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Home , Sack of Rome (410)

The Artios Home Companion Series Unit 2: The Fall of

Teacher Overview

THERE IS an old saying that “Rome wasn’t built in a day.” It also didn’t fall in a day. The fall of Rome came about over a long period of time, due to many different circumstances. A failing economy, invasions, a military stretched too thin, and corruption that ran rampant were all contributing factors to its destruction. This unit will cover the invasion of three different barbarian tribes: The Ostrogoths (East ), the (West Goths), and the .

Reading and Assignments In this unit, students will:  Complete three lessons in which they will learn about the Barbarian invasion, the rise of the , and the rule of the , journaling and answering discussion questions as they read.  Define vocabulary words.  Visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Leading Ideas An individual’s character will be reflected in his leadership. For as he thinketh in his heart, so is he. — Proverbs 23:7 (KJV)

There is power in the spoken word to do evil or to do good. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks. — Matthew 12:34

Clovis I, by François-Louis Dejuinne

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 27 Vocabulary Key People, Places, and Events Lesson 1: Lesson 2: the Hun Theoderic bulwark augment The Battle of the Nations Leo the Great tyranny Arius Clovis Lesson 3: Leo the Great Clotilda none Gaiseric the Goth

Attila and His Hordes Overrun Italy and the Arts, by Eugène Delacroix

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 28 L e s s o n O n e

H i s t ory Overview and Assignments The Barbarian Invasion

ONCE THE was split into two separate kingdoms, they both became weaker rather than stronger. When invading barbarians crossed the borders, the Eastern Empire was still able to turn them back, but in the West the barbarians found they were able to conquer the land and take possession of its wealth.

Routes taken by barbarian invaders, B.C.

Reading and Assignments

 Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: The Barbarians Invade the Roman Empire. Have a map of the Roman Empire for this time period at your side for reference during your reading.

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 29  Narrate about today’s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration.  Define each vocabulary word in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook.  Be sure to visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Vocabulary Key People, Places, and Events bulwark Attila the Hun Theoderic tyranny The Battle of the Nations Leo the Great

Discussion Questions 1. What does the author mean when he quotes “Rome was not built in a day” and adds “neither did it fall in a day”? 2. On your notebook page describe how the Roman Empire fell from within, and how it fell due to influences and attacks from without. 3. Be ready to discuss in class what countries resulted from the invasions by the following peoples: ▪ Alaric the Goth (Teutons/Germans) ▪ Lombards ▪ Picts and Scots ▪ Allemanni ▪ Franks ▪ Vandals ▪ ▪ 4. What deciding turn of history was determined at the battle between Theoderic and Attila the Hun, known as the Battle of the Nations?

Raphael’s The Meeting Between Leo the Great and Attila depicts Leo, escorted by and Saint Paul, meeting with the Hun king outside Rome

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 30 Adapted for Middle School from the book: The Story of Europe by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall The Barbarians Invade the Roman Empire

In the first centuries of our era the one given over to wandering barbarians, who great power of the world was the Roman were skilled in neither the arts of war nor of Empire. All of southern Europe bowed peace. That the civilization of Rome should beneath the conquering sword of the go down before their ignorance seemed Romans. and Asia, too, were under impossible. Yet the barbarian triumphed, their sway, for the Mediterranean, the great Rome fell, and the mighty empire crumbled trade route of the known world of the time, into dust. was theirs, and the countries bordering “Rome was not built in a day.” Neither upon it became mere provinces of Rome. did Rome fall in a day. The fall was gradual, Even the uttermost islands felt their might, and came both from without and from and sailing beyond the “narrow sea,” Caesar within. set his hand upon the island of Britain. From the and the in the The Destructive Power of Tyranny North, to the desert of Sahara in the South, The fall came because there was tyranny from the borders of Wales in the West, to in the empire, and no state can long be held the Euphrates and the Tigris in the East, the by tyranny and the power of the sword empire stretched. alone. The high officials and tax collectors Of this wide empire the city of Rome was cared nothing for the people’s good, they the capital. Secure upon her seven hills she cared only for gold. They laid heavy and sat, ruler of the world, a city without rival, unjust taxes upon the middle classes. These until in A.D. 330 the Christian emperor classes must always be the backbone and resolved to build a support of a nation, but in Rome’s last days new Rome upon the shores of the they were so oppressed that they ceased to Bosphorus. Constantine called his new city exist. The backbone of the nation was gone. “New Rome.” But men did not take readily So when wild barbarian hordes poured over to the name, and the capital upon the the borders of the empire, Rome fell. Bosphorus became known as But let’s back up a bit. When Emperor , or the City of Constantine. Theodosius died, about sixty years after the It is difficult today to remember that founding of Constantinople, he left two Constantinople was founded by a Christian sons, both mere boys. They divided the and was at one time the bulwark of empire between them, , the elder, Christianity against the Turk. taking Constantinople for his capital, ruled The Romans called themselves lords of over the Eastern Empire, and , a the world. And so it seemed they were. All child of eleven, became ruler of the Western the trade and skill, all the art and learning Empire, with Rome as his capital. The of the known world, were theirs. Beyond the Eastern Empire was able to repel invasions borders of the Roman Empire the world was fairly successfully for centuries. It was upon

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 31 Rome and the Western Empire that the full Death laid his hand upon the victorious force of the barbarian onslaught fell. Goth, and all his triumphs were blotted out. First came the Goths. These were The new king of the Goths, Ataulphus (“son Teutons, or Germans, and they were divided of the Wolf”), did not follow up on Alaric’s into two tribes — the Visigoths or western triumphs. He turned aside from Africa, Goths, and the Ostrogoths or eastern Goths. forsook the wasted plains of Italy, and They were tall and strong, their eyes were marching his war-worn followers into blue, their hair long and fair. They were southern and northern , settled lawless, greedy, and treacherous. They there. came at first fleeing from the Huns, a far Meanwhile other barbarian hosts more barbarous foe, seeking shelter attacked the outposts of the empire. For in a beneath the still all-powerful scepter of vain endeavor to guard Italy and Rome itself Rome. They found the protection they the last legions had been called back even desired, but before long they turned their from Britain, and the northern boundaries swords against the men who had provided of the empire were left a prey to the it. barbarians. Over the wall in Britain which stretched The March of Alaric from Forth to Clyde stormed the Picts and Under their young king Alaric, the Scots, across the Rhine and the Danube on Visigoths attacked the empire again and the Continent poured wild hordes of Franks, again. Twice Alaric laid siege to Rome. Burgundians, Lombards, Allemanni, and Twice he spared the imperial city. Still a Vandals. The Franks settled in Gaul and third time he came, and this time he sacked made it Frankland. The Burgundians, too, and plundered it without mercy. Then, settled in Gaul, and to-day the fair province laden with rich booty and driving a long of France lying between the Loire and the train of captives before him, he turned Saône still keeps their name. The Vandals southward. The proudest city in the world settled in Spain, of which a province is still lay at his feet, and flushed with victory, he named Andalusia (Vandalusia). The marched to invade Africa. Lombards, or “Longbeards,” overran northern Italy, and today the central province of northern Italy is still named Lombardy. Angles and Saxons left their homes on the Weser and the Elbe, sailed across the sea, and taking possession of southern Britain, changed its name to “Angle-land,” or England. Every one of those barbarian tribes, which thus rent the Roman Empire to

pieces, was of German or Teutonic origin. Alaric in , by Ludwig Thiersch And from the ashes of fallen Rome a new But an even greater captain than the Teutonic empire was to arise. But conqueror of Rome met him on the way. meanwhile a foe far more fierce and terrible

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 32 than any German tribe was sweeping of God,” he boasted proudly, “the hammer onward, ready to grind to dust the already of the world. Where my horse’s hoofs have crumbling empire. This foe was the Hun. trod the grass will grow no more.”

Attila and the Huns The Battle of the Nations The Huns were a warrior race coming Like a devastating flood the Huns swept from out the wastes of Asia. They were small over Gaul, leaving behind them a track of and swarthy, their eyes were dark and blood and ashes. Town after town was given piercing, their noses squat, and their to the flames, and the fair fields were laid hairless, hideous faces were covered with waste. Then, at length, forgetting their old frightful gashes and scars which made them quarrels, Roman and Goth joined together more hideous still. They spent their lives on to crush the common foe. The Goths, under horseback, and they rode so well that they King Theoderic, and the Romans under almost seemed part of their sturdy little Flavius Aetius, “the last of the Romans,” ponies. With much riding, indeed, their legs marched northward. Franks and were so bowed that they could scarcely Burgundians, too, joined the army, and walk. They had no houses and few upon a plain near Chalons a great battle was possessions. They neither plowed nor fought between the allies and the Hun. reaped, but lived on raw flesh and clothed The struggle was long and fierce. themselves in skins. They were fierce, Theoderic, king of the Visigoths, was slain, bloodthirsty, vile, and all men fled before but in the end the Huns were defeated. them with a shuddering dread. Defeated they were, but not crushed. Like a

wounded animal behind the rampart of his baggage wagons, Attila crouched, growling and watchful. So dangerous he seemed that the allies dared no more attack him, and content with their victory, they marched homeward. This fight has been called the Battle of the Nations. And although the victory was not a decisive one, a great question was The Huns, led by Attila, invade Italy. (Attila, the settled upon the field of Chalons. There it Scourge of God), by Ulpiano Checa was made plain that Europe was to be the These were the people who, led on by heritage of the Christian Teutons and their mighty king Attila, made Europe Romans, and not of the pagan Mongols. tremble. Of all the Huns Attila was the most Attila was too crippled to renew the terrible. Though small of stature, his fight, and sullenly he recrossed the Rhine. shoulders were of great breadth, and there But the following year, having gathered was something of kingly authority in his another army, he marched through Italy, piercing, evil eye and loathsome, scowling leaving, as was his practice, a trail of ruined face. Where he passed he left desolation cities and devastated plains in his wake. behind him and gloried in it. “I am the curse Rome was his goal, but before he reached it

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 33 his course was once more stayed. For, way he had come, and departed with the accompanied by certain nobles, the Pope, promise of peace.” Leo I, came out to meet the savage “I can conquer men,” he said, “but the conqueror. Lion (Leo) knows how to conquer me.” Upon the banks of the River Mincio the In this appeal made by Leo the Great to misshapen heathen met the priest of God. a heathen foe we see the first beginnings of Upon the one side there was religion and the enormous power in worldly matters knowledge and everything that stood for which the popes of a future day were to civilization, discipline, and lofty aims. Upon wield. But other arguments besides those of the other there was ignorance and base lust the Bishop of Rome hastened Attila’s going. of blood. For “the Huns were stricken by the blows of Leo came unarmed to meet the foe heaven,” famine and pestilence thinned before whom all Europe cowered. Yet he their ranks. So, taking the gold which was conquered. His solemn words of pleading offered to him, their leader returned, and warning pierced the heart of the fierce perhaps not unwillingly, to his own borders. heathen. Perhaps, too, the gold which he He hoped doubtless to come again at brought in his hand as a bribe from the another time to wreak his will upon Rome. feeble emperor aided not a little the But the following year he died. His empire eloquence of his words. However that may fell to pieces, and the Hun vanished from be, Attila yielded. “Hastily,” we are told, “he Europe. put off his habitual fury, turned back on the

The maximum extent of the Roman Empire

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 34 L e s s o n T w o

History Overview and Assignments The Rise of the Franks

THE INVADING Huns were followed by the Franks, who gradually extended their rule over the empire. Their leader, Clovis, persuaded by his wife to become a Christian, believed that God had given him the ability to win battles in His name.

Vocabulary augment

Key People, Places, and Events Arius Clovis Clotilda

Discussion Questions 1. Who was Arius, and what does the belief called Arianism mean? 2. What was the mythical origin of the Merovingian dynasty? 3. Discuss what is described as the conversion of Clovis. How does it line up with a

Biblical definition of A 19th century depiction of different Franks (AD 400–600) conversion?

Reading and Assignments

 Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: The Rise of the Franks and Clovis.  Narrate about today’s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration.  Define the vocabulary word in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook.  Be sure to visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 35 Adapted for Middle School from the book: The Story of Europe by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall The Rise of the Franks and Clovis

In the beginning of the fifth century the conquest, and in no long time doubled and Franks were among the many tribes of tripled the size of his kingdom. Teutonic origin who helped to dismember the Roman Empire. They took possession of Arianism part of Gaul, which, in time, became known At the time of their invasion of the as Frankland, and which formed the empire nearly all the Teutonic tribes were nucleus of the state that we know today as Christian. But they were Arian Christians — France. When the Franks invaded the that is, they were followers of Arius, whose empire they did so in a manner different doctrine, to put it simply, said that Jesus from that of the other Teutons. They did not was not divine but was simply God’s human cut themselves off from Germany. They did son. It was easier for the uneducated not wander far into the empire, making Teutons to understand this doctrine than conquests now here, now there. They simply the more complicated one of the Trinity, crossed the border, and taking possession of and therefore they adopted it. a small portion, settled there. Arianism has long since passed away, Nor were they like the Goths and and it may not seem to matter very much Vandals a single group of people who what those half-civilized tribes believed. But marched to war in a body. They were made in the reconstruction of Europe after the fall up of various tribes who moved about of the Roman Empire it had some independently of each other and who settled importance. For the fact that the Teutons in various places. Their great strength lay in were Arians made for them an enemy in the the fact that they kept their lines of mind of the Bishop of Rome, who was communication open. While plundering the gradually becoming a power in matters of empire they still kept in touch with the great state as well as in spiritual matters. unexploited forces of the heathen world But although most of the barbarians who behind them. attacked the empire were Christian, some The chief of these Frankish tribes were were not. Among those who were not were the Salians and the Riparians, who settled in the Angles and the Saxons, who took what is now Belgium. And it was the Salian possession of England, and the Franks. Franks that at length became the dominant Clovis, like the people over whom he tribe. Their first king of any account was ruled, was a heathen, but he married a Clovis. He traced his descent from a Christian princess named Clotilda, the niece mythical sea king called Merovée, and from of the King of Burgundy. And this Clotilda that the dynasty to which he belonged is was not an Arian like her uncle, but an called the Merovingian dynasty. orthodox Christian. She was very devout, Clovis came to the throne at the age of and she tried very earnestly to convert her sixteen. He soon set out upon a life of heathen husband. But Clovis resisted all her

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 36 efforts. He allowed her to follow her own upon him, his forehead received the sign of religion undisturbed, but he was satisfied the Cross, and henceforth he was a with his own gods and refused to change. At Christian. Nor was Clovis alone in his last, however, Clotilda had her wish. baptism. With him three hundred of his Clovis was fighting against the followers accepted the Christian faith. Allemanni, and in the Battle of Tolbiac his This sudden and wholesale conversion soldiers were being beaten. Fervently he made little difference in the lives of Clovis called upon his heathen gods to save him, and his tameless warriors. After, as before, and turn the fortune of the day in his favor. they were bloodthirsty barbarians. But His prayers were in vain, and the Franks much of the King’s future success was due fled before the foe. Then, in the agony of to his conversion. For it brought him a defeat, Clovis prayed to Clotilda’s God. powerful friend in the Church of Rome, and “Jesus Christ,” he cried, “whom Clotilda when he conquered the Arian kings of the declares to be the only true God, aid me. If Visigoths and the Burgundians, the great Thou wilt grant me victory over mine prelates looked upon him as a champion of enemies I will believe in Thee, and will be the Church and regarded his wars as holy baptized in Thy name. I have called upon wars. Thus began an alliance between the my own gods and they have not helped me. popes and the kings of France that, in days To Thee alone I pray.” to come, had great influence upon the history of Western Europe. Even the Emperor in far-off Constantinople honored Clovis. Instead of regarding him as a barbarian enemy, assisting at the destruction of the empire, he looked upon him as an ally and gave him the title of Roman Consul. It was but an empty title, and added nothing to the reality of the Frankish king’s conquests, but it pleased his barbaric mind. Clovis reigned for thirty years. At the beginning of his reign he had been merely the chief of a petty tribe. When he died he

was ruler of a vast kingdom stretching from The Battle of Tolbiac, by Ary Scheffer beyond the Rhine to the Pyrenees. “For each As Clovis so prayed the tide of battle day,” says an old writer, “the enemies of turned, and when night fell the victory was Clovis fell beneath his hand, and his his, and the enemy fled in all directions. kingdom was augmented, because with a Returning home, the King loyally kept his pure heart he walked before the Lord, and word. The water of baptism was sprinkled did that which was right in His eyes.”

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 37 Lesson Three

History Overview and Assignments The Rule of the Barbarians

GAISERIC and his band of Vandals overran Northern Africa and pillaged coastal areas around the Mediterranean before marching to Rome, where they were met, like Attila had been, by Leo I, who persuaded them not to kill the people of the city. The Vandals took over and eventually set one of their own upon the throne, until they were in turn conquered by the Ostrogoths. During the reign of their ruler Theoderic, the invading tribes and the Romans gradually learned to live in peace and unity.

Pope Leo the Great persuades Genseric, Prince of Vandals, to Abstain From Sacking Rome, by Maïtre François (illuminator)

Reading and Assignments

 Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: The Barbarians Rule in Rome.  Narrate about today’s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration.  Be sure to visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 38 Key People, Discussion Questions Places, and 1. Describe the confrontation between Leo the Great and Gaiseric Events the Goth, and compare it to the confrontation between Leo the Great and Attila the Hun. Leo the Great Romulus Augustulus 2. Who was the last in the Western Empire? Gaiseric the Goth 3. How old was the last Roman emperor when he began to rule? 4. List the sequence of rulers that ruled over the Western Empire after this final Roman emperor.

Adapted for Middle School from the book: The Story of Europe by Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall The Barbarians Rule in Rome

Rome had been saved from the Hun only Vandals advanced the gates were thrown to fall into the hands of another barbarian open. It was, however, no armed force that foe. From Andalusia the Vandals had issued forth, but a company of priests. crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, overrun the Once again Leo sought to save the northern shores of Africa, and, under their imperial city. Unarmed save by his savage king Gaiseric (also known as dauntless courage, with the Cross carried Genseric), made themselves complete before him and his clergy following after, he masters of that Roman province. Up and advanced to meet the foe. But this time he down the Mediterranean they sailed in their could not altogether prevail. The Vandals pirate ships, plundering the rich and fruitful were bent on seeking treasure, and treasure islands, causing peaceful traders to tremble they would have. Leo could only wring from and flee before them. Their sole joy was in their chief a promise that there would be no plunder and bloodshed, and they cared not bloodshed, no burning of houses, and no where they went in quest of it. torture of the defenseless. With that he had to be content, and the began. The Vandals: The March of Gaiseric For fourteen days the pillage lasted. “I sail to the cities of men with whom Then, having stripped the city of its wealth, God is angry,” said Gaiseric. And from his the robbers sailed away in their richly laden actions it would appear that he thought God galleys, carrying with them thousands of was angry with all who crossed his path. So, Roman citizens as slaves. having robbed and wasted many a fair city The Western Empire was now almost of the Mediterranean, Gaiseric and his entirely in the hands of the Teutonic tribes Vandals one day appeared before Rome. that had overrun its borders. But still, for The Emperor and the people fled, and the twenty-one years, it lingered on in death. walls were left defenseless. But as the Then the end came.

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 39 The last Emperor of Rome bore the same emperor. So he left alone, and for name as its founder — Romulus. He was, thirteen years he reaped the reward of his however, only a fair, feeble boy of fourteen, inaction and ruled in peace. so he was called Romulus Augustulus or Then another barbarian, Theoderic the “the Little Emperor.” He was deposed by Ostrogoth, turned his eyes back toward Odoacer the German, who was the first Italy. Theoderic desired to conquer it, and barbarian to sit upon the throne of the the Emperor did nothing to restrain him. Caesars. For Theoderic and his Goths were Odoacer, however, did not take to dangerous friends and troublesome himself the title of emperor. For the Roman neighbors, and it seemed better to the Empire in the East still existed, a Roman Emperor that they should harass the emperor still reigned in Constantinople. To Western Empire, over which he had but a this emperor then, Odoacer sent the purple shadowy right, than that they should turn robe and the royal diadem, with a letter, in their swords against him. which he declared that one emperor was So once again a great barbarian force enough both for East and West, and marched on Italy. This time they came not demanding the right to rule in Italy as as an army but as a nation, bringing their patrician or king. wives, children, and household goods with

them because the Goths had heard much of the beauty and the riches of Rome, and they meant to abide there. Odoacer, however, did not lightly yield what his sword had won, and for more than four years he fought for his kingdom. At length, however, even his stubborn will gave way, and at he surrendered to Theoderic. Theoderic promised Odoacer his life, promised even that he should rule with equal power with himself. But he did not keep his promise, for he well knew that two kings could not rule in Italy, and secretly he resolved to put Odoacer to death. Ten days, therefore, after Theoderic had entered Ravenna in triumph he invited his Romulus Augustulus resigns fallen rival to a feast. As Odoacer neared the the Roman crown to Odoacer banqueting hall two men suddenly threw Theoderic and the Ostrogoths themselves at his feet, praying him to grant At first, when the emperor, Zeno, them a boon. In the fervor of their entreaties received Odoacer’s letter he was merely they seized his hands and held them fast. As angry that this bold barbarian had dared to they did so armed men, in the midst of usurp the throne of the caesars. Then he felt whom was Theoderic, drawn sword in hand, rather pleased at the idea of being sole surrounded them. Odoacer knew that his

Medieval to Renaissance: Middle School Unit 2: The Fall of Rome Page 40 last hour had come. “O God,” he cried, For so great was the order which he made “where art Thou?” there that if anyone left gold or silver at his He spoke no more, for Theoderic’s farm it was as safe as if it had been within a sword descended, cleaving his helpless walled city. This is proved by the fact that he enemy from neck to thigh. Even Theoderic never made gates for any city in Italy, and himself was amazed at the blow. “There those which were there already were never certainly wasn’t a bone in this wretched closed.” fellow!” he cried, with a savage laugh, as he It seemed as if Theoderic had founded a turned away. new dynasty in Italy, under which those two Thus Theoderic the Goth began his reign races, from which the modern civilization of in Italy, and except for this one black deed Europe was to spring, would be united. But of treachery there is little to record against that was not to be. him in his reign of more than thirty years. He was a barbarian, but with the conquest of Italy he stayed his sword, seeking no further conquests, but only the good of the conquered people. He had no easy task, for he had two utterly different people groups to rule over, Romans and Goths. He was just, however, and wise, and soon he was loved by both peoples. He preserved many of the old Roman laws, and although he was so ignorant himself that he could only with difficulty trace his own name, he encouraged learning in others. He made friendly alliances with all the peoples around him, and so that these should be lasting and binding he arranged marriages between his own family and those of the neighboring princes, thus taking a precaution of which the world has not yet learned the uselessness and danger. Theoderic, indeed, seems to have been for these early days a model prince. He was, Bronze statue of Theoderic the Great, King of the we are told, “A lover of manufactures, and a Ostrogoths, at the tomb of Emperor Maximilian I in the Court Church in Innsbruck, Austria great restorer of cities . . . Merchants from (By statue: Peter Vischer the Elder; photo: James Steakley - other countries flocked to his dominions. photographed in Innsbruck, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6214826)

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