ground tmthing of the fdse color image was performed and the results disaisseci. Fourth, for class~ngspecific plant communities, a selection of training samples was selected in the field and used for the su pervised classification. Fifth, two maps with different spectral combinat ions were produced, with a supervised classification, showing the extent of selected plant communities within a representative area. Soils were associated with each plant cornmunity in the legend. Six, the two maps were assessed for their accuracy in mapping plant communities and soi1 associations. 4.2 Materials This research uses the highest resolution satellite irnagery presentiy avadable for the Canadian High Arctic, SPOT (Sateiüte Probatoire d'observation de la Terre), to sense plant communities and other ground mver. The satellite imagery produces an image of the electrornagnetic energy reflected fiom or emitted fiom a specific area of the Earth's surface and atmosphere. The radiant energy received by the sensors is recorded as a pixel value between O to 255, in three bands. The pixel value is in function of the high or low ground reflectance. The SPOT satellite, launched in 1986, has a 3-4 day repeat cycle in the High Arctic, an orbit altitude of 632 h. HRV (High Resolution Visible) multispectral sensors provide images with relatively good ground resolution of 29 m by 20 m in the Arctic. The pixel size alteration, relatively to the equatorial 20 x 20 m, is caused by the low view angle of -26.52 degrees in the Polar regioris. The cloud-free image used in this study was collected on Jufy 24, 1989, by SPOT 1 HRVZ in the muitispectral mode, which provides images in three bands: green (G) @and 1, 0.50-0.59p), red (R) @and 2, 0.61 - 0.68pm), and near-inûared (NIR) (band 3, 0.79-0.89pm) (Mather, 1987). The scene centre latitude is 75 O55'N and longitude is 85" 1YW. SPOT'S key to ground cover dserentiation are the three spectral bands it masures. The fact that the materials (vegetation, mil, water) have different reflectance values in each of the SPOT's spectral bands permits differentiation of land covers based on their reflectance in the three bands (Figure 4.1). It is anticipated that al1 of SPOT's bands would be important in recognising dEerent ground covers (Figure 4.1). However, the NIR band should be particularly usehl in differentiating plant communities. This is because it is sensitive to the leaf structure of the plants, and the arnount of water in its vacuoles (Mather, 1987), which varies within the same and dBerent plant species. Moreover, the NIR band should be usefbl in dserentiating the moisture conditions present in the ground (Figure 4.1). Various software and cornputer platfonns, available in the Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, were used for image pre-processing, classification and printing. EASIPACE (PCI, 1992) (version 5.2) image analysis software on a DEC Ultrix 5100 platform was used for image pre-processing and the prelimuiary FIGURE 4.1 Spectral reflectance of Earth-surface materials associated with SPOT'S bands (after Mather, 1987)

U.3 0.5 0.7 O -9 1.1 Wavelengths (prn)

Vigorous vegetation Soi1 -Water unsuperviseci classification. The IDRISI GIS for Wmdows (Clark University, 1996) (version 2) software on a Pentium (90MHr, 32 MB RAM) cornputer was used for digitising the training samples and final image classification. The classifieci images were then imported into MapFactory GIS (ThinkSpace, 1996) (version 1.5b3), on a Power Macintosh 7200/120, to be assigneci appropriate map colors. Subsequently, the maps were importeci into MacDraw (Clark, 1991) (version 1.O) for final printing using a color LaserWriter 1U600PS laserjet printer.

4.3 Xmage preprocessing The SPOT imagery was purchased wit h correction for atmosphenc interference and missing scan hes. A 512 row by 512 column window (subscene) of the three band raw data image was selected to show only the Truelove Lowland and some of the surroundings escarpments. The resulting Truelove Lowland images (G-R-NIR)were spatially distorted (geometrically distorted) because of the rotation of the Earth during image acquisition, panoramic distortion, and platform instability (Mather, 1987). The geocorrection (give a sale and projection) of the imagery was done afler the image combination or digital classifications (Figure 4.2, 1-2) to limit any alteration of the imagery (Pearce, 1995). AU images produced were resampled using the Nearest Neighbour Method because it is fast and it assigns "real" reflectance values, which are the values of the input image pixels located closest to the new computed coordinates on the geometrically correcteci image (Mather, 1987). Initially, the geometric correction of the image was done in EASYPACE (PCI, 1992) using ten well-spaced coordinates extracted nom Muc's vegetation map of the Truelove Lowland (1977). However, in order to improve the spatial acniracy, the satellite data were resampled in the winter of 1996 with IDRISI GIS for Windows (Clark University, 1996), according to seven survey points selected Eom the grid survey of the study area (Appendices 6 and 7), having an "acceptable" position error (Eastman, 1995; US rnap accuracy standard, 1996) of 0.55111 RMS (Root Mean Square) (Appendix 7). However, the limited distribution and accuracy of primary conîrol points fiom the study area grid swey (Appendices 6 and 7) could not permit the selection of control points in a well-spaced marner and dong the penphery of the imagery. The implications are that the accuracy of the geometric correction could be low dong the edges of the correcteci images.

4.4 Image enhancement Recognising the importance of the NIR band in differentiating vegetative ground covers, a stretched near-infiareci (SNIR) band image was produced by stretching the near- infiarecl pixel nurnbers with a 'Wistogram Equalisation", to spread the limited distribution of the radiance data of the NIR image to an image with pixel values between O to 255 (Pearce, 1995). The SNIR band image was used in the supeMsed classification as a band image. The image enhancement of a false color image is dimissed in the next chapter, as it is used for ground truthing.

4.5 Image transforms and results In the study area, Pearce (1991) used a NIR/R ratio to hdthe best muskox habitat (sedge-moss meadows) and commentai that this method "provides a quick look for this habitat type" (p.55). This shidy does not use this band ratio (NDWR), because it did not enable the recognition of al1 the major plant cornmunities in the study area. The use of an another band ratio called Normdised Dflerence Vegetation Index (NDVI=(NIR-red)/(NIR+red}) that could possibly separate plant communities due to biomass ciifferences (Mather, 19 87) was examineci. However, the visual int erpretation and assessrnent of the resulting NDVI image proved to be inaccurate for present purposes because of an abundance of misclassifieci pixels in meadow and raised beach environments. Because of this, the NDVI, previously used mainly during small sale studies to recognise ~'UCfacebiomass Werentiation (Mather, 1987), did not contribute to a very detailed scaie investigation (Figure 2.4), and to the separation of plant communities, and therefore band ratios wil not be discussed fùrther. 4.6 Image dassification 4.6.1 Preliminary classification and ground truthing An automated classification, in EASYPACE, of the three SPOT bands (G-R-MR) was used as a preliminary classification (Pearce, 1991; Ferguson, 1991; Markon and Der- 1994; Momson, 1997) to help with the ground interpretation of the Tmelove Lowland Ezlse color digital image. The 'tnaipe~sed"chssincation was useful because it assumes no aprion knowledge of the cover types in the area of interest (Mather, 1987) to class* the imagery. Clustering algorithms within the digital analysis software assign each pixel to a class that defines naturai spectral groupings (Pearce, 1991). In this way, the Truelove Lowland imagery was classifieci into 100 classes, of which 10 were in the Lowland's vegetated areas and 90 classes were on the sea ice, lake ice and rock outcrops. To limit this high mmber of classes, the sea ice data should have been removed, before the classification, to keep the focus on the land data. The usefilness of this classification was only to help in the recognition of plant comrnunities and other ground covers on the Truelove Lowland false color image.

4.6.2 Supervised classification and mapping area One of the main objectives of this study was to group the pixels into classes representing plant wrnrnunities recognised in the plant cornmunity - soil model. To complete this objective, a supe~sedclassification procedure was used to classi& the Truelove Lowland's selected band images with selected land cover classes (Figure 4.2, 2A-B) obtained during the ground truthing, representing plant community - soil associations and water bodies. This procedure uses the analyst's knowledge of what is on the ground (see Chapter V) to replace the unsupervised classification's clustering algo rit hms. The anaiya chooses training amples (see Chapter VI) from which the Truelove Lowland raw imagery will be classineci and aggregated into classes (see Chapter VII). It was also used because it had been successfully employai (Felix and Binney, 1989; Ferguson, 199 1; Markon and Derksen, 2994; Gratto-Trevor, 1996; Momson, 1997), in the Low Arctic, and Pearce (1991) in the study area, to classe arctic tundra plant communities and because the opportunity arose to acquire the extensive field knowledge required. A Maximum Likelihood classifier was chosen because it is believed to be the most acainite (Curran, 1985). It classifies image pixels into the most likely classes based on class probabiiity. The probability is caldateci using the mean, variance and correlation for each land cover class (Cwran, 1985). The redting probability hctions are then used to allocate SPOT hagery pixels to probability classes to which they have the maximum Wtelihood of belonging (Maonneli and Kemp, 1995). The supe~sedclassification was pesformed using two different composite image combinations to test the appropriateness of band wmbinations. The green, red, and near- infhred band images were chosen because the visible and near infiareci bands are usefui for maximum separation of ground wvers and had been used successfiilly to map arctic tundra plant comrnunities (Pearce, 1991; Markon and Derksen, 1994). The green-red- stretch near-infiareci band images were aiso chosen because the green-red band images are usefbi for recognising ground cover colors and the stretch near-infiareci band image (see Section 4.4) could be useful in maximising the separation of vegetative ground cover types. The G-R-NIR and G-R-SNIR combination of bands were used to assess the most appropriate spectral combination for arctic tundra mapping. The most appropnate image combination for the mapping of the plant communities in the study area was assessed by wmparing the extent of each plant community mapped (% extent) to other studies (Rogers, in progress; Pearce, 1991) and by comparing with ground information (see Table 7.3). The subsequent classified image was geometrically corrected according to procedures described in section 4.3 (Figure 4.2, 2B-C). Once spatially corrected, a subscene (13.72 km2, Figure 4.3) was extracted in IDRISI fiom the geocorrected classified image (Figure 4.2, 2D-E). This was done so that the chosen mapping area encompasses only the selected and sarnpled land covers. The mapping area was chosen as the most representative for the present purposes of mapping plant community - soi1 associations, in that it is an area that includes the documented plant wrnmunities in the mode1 together with water and ice. The area around Immerk Lake could not be included FIGURE 4.3 The plant comrnunity - soi1 associations mapping area in the mapping area since t includes rock outcrops. The mapping area was therefore selecîed on the basis of knowledge gathered in the field and fiorn pre-exïsting maps.

4.7 PMby pixel accuracy assessrnent of the dwified images The most wmmonly used method of measuring the degree of accuracy of a classification is the wnfiision (or =or) rnatrk (Mather, 1987). This method was used by Ferguson (1991) and Momson (1997) to caldate their habitat mapping accuacy. This method compares for each class the number of pixels that are correctly classined divided by the total number of pixels within a training class ground sample. However, in contrast to previous studies, locational information (Rogers, in progress) in terms of grid coordinates, is available for both the classified maps pixels and plant community units along three transects (Rogers, in progress) sampled at 20 m intervais. However, of the three plant wmmunity transects provided by Rogers (in progress), only transect two, located in the rniddle of the geocorrected imagery between Phalarope and Fish Lake (Appendix 8), was selected. The reason is that along the edge of the geocorrected imagery, spatial distortion was noticed by non-correspondence of lake boundaries of the geocorreçted image with surveyed transects one and three. This could be explained by a lack of survey points along the edges that could be used during the geocorrection of the satellite imagery. Using the PROFILE operation in IDRISI and Roger's (in progress) transect two (Appendix 8). 48 plant community units (Table 7.3) were compared to the 48 pixels of the geocorrected mapping area maps (Table 7.3). The overall accuracy is calculated as the number of correctly classifieci pixels divided by the total number of pixels along the transect.

4.8 Concluding statement The methodology for mapping plant community - soii associations used in this study area involves using SPOT multispectral imagery captured over the Truelove Lowland on July 24, 1989. Although, the imagery is 6 years old, it is believed to be still valid because of the stability of the distribution of plant comrnunities in the study area (Pearce, 1991). The irnagery was cldedusing both an unsupe~sedclassification of G-R-NIR (to assist with the ground truthing) and a superviseci classification with two band cornb'ulstfions (G-R-NIR and G-R-SMR) for rnapping. The supervised classification ailowed the selection of training samples, representing possible plant comrnunity - soil associations, to be used as signaîures for classification purposes. Before submitting plant community - soil training samples for supemised classification, a ground truthhg of the SPOT imagery took place to give the andyst an idea of the capacity of the spectral data to recognise ground wvers in the study area. Therefore, the next chapter explains the methodology and results of the ground tnithing of the composite satellite image. CHAPTER V

GROUND TRUTEING OF SPOT SATE- IMAGERY

5.0 Introduction Ground truthing, the visual cornparison between remotely-sensed imagety and ground fatures, is done to provide the analyst and the reader with a notion of the cover types detected and mappable using SPOT imagery. The type of ground cover that can be recognised with spectral data within the scale limits of the image resolution is investigated. Although unvegetated cover types are recognised, this study is mainly interested in the spectral differentiation of vegetation cornrnunities in the Truelove Lowland, for the mapping of plant community - soi1 associations.

5.1 Laboratory methods To increase visual interpretability of the Truelove Lowland SPOT data, a false color image of the lowiand was created (Figures 4.2-1, 5.1) and provided for field use by Pearce (1995). The three spectral bands were assigned video colors (RGB) to produce an composite image. The NIR band was assigned to the Red video gun, the red band was assigned to the Green video gun, and the green band was assigned to the Blue video gun. The Histograrn-Equalisation contrast enhancement was used to improve visual interpretation of the false color image. This enhancernent is particularly useful in improvhg visualisation as it spread the range of pixel values present in the input image over the fùll range of the display device, which is usually 256 levels (Mather, 1987). To adjust the geometric distortion and to give the imagery a deand the projection properties of a map, the enhanced fdse color image was geocorrected according to the procedure outlined in section 4.3. Finaily, the geocorrected enhanced false color image was printed on a Tektronix 4696 color dot matrix printer at the scale of 1:20000 and plasticised for field use. Figure 5.1 represents a modified (i.e. smaller scale, different

coordinates grid, printed for this thesis on Color LaserWriter 1U600PS laserjet printer) version of the plasticised enhanced false color image.

5.2 Field methods Between Jwie 15 and Augua 1, 1995, the ground truthing of the False color image was ched out. To help the ground tmthing of the fdse wlor image, the 10 land cover classes on the ~pe~~edclassincation map were identified (see section 5.4). The ground truthing of the fdse color was done by tracing recognisable feahires on a mylar layer superimposeci over the geocorrected Mse color image with the help of an unsupe~sedclassification of the Lowland and previously published maps (Muc, 1977, Plant communities in the Truelove Lowland; Bliss, 1977, Major features and place names of Truelove Lowland; and Krupicka, 1977, Bedrock Geology of Truelove Lowland). The recognised and traced cover types were assigneci a color not fiom the inconsistent pnnted enhanced false wlor image but f?om the colors has shown by an enhanced false color image on a color monitor with the DEC Ultrix 5 100. The 6 years of ciifference between the imagery sampling (July 24, 1989) and the present ground truthing (July, 1995) is oniy valid because of the relatively stable nature of the plant cornmunity distributions in the study area (Pearce, 1991).

5.3 Multi-spectral imagery and scale considerations The spectral value of a pixel (within a possible range of O to 255) representing the reflectance by difTerent surface ground covers, could represent a pure ground cover (e-g. water) or most likely a mixture of different micro-de ground covers (e.g. vegetation, soil). Moreover, the ground resolution of 20x29 meters of the imagery limits the recognition of srna11 features, such as ice-wedge depressions (1-2 m wide). Similarly, the spatial resolution of the satellite creates a "blocl@ view of ground covers and boundaries between them might be tnincated. It is important to understand the spectral reflectance of earth-surface materials as detected by SPOT'S multispectral sensors. As illustrated by the idealised Figure 4.1, there is a direct relationship between the vigorous vegetation and its reflectance values in the NIR band (due to leaf structure, water content), which should be useful in diierentiating the vegetation cover in the Tdove Lowiand. The green band has a smaller refiectaace peak (green vegetation reflects green wavelengths) and the red band has smdi reflectance values (green vegetation absorbs red wavelengths). Surface water emits very little in the NIR band, which wuld be useful for moisture recognition, while the water reflects relatively well in the visible bands. The green band has reflectance values for water higher than for vegetation, but lower than for bare soils, while the red band has lower water reflectance values than the reflectance values for soil and vegetation. For bare soifs, between the green and NI.wavelengths, the longer the wavelength, the higher the reflectance.

5.4 Description and discussion of visuaiiy recognisable ground covers From the unsuperviseci classification, 10 land cover classes were identified in the field: lichen-cushion plant, cushion plant-lichen, cushion plant-moss, hurnrnocky sedge- moss meadow, frost-boil sedge-moss meadow, wet sedge-moss meadow, dolomitic rock outcrops, Fmmbrian rock outcrops, lake water, and lake ice. The following descriptions and discussion of the colors of the enhanceci fdse color image for the Truelove Lowland (as seen on the display monitor), shows that a wide array of ground cover types can be sensed (Table 5.1). However, some field interpretations were difficult due to the poor printing quality of the printed enhanced false color image.

Raised Beach (gry@ink colors) Light grey dors seem to represent the poorly vegetated raised beach ridges with lichen-cushion plant and cushion plant-lichen communities. The crests and upper slopes are generally sparsely vegetated, dominated (8 5-90%) by bare mils (Svoboda, 1977) which include sands, grave1, and cobbles (Muc and Bliss, 1977). Thus, the crest and upper slopes behave spectrally very similar to a bare soi4 with high radiance in the three bands (Figure 4.1, Appendk 9). The very light grey wlor seems to represent the poorly vegetated lichen-cushion plant community, wMe the light grey color seems to be the TABLE 5.1 Results nom the Ground Truthing of SPOT false color image.

Display Color Grouad cover type

Bright red Peat plateau and lu& sedge-moss meadow wmmunity (productive vegetation; Pearce, 199 1)

Dark reddish/brown Hummocky sedgemoss meadow cornmunity

Light reddishhrown Frost- boil sedge-moss cornmunity

Dark grey Moist hummocky sedge-moss meadow community (reiatively high water table)

Very dark brown Wet sedge-moss meadow community (water saturated)

Green Shallow lakes and ponds

Light blue Lakes with suspended sediment

Dark blue Precambrian crystalhe complex outcrops (with prostrateldwarf shmb community)

Light grey Lichen-aishion-plant, cushion-plant-lichen comrnunities (raised beach crest and upper fore/backslope)

Light pink-grey Cushion plant-moss wmmunity (raised beach middle-lower foreslope/backslope)

White Cambrian dolomite outcrop and Rocky Point, sea-ice, lake-ice

BIack Deep water cushion plant-lichen cornrnunity mostly in the crest and the upper dope positions, which encompass different proportions of bare soil and vegetation (Svoboda, 1977). The mid and lower dope zones of the raid beach (foredope, backslope) are represented by Light pink-grey colors, adjacent to the white wlor of beach upperslopes- crest. The surf" of these dopes are mostly vegetated by the cushion plant-moss community (Muc and, Bliss, 1977), with only 0-100/o bare soils (Svoboda, 1977). Although the vegetative cover approaches 1Wh, the light puik-grey color demonstrates, the poor lushness of the plant cover. Nevertheless, the Light pink colors could indicate that some vegetation is present, resulting in some reflectance in the NIR band.

Meadows (re&ish brmcolors) The reddish brown colors on the false coiour image seem to be associated with both the hummocky sedge-moss and frost-boil sedge-moss meadow communities (Muc and Bliss, 1977) which are located between the raised beaches (greylpink colors) and lakes (black). The meadow's reddish brown colors seem to be created by the important reflectance of vegetation in the NIR band (rd color) and, to a smaller degree, some color rnixing with the green and red bands (blue and green color) to achieve a brown color. The light reddish-brown colors seem to correspond to the East-boil sedge-moss meadow comrnunity. Approhately 50% of their total suface ara is covered by bare soil surfaces (%est-boils"; Muc and Bliss, 1977), which could contnbute to lighter colors because of the higher reflectance in the Green and Red bands for bare soils (Figure 4.1). The vegetated part of the fkost-boil sedge-moss meadow cornrnunity, comprised of sedges and mosses, would reflect weakly in the mixing with the small reflectance in the green band and the absorption of the red wavelengths (Figure 4.1). These plant community colors are mostly located on the central and south portion of the Lowland, which corresponds very well with the observations by Muc (1977). The dark reddish brown color usually corresponds with the hummocky sedge-moss meadow community, which has close to 10W of its surface covered by sedges and mosses, according to Muc and Bliss (1977). Compared with the fiost-boil sedge-moss meadow community color, it seerns to contain more red, possibly due to higher arnounts of vegetation and reflectance in the NIR (Figure 4.1). This color is found mostly in the lower meadow areas. These hummocky sedge-moss meadow and frost-boil sedge-moss meadow plant communities were mapped by Pearce (1991) with the same satellite Unagery. The next four meadow ground covers were not separated by Pearce (199 1) but the present ground truthing suggests a possible separation. Other satellite mapping studies (Felix and Binney, 1989; Fergusun, 1990; Markon and Derksen, 1994; Gratto-Trevor, 1996; Momson, 1997) suggest that these ground covers could be spectrdy ditferent and recognised within the present ground resolution. Dark grey to dark brown coiors could possibly represent hummoclq sedge-rnoss meadows under waterlogged conditions, as found in 1989. This community is diierent fiom the regular hummocky sedge-moss cornmunity because it is found in relatively moister areas around the edges of lakes and ponds. Usualiy, a sharp boundary is observeci between the lake and this plant community because of the elevated nature of the hummocks. The darker color could be attributed to the high moisture condition. For this land cover, field conditions seem to be similar in moisture conditions to 1989, since observation of the extent of this land cover is consistent between the image and the ground. Very dark brown colors seem to represent wet sedge-moss meadows, which are restricted to sites with a high water table located around the margins of lakes or in shallow ponds (max. 10 cm deep). The very dark wlor could be explaineci by the high absorption of water in the NIR band. Bright red colors were found to represent lush conditions (bright green vegetation color, highest production (Pearce, 1991)) of the hummocb sedge-moss meadow comrnunity located around the Beschel Lakes. On the ground, they are visually different f?om normal hummocky sedge-rnoss meadow community because of the bright green colour of both the sedges and the mosses. In spite of the waterlogged conditions (probably present in 1989 as well, but not mentioned by Pearce (1991)), it is suspected that the vigorous vegetation associateci with these meadows produces unique bright red colon on the image due to very high reflectance in the NIR (Figure 4.1). Most of the cornrnunities were waterlogged during the field season, with low levels of clyoturbation (low density and height of hummocks). Muc (1977) classified this area as humrnocky sedge-moss meadow; however, as Pearce (1991) noted, this area is clearly more productive than other meadows depicted on the image. From field observation, it was confimeci that these meadows are a predorninant muskox grazing area (Pearce 199 1) due to theû lush vegetation (highly productive). Although not dinerentiated by Pearce (199 1), bright red colors also seem to represent widely distributed ice-wedge polygons (Muc, 1977) where sedges and mosses (MW and Bliss, 1977) grow vigorously because of the thick peaty organic layer (>40 cm, C.S. SC., 1992). These areas, studied by Somr (1 99 l), were classified as polygonated peat plateaus. The extremely high reflectance in the NIR could be due to the presence of relatively vigorous green vegetation in the peat areas and relatively low moisture conditions. The visual separation of colors was a problem, because of the similarity with the lush hummocky sedge-rnoss meadows.

Precamh-ian crystaIIine complex cad Cam6nan dolomite outcrops Dark blue wlors seem to represent the crystalline complex outcrops and the sedimentary plains in the Truelove Valley. On crystalline complex rock outcrops, the dwarf shrubheath plant communities cover 38% of the dace (Muc and Bliss, 1977; Pearce, 1991). The bluish color cornes from the green color of the rock and plants and linle reflectance in the Red and NIR bands. The white color can be interpreted as the dolomite escarpment and plateau to the east of the Lowland, and as the Rocky Point dolornitic peninsula. Both locations are mostly barren of vegetation and contain fi-ost- shattered rocks and bare rock pavement. The color can be explained by the high reflectance in the Green and Red bands due to the light color and the absence of vegetation combined with sorne reflectance in the NIR band.

Water and ice Water is observed eveqwhere on the Truelove Lowland image in the fom of lakes, ponds, and rivers, and on the periphery as sea water. The black color represents deep water with the absence of reflectance (Mather, 1987). The dark green colon can be interpreted as shdow lakes, and ponds. The Red band seems to correspond to some bare soil reflectance, suggesting the bottom Sediments of the water bodies. The light blue colors represent water containhg a considerable sediment load (e.g. Loon Lake). Lake ice and sea ice are white because they reflect most of the visible and NIR wavelengths.

5.5 Conduding statement The ground tmthing investigation of the enhanced false color image of the Truelove Lowland reveded that SPOT sensing capabiiïties and ground resolution cm recognise a wide range of ground covers fkom rock outcrops, to water, and ice. In fact, the enhanced composite image seens to indicate the presence of eight MO-scale plant communities. These can be dehed by the modifieci Muc and Bliss (1977) and Svovoda (1 977) plant communities described in the previous chapter : lichen-cushion plant, cushion plant-lichen, cushion plant-moss, hummocky sedge moss meadow, frost boil sedge-moss meadow, moist hummocky sedge moss meadow, wet sedge-moss meadow, lush sedge- moss meadow, and peat plateau. In addition, four macro-sale unvegetated ground cover types were associated with the enhanced composite image: water, ice, dolomite outcrops, and crystaliine complex outcrops. This visual recognition could represent a wider discrimination of plant communities than either areal photographs (Muc, 1977) or previous SPOT classifications (Pearce, 1991). However, the ground resolution of 20x29 m is unlikely to recognise srnail areas of ground cover, uich as ice-wedge polygons, and the cushion plant-moss with fiost-boils cornmunity (Muc and Bliss, 1977). Aithough the visual interpretation of the fdse color image gave the impression that many ground wvers cm be detected, a detailed differentiation investigation must be done. This differentiation can be done by looking at selected ground cover spectral statistics (Mean, Standard Deviation). Thus, the next chapter investigates the spectral separability of chosen ground cover types found in the study area, based on a selected areas on the imagery, for the purposes of classification and rnapping of plant cummunity - soil associations. CHAPTER VI

SELECIlON AND INVESTIGATION OF IlMAGEXY SPECrnCLASSES

6.0 Introduction Knowledge gained during ground truthing conceming the relation between the fdse color imagery colors and adground fatwes aiiows the anaiyst to choose specific image classes and representative tralliing samples that will serve as class signatures for the digital classification to map plant comrnunity - soi1 associations and other unvegetated cover types in the mapping area. In this way, proper selection of the image classes and training sites is important for the present purpose as well as the investigation of the separabiiity of the raw spectral values of image classes. The statistical representations (mean and standard deviation) of selected image classes have to be determined and evaluated for spectral difrentiation between chosen ground features classes, in order to limit the misclassification of pixels in classes during classification ( see chapter VQ).

6.1 Metbodology of the seleetion of image classes and their training samples 6.1.1 Selection of image classes The selection of the ground cover classes for classification is tùndamentai for to this study. The classification of chosen ground cover classes relies on the differentiation of their spectral values. Fust, for vegetated ground cover classes, according to the ground truthing and Pearce's (1991) study, the satellite data could almoa detect every plant community (Muc and Bliss, 1977; Svoboda, 1977) present in the plant community - soi1 associations (Table 3.5). Therefore, ail meadow plant mrnmunities were selected, including hurnrnocky çedge-rnoss meadow (HSMM), frost-boil sedge-moss meadow (FBSMM), wet sedge- moss meadow (WSMM), and peat plateau (PP). On the raised beaches, two plant communities were selected: the lichen-cushion plant cornrnunity (L-CP) and the aishion plant-lichen + cushion plant-moss community (CP-L+CP-M). Because the SPOT satellite resolution of 20 x 29 m will have difliculty deteaing the cushion plant-lichen community because of its small extent in width, the training samples were selected to combine it with the cushion plant-moss comrnunity since they share the same mils in the Brunisolic Subgroup. Moreover, the cushion plant-rnoss with fiost boils cornmunity and associateci Bmnisolic Turbic Cryosols was not selected because the satellite resolution was too coarse to recognise their sdextent in width. Since they are present in the mapping are. the spectral signatures of two unvegetated covers (water bodies and lake ice) were selected. Interestingly, based on ground truthing of the false color imagery, it is suspected that the satellite data muid possibly recopise two types of hummocky sedge-rnoss meadow cornmunity because of different moisture conditions. Thus, although not in the plant community - soi1 associations, the "moist hummocky sedge-moss meadow" (MHSMM) community's spectral signatures will be investigated and discussed for further studies. 6.1.2 Training samples The spectral signatures of the nine chosen unvegetated (lake water, lake ice) and vegetated (L-CP, CP-L+CP-M, HSMM, FBSMM, MHSMM, WSMM, PP) classes, were extracteci using IDRISI GIS for Wmdows (Clark University, 1996). This was done by digitising representative training areas on the imagery of the study area (Figure 6.1, Table 6.1). Training samples areas were digitised with chosen band images for better visualisation (Table 6.1) and, as possible, chosen in total pixel numbers of more than 90 (Table 6.1). The 90 pixel Etis suggested by Mather (1987) where the sampling should have a minimum total of 30 x P pkels for a sampled cover type, where P is the number of spectral band used in the classification (three in this study). To gather sufficient numbers of pixels for each class and with a homogenous representation, multiple training sample were chosen for each class. However, a total sample size of 90 pixels for each class was not possible for the CP-L+CP-M (25 pixels), the MHSMM (27 pixels), and the WSMM (86 pixels) because of their relative@small extent on the ground and therefore small extent on the SPOT images. FIGURE 6.1 Approximate location of training sample polygons for eight land cover classes on the geocorrected false-color image of the Truelove Lowland TABLE 6.1 Land cover classes sampling size and the specnal bands used for tracing the polygons

Landa~ver L-CP CP-L+ HSMM FBSMM MHSMM WS- PP Lake- Lake- classes MM water iœ CP-M Number of 363 25* 139 148 27* 864' 109 562 209 pixeis R R G-R- NIR G-R- G-R- G-R G-R spectral NIR NIR NIR - NJR NTR banas) uxi for digitking

* the minimum sampling size of 90 pixels ddnot reacfied for these classes because of their lack of weii representated areas. Thirdy, as suggested by Mather (1987), in order to keep the training sites as pure as possible (with a unimodal distriiution), the observed untypical pixels were rejected in the digitising process. The training sites were chosen inside and outside the mapping area in order to optimise the selection of large, relatively homogeneous, polygons and to produce homogewous spectral signatures.

6.2 Investigation of the spectral vaiucs for the nine classes The spectfai values for the nine classes were collecteci to provide spectral signatures of recognisable land cover types present in the study area. The spectral signatures of these nine classes (L-CP,CP-L+CP-M, HSMM, FBSMM, MHSMM, WSMM, PP, lake ice, lake water) are summarised in Appendii 9. To provide a graphical view of the separation between different vegetation classes, spectral plots (Jandel Scientific, 1996) (Figure 6.2) were produced for the red, green, near-infiareci, and enhanceci NIR bands. The statistical nature of training samples, mainly defined by the mean and the standard deviation (S.D.),shows adequate separation among classes (Figure 6.2) in specific bands (discussed below). The term "distinct or adequate separation" is defined as the mean and standard deviation of the classes show no overlapping. In this way, the adequate separation, combined with an adequate sarnple size on most cases, provides a valid statistical (mean and standard deviation) estimate of spectral signatures for a "Maximum Likelihood" supe~sedclassification. The spectral signatures of the raised beach plant community classes (L-CP,CP- L+CP-M) are usually unique. They are mostly distinct in the visible band images, in terms of mean and standard deviation. In the NIR the "raised beach" classes look the same as the HSMM and FBSMM. This resulted in the use of visible band images in the classification to support the differentiation of raised beach plant community classes. Although the CP-L+CP-M classes are of lirnited size (25 pixels), they are less likely to be misclassined because their spectral signature is fairly distinct in the visible bands. The spectral signatures of meadow plant cornmunity classes (HSMM, FBSMM, WSh4M, PP) are also fairly unique in some bands. In the visible bands, these classes overlap, however, FIGURE 6.2 Spectral plots for vegetated land cover classes radiance data (mean and standard deviation of the pixel digital number) on the Truelove Lowland, July 24,1989.

GREEN RED dbr

NEAR 4NFRARED STRETCH NEARJNFRARED (scaie: 5X)

Image classes (cover type) acronyms:

L-CP: lichen-cushion plant CP-L+CP-M: cushion plant-lichen+cushion plant-moss HSMM: hummocky sedge-moss meadow FBSMM: frost-boil sedge-moss meadow MHSMM: moist hummocky sedge-moss meadow WSMM: wet sedge-moss meadow PP: peat plateau some separation exist in the NIR and SNIR bands. The means of the class signatures are clearly different, but the standard deviations do overlap in some cases (e-g. CP-UCP-M versus FBSMM) (Figure 6.2). Thus, separation of meadow plant cumrnunity classes is attempted by using an Sared band image in the classification. Lake ice and lake water classes obviously have unique spectral signatures (Appendk 9), particularly in the near- inFared band. Consequently, in order for the supe~sedclassification to accomplish an accurate classification of pixels, both visible and infi.ared bands will be used in the classification.

6.3 Concluding statement Present objectives to map plant community - soi1 associations has lead to the choice of spdc ground cover classes to be mapped (L-CP, CP-L+CP-M, HSMM, FBSMM, WSMM, PP, lake water and lake ice). Moreover, although not considered in the plant. community - soil associations, it is believed that the wetter version of the humocky sedge-moss meadow cornrnunity (MHSMM) is spectral1y di fferent and mappable. The spectral signatures of the chosen classes have been extracted in training sarnples and evaluated. This chapter has demonstrated that, in particular bands, spectral classes showed statistical (mean and standard deviation) distinction. More precisely, it was found that visible bands are particularly useful at separating the raised beach community classes, while near-infiared bands are more usefiil in differentiating the meadow community classes, the lake water class, and the lake ice class. Thus, the supe~sedclassification resulted in eight distinct classes, based on their raw spectral signatures in the four spectral bands. ClB[APTERVI1[

PRODUCTION OF PLANT COMMUNITY- SOIL ASSOCIATIONS MAPS

7.0 Introduction As discussed in the previous chapters, the Truelove Lowland SPOT imagery was classified using the statistical radiance data of the eight classes (L-CP, CP-L+CP-M, HSMM, FBSMM, WSMM, PP, water, and ice) to map the plant cornrnunity - soi1 associations and water bodies within the rnapping area. Two maps were produced with different two combinations of speîtral bands (G-R-NIR and G-R-SNIR.) to ver@ the moa appropnate for the present purposes. This chapter shows the mapped results of the classification.

7.1 Results of the supervised classifications Eight land cover classes (6 vegetated and 2 water bodies) spectral signature were used to classify ail pixels within the mapping area (13 -72 km2), from the SPOT G-R-NIR and G-R-SNIRdata (Table 7.1, Figure 7.1, Figure 7.2). In the mapping legend (Table 74,each vegetated land cover class is linked with its associated soii, as documented in the plant community - soi1 mode1 (Figure 3-6). Area estimates (km2and % total cover) for each class are given in Table 7.2. The first class is the lichen-cushion plant comrnunity associated with Regosolic Static Cryosols. This class is sparsely represented as it is found on only a few raised beach crests (areas of 0.57 km2(G-R-NIR) and 0.42 km2(G-R-SNIR)), where vegetation cover is very minimal. The second class is the aishion plant-lichen comrnunity associated with Bninisolic Static Cryosols. This class is the second moa important class in the mapping area (areas of 2.09 and 2.23 km2), and mostly represents the plant comrnunities and soils of the slopes and crests of the numerous raid beaches. The third class is the humrnocky sedge-moss meadow community on Gleysolic Static Cryosols. This class, located in meadows, is the largest ciass in the mapping area (areas of 2.60 and 3.16 km2). The

TABLE 7.2 Results of the superviseci chssiïfication using two combinations of bands

Associations of plant G-R-NIR G-R-SNIR community & soi1 classes km2 % area km2 % area Lichen-cushion plant & 0.57 4.16 0.42 3 -04 Regosolic Static Cryosol Cushion plant-lichen + aishion plant-moss 2.09 15.23 2.23 16.16 & Brunisolic static Cryosol Hummocky seâge-moss meadow & 2.60 18.93 3.16 23.03 Gleysolic Static Cryosol Frost-boil sedge-moss meadow & 2.16 15.71 1.76 12.8 1 Gleysolic Turbic Cryosol Wet sedgemoss meadow & 1.O2 7.46 1.24 9.04 Fibric Organo Cryosol Peat plateaus & Glacic Fibric Organo 0.09 0.68 O. 17 1.27 Cryosol Lake waterhce 5.19 37.83 4.74 34.55 Total 13.72 1 00 13.72 100 fourth clas is the frost-boii sedgemou meadow community with Gleysolic Turbic Cryosols. This widely present class (areas of 2.16 and 1.76 km2)is found in cryoturbated meadow environments. The fifth class is the wet sedge-moss meadow comrnunity associated with Fibric Organo Cryosols; this class represents the vegetated waterlogged environment around ponds and lakes (areas of 1.02 and 1-24 km2). The sixth class is the peat plateau cornmunity associated with Glacic Fibnc Organo Cryosols. This smallest class in the study area consists of the elevated dry peat conditions described in detail by Som (1991) with areas of 0.09 and 0.17 km2. FinaUy, the seventh class is that of the water bodies, which ocnipies either 5-19 kxd (G-R-NTR) or 4.74 km2 (G-R-Sm) of the mapping are* and includes lake water (class 7) and lake ice (class 8) classes. Training areas were not assessed for their accuracy, for the reason that the classification accuracy was evaluated by an alternative method. Comparison between the classified pixels only along ground transect (Rogers, in progress), aligned with locational information, has revealed an accuracy of the two maps are in the order of 50% for G-R- NIR and 48% for G-R-SIR (Table 7.3). These low accuracy results should be interpreted carefully. The pixel coordinates did not correspond exactly with the actual plant cornmunity boundaries (see section 4.7), thereby creating substantial accuracy assessrnent errors. In fuWe studies, with a more accurate geometnc correction for the whole image, the sarnple site of compared pixels dong a transect should be as large as possible, since any pixels on the imagery could be compared with actual ground cover found along transect two. However, the comparison between Roger's (in progress) plant community transect two and the two classified images, only provides preliminary accuracy resuits. Nevertheless, it does provide a framework for future studies. The mapped results and the accuracy produced by the two classifications are extremely close (Tables 7.2 and 7.3). From these results, t is difficult to determine which band combination is the most appropriate for the present purposes. However, the two combinations did produce slightly different classifications of the plant communities. The map produced using the G-R-NIR combination seems to have been able to better recognise meadow communities. Larger areas of meadow communities are identified with a greater amacy than achieved by the G-R-SNIR combination (Table 7.2) (one TABLE 7.3 Correlatioa and acairacy assesment between field plant communities data and classified plant cornmunities pixds dong traosea two sampled by Rogers (ii progress).

1 Cushion plant-lichen Hummocky sedge-moss meadow 2 Cushion plant-moss 'wet dge-moss rneadow 10 Wat er exception is the FBSMM - GSC class): the G-R-SNIR combination seems to have overestirnated the distribution of the peat plateau * GFOC class, especidy in the south- eastem corners of Phalarope and Fish Lakes, when compared to Walker (1977) and personal observations. It is believed that, in these areas, the peat plateau - GFOC class was confùsed with the HSMM - GSC class. In the raised beach classes, the G-R-NIR combination produced a larger area of the L-CP cr RSC class and derarea of the CP-L + CP-M * BSC class compared to the G-R-Sm combination. Although it appears to have achieved a greater classification accuracy in meadows, the G-R-NIR combination's overestimation of the distribution of the L-CP * RSC class seems to have corne 6om misclassifications dong the lake shorelines (Figure 7.2). This misclassification is not seen in the G-R-SNIR map, and thus the distribution of the L-CP cr RSC class is more accurate in the G-R-SNIRmap. Finaliy, it is believed that the 50% accuracy of the classifieci maps of the plant community - soi1 associations are an underestimation of their real accuracy. This staternent is based upon the fact that map classes foUow the documenteci plant community - soi1 toposequence nom raid beaches to adjacent meadows (in the study ara) (Waiker and Peters, 1977; Walker, 1977; Muc and Biiss, 1977; Muc, 1977; and Figure 3 -6). For example, the raised beach south-west of Phalarope lake shows a typicai sequence of plant comrnunity and soi1 classes between the raised beach crest and the small pond: 1. L-CP

RSC, 2. CP-L + CP-M c-+ BSC, 3. HSMM GSC, 4. WSMM * FOC, and 5. water bodies. This sequence is seen throughout the two maps and presents evidence of the adequacy of the training sample selection and classification.

7.2 Discussion In the present exercise, plant communities and soiis in the mapping area were mapped as associations. The discrimination of six plant cornmunities and their associated mils was due to the spectral distllictiveness of these plant communities and the inciusion of aII possible plant comrnunities. This study is a first in mapping soifs in the Arctic using the combination of satellite imagery and plant community - soi1 associations. The prelirninary accuracy figures, who are believed to be underestimated, are not fa for king adequate when compared to the soil mapping accuracy achieved using air-photo interpretation techniques (60%) (Valenthe, 1978). Unfomtnately, the present mil mapping rdts cannot be compared statistically with those of Walker (1976) since he did not calculate the areal extent of mils. A digitised map format of both the plant community rnap (Muc and Bliss, 1977) and the mils map (Walker, 1976) could have been compared with the present results. However, as shown by the pixel by pixel acairacy assessment, the geommection errors might have caused significant errors, not justif4ring the work invoived to digitised these maps. Plant community rnapping in the Arctic using satellite imagery has gained some importance because, as the present study has shown, the sensing capabilities and ground resolution of the imagery permit the recognition of plant communities. The mapping accuracy for plant communities achieved in this study is not easy to compare with other studies. The reasons for this are that, first, few studies assess their acwacy (Ferguson, 199 1 and Momson, 1997). Second, there are no standards for the terminology of arctic tundra plant comrnunities. Fialiy, some total accuracy figures (88%: Ferguson, 199 1); 90%: Momson, 1997) are exaggerated in terms of plant mapping accuracy because they incorporate open water classes (usudy 10W well classineci) in their total classification. if accurate ground wordinates are available, the pixel by pixel accuracy assessment is a valid method for determinhg amacy, since direct ground image verifkation is done. The confision math method for acairacy assessment (using training areas) should be used, and possïbly combined with the pixel by pixel acairacy method (with more accurate positioning, which is lacking in this study). The supe~sedclassification of the mapping area has produced relative areal extents of plant communities which are sirnilar to those produced by Muc and Bliss (1977) and Pearce (1991), which covered the full extent of the Truelove Lowland (Table 7.4). The areal extents of the raised beach and rneadow communities determineci by Muc and Bliss (1977) and Pearce (1991) and the present study, only differs by approximately 1%. This suggest that the mapping area was representative of the Truelove Lowland and that the present methodology has successfilly classifiecl plant wmmunities. In addition, the SPOT imagery with supervisai classification methodology was probably ~ccessfùlin TABLE 7.4 Adjusted areal extent (%) cornparison of plant comunities in the Truelove Lowland, without the dwarf shboutcrops and water, compared to the present rnapping area.

Plant communities Bliss Pearce This study (modified Muc and Bliss, (1977, p.6 ) (199 1, p.54) G-R-ME2 G-R-SNIR 1977; Svoboda, 1977) RAISED BEACH 30.8 33.9 31.2 29.4 Cushion ph-lichen 8.4 * * * Cushion plant-moss 22.4 t * * Lichenashion plant 6.7 4.7 Cushion plant-lichen+ 24.5 24.7 cushion plant-moss

SEDGEMOSS MEADOWS 69.3 Hummocky sedge-moss 34.6 Frost-ôoil sedge-moss 3 1.2 Wet sedge-mess 3.5 Peat phteau a.5 '

not rnapped ' Muc and Bliss (1977, p. 150) detecting and rnapping, raised beach and meadow environments in relatively more detail than previous vegetation rnaps (see Table 7.4). SPOT imagery, especially the NIR band, has proven to be extrernely usefiil in leading to the rnapping of most plant communities present in the mapping area. For the £httirne, t is believed, from ground reconnaissance, that peat plateau wmmunity was rnapped successf.uIIy, especially with the G-R-NIR rnap. Moreover, the present methodology might potentially provide recognition and mapping of moisture differences within plant wmrnunities, for example in the moist humrnocky sedge-moss meadow (Appendix 10). Even if the present mapping exercise represents land cover characteristics only on July 24, 1989, the six year gap between the image capture and the ground tmthing and classification, is believed to have a negiigible effect on the mapping accuracy, since Pearce (1991) observeci that even after a 15 yevs time lag, there had been "no major change in the distribution of plant communities" (p.52). This suggest a relatively slow rate of plant growth and change in the distributions of plant communities in the Trueiove Lowland. Seasonal variations in land cover will likely affect the mapping accuracy and might have caused some ground truthing errors, since surface colors, moisture conditions and vegetation conditions might not have been exactly the same as July 24, 1989.

7.3 Conduding statement Six plant cornmunity - soil associations, and water bodies (lake ice and lake water) can be mapped in the Tmelove Lowland using a supervised classification of SPOT satellite data. No wmbination of bands (G-R-NIRand G-R-Sm) can be nominated as the best combination to map plant community - soi1 associations since the accuracy results are too similar. However, the G-R-NIRband wmbination appears to able to better recognise the meadow community associations, while G-R-SNIR band combinations seem to able to better recognise raised beach community associations. The accuracy of the plant community - soil map is believed to be reasonable for any ground surveys. Although a preliminary accuracy assessment reveals the accuracy to be around SO%, it is believed to have underestimated the accuracy of the maps. Assuming that previous studies were accurate, the mapped plant comrnunities compare, at a general levei, to be 99%; similar

Cui temu of % coverage) to two other mapping exercises in the study area. It is an improvement over the Pearce (1991) map, in terms of the nurnber of plant communities mapped with SPOT imagery, and an improvement over the maps produced by Muc (1977) and Walker (1997) in terms of the detection and mapping of previously indistinct classes. The acwacy of the soil rnapping cannot be cornparad with Walker (1977), as he did not produce the % extent of the mapped soiis. In this shidy, mapped soils and plant communities foiiow the typical toposequence of lichen-aishion plant~Regosolicstatic Cryosol to wet sedge-moss meadow * Fibric Organo Cryosol, as described in the created plant wmmunity - soi1 mode1 (Figure 3.6) which really demonstrates the effsctiveness of this new application for satellite mapping. CHAPTERVIII

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This thesis presatts a new appücation for SPOT imagery in mapping arctic tundra comunities and associateci mils. It was accompLished by witing the strong &g capabiiity of SPOT sateiiite imagery with digitai ciassification techniques to map plant comrnumties, accordhg to a predidive model of plant community - soi1 dons. The significance of tbis application lies in both the recognition of signifiant environmental associations in an arctic tundra environment and in the thkation of high resolution SPOT satellite irnagery to map these associations in detail.

8.1 The investigation of phnt community - soü associations The first major objective of this study was to undertake an examination and investigation of macro-sale plant communities, soils and their associations in a representative part of the Tnielove Lowland. The Tmelove Lowland is an ideai site for the development of this application because of its variety of plant comrnunities and soils. The thesis has shown that the previously doaunented plant comrnunities (Bliss, 1977), Cryosolic so8 (Walker, 1W6), plant comunity - soi1 associations (Wdker and Peters, 1977) and plant community mapping with SPOT satellite imagery (Pearce, 1991), on the Truelove Lowland were ail present to provide the initial fhmework to demonstrate a new application. The fiterature related to plant cornmunity - soil associations emphasize thai the rebbii of assoaations in well-drained conditions is vq gdbut that the reIiabiiity is not as good in pooriy-drained conditions. This thesis has demonstrateci, through field investigations of sampüng sites in the sîudy are% that the possibility of predicting mils and their boundaries fiom the plant community cover is generaiiy very good, in both well-drained and pooriy-drained enWoments (L-CP MC,

CP-Le-M c* BSC, HSMM GSC, FBSMM * GTC, WSMM +-* FOC, PP GFOC). It is found that plant wrnmunity - soii associations can be generalised and displayed at specific slope positions on an idealid toposequence. Howwer, there is some redundancy in the upperslope associations that can be found in some areas on the crest position of a toposequence (Figure 3.6). Thus, the soii predictions are best ïmde purely on plant comrnunity - soi1 associations (Table 3.5) and not on siope positions. The field investigation and resutts of the plant mmmunity - soü associatons have improved WaIker and Peters' (1977) plant cormniaity - soil associafions in temis of the munber of asso&tions recognised and their predictabiiity. The assoaation between plant commumties and soil types was done by examination of the nature and boundaries of plant wmmunities and mils, the consideration of al recognisable modifieci Muc and Bliss (1 977) and Svoboda (1977) plant cornmunities, and the consideration of ail soils present in the study area according to the pedon concept and the Canadian System of Soii Classification (C. S. SC, 1992).

8.2 The capabüities of SPOT imagery for rnapping plant community - soi1 associations The second major objective is to asartah the capabilities of SPOT muiti-specnal imagery to recognise plant communities and to iden@ the plant communities to be used in defining plant cornrnunity - mil itssociations. First, the ground ûuthing of SPOT enhanced fase culor imagery for the Truelove lowland has shown that the sensing capabiility of this platforni can recognise a wider range of land ground covers than reco&nised by the unsupervised clasgfication and in the Pearce (1991) study: Seven plant comrndes (L-CP, CP-LKP-w HSMM, FsSMM, WSWPP and WHSMh4), dolomite and Precambrian cornplex outcrops, water bodies with ciiffirent depth and sediment loads, and ice are recognisable by visuai inspection of the enhanced fàlse color image. The satellite resolution of 20 m by 29 m reaches its litnits when trying to discriminate smaü area ground covers such as patterned ground features and smail plant cornmunities (e-g. aishion plant-moss with fiost boh). The multi-spectral bands have been used to the Mt in terms of the recognition of plant comrnunities. Second, in order to map plant community - soi1 assoaations, a number of training samples were used to Spearany characterise eight classes of specific ground cover (L-CP, CP- Lm-h4, HSMiM, FBSMM, WSMM, PP, mer, and ice). Spectral due staîistics of the eight chhave showed some dhtktion in specific bands (green, red, near-idad, and stretch near-inhred), which is a condition for the low riiisclassifdon enon of pixels. It was found that Visible bands were partiakiy useful at separating the raid beach community classe$ while near-infked bands were more useful in differaitiating the meadow community ciasses, water and ice.

8.3 The production of pîant community - mil associations maps ushg SPOT imagecy The third major objective of this study was to produce a composite plant community - mil assOaations map using satellite Vnagery in accordance with the previously derived plant community - soil associations model. Mapphg of the plant communities present in the plant comznunity - soil model was Camed out with the senshg capaôilities of the SPOT imageiy combinecl with a supervised claddon. Soils were aSSOciated to each plant comrnunity in the legend. The supervised classification, using a Maximum Likelihood Classiner, classified each pixel of the combination of bands (G-R-NIR and G-R-Sm) into the mon likely of the eight sample classes. Two plant community - soii association maps (G-R-NIRand G-

R-SNIR) were produced with six plant cornmunities and associated soils (L-CP t, RSC,

CP-L+CP-M ct BSC, HSMM GSC, FBSMM * GTC, WSMM ++ FOC, PP GFOC), and water bodies (water and ice classes combinai). The resulting plant community - soi1 association maps demonstrated plant cornmunity patterns that are very similar to the maps of Muc and Bliss (1977) and Pearce (1991) in terms of % coverage. The SPOT-bas& maps provide an improvement in the nurnber of mapped plant comrnunities, as measured by Pearce (1991) and some improvement in the detection of certain plant communities mapped by Muc (1 977). In fulfilment of the last minor objective, a tentative empirical accuracy assessrnent of the plant cornmunity - soi1 associations maps was done. A cornparison between only 48 classified pixels dong ground transect (Rogers, in progress), aligned with locational information, has revealed an accuracy of the two maps of an order of 50% for G-R-NIR and 48% for G-R-SIR (Table 7.3). These low accuracy results should be interpreted carefùlly. The pixel coordinates did not correspond exactly with the actud plant community boundaries (see section 4.7). thereby creating substantial awacy assessrnent mors. The classification accuracy is believed to be underestimatd in that the mapped plant community - soi1 associations acairately follow a typicd toposequence trend. It is difncuit to determine which band combination is the most appropriate for the present purposes. However, the two combinations used did produce slightly dserent classifications of the plant communities. The map produced using the G-R-NIR combination seerns to have been able to better recognise meadow communities, while the G-R-SNIR map seems to have been better at recognising raiseci beach classes.

8.4 Recommendations for future mearch Some recommendations on future improvements and mer research are outiined below. Fi,the field mettiods were successful in gathering data conceming plant community - soi1 associations. Howwer, a larger number of ~â~plingsites is recommended to Mer corn the validity of associations, partiailarty where a plant cornmunity seans to correspond to two types of mil. Moreover, the boundaries between associations couid have been better descni by a larger nurnber of sampling sites. Although the presait study has revealed that the width of the boundary between associations is less than a meter, investigations in other areas shodd be made to validate this proposition The sampling sites chosen within landscape components (meadow, raid beach: lowerslope, upperslope, and crest) were a logical fbmework for the determination of plant comrnunity - soil associations in the present study. Further studies should recognise that associations do not correspond always to a unique dope position The shailowness of the active layer has been a problem for associahg a soil type to the wet sedge-moss community. The shallowness of the active layer did not permit the observation of either the 40 cm of C minera1 horizon needed for classification as a Gleysolic Static Cryosol, or the greater than 40 cm of organic matenal needed for the soi1 to be classineci as a Fibric Organo Cryosol classification (C.S.S.C., 1992). Future midies should investigate the thickness of the peat in poorly drained areas and update the information on the present plant commUNty - soi1 associations. Further studies in the Tdove Lowland wiU be able to use the sucv9 grid (in meters) thaî has been estabLished by Rogers Ci progress). This wiU aüow ai! coiiected field data to be locafed and refdto the grid. Lab adysk of soil samples cen be short& by do@ soil anaIysk for classification purposes only (Total Organic Carbon, Total Cahnates, and Pyrophosphate-Extractable Iron and Al-). However, the other analvcplp inciuding moishne contm buik de,pH, and padcle Sue adysis are recommended to improve the understanding of the development of the soil. The present cMcafion has ody used speuralty Merent classes presait in the plant wmmunity mode1 and the study ma. The very important ground truullng and imagery spectral classes investigation has revealed the potential of the imagery. Moreover, future studies rnay want to separate and Wer cwplant communities based on different moimire levels (such as the present MHSMM, Appendix 10). To improve the quaiity and ease of the ground tmthing exercise, large scaie maps should be printed on a high resolution wlor laser printer. The digital fomiat of classified images, combined with the nature of the mapped information, can be manipuhted easily to show supplementary data. For example, in this thesis, the two maps produced can easiiy be aansformed to show the spatial extent of major ayotwbated areas in the study area, by simply combining the polygons that contain cryoturbated mils (Turbic Cryosols and Giacic Organo Cryosols) (Appendix 1 1). The sale and rnultiqxztd data of SPOT was veq usefûl in recognising MO-sale plant comunities in the study area. However, the accuracy of the classification seems limited, by both the lack of more spectral bands and the 20 x 29 m ground resolution of the imagery. The need for increased mapping accuracy could be met by using a new multi-spectral satellite pIatf0n-n(with possibly a moheband, i.e. TMS) with a ground resolution derthan 20 m This would catady limit the confùsion baween plant comunity classes dong edges and improve the homogeneity of plant wmmunity classes. ClasSncation accuracy wdd be ameliorated by integrating with a Digitai EldonMode1 of the study area. as an extra image showing dope gradients. It is reported (Su et al., 1990) that this integration increases accuracy of a MAxhum Likelihood classification by mininiising the heterogeneity within classes. An improved method for asessrnent of the ciadcation ac

In conchision, this ddisciplinary thesis integrzited the investigations of plant cornmunities - soil CiSSOCiafjons and th& possible recognition and mapping usuig SPOT images of the Truelove Lowiand, N.W.T..The combination of the mode1 and maps are unique and us& in the Arctic. The application dweloped in this thesis wiU also provide an initial framework for mapping assoCiations between environmental components in other geographical areas. APPENDIX 1 The Cryosolic Order soit classification

The C.S.S.C (1992) soi1 taxonomy for permafrost soils uses three levels of separation (Figure 2.5, p.18). The htlevel, the "Cryosoüc Order", recognises the regionai arctic climate as the most important soil fonning factor. The next level of separation comprises the three taxa at the "Great Group" level. Classification at the Great Group level is bas4 upon the dominant process present in the mil: organic accumulation, major cryoturbation, or minor cryoturbation. These three soii taxa are: (1) mineral soil with the presence of cryoturbation in more than 113 of the pedon (Turbic Cryosols); (2) minera1 soil with less than 1/3 of cryoturbation in the pedon (Static Cryosols); (3) organic soils (dace layer more than 40 cm thick that is more than 17% in weight in organic carbon) (Organo Cryosols). Finally, at the third level of separation the three taxa at the "Subgroup level" represent the degree of soi1 development which is tied rnainly to the soil forming factors of topography and the. Subgroups cary the label of the Order and the Great Groups. They are dflerentiated on the basis of the arrangement of soil horizons and horizon characteristics. This approach is better than dserentiating soils on the basis of soil genesis, which is not completely understood (C. S. S.C., 1992). The "Brunisolic" taxon (A-B-C horizons) is similar to Tedrow's genetic well-developed Arctic Brown soil group (WaIker, 1976, Table 5). It requires the presence of a Bm horizon (lightly altered) which must be at least 10 cm thick. The "Regosolic" taxon (A-C horizons) is a variant of Tedrow's freely drained Regosol soil order. There is an absence of a B horizon because of the excess drainage and a very thin Ah horizon because of the resulting bare surface. The "Gleysolic" taxon (AOC, horizons) agrees well with Tedrow's impeded drainage Tundra soil group (Walker , 1976, Table 5). Tt is charactensed by gleyed feahires (greyish color) and a less than 40 cm-thick organic surface layer (C.S.S.C., 1992). For the Organo Cryosols (peat), the Cryosolic subgroup classifications represent different levels of decomposition of the organic matter (degree of humification), which are Fibric (presence of obsewable fibres), Humic (humus state), and Mesic (between Fibric and Humic). Moreover, if the peat is ice-cored, the term "Glacic" is used in fiont of the subgroup classification.

WEST PHALAROPE LAKE TRANSECT

SAMPLMG SITE 3

Sampling date: July 7,1995 Sampling date: Juty 6,1995 htiononIransect: 145.5 m Lacation on tiançect: 169 m Appmximate elevation above sea level: 4 m Approximate elevation above sea level: 5 m Slope class and asped: very gent& sloping; west SIope class and aspect: gently sloping, west Drainage class: imperfectly drained Drainage class: well drained Laradfom: meaQwfiower dope Landfom: raised ôeach lower fomiope parent material: undifferentiated deposiübeach dqposit Parentmaterial: beachdeposit Patkmedgrounâ: microhummcks Patternedground: humniocks

Plant community: îxansition between hWsedge-mess Plant mmmunity : &on plant-mess rneadow and cushion plant-moss Subgnn~~soi1 ch: Bninisolic SUCCryml Subgroup soi1 class: Gleyçolic Sbtic Cryosol

Ah 154 cm;bkk (lOYR211 m) loamy sandy &y, fibrous; no stnidure; Ahk 154 cm;black (IOYR Zl m) loamy sand; amorphaus; h,few, fine plentifid, very fine roots; ctear, irregular boundary., 8-16 cm moïs; abrupt, smooth boundary., 13-18 cm thi& thick.

Ck 0115 cm; yellowish bnnvn (IOYR 514 m) Sand; siructmless; loose; Bmk 0-10 cm; Qrk yellowish brown (10YR 314 m ) Iqsand; very fw, fine roots. amorphouS., friable; very few, very fk mots; dm, wavy w,6- 10 cm chi&

10-23 cm;yellowish bmwn (lOYR 314) sand; structwless; loose.

Remads: A pebble munt of the C horimn wded that 60-70% of the clasts are Precambririan lithologies, There is intensive wleathering of sdbœ calcareous rock.

WEST PHALAROPE LAKE TRANSECT

SAMPLING SlTE 7 SAMPLING SITE 8

Sampling ci&: July 10, 1995 Sampling date: Juiy 10, 1W5 Location on trançed: 193 m Location on transed: 236.5 m Appmximaîe elwattion above sea level: 5.5 m AppmMte elewation above sea level: 4 m Slope class and aspect: very gently sloping; west Siop chand asped: very gently sloping; west Drainage class: well dtained Drainage class: poorly drained Landform: raiseû beach upper badcsiope Landfonn: meadow Parent material: khdeposit Parent material: UndifTetwliiated depdt Pattefnedgrwnd: hllmmdcs Plant mrnmunity : aishion plant-lichen Subgroup soil class: Brunisolic Staiic Cryosol Plant oummunity : hummody sedpmoss meadow Subgrwp soi1 class: Glqsolic SUCCryosol

LF-H 2-0 cm; bladc (IOYR 211 rn) fibrous to well decornorganic matter, amorphous; few, fine roots; ctear, smooth boundary. 25-0 cm; black (10YR 211 m)fibw to well deor,mposed organic matter, amorphouS., plentiîùi, hnt mots; dear, hgu& 13-36 cm Ahk 0-7 cm;dark bm(IOYR 3/3 m) sanciy loam; amorphous; very thick. friable; few fine mots; gadud, smooLh boumkuy. 0-20cm; pale olive (5Y 6/4 w) sanây loam; amorphous; very friable; Bmk 7-14cm; lighî dive brown (25Y 516 m) sand; mrphous; lm;no veryfew,velyfineroas;grarhialirregularbrnudary.,0-20thidL roots; mmmon, thick silt cuians; mual, wavy barndary; 8-12 cm thick. 0-18 cm; light olive bmwn (2.5 Y 514 w)sandy Iriam; amorphws., lm;very fw, fine roots. Ck 14-50 cm; light olive bm(2.5Y 514 m) sand; amorphous; looçe; no mts; common, lhick silt culans.

Remark: Surface pebble awuit has revealed a 50% hcambrian predominant clast lidmlogy Lithology. Remark: Cuians sampled at a dm of 30 cm. EAST PHALAROPE LAKE TRANSECT

SAMPLiNG SITE 21 SAMPLING SlTE 22

Samphg date: July 14,1995 Samphg date: Juiy 14,1995 Location on transect: 12 m Location on tmmct: 108.5 m Appmximate elmtion above sea level: 5 rn Appmximate elevation above sea level: 6 m SIope class and aspect: depdonal to level; west Slope class and sspect: very gently sloping; West Drainage ch: very pooriy 10 poorty drained Drainage class: pooS drainBd Landform: mcadow Landform: meâdow Parent material: undieerentiated clepcisit Parent material: mcü&mîbted deposit Pa-ground: hummod

Plant cummunity: hummocky seûge-moss me&w Plantcommunity: hummodryswipemo6smeadow Subgnnip soi1 class: Glqsolic Static Cryosol Subgmp soii class: Gleyçolic Static Ctyosol

9-0 cm;black (IOYR Y1 m) fibrous or@c matter, amorphous; Of 144 cm; bladr ( lOYR 2/1 m) fibrais; 8morphotq abundant, fine abundant, fine COmedium roots; clear, smoolh boundary. mots; abrupt, wavy boundary., 3-8 cm thi&

0-9 cm;da& grq.ish bmwn (IOYR 42m) sandy clay; arnorphous; Ckg 0-26 cm;olive (5Y 514 m) loamy sand, vexy dark grey ( IOYR, 311) siightiy stkky, non plastic; few, fine mots; smooth, clear boundary. motiles; amorphous; slighlly sticky, sbghUy pplasfic; very féw, fine Toofs. 9-25 cm;olive yellow (5Y 616 w) loamy sand; amorphous; siighlly stidcy, non plastic;very few, fine roots,

Remark: Water level at a de@ of 17 cm.

EAST FISH LAKE TRANSECT

SAMPLING SITE 3 1 SAMPLiNG SITE 32

Sampling date: July 17,1995 Sampling date: July 16,1995 Location on tram: 13 1 m Location on tmmect: 180 m Approxlmate elevation above çca level: 2 1 m Approhte elevaîion above sea Id: 23 m Stop class and aspect: veq gently sloping; west Slqe class and asped: very gentiy sioping; west Drainage class: moderately weli drained Drainage class: modemkiy well drained Landform: meadow Landform: mesdow Parent matenal: undifferentiated dep~t Parent material: undiffecentiated depomt Pattenied ground: frosthil Pattenredground: hummodrs

Plant cummunity: hwmocky dgemoss meadow with fiost boils Plant conununity: hummocky sdge moss meadow Subgroup soi1 class: Gleysolic micCryosol Subgroup soi1 class: Gleysolic Static Cm1

Of 12-0 cm; black (10YR 2/1 m)fibnnis organic matter, amorphous, 35-0 cm; bladc (1OYR 2/ 1m) fibrous organic matter, mrphws; abundant to medium mois; clear, wavy boundary, 9 cm thick. abundant to medium roo(s; abrupt, irregular boundary, 19-35 cm thick. Ckg 0-50 cm; olive yellow (5Y 616 m) loamy sand; few, fine, prominent pale olive (5Y,613) and black (lm2/ 1) moitles; amorphws., fiq 20-45 cm; dak yellowish bm(10YR 414 m) loamy sand, very few, fine roots. amorphous, f'iiable, few fine roo(s, abrupt, broken boundary.

35-54 cm; olive (5Y 5/3 m) loamy sand; few, medium, prominent Qrk yellavish brown (10Yq 4/4 m)Wes; amorphcnq fiiable; very Remark: No water in the pit. few, fine roots. EAST PHALAROPE LAKE TRANSECT SAMPLING SITE 33

Sampling date: July 17, 1995 Location on traricied: 392 m Appmximaîe elmiion above sea level: 27 m SIope class and aspect: very gentiy sioping; west Drainage class: imperfectly to poorly drained Landform: meadow Parent material: uradifferentiated deposit Pattemedground: hummocks

Plant mmmunity: hununwky sedge moss meadow Subgroup çoii class: Glqsolic Static Cryowl

Of 20-0 cm;biack (IOYR 2/l m) fibrous organic matter, mrphous; plentiful, fine to medium roots; abrupt, wavy bwndary., 13 cm thidt

Ckg 20-32 cm;dark olive grq. (5Y 3/2 m) sandy lm;amorphous; sticky, slightly plastic; fw, fine roots.

Rem&: The water table is at a depth of 30 cm. There is a berof stones (10 cm) with no rnatnx bewnthe Of and C horizons. EAST PHALAROPE LAKE TRANSECT

SAMPLING SITE 34

Sampling date: Jdy 17, 1995 Locationonbansect: 409 m AppmWte elevation above sea level: 27.5 m Slope class and aspect: very gentiy sloping; west Drainage class: mode~atelyto impcrfdy âraid Landïom: meadow to raised beach lower fordope Parent materiai: undiffe~ntiateddeposit to beach deposit

Plant mmmunity: transition b-n hum- sedge-moss meadow and aishion plant-= Subgmup soii class: Gleysolic Static Cryosol to Brunisolic Sîaiic Cryml

Glevsolic Sîatic Crvosol Bnrnisotic Static Cwosol

Of 20-0 cm; black (1 OYR U 1 m) fibrous organic matter, mamorphous; L-F 2-0 cm;bladc (1OYR 211 m) fibmorganic malter, amoamorphais; plentifid, he roots; clear, smooth boundary. oommon,fïneroots;clear,smooth~.

Ck 35-43 cm; dark yellowish brown (IOYR 416 m) seamorphouS.

Bmk 14-35 cm;very da& gteyish brown (10 YR 3/2 m) sand; amrpb, loose; very few, fine mots.

Ck 35-43 cm; dari< yellowish bmwn (10YR 416 w) sand, amorphous.

Remarks: The water table is ai a depth of 38 cm. EAST PHALAROPE LAKE TRANSECI'

SAMPLING SITE 35 SAMPLING SITE 36

Sampling date: Juiy 17,1995 Samphng date: Juiy 17, 1995 Location on Iransed: 455 m Locationontransect: 480 m Appmximate eldonabcm sea levet : 28.5 m Approxhab elevation above sea level: 30 m Slope ciass and aspect: very gentiy sloping, west Slope class and aspect: depressional to leveî; west D&ge class: rapid to well d.&ed Drainage ch: rapid to well drained Landfom: raised beach lower foredope worm: raisedbeachcrest Parent material: bahdeposil Parent material: hhwt Patlemedground: mi~~~-hummocks Patternedgn#u\d: fms&wiIs

Plant oommunity: aishion plant-moss Plant cummunity : lichenashion plant Subgroup soi1 class: Brunisolic Sutic Cryosol Subgmup mil ch: Regmlic Static Cryosol

2-0 cm; black (10YR 2/l m) fibrous organic matter, amorphous;few, L-F 2-0 cm;blaclc ( IOYR Ul m) nbrous o@c maEter, mamorphous, hne roots; clear, snooth boundary. common, fki mtq clear, smoolh baudary.

û-12 cm; very daxk brown (1OYR î/2 m) sand; amorphws, friable; Ahk 0-3 cm;very Qrk brown (1OYR 2/2 m) Sand; amorphous; very Wle; very few, fine mots; clear, smooth boundary. common, fine mots; ciear, smioth bmndmy.

Il Ahk 3- 14 cm;dark yellowish bmwn (10YR 4/4 m) sand; amorphous, very friable; few, fine mots; ab* snoorh boundary.

26-35 cm; dark yellowish brown (10YR 416 m) sand; amorphws; IIICca? 14-23 cm;olive (5Y 5/3 m) loamy sand, amorphouS., firq vexy fw, loose; cornmon, thidc silt cutans. fine roots; abrupt, smooth boundary.

IVck 2343 cm; strong brown (7.5YR 416 m) sanciy loam; amorphous; loose. kmadc: Sud& pebble count has revealed a 95% Pi.ecambrian clast lithology . Cd Renlark: A surface pebble count has ilevealed a 95% Precambrian clast SAMPLING SITE 50

Sampling date: Juiy 12,1995 Sampling date: July 21, 1995 Lucation: N-W Phalarope Lake, map unit 72 of Wakr (1976) Location: 100 m north-wtst Base Camp,map unit 4 1 Walker (1976) Approximate eldonabove sea level: 4 m Appmximate elevation above sea level: 13 m Slope class and asped: depressional 10 level; south Slope ciass and aspect: âepIinSiona1 to M; sordh Dminage class: imperfectly draineci ûmhgeclass: modeCate to poorly drained Morm: high œnmiaxored polygons Laradform: raised beach lm backsioge Parent material: dry peat &nt material: kchdeposit Patlemedground: hummocks, icewedgefissures Patteniedground: fiostwi

Plant mmmunity : peat plateau Plant oommunity : donplant-moss with frost-boil Subgraip soi1 class: Glacic Fibric ûrgano Cxyml Subgroup soil class: BNniSOlic McCryosol

Ofjt 011 8 cm; black ( IOYR Ulm) strongly deuumposed organic matter, Of' 0-40 cm; black ( 1OYR 211) well decomposed organic müîq fibrous; dark yellowish bm(IOYR 316) motties; amorphous; abundant, fine amorphous; plentiful,fine mots; abrupt, niooth boundary. to medium roots. L-F 1-0 cm;bkk (IOYR 211 m) fibm orpicmatter, amorphais., Ofi 18cm+;hm abtmhm, fine to medium mots.

Remark: No water in the depFeSSions. Ahk 0-3 m; Brown (lOYR 5/3 m) loamy sand, amo'phous., friable; cornmon, fine mots; cl=, sdbowdary

IIBNcy 3-23 cm; Dark grqrish brown (IOYR 3/3 m) sandy lqamorphous, friable, very few roots, bden boundary.

lIli3mky 2343 cm; yellowish bmwn (lOYR 514 m) sandy loam; fiiable; clear, -boundiuy.

lVCky 35-43 an; pale olive (5Y 614 m) loamy sandy clay, h.

IVCkz 43 cm +; frozen

ADDlïïONAL SAMPMG SITES

SAMPLiNG SITE 72 SAMPLiNG SITE 73

Sampling date: Jdy 20,1995 Sampling date: Juiy 20,1995 Won: 30 m south Phalarajx Lake, Location: 100 m N-EBechel Lake, map unit 32 (Waiker , 1976) map unit 3 i+6 1 (Waiker, 1976) Appmxi.mate elevation above sea levei: 33 m Appfoximate eIWon above sea level: 5 m Slope class and aspect: very gentiy sloping; west Slape class and aspezt: very gently sloping; west Drainage class: very pooriy drained Drainage class: poorly to vey poorly drained Landforrn: meadow Landform: meadow Pamt -rial: allwial-mplain Parent material: undiffeerentiated deposit Patteniedgrwrad: hummocks PaEierned gtound: fiost-bo'Ils Plant cummunity: hummocky seûgemo6s meaQw Plant oommunity: fn>sthil ~mossmeaQow Subgnnrp soii ch: Gleysolic Sîaîic Cryoeol Suôgmup soil class: Gleysolic MicCryml

û-14 cm; black (IOYR 211 m) fibrous organic matter, amorphous; Of 204 cm; black (10YR 211 m) fibworganic matter, amorphws; plentitiil, fine to medium mois. plentifhi, fine 10 medium roots. 14-36 cm;olive (SY 5/3 m) loamy Sand; amorphous; slightly sticky, Ckgy 0-20 cm; (5Y 6/2m) to olive yellow (2.5Y616 m) 10- sand; non plastic, abundant fine mots. amorphous; fim; few, fine fine,

Cg 15-23 cm; grey (5Y Wl m) loamy sand; amorphous; h;abundant, fine roots. ADDITION AL SWING SITES

SAMPLING SITE 74 SAMPLING SITE 75

Sampringdate: July21.1995 Sampüngdate: Jdy21.1995 Location: 60 m S-E Irnmerk Lake, map unit 32 (Wahr, 1976) Location: 10 m west Fish Me, map unit 12 (Walker, 1976) Appro* elevation above sea Icvel: 14 m Approximate elevaiion abwe sea level: 14 m Slope class and aspect: very gentiy sloping; wiest Slope chand aspect: gently sioping, west Drainage class: moduaie to poorly drained Drainage class: very well drained Landform: meadow Laruif'onn: raised beach lm fond- Pa~entmaterial: undinerentiated deposit Paxent material: beach degosit Pammedground: hummod

Plant mmrnunity: hummodcy sedge-moss madow Plant community: aishion piani-mess SubgFwp soi1 class: Gleysolic Static C'yosol Subgriwp soit class: Brunisolic Scatic Cryml

Of 0-20 cm;black (IOYR 2/l m) fibrous organic matter, amorphous; plentifid, iïne to medium mots.

Ckg 13-23 cm; olive grey (5Y 4/2 m) loamy sand; amorphous; hm.

IIAh &16m;verydarkgrayishbrown(IOYR3/2m)loamysand; amorphous, friable, few fine niois; abrupt, brdcen bounQry

IIBhk 3-20cm; brown (10YR 4/3 m) sand; very friable, very few fine Foots; abnipt, broken boundary.

lllCk, 18-32 cm;dark yeilowish brown (IOYR 414 m) sand; loose; very few fine roots; difiÙse smooth boundary.

IIICk2 32-56 cm;yellowish brown (10YR 514 m) sand. loose.

APPENDIX 3 Chernical and physical soi1 data for sampling sites: West Phalarope Lake transect

------ParticIo &O diaûibutiai Td Tdrl Coarw (36 Of'c2nan îraaial) ûrganic Total 410phosphato Oqpdc Fmîa Sd Silt Clry Moistum Bdk Depth pH Carbocr Carbonate Fo Al Fo + AI Fe + AV carbonl (>2m) (2 .O - (05 - (<.O02 Dadty HorWriil Lm) % % % % % Clay Fa % .05nnn) ,002m) mm) % Woc)

Sampling iite 2 - Olaysolic SucCryosol: 8 Of 15-0 5.6 43.15 75.3 0.2 Ckg 0-10 6.6 1.10 14.52 0.07 0.02 0.09 0.02 15.446 16.1 76.05 19.42 4.53 18.1 1.O Cg siiî cutan 0.60 33-73 0.05 0.02 5.5

Sampling site 3 - trcuisitiori betwoni Olcylolic Static Cryosol d hnisolic Stalic Cryosol: Ahk 0-10 6.1 14.42 1.56 0.25 0.05 0.30 0.00 57.69 100 43.61 23.08 31.31 36.7 Ck 10-30 6.7 0.64 10.92 0.06 0.0 1 0.07 0.05 10.74 43.5 95.58 3.01 1,40 13.4 1.3

Sampling site 4 -&unisolic Static Cryosol: Ah 0-10 6.2 15.88 0.66 0.23 0.05 0,28 0.01 69.05 100 62.41 14.20 23.39 42,2 0.6 &nk 10-20 6.8 6.17 10.43 0.16 0.02 0.18 0.02 37.61 23.6 73.34 16.73 9.93 25.9 Ck 20-33 6.8 0.85 20.03 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.05 15.91 67.8 95.74 2.99 1.26 2.7 1.4

Sampling do5 - Brunisolic Static Cryosol: Ahk 0-3 7.0 10.94 7.86 0.12 0.04 0.16 0.01 33.74 35.8 68.97 14.19 16.84 29.0 0.6 &nk 3-45 6.8 3.76 11.06 0.11 0.04 0.15 0.009 31.33 28.8 7.52 71.02 11.7 14.9 0,79 Ck 6-50 6.9 0.35 24.46 0.04 0.0 1 0.05 0.01 8.60 59.2 89.05 7.14 3.80 2.8 1.2

Sampling site 6 - Regwlic Slatic Crycwol: Ahk 0-5 7.0 2.59 17.59 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.06 48.38 46,4 91.10 7.64 1.26 7.0 1,O Ck 6-70 6.8 0.09 22.01 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.06 2.68 61.6 36.86 2.44 0.70 1.3 1.4 Ck sill culan 0.82 36.45 22.7 10.8 Chernical and physical soi1 data for sampling sites: West Phalarope Lake transect (continued)

------Particla siza disiribution Total Tocal Couw (%of Qnmi Mon) OrgMic Tohl e OFguiic Fngmenb Sand Sik Cliy Moiaum Buk Deph pH Carbon Cdmata Fa Al Fe + AI Fe + Ai/ carbon/ (>2mm) (2 .O - (.O5 - (<.O02 amlmt Darrity Horwiui (cm) % % % % % Clay Fa % .Ohm) .O02nun) mm) % (81CQ )

Samplig aile 7 - Brunisolic Staîic Cryoml: Ahk 0-7 7.0 2.27 17.87 0.07 0.03 0.10 0.02 33.38 70.3 79.37 14.32 6.31 8.2 1.O &nk 7-14 6.6 0.46 24.25 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.02 11.28 74.9 92.20 5.17 2.64 1.S 1.2 Ck 14-50 6.8 0.11 21.51 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.06 2.65 71.8 94.37 4.65 0.98 7.8 1.3

Ssmpling site 8 - O1a)aoliç S(aiic Cryml: Of' 25-0 6.2 25.56 65.8 0.2 ch 0-20 6.8 0.41 17.08 0.06 0.03 0.09 0.04 6.66 63.5 81.26 16.37 2.38 6.4 1.5 IICkg 0-18 6.7 0.39 14.31 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.03 7.08 48.0 84.89 13.10 2.00 7.8 1.3 Chernical and physical soi\ data for sampling sites: East Phalarope Lake transect

Pdclo shdistribution Tolal Toial (% of C2mWm) organic Totd PFophosphrte Organic Fm- Sand Silt Clay Moiaure Buk Dcpth pH Carbor> CarboMta Fe Al Fe + Ai Fe + AN çarbaJ (22mm) (2 .O - (.O5 - (C.002 oartail Datisity Horiwns (an) % % % % Fe % .05mm) .002mm) mm) 96 (gloc)

Sampiingsib 2 1 - Oiopiic Sintic Cryosoi: Of 9.0 6.3 30.71 64.6 0.2 Ckk! 0-9 6.8 3.02 16.13 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.01 47.07 44.2 81.24 13.39 5.38 24.6 1.2 ch3 9-25 7.1 0.29 29.28 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.00 7.34 32.2 58.05 31.15 10.81 14.7 1.8

Sampling sita 22 - Oleysolic Stalic Cryosol: of 144 5.5 19.05 31.2 0.5 Ck8 0-26 6.9 0.69 25.72 0.11 0.0 1 0.12 0.02 6.5 1 36.4 68.65 26.24 5.10 13.9 1.4

Sampling sita 23 - Fibric orgaM> Crywl: of1 0-8 6.1 43.61 83.3 O. 1 of, 8-17 6.5 24.77 63.3 0.3

Sampling sib 24 - Fibric Orgnno Cryosol: of1 0-9 5.0 45.45 85.8 0.0 Of1 9-17 5.2 33.20 69.6 0.2

Sampling site 25 - Oleysolic Stalic Cryosol: Ak 0-18 6.6 1.60 14.29 0.07 0.0 1 0.08 0.02 24.39 24.4 80,02 16.04 3.94 21.3 0.8 Ch 18-26 6.8 0.17 17.82 0.09 0.01 0.10 0.02 1.88 17.5 80.85 13-97 5.18 11.6 1.3 Ch 26-47 6.8 0.15 22.19 0.08 0.02 0.10 0.03 1.80 21 85.12 11.52 3.36 11.3 1.2

Sampling site 26 - Oleysolic Slalic Cryosol: Of 26-0 5.6 23.72 68.1 0.2 Ck 244 6.9 0.31 21.41 0.05 0.0 1 0.06 0.05 6.76 58.8 93.39 5.39 1.22 12.8 1.5

Sampling silc 26 - Bninisolic Staiic Cryosol: Ahk 0-12 6.9 4.33 13.49 0.1 1 0.03 0.14 0.02 38,17 46.2 81.92 9.87 8.21 21.6 1.O Bmk 12-24 6.8 05 22.87 0.04 0.0 1 0.05 0.04 12.07 25.4 93.28 5.26 1.47 11.7 1.2 Ck 24-40 6.9 0.31 21.41 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.05 6.76 58.8 93.33 5.39 1.22 12.8 l .5 Chernical and physicai soi1 data for sampling sites: East Phalarope Lake transect (continueci)

- - - Pdcla iizo diaibution Tocal Total CoMiC (% of <2mm Won) ûrgiuiic Total Pyrophosphaia Qrganic Fragmmta Sand SiL Clay Moishua Wiik Dtpth pH Carbon CarboMtt Fa Al Fe + Al Fa + AU carborJ (>2mm) (2 .O- (.O5 (c.002 oordord Dairity Horiunis (cm) % % % % Oh Clay Fe % .05mm) .002mm) mm) % Wcc)

Sampling sita 27 - &unisolicMc Cryosol: Ahk 03 6.1 14.39 &nk 5-12 6.9 2.76 Bhk 12-22 6.8 6.96 &nk 22-26 6.9 0.63 Bmk 26-31 6.9 3.29 Bmksiltcutan 26-31 8.2 1 Ck 3131 7.3 0.33

Sampling sitc 28 - fkunisolic Static Cryosol: Ak 0-16 7.0 0.90 &nca'l 16-66 6.9 0.27 Ck 21-66 6.8 1.O5 Ck mmlc 1.70 Chernical and physical soi1 data for sampling sites: East Fish Lake transect

Pucicle iize dianbution Tan1 Coanio (% of c2mm firaaioci) ûrganic Fmgmarta Sud Sih Clay Fo + AI Fa + AU cart>onl (>2m) (2 .O - (.OS- (C.002 % Clay Fo % .05m] .002nnn) mm)

Sarnpling sita 3 1 - Oloysolic Turbic Cryosol: Of 10-0 5.7 20.93 Ch4 0-50 6.9 0.18 23.37 0.04 0.0 1 Ckgmttlel 2-11 7.1 0.40 23,03 0.07 0.02 Ckgmdo 2 23-39 6.9 5 9.67 O. 12 0.04

Ahk 0-14 6.7 5.11 1.83 0.08 0.03 Bmk 14-35 6.6 0.95 6.96 0.05 0.02 Ck 35-43 6.8 0.58 8.48 0.04 0.02

Sanipling site 35 - Brunisolic Sutic Cryosol: Ah 0-12 6.3 2.59 0.00 0.06 0.04 &n 12-26 6.7 0.92 1.26 0.05 0.03 Ck 20-35 6.8 0.36 6.15 0.04 0.02 Chernical and physical soi1 data for sampling sites: East Fish Lake transect (continued)

Padcla riza disiribution Toinl Taril Coarw (%of <2mfiadoci) WC Tatal w ûrpnic Fmgmab Sand Sih Clay Moiam üulk Depth PH c-flrbm- Fa Al Fo + AI Fe + AU carbon/ (>2ntm) (2 .O- (05 - (<.O02 oadcni bity Horizona (an) % % % % % Clay Fo % .05mm) ,002mm) mm) 96 Ww)

Sampling site 36 - Regosolic Static Cryosot: Ahk 0-3 7.0 1.66 3.37 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.01 44.57 O 90.47 4,23 5.30 11.1 0.8 lIAk 3-14 6.8 0.80 5.63 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.02 18.12 48.3 89.99 5.88 4.13 4.7 1.1 IIICk 14-23 6.8 0.55 18.98 0.06 0.02 0.08 0.00 9.48 24.5 66.22 24.48 9.31 9.8 1.1 IVCk 2303 6.8 0.50 7.59 0.05 0.02 0.07 0,OO 10.35 19.1 81.69 4.04 12.26 5.6 1.3 Chernical and physical soi1 data for additional sampling sites: containhg associations not found on transects

------Pariide riza Wbution Total Total Ccww ($6 of <2mm fisdion) OrgMic Total ~ophosphate ûrpnic Fra- Sand Sih Clay hiobiun Buk Dcpth pH Carbon Carbonab Fe Al Fe + AI Fe + AV carbon/ (Xmm) (2 .O- (O- (<.O02 anûm Dcrisity Horiz

Particlo riza dianbution Total Tm1 Coarsa (% of c2mWon) Chpic Tdal PYophosphsW ûrganic Fragments Sud Sih Clay Moirturo Wik Dcpch PH carbon tlubomc Fa Al Fe + AI Fa + AV carbonl (>2mm) (2 .O - (.O5 (C-002 oailanl Dairity Hwiums (cm) % % % % Oh Clay Fa % .002m) nim) %

Sampling sita 60 - Oldybolic Tuhic Cryosol: Of 13-0 6.2 31.43 ckg 0-37 7.0 O. 53 CkkW Sarnpling sila 71 - Brunisolic WCCryosol: 2.27 0.45 0.94 0.61

iib 72 - Oltysolic Tuhic Cryosol: 20-0 6.1 37.74 0-20 7.0 0.6 1 15-23 6.9 2.16

SarnplUig sita 73 - Oleysolic Static Crywl: Of 14-0 5.4 28,12 Ckg 0-22 7.1 3.94

Sampling sik 74 - Glcysolic Static Cryosol: Of 20-0 5.8 43.93 Ckkl 0-23 6.9 3.55

Sampling site 75 - Bninisolic Tuhic Cryosol: Ahk 0-1 1 6.8 8.84 1 IAhk 0-16 6.4 3.18 llBhk 3-20 7.0 2.44 IIICk, 18-32 6.8 0.55 Ch 32-56 6.6 0.44 Chemical and physical soi1 data for additionai sarnpling sites (continued)

ParticIo riz0 âidribuiion Total Total COMI0 (96 of ~2mmMon) Chpdc Total MVhosphnta Oi.ganic Fngmaits Sud Siit Clay Moiaum Buk Deph pH Carbon hlmata Fe AI Fe + AI Fe + AU carbonl (>2ntm) (2 .O - 0 - (<.O02 cad#rt Dairity Horiunrr % % ,002ntrn) mm) %

Sampling site 77 - &uniwlic Stritic Cryosol: Ahk 0-9 6.9 1.85 Bmk 9-22 7.1 0.81 Bmksiltcutan - 0.69 Ck 22-40 8.1 0.09 IICk 4063 7.3 O. 10 APPENDIX 4 Laboratory mil analyses

1. Sample preparation

Soi. sarnples were air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve to separate the samples into '%es9' and "stones". The lithologies of the "stones" Q2 mm) were identifïed and the stones discardecl. Since some analyses required some fine material with higher dacearea, part of the fines samples were ground to smaller than 150 pm diameter and stored in labelied giass vials.

2. Accuracy and precMon

Measures of accuracy and precision are represented in this research as the Relative Error (RE) and as the Coefficient of Variation (CV), respectively. The Relative Error of the analyses are cited fiom the U.W.0 Pedology Luboraton'es Mamal and Lev (1996). The Coefficient of Variation is calculated as a percentage of the mean value of standard sarnples (standard deviation divided by the mean). For the purposes of classification, the accuracy and precision are important but not critical. Because of this, no duplicates were needed in the analyses, although bulk controls (reference soil sample) in every analysed batch perrnitted a ventication of the precision of the results. Bulk controls were prepared by mixing a selection of soil samples from different areas of the transects (meadow and beach ridge), giving a fùil range of the soi1 characteristics for analyses. For analysis, 10 samples from the bulk control were analysed and averaged, and standard deviations were calculated. These results were used to vene intra-bat ch and inter-bat ch precision. During each batch analysis, bulk control samples were analysed as the first and the last samples. If the resuits for those controls exceeded the previously calculated standard deviation from the mean, suitable steps were taken to correct the error. The Pyrophosphate-Extractable Iron and Alurninum determination involved using diierent checks. The errors were measured with the help of prepared standard solution of aluminum and copper. Every 20 samples, a standard would be tested to check and correct for reading drift.

3. Moisture content and Bulk Density

INtially, the soi1 samples were removed fiom the profile with a 243 cm3 metd tin, and weighed wet and after being air dried. Moisture percentage (% moisture) was deteded from the weight clifference between the wet and air dried soil samples. Bulk density is the weight of the sampled soi1 divided by the volume of undisturbed soil (metal th). This measurement gives an estimate of the total pore space which is related to soi1 texture and structure. For both measurements, a Sartorius 1413 top-loadiig balance was used to weigh the wet and dry soil. Wet weight measurement is believed to be accurate since the sampled bag was hermetically sealed and since the measurements were done rapidly after the sarnple collection. The dry weights are believed to be less accurate because of the air- drying procedure. The precision of the deis good, with a coefficient of variation {CV) of 0.02%. The scaie acwacy was codirmed to be 1 Wh by Lev (1996, p.37) when standard weights were tested.

4. Partide size analysis

The particle size analysis is the measurernent of the relative proportion of various sizes of prVnary soil particles (sand, silt, &y). This relative proportion is caiIed %il texture" which gives clues as to the origin of the materid and of soil active processes. The samples were fiactionated into three size nattions: Sand (2 mm-53 pn), Silt (53 -2 pm) and Clay (<2 p) (C. S. SC., 1992). A log sample was submitted to two pre- treatments. In the first treatment, the organic matter removai, hydrogen peroxide 30% (WJsolution was used to oxidise the ooil's organic matter. In the second pretreatment, cemented carbonates were removed fiom the soi1 sampIes using IN sodium acetate (NaOAc). The results showed that the samples were mostly primary soil particles (Appendix 5). Afterwards, sodium metaphosphate (NaPOs)ti was used as a dispersant to prevent floculation in the subsequent separation. The phary particles without organic matter were sieved through a 53 pn mesh and the suspension was caught in a 1000 ml cylinder. The remaining sand fiaction which did not pass through the sieve, was determined by the total oven dry weight of the sample. The silt and clay fractions were detemllned by the pipette method @ay, 1965). The precision of the particle size analysis, as shown by the coefficient of variation of four control samples, was 0.5% for sand fiactionation, 46.5% for silt fiadonation, and 27.1% for clay hctionation. Sirnilarly to Lev (1 996, p.3 8) the silt fiaction results must be interpreted carefùlly.

pH measures hydrogen advity in a solution. The pH values vary between 1 (acidic) to 14 (basic). Although not useful for the present purpose of classification, it gives environmental clues as to the arnount of weathering and leaching of minerais. Soil material ïithology and types of plants have a effect on soi1 pH (C. S. S.C., 1992). The pH measurements for mineral soils were done on a 1:2 (soil:liquid) suspension of C2mm soi1 with 0.01 M calcium chloride solution (CaClJ. Samples rich in organic matter were rneasured for pH on a liquid paste with 0.01 M calcium chlonde solution (CaCLJ (PeechJ965). The pH meter used was a Cornhg 140 pH Meter on Auto Control with a glas combination electrode (Mode1 90-02). The use of calcium chloride stimulates the anion and cation distribution in the solution and leads to more representative field conditions. The precision of the technique was 2.84% (CV) for mineral samples and 3.00% for organic samples. The amracy is believed to be approximately 3 -25% fiom the true value (RE) according to Lev (1996, p. 39). 6. Totil Organic Carbon (TOC)

In the Arctic, the amount of organic carbon in the soi1 is a firnction of the biotic rate of accumulation and decomposition (Lev, 19%). Thus, it is usefiil for determlliing the type of biotic environment and the amount of nutrients released in the soil. In a soil classification, the TOC is used to detennine the dominance of melanisation. Soils are classified having organic horizons (O) if the TOC is pater than 17% or simply having some degree presence of organic carbon (h) if Iowa than 17 % (C. S.S.C., 1992). The procedure used to detect TOC was the modified Walkley-Black method (U.W.0 Pedology Laboratones ManuaI). The method involves the partial digestion (oxidation) of the organic matter with chrornic acid, which is a mixture of an oxidising agent (potassium dichromate, lC$k20,) and a strong acid (sulphuric acid (H2SO& The amount of chromic acid consumeci in the organic carbon digestion is proportional to the amount of organic matter present in the soil sample. The percentage oxidizable organic carbon was determined by titrating the excess chrornic acid with ferrous sulphate solution (FeSOJH,O). A correction factor of 1.33 was used to calculate the percentage total oxidisable carbon (OC), because of the partial oxidation (75%) of the organic carbon. The percentage organic matter was calailated using the Van Bemmelen correction factor of 1.724, where it is assumed that soi1 organic matter contains only 58% of organic carbons. The accuracy of the Walkley-Black rnethod is beüeved to be within 10% (RE) of accepted values (LT.W.0. Pedology laboratory manual). Analytical precision (CV) for the TOC technique was 10.53%.

7. Total carbonates

A measurement of total carbonates reveals the amount of inorganic carbon in the soil. The inorganic carbon comes from the weathering of calcium and magnesium carbonate rocks and ends up as a portion of the parent materid. Interestingly, the arctic soil morphology often shows signs of decarbonation (carbonate dissolving-leaching) and carbonation (reprecipitation found under pebbles) (Ugolllii, 1986). Total carbonates are important for classification purposes, and soil horizons with inherent carbonates are Iabelled with a k, The gravimetric technique used to find the percentage of carbonates is derived f?om Black (1965). In the analysis, 3g of ground soi1 sample (c0.25 mm) and 6M HCl are used. Soil carbonates are decomposed in the acid and CO, is released. The decrease in weight indicates the carbonate content of the soil. In order to correct the weight loss due to evaporation of the acid, a blank flask is used and the evaporation weight is measured. Moreover, the corrected loss per gram of soi1 is calculated by dividing the measured conected loss by three. Afterwards, the measured weight of CO, is converted to percentage of CaCOf by multiplying 2.275. According to Lev (1996), the accuracy of this method was found to be within 14% (RE) of the accepted value, compared to 20% with the Chittick method (U.W.O.Pedology laboratory manual). The precision was found to be of 2.30% (CV) as calculated using buk wntrols. 8. Pgrophosphate-EstrrictabIe ho, and duminum

One indicator of soi1 development is the degree of uon and aluminum behg trmslocated dom the profile, and 8c~linulatingin the B horizon (podzolisation) (UgoM, 1986). Absolute and relative amounts of Iron (Fe) and Aluminum (Al) in a soil sample are important for soif classification, An "en is attached to horizons with eluviation, and an 7" is attached to horizons enrïched in arnorphous materials (mostly Fe and Al), and an "m" is attachecl to the horizon when there are low amounts (C. S. S.C ., 1992). Sodium pyrophosphate (NU&. 10Hfl)(0.1 M) was used to extract the organic- complexes of Fe, Ai, Mn, and amorphous "gel" hydroxide. The extracts were diluted (10x) for iron determination but were not diluted for duminum determination. The extracts were analysed for concentration of F% and Al, with a flame atomic absorption spectrorneter using the recomended flame conditions and larnps. The redts are refe~edas 966% and %4.Accuracy of the technique is beiïeved to be within 10% (RE) of accepteci values (U.W.O. Pedology Manual). The precision of the method was found to be 7.07% for F% and 10.97% for Alp. APPENDIX 5 Assesment of the necessity of the carbonate removal pretreatment for the Particle Size Analysis

Hypothesis: Some carbonate cernentation couid affect the particle size distribution

Sample: Sampling site 4; horizon C; Bninisolic Static Ciyosol. The samphg site 4 was randomly chosen for the carbonate removal test, however, the C horizon was chosen because of its high carbonate content and very low % clay hction.

Method: Four samples of 4C were pretreated and four samples analysed without pretreatment and the particle size analysis analysed.

Sand Silt Clay

Average % fiactions with carbonate removal(4 samples) 96.0 1 3.46 0.38

Average % fiactions without carbonate removd (4 sarnples) 97.35 2.28 0.37

Conclusion:

The sodium acetate pret reatment to remove secondary carbonates had a neg ligible effect on the particle size distribution of the sample. From this, it can be inferred that carbonate cementation is negligible. APPENDIX 6 Infodon on the topographic grid survey of the Truelove Lowland

Before any imagery investigation or plant comunity - soi1 investigations took place, in a joint effort (Rogers, in progress) a topographic meyof the bwland was accomplished using a laser theodoiite (Wüd TC1600 Tachymat Total Station) with prisrn reflector. The central part of the Truelove Lowiand (approxïmately 25 & ) was surveyed. Refecence point$ such as geodetic bench marks and newly created reference points, wae used as the 22 primary reference points to build a secondary network grid. To clarifj~,the grid was be arpressed not in UTMs or hitude and longitude, but as a floating grid in meters. Waiker (1976) descn'bed the major problem encountered while working in an area without a grid survey as foUow: a systematic and physical limitation irnposed by the lack of any geodetic or grid meyin the study area caused the field research to progress in a somewhat haphazard manne?'. Consequentiy, a survey grid was created to provide a geographic reference for the geometric correction and acairacy assessment undertaken in this study. APPENDIX 7 Debiled idonnafion on wntrol points used for geometric correction

The old iine coordinates (Old) of the Tmelove Lowland images were resampled to the wey grid coordinates (New). Fifteen control points were omitted because their seiection would increase sigdicantly the Root Mean Square (RMS) error.

Old X Old Y New X New Y Residual

omitted omitted 1.101333 omitted omitted omitted 0.349 176 omitted 0.978524 omitted omitted 1-611502 omitted omitted omitted 1.101474 omitted omitted 0.63 1624 omitted 0.398507 omitted

Overail RMS = 0.5502 19 meters APPENDIX 8 Location of the plant community transect (Roprs, in progress) 011 a geocorrected false-color image of the Truelove Lowland APPENDIX 9 Raw Spectral values of the nine land cover classes in four spectral bands: Green, Red ,Near-Infrared, and Stretch Near-Infiared

Land cover Green Red classes Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD

L-CP CP-LKP-M HSMM HSMM-FB MHSMM wsm PP Water Lake-Ice

Land cover Near-Infiared Stret ch Near-Infiared cf asses Min Max Mean SD Min Max Mean SD - L-CP CP-L+CP-M HSMM HSMM-FB MHSMM WSMM PP Water Lake-Ice

APPENDIX 11 Reclassification of the G-R-NIR plant cornmunity - soi1 associations map into a map showing the extent of macro-scaie cryoturbated soils

LEGESD SCUE

1,000 Metres Slightiy cryonirbated soils

Highly cryoturbated soils Easting: 1 8320.22720 1-1 1-1 Water bodies I Nonhing: 26840.29820 ClTED REFERENCES

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