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Home , American Indian Movement, Occupation of Alcatraz, Red Power movement

THE INCEPTION OF THE AND 227 EXAMINATION OF CONTRIBUTING FACTORS

Danielle Magana during this age of chaos that the cry for certain fundamental rights—de- segregation, access to schools, equal opportunities, etc.–-began to surface. Within the Bay Area, S.F.S.C. became a hotbed of activity. Few moments in American history are as simultaneously momentous At the same time, the federal government, under the jurisdiction of House and overlooked as the birth of the Red Power Movement. Formed during the Concurrent Resolution 108 (HCR-108), was in the midst of relocating hun- chaotic atmosphere of the 1960s, the Red Power Movement developed quietly dreds of Native people to urban environments, including San Francisco. at first, barely audible above the clamor of the largely African American-focused and anti- demonstrations. Indeed, some In 1943, the Government began taking steps to fully as- Native scholars, Vine Deloria Jr. among them, felt the Civil Rights movement to similate all persons of Native American descent into American society and cul- be an exclusively demonstration, with little to no room for the grievanc- ture. This process, known as Termination and Relocation, started with a number es of non-Black minorities.1 In 1968, however, the situation changed; the Black of surveys of tribal conditions, and eventually morphed into 1953’s HCR-108. Student Union (B.S.U.) and the Third World Liberation Front (T.W.L.F.) began This act officially put the dissolution and subsequent relocation of over a hun- a five-month-long strike on campus at San Francisco State College (S.F.S.C.).2 dred tribes, including “five large tribes (the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, The strike initially began as a cry for the reinstatement of George Mason Pottowatomie, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa) and all tribes in four states Murray, a graduate student and Minister of Education. (California, Florida, New York, and Texas)” into effect.5 This meant that tribes Murray, who was originally hired as a teaching assistant in San Francisco State that had previously received reservation land and financial assistance were com- College’s English department, was reassigned to a non-teaching position (and pletely stripped of their status as federally recognized tribes, removed from fed- subsequently suspended) for making inflammatory remarks at both Fresno and eral land, and officially abolished. Because of the need to large numbers San Francisco State Colleges.3 Ultimately, the strike, now known as the Third of now-tribeless Native Americans from government land, these terminations World Strike, succeeded in creating the nation’s first College of Ethnic Studies.4 resulted in a large, federally sponsored surge of Native individuals into urban areas, where they struggled to maintain their sense of culture and identity. The 1960’s were a tumultuous time for the United States of Amer- ica. As the conservative lifestyle of the older generation began to fade, As the war in Vietnam escalated and the Civil Rights Movement the generally more radical youth of America found their voices and began gained momentum, persons of color who had previously been largely ignored to cry out at perceived injustices in society. With an unpopular war raging by the government began to assert themselves.6 S.F.S.C. students cried out in Vietnam and racial tensions coming to a head in the South, the Unit- against the unequal treatment of students who belonged to ethnic minori- ed States seemed to be headed toward inescapable societal conflict. It was ties; in 1968, the B.S.U. and T.W.L.F. began their strike, and the College of Ethnic Studies was soon formed. Almost nine months later, on the night of 1 Vine Deloria, Jr, Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. (Norman: University of November 9, 1969, a group of S.F.S.C. students, led by Richard Oakes, him- Oklahoma Press, 1988. First published 1969 by Macmillan Publishing Company), 168-69. 2 San Francisco State College became San Francisco State University in 1974. self a Native American of Mohawk descent, began their nineteen-month- 3 “On Strike! Shut it Down! (Exhibit 1999) Case 3: Prelude / Demands,” San Francisco State long of , starting a series of events that would University, February 2, 2015, http://www.library.sfsu.edu/exhibits/strike/case3-text.html. 4 “San Francisco State University 1899 – 1999: A History of SF State,” San Francisco State University, last modified March 20, 2009, http://www.sfsu.edu/~100years/history/long. 5 Charles F. Wilkinson, Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations. (New York: Norton, htm#6769. 2005), 57. 6 Deloria, Custer Died for Your Sins, 171. 228 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 229 develop into the Red Power Movement. After experiencing the loss of identity caused by Termination and Relocation, and after feeling dissatisfied with the this period should read this book facing eastward.”7 This text is import- -washed education provided by S.F.S.C., the Native students chose to ant for contextualizing many of the thoughts and actions of the students, declare that they would, from this point forward, determine their own future as the history of Native American struggles against oppression is intrin- and educate their own people. This concept of education conflicted direct- sically linked the students’ own struggle. Of course, Brown’s work focuses ly with the intentions of Termination and Relocation. The government had on a very limited–-though catastrophic–-period, so it does not provide for aimed to eradicate tribal identity and fully assimilate all Native people within a history of the events immediately before the occupation. It does, how- the United States. Certainly all of these factors–-coerced relocation, campus ever, do a fantastic job of addressing the historical precedent of margin- atmosphere and the 1960s as a whole–-contributed to the shaping of a perfect alization and abuse that laid the foundation for policies like HCR-108. storm; and, were it not for the Third World Strike and the forced urbaniza- tion by HCR-108, it is possible that the Red Power Movement may never In order to analyze the shaping of the mentality of the individuals in have formed. The on-campus actions of the B.S.U. and T.W.L.F. heavily in- question, it is important to have a complete understanding of the environment fluenced Native students like Richard Oakes and fellow Native student Alan in which they were functioning. Vine Deloria Jr.’s Custer Died for Your Sins: An Miller, and it was these factors that ultimately lead to both the occupation Indian Manifesto is an integral text in providing this understanding. Written in of Alcatraz Island and the creation of the Red Power Movement as a whole. 1969, it offers a contemporary look at the problems facing Native people at the end of the 1960s. Deloria discusses a number of issues, including public The events of the and its aftermath have been perception of Native people, government policies and agencies, as well as is- researched by a number of scholars both within and outside of the Native sues of leadership within Indian society. His intent is mainly to raise awareness community. Though Richard Oakes and his fellow activists were students at among Native youth, as well as to raise awareness among white Americans S.F.S.C., and though Oakes himself was largely responsible for the establish- regarding the reasons behind Native discontentment.8 Deloria argues that the ment of the Native American Studies department within the College of Ethnic general population regarded events such as the assassination of Martin Lu- Studies, little research has been done to address the 1968 Third World Strike’s ther King, Jr. as a sickness that had suddenly overcome American society, but impact on this group. How these events shaped both these individuals and the posits that this sickness had actually begun “when the first Indian treaty was Red Power Movement as a whole also remains largely unaddressed in academia. broken” and has simply continued into the present.9 He also argues that the Civil Rights Movement was exclusively a struggle between black and white A more effective analysis of these issues would look into the relation- communities, which left little room for other ethnic minorities. Although De- ship between the United States government and Native tribes. Dee Brown’s loria offers a candid analysis of the relationships of various minority groups Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West inspects to the white majority, and discusses at length the importance of nationalist this relationship in the years between 1860 and 1890, during which westward movements, he is openly opposed to militancy of any kind, and therefore migration was in full swing. The U.S. Government had either forced aside, or neglects to address the effect of militancy on the Red Power Movement, gen- in some cases outright slaughtered, many Native tribes in order to facilitate erally denying that it had any usefulness. This work suffers mostly from its westward expansion and modernization. Brown’s work is especially important proximity to the events in question, and therefore is unable to benefit from in that he focuses on this history from the viewpoint of Native Americans, stating: “Americans who have always looked westward when reading about 7 Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West. (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2000), xviii. 8 Deloria, Jr, Custer Died for Your Sins, 268. 9 Ibid., 76. 230 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 231 hindsight. While it manages the important task of describing the environ- District had shaped his work at S.F.S.C., and include numerous quotes from him. ment in which the Red Power Movement began, it is unable to adequately Unfortunately, their argument does not address the events surrounding the oc- approach an analysis of the environment’s actual impact on the movement. cupation, as this section of their text serves mostly as historical context for the larger picture of the Red Power Movement. Smith and Warrior do an excellent Another work that is instrumental in elucidating the mentalities of the job of discussing the overall picture of the movement. They also address the students, especially within the context of S.F.S.C., is the text for the exhibit of shortcomings of the (A.I.M.), another organization the same name, On Strike! Shut it Down! A at San Francisco State: Ele- active at the time, and its hand in the unraveling of the Red Power Movement. ments for Change, written and compiled by Helene Whitson and Wesley Kyles. Nevertheless, they still leave unanswered the question of the role of the Third The authors focus on the events of the 1968-69 strike that overtook S.F.S.C.’s World Strike in shaping the militancy and activism of Oakes and his fellows. campus, and address the context of the strike, explaining how it voiced the grievances of the B.S.U. and T.W.L.F., as well as the sentiment of nationalist The most thorough look into the events preceding the occupation is movements throughout the United States. Quoting Walcott Beatty, the text found in Troy R. Johnson’s The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Deter- describes the campus as “a microcosm of society.”10 They aim to contextualize mination and the Rise of Indian Activism. As the title suggests, the text focuses the strike to facilitate a better understanding of what it was. Because the Red solely on the occupation, rather than on the entire movement. Johnson argues Power Movement was not initiated until after the strike, the authors do not that the occupation, though not necessarily successful in the short term, was mention the occupation of Alcatraz Island or the individuals involved, but they instrumental in paving the way for the Nixon Administration’s policy changes do provide details about the University’s measures taken to create the College in regards to Native peoples, and as a doorway to Indian self-determination.11 of Ethnic Studies. Richard Oakes’ personal involvement in the creation of the He also asserts that urbanization was a key part of pan-Indianism, and was Department of Native American Studies meant that its development would largely responsible for facilitating the nationalist movement.12 He discusses have directly impacted him, as well as those he encouraged to join the program. the discontent of urbanized Natives and the effect it had in pushing these in- On Strike!’s coverage of the creation of the Ethnic Studies program can only dividuals towards activism, giving an in-depth overview of the larger context increase our insight into the moments preceding the occupation that would of the various social movements of the 1960s. However, its view still remains have shaped the views of Oakes, as well as those of the students around him. on a national level. Johnson establishes that there is a definite connection be- tween the movement and the social climate of the 1960s, but does not assess and Robert Allen Warrior’s Like a Hurricane: The Indian the effects of S.F.S.C.’s own climate on the specific individuals in question. Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee has the advantage of a more significant amount of hindsight, as it was written almost thirty years after the events of What, then, was the Third World Strike’s impact on Richard Oakes the occupation. Although they focus on the Red Power Movement as a whole, and his fellow student activists? What role did the development of the Col- the authors spend at least a third of the text discussing the events of Alcatraz. lege of Ethnic Studies play in this impact? Considering the Black Panther Smith and Warrior offer a more personal account in Like a Hurricane, and are Party’s involvement on S.F.S.C.’s campus via its affiliation with the B.S.U., as probably most helpful in profiling major figures within the occupation, includ- well as its militancy (which Deloria worried would negatively influence Native ing Richard Oakes himself. They discuss how Oakes’ time spent in the Mission

11 Troy R. Johnson, The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of 10 Helene Whitson and Wesley Kyles, On Strike! Shut it Down! A Revolution at San Francisco Indian Activism (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 217-21. State: Elements for Change. (San Francisco: J. Paul Leonard Library, 1999), 2. 12 Johnson, The Occupation of Alcatraz Island, 14. 232 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 233 youth), what was its actual degree of influence on these students? While a job working in a bar named “Warren’s” in the Mission District.16 Native Amer- the termination of Native tribes and their subsequent forced urbaniza- icans, many of whom had been moved to San Francisco through Relocation, tion were significant factors in the formation of the Red Power- Move constituted a large portion of the bar’s clientele. During his time at Warren’s, ment, the similarity in the movement’s purpose and actions to those of Oakes began to learn more about the situation of many of the Native people the Black Panther Party signify that the originators of the Red Power in San Francisco. Chief among the complaints of his patrons was that many Movement must have been impacted by the B.S.U.’s actions on their cam- felt “their own culture was inaccessible to them.”17 The experiences of both pus. What was this impact, and was it a determining factor in pushing the Alan Miller and Richard Oakes were intrinsically linked to the Termination and students to make the bold move to occupy a federally owned island? Relocation policy. It had been this policy that had abandoned thousands of Natives in the , and it had been this policy that had left When the United States Government began to implement its policy them with poor housing and little to no education. Termination exacerbated of Termination and Relocation, it had set out with the purpose of erasing any the sense of isolation and the crisis of identity that plagued many Native youth. and all remaining Native tribal identities. In order to do so, the Government Even Oakes, who had moved to the city of his own volition, felt disconnected offered to move Native families to cities like San Francisco, and promised to with his roots. In the documentary Alcatraz is Not an Island, Alan Miller discuss- help them find jobs and homes. Upon arrival, however, Native people found es Oakes’ cultural identity crisis: “…He told me that he didn’t go into the long- that they had essentially been shipped to a new location and then subsequently houses; that he didn’t know a lot about the religion of the Mohawks.”18 Oakes’ abandoned.13 The United States Government was more interested in break- own sense of isolation from his people echoed the feelings of those around ing up the tribal communities of Natives than in assisting Native families in him. And although the forced urbanization of Natives had caused this great their assimilation. It did not anticipate, however, that the many Natives who loss, it served to facilitate the subsequent banding together of the local Native found themselves in urban cities would band together to form a communi- youth. This newfound sense of camaraderie helped to create the concept of ty based on their cultural similarities and shared experiences. Native people pan-Indianism, the unity of various tribal groups through the commonality of – youth, especially – began to flock to Friendship Houses, where they were being American Indian. Pan-Indianism would later serve as one of the main able to develop relationships with those similar to themselves. The Ameri- principles behind the occupation of Alcatraz Island, and would permeate the can Indian Center (A.I.C.) of San Francisco was at the heart of this activity.14 activities of the group in charge of the occupation – the Indians of All Tribes The A.I.C. provided a haven for Native youth. Alan Miller, Vice President of (I.A.T.). It was with this new sense of unity that the Native Americans of San the A.I.C. in the Mission District and a student at S.F.S.C., used the Center’s Francisco came together to begin the process of self-determination. The ur- spaces as meeting rooms, where the youth, according to Miller, “more or less banization had put Native Americans in forced contact with one another and, hung out.”15 These spaces created an area in which Native youth could dis- through their interactions, they realized that the problems they faced were cuss current events and conditions that affected them, such as the need for not unique to a single or reservation; rather, they were problems faced education. But these discussions were not necessarily confined to the A.I.C. by all Native American tribes–problems faced by the Indians of All Tribes.

After moving from Rhode Island to California, Richard Oakes obtained During the Third World Strike, the question of education for

13 Alcatraz is Not an Island (2001), DVD, directed by James M. Fortier (Pacifica, CA: 16 Richard Oakes, “Alcatraz is Not an Island”, Ramparts Magazine (1972): 36. http://www. Diamond Island Productions, 2001). unz.org/ (accessed May 12, 2012). 14 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 18 Alcatraz is Not an Island. 234 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 235 ethnic minorities emerged. As had typically been the case in American schools, had to be done.”23 They had watched the students of the B.S.U. and T.W.L.F. teachers and texts alike focused on subjects-–especially history and anthro- rise up and demand a college for themselves, and they had been disappointed pology–-from a distinctly white perspective. With the rise of the Civil Rights at the lack of Native student involvement. This had pushed them to form Movement and the outcry against the war in Vietnam, non-white students S.C.A.N., which focused on Native issues and culture. The club reflected much were beginning to openly question the legitimacy of these practices and ask of what Oakes and Miller had witnessed in the Mission: the problem of Na- for an education with a much broader scope than the typically Euro-centric tives feeling culturally lost, “searching for meaning within their Indian soul.”24 curriculum; for an education focused on issues more relevant to their own histories and cultures. Although a number of young Native Americans were With the ending of the Third World Strike, S.F.S.C. became the first enrolled at San Francisco State College, they remained largely inactive during school in the United States to form a College of Ethnic Studies. The Native the Third World Strike, and continued to operate on the fringes of the ne- students, having worked closely with students of La Raza to secure a place in gotiations for the new college of Ethnic Studies, with another student orga- the college for themselves, were able to successfully form the Department of nization acting as their proxy.19 Towards the end of the strike, the B.S.U. and Native American Studies. This department became a draw for many of the T.W.L.F. each issued their own list of demands. Chief among them were the young Natives in San Francisco, and led to the enrollment of a few specific in- demands for a widening of the Black Studies department, and the creation dividuals who would later go on to assist in the occupation of Alcatraz.25 It was of a “School of Ethnic Studies,” which later became the College of Ethnic within this department that the Native Students began to form the Red Power Studies.20 Richard Oakes had enrolled in S.F.S.C. shortly before negotiations Movement; as Miller says, “[the Native students] all started the…Indian Native to end the strike began. Together with Alan Miller, he formed the Student American Studies program at the same time; that’s where we started a lot of Council of American Natives (S.C.A.N.).21 Luis S. Kemnizter, a professor of activism on the campus of San Francisco State.”26 The students began to de- Anthropology, was selected to be one of two faculty advisors for S.C.A.N. In sire something for themselves, something that reflected the ideals of their own his article, “Personal Memories of Alcatraz, 1969,” Kemnitzer recalls that “no culture, rather than the Euro-centric curriculum offered. Kemnitzer recalls, identified American Indians were participating in the strike or negotiations “[Richard Oakes], and others also, said that the structure and content of white at this time, and no plans for a Native American Studies Department were people’s education was irrelevant to Indian experience and needs.”27 From the part of the goals of the strike.”22 In fact, the Native students had to rely on perspective of the Native students, the educational system offered what white La Raza, an on-campus Latino student organization that had participated in society wanted them to learn, not what they wanted to learn. The students the Third World Strike, to help negotiate on their behalf. Oakes and Mill- began the process of discussing what type of education they did want, and the er, disheartened by the lack of Native participation, agreed that “something common opinion was that they desired one of self-determination and Indian culture. The I.A.T. expressed this very keenly in the demands they made during their occupation of Alcatraz. In their Proclamation to the Great White Father and

23 Student Council of American Natives, “American Indians Begin to Fight”, 1969, San 19 Luis S. Kemnitzer, “Personal Memories of Alcatraz, 1969.” Lakota Language and Culture Francisco State College Newspaper, Alcatraz Indian Occupation Records, SFH 11. Box 4, Folder Center, Accessed May 12, 2012, http://www.human2human.org/lakota/alcatraz.html. 31. San Francisco History Center, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, California. 20 Helene Whitson and Wesley Kyles. On Strike! Shut it Down!, 11-5. 24 Student Council of American Natives, “American Indians Begin to Fight”. 21 Student Council of American Natives memo listing incoming students for Fall 1969. San 25 Student Council of American Natives memo listing incoming students for Fall 1969. Francisco State College Newspaper, Alcatraz Indian Occupation Records, SFH 11. Box 4, Folder 26 Alcatraz is Not an Island. 24. San Francisco History Center, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, California. 27 Luis S. Kemnitzer, “Personal Memories of Alcatraz, 1969.” 22 Luis S. Kemnitzer, “Personal Memories of Alcatraz, 1969.” 236 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 237

All His People, the I.A.T. demanded a Native American Studies center, which the Red Power Movement would have come to fruition without the Third would aim to “educate [Natives] to the skills and knowledge relevant to im- World Strike; it is true, for example, that Native youth had already spent much prove the lives and spirits of all Indian people.”28 At this point, the Native stu- time congregating and exchanging ideas at the A.I.C. in the Mission. It is dents had decided to fight back against the Euro-centricity of American aca- therefore possible that the A.I.C. could have served the same function as demia, and to take their education into their own hands. It is possible this fight S.C.A.N. What the A.I.C. lacked, however, was the youthful vigor and militan- may not have taken place without the development of the College of Ethnic cy that came to be a part of the Red Power Movement. In this militancy, we Studies; without the college, there may never have been a Department of Na- can clearly see the influences of the B.S.U., which had direct ties to the Black tive American Studies, and without that department, scholars and students Panther Party. While Vine Deloria had argued against the usefulness of the may never have addressed the question of Native education so thoroughly. Movement’s militancy, stating that its vague militancy “provided Kemnitzer recalls that he and the students had spent a sizeable amount of very little understanding of problems or solutions,” he had written too close time discussing what the Native American Studies Department would entail.29 to the events to witness their final outcome.32 While a number of sources have It was this thorough discussion that raised questions of what was and was not commented on the occupation’s vagueness or lack of focus, none can deny relevant to the experience of being a Native American. Their involvement in that it did successfully bring Red Power and the issues of Native People to the the college also led the students to discuss the topic of activism; it was not un- attention of the nation. The Red Power Movement needed the militancy and til after the enrollment of the Native students in the department that the idea fervor of the B.S.U.; it is this very enthusiasm that pushed Richard Oakes to of occupying Alcatraz was first acknowledged. Mary Awrelia Justice, known actually jump into the frigid waters of San Francisco Bay and claim Alcatraz to her classmates as Mary Lee Justice, had made the initial suggestion to Alan in more than just a figurative sense.33 While the movement may have floun- Miller and a number of other students.30 The political currents of San Fran- dered in the years following the occupation, its impact was powerful enough cisco State and of the College of Ethnic Studies effectively swept the students to push then-President to address the issues faced by Native towards activism, and towards the formation of the Red Power Movement. Americans and permanently halt the policy of Termination and Relocation.

The Third World Strike inspired the students to become active Over the last forty years, the occupation of Alcatraz and the Red Power in their own communities and to fight for self-determination. The strike Movement have both dwindled to a faded memory in the collective conscious- played a pivotal role in forming a place in a radically liberal environment— ness of American society. One cannot deny, however, the effectiveness of the the S.F.S.C. campus—where Native youth could share ideas and concerns event and the subsequent movement in changing the United States govern- with one another. The club continued to work towards the formation of the ment’s policies towards Native Americans. Although Natives still suffer under Department of Native American Studies, and supported the efforts of the today’s system, the end of the policy of Termination and Relocation and the T.W.L.F. on campus.31 It could be argued that the occupation of Alcatraz and return of thousands of acres of land to Native people fostered hope within the Native communities that had been, up until that point, tragically absent. This 28 Indians of All Tribes, Alcatraz is Not an Island, ed. Peter Blue Cloud (Berkeley: Wingbow Press, 1972), 41. movement would not have been possible without the forced urbanization of 29 Luis S. Kemnitzer, “Personal Memories of Alcatraz, 1969.” Natives, the Third World Strike at San Francisco State College, and the for- 30 Alcatraz is Not an Island. mation on said campus of the first College of Ethnic Studies. These factors 31 Student Council of American Natives, Sign-up form recruiting members to SCAN, 1969, San Francisco State College Newspaper, Alcatraz Indian Occupation Records, SFH 11. Box 32 Vine Deloria, Jr, Custer Died for Your Sins, 254. 4, Folder 31. San Francisco History Center, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, 33 Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from California. Alcatraz to Wounded Knee, (New York: The New Press, 1996), 16. 238 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 239 instilled a sense of nationalism and pan-Indianism into the Native students, Danielle Magana is an undergraduate student of Asian History. Her which were ultimately the keys to the occupation. Without these sources of in- research interests include modern Chinese history, class struggle, and fluence, it is likely that the Native youth would not have entertained the concept how the issues of social and gender inequality help shape revolution. of the occupation of a federally owned island. As Richard Oakes once said, Alcatraz is not an island. It’s an idea.34 It was this idea that led the Native people to claim their right to the freedoms they so desperately needed and deserved.

34 Alcatraz is Not an Island. 240 Danielle Magana THE INCEPTION OF THE RED POWER MOVEMENT 241

BIBLIOGRAPHY Smith, Paul Chaat, and Robert Allen Warrior. Like a Hurricane: The Indian Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee. New York: The New West. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2000. Press, 1996.

Deloria, Vine Jr. Custer Died for Your Sin: An Indian Manifesto. Norman: Student Council of American Natives memo listing incoming students for Press, 1988. First published 1969 by Fall 1969. Alcatraz Indian Occupation Records, SFH 11. Box 4, Folder 24. Macmillan Publishing Company. San Francisco History Center, San Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, California. Indians of All Tribes, Alcatraz is Not an Island, ed. Peter Blue Cloud. Berkeley: —. Sign-up form recruiting members to SCAN, 1969, San Francisco State Wingbow Press, 1972. College Newspaper, Alcatraz Indian Occupation Records, SFH 11. Box 4, Folder 31. San Francisco History Center, San Johnson, Troy R. The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and Francisco Public Library, San Francisco, California. the Rise of Indian Activism. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996. —. “American Indians Begin to Fight”, 1969, San Francisco State College Newspaper, Alcatraz Indian Occupation Records, SFH 11. Box 4, Folder Kemnitzer, Luis S. “Personal Memories of Alcatraz, 1969.” Lakota Language 32. San Francisco History Center, San Francisco Public Library, San and Culture Center, May 12, 2012, http://www.human2human.org/ Francisco, California. lakota/alcatraz.html. Whitson, Helene, and Wesley Kyles. On Strike! Shut it Down! A Revolution at Miller, Alan. Alcatraz is Not an Island (2001). DVD. directed by James M. San Francisco State: Elements for Change. San Francisco: J. Paul Leonard Fortier. Pacifica, CA: Diamond Island Productions, 2001. Library, 1999.

Nixon, Richard “Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs.” July 8, Wilkinson, Charles F. Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations. New 1970. The American Presidency Project, May 12, 2012, http://www.presi York: Norton, 2005. dency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2573.

Oakes, Richard. “Alcatraz is Not an Island”, Ramparts Magazine (1972): 36. http://www.unz.org/ (accessed May 12, 2012).

San Francisco State University. “1899 – 1999: A History of SF State,” last modified March 20, 2009, http://www.sfsu.edu/~100years/history/ long.htm#6769. —. “On Strike! Shut it Down! (Exhibit 1999) Case 3: Prelude / Demands,” February 2, 2015, http://www.library.sfsu.edu/exhibits/strike/case3- text.html.