INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN PUERTO RICO

An Evaluation of the Program in "operation Bootstrap" from 19^8 to 1958

DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

JOHN RICHARD McELHENY, B.S., M.S.

The Ohio state University

I960

Approved by

Adviser Department of Education “We, the people of Puerto Rico, in order to organize ourselves politically on a fully democratic basis, to promote the general wel­ fare, and to secure for ourselves and our posterity the complete enjoyment of human rights, placing our trust in Almighty God, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the Commonwealth which, in the exercise of our natural rights, we now create within our union with the United States of America. . . .

“We consider as determining factors in our life our citizenship of the United States of America and our aspiration continually to enrich our democratic heritage in the individual and collective en­ joyment of its rights and privileges; our loyalty to the principles of the Federal Constitution; the co-existence in Puerto Rico of the two great cultures of the American Hemisphere; our fervor for education; our faith in justice; our devotion to the courageous, in­ dustrious, and peaceful way of life; our fidelity to individual human values above and beyond social position, racial differences, and economic interests; and our hope for a better world based on these principles.”

From the Preamble to the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico July 25,1952..

ii PREFACE

This study is more than a dissertation because it seeks to appraise a decade of Industrial Education in Puerto

Rico in the light of the economic and cultural advancements made, and then in the field work required, to stimulate the further development involved in this, as well as in other parts of the free world.

The problem is a sober one of educational cause and economic effect, and especially concerning the investment required to achieve what is desired. The time, effort, and expense required by this study will have been well spent if a higher cultural level by the people of Puerto Rico and elsewhere can be achieved.

The writer is most appreciative for the interest and assistance of Lorenzo Garcia Hernandez, Director of Voca­ tional Education, and the members of his staff in the

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and to the members of his

Advisory Committee, Dr. william E. Warner, Dr. Earl W.

Anderson, Dr. Theodore J. Jenson, and Dr. Robert m . Reese of the Department of Education at The Ohio State University in Columbus. The photographs are by the writer. The shop layouts were provided by Ferdinand Rossy, Chief of Section.

March i960 JOHN RICHARD McELHENY

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

NATURE OF THE DISSERTATION 1

Scope of the Inquiry Definitions Research Procedures Supporting Studies Investigative Trips to Puerto Rico Some Philosophical Bases Brief Summary of Findings

II. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF PUERTO R I C O ...... 11 Early Spanish History The Middle Years A United States Possession Ethnic and Cultural Background Political structure Taxation and Expenditures Geographical Description Topography and Population Education

III. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF PUERTO RICO ...... 41 Historical Bases Economy During the Period 1900-1948 Operation Bootstrap Economic Development and Industrialization Current Economy and Manpower Needs

IV. NATURE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION...... 67 Some Historical Bases for Industrial Arts Derivation and Industrial Arts Education Trade and Industrial Education Some Evaluative Criteria

iv

/; ii TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTD.)

Chapter Page

V. SURVEY OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN PUERTO RICO . . 96 Part I, industrial Arts Education

Historical Bases Program Description Location of Programs Enrollments Teaching Staff Administration and Supervision Physical Plant Teacher Education Derivation of philosophies

VI. SURVEY OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN PUERTO RICO . . 145 Part II, Trade and Industrial Education

Program Descriptions Location of Programs Enrollments Teaching Staff Physical Plant Job Placements Student Drop-Outs Teacher Preparation Admini strati on Cost Per Unit of Instruction Determining Changing Needs

VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . 176 Summary Conclusions Recommendations

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 AUTOBIOGRAPHY 202

V LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Education Level of the Population, 1950-75 . . . 37

2. Labor Force by Education Level, 1955-75 .... 37

3. Revenues and Budgetary Allocations, 1945-57 . . 40

4. Costs and Benefits of Fomento Programs ...... 53

5. Projected Employment in Puerto R i c o ...... 64

6. Characteristics of Reimbursable Programs . . . . 90

7. Industrial Arts Enrollment, 1948 ...... 109

8. Industrial Arts Enrollment, 1956-59 109

9. Enrollment by Areas of Instruction ...... 112

10. Distribution of Areas T a u g h t ...... 113

11. Level of Teacher Preparation ...... 114

12. Analysis of Functions and Objectives ...... 140

13. Enrollment, Day Trade, November, 1958 152

14. Trade and Industrial Enrollment, 1948-58 .... 153

15. Point iv participants, 1950-58 ...... 154

16. Trade Teacher Salary Increment and Preparation . 157

17. Type B Vocational Graduates, 1954-57 ...... 160

18. Placement by Trades, 1954-57 ...... 162

19. Salaries of Graduates by Trades, 1954-57 .... 163

20. Enrollment in Trade Courses, Six High Schools . 166

21. Base Monthly Salary, Administrative Personnel . 170

22. Rank Order of Twenty states, 1956-57 ...... 172

23. Expenditures for Trade and Industrial Education. 173

vi LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE PAGE 1. Geographic Location of Puerto Rico ...... 20

2. A Typical Puerto Rican Scene ...... 22

3. The Department of Public Instruction S t r u c t u r e ...... 31

4. Birth and Death Rates, 1938-75 ...... 33

5. Enrollment by Levels, 1950~75 34

6. Distribution of Population by Age Groups . . . 36

7. The Budget Dollar for E d u c a t i o n ...... 39

8. Imports, Fiscal Years 1949-56 60

9. Personal and Family Incomes, 1950-75 ...... 6l

10. Distribution of Labor Force, 1950-75 ...... 63

11. The Changing of Energy U s a g e ...... 79

12. Industrial Arts Enrollments, 1948-58 ...... Ill

13. The Industrial Arts Section structure .... 117

14. General Shop, Manati junior High School . . . 119

15. General Shop, Manati Junior High School . . . 120

16. The Industrial Arts Building at Fajardo . . . 121

17. Handicrafts Laboratory at Fajardo ...... 122

18. Electrical Laboratory at Fajardo ...... 123

19. Building Forms for Basketball court, Fajardo . 124

20. The Laboratory of Industries at Arecibo . . . 125

21. A Typical Girl student at Arecibo High School. 126

22. The Laboratory of industries at Manati .... 127

vii LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS (CONTD.)

Figure Page

2 3 . Graphic Arts Laboratory, Einstein High S c h o o l ...... 128

24. Woodworking, Arecibo Junior High School .... 129

2 5. Woodworking, Einstein High School ...... 130

2 6. Vocational School at C a y e y ...... 158

2 7. Organizational Structure, Trade and industrial Section ...... 169

viii CHAPTER I

NATURE OP THE DISSERTATION

The purpose of this dissertation is to report a research study made of the industrial education program in

Puerto Rico during the years 1948-58. The study was made to evaluate the industrial education program and to deter­ mine its influence on the economy and culture of the

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. There Is also the anticipa­ tion that existing programs in Puerto Rico and the United

States will be benefited, and that leadership and adminis­ trative policies may be improved as a result of the study.

Scope of the Inquiry. The period 1948 to 1958 has been chosen because it parallels the projected time schedule of the Economic Development Administration of the Common­ wealth of Puerto Rico and coincides with the first ten years of political autonomy. The data from these years show a significant change in the island economy.

A further limitation of the scope of this dissertation can be made by identifying the two phases of industrial education: industrial arts, and trade and industrial education. Industrial arts programs in Puerto Rico are found in both rural and urban areas. The programs in the former are in second unit schools, while the latter are in both junior and senior high schools.

Trade and industrial education programs are found in twelve schools and are classified as follows: trade pre­ paratory, trade extension, accelerated training, diversi­ fied occupations, technical training, and Point Four programs.

Definitions. Industrial arts is commonly classified as a phase of general education (1 2 2 ,1 )* while trade and industrial education is considered to be an area of educa­ tion with specific objectives in trade preparation inte­ grated within the public school program (5 5,1 ).

General education in its modern interpretation, according to Wilber, has the following basic purposes:

(1 ) to transmit a way of life, (2 ) to improve and reconstruct that way of life, and (3 ) to meet the needs of individuals

(122,3). A way of life is defined by Young as common material and social heritages, beliefs, activities, and interest of those who live in the same economic and social environment (124,3).

*See the bibliograptor. The first figure refers to the listing and the second to the page number. 3

The Harvard Report (38) states that general education

is that part of a student's whole education which looks

first of all to his life as a responsible human being, and

R. Freeman Butts has said (9,422) that a liberal education

must be appropriate to its own culture.

The Ohio Plan further describes the two phases of

industrial education (5 5*1 ), -

Industrial arts through study and experience with tools, matferials, processes, products, and occupa­ tions of an industrial society should achieve the objectives of industrial orientation, educational integration, consumer literacy, recreation, tech­ nical competency, and social and cultural under­ standings.

Trade and industrial education has the specific charge of preparing youths for entry into trades and occupations through development of salable skills and knowledges, desirable work habits, and social attitudes.

Lindbeck, in an unpublished doctoral dissertation,

1 9 5 8, examined the literature of industrial arts in order

to discover the derivations and nature of the generalizations made for that field (45), He found the following hypoth­

eses:

1. Consumer Education 6. Manipulative Skills

2. Appreciation 7. Desirable Habits

3. Industrial Knowledge 8. Learning, through manipulative experiences 4. Leisure activity

5. Guidance 9. Creativity 4

Trade and Industrial education has, as previously-

stated, definite objectives in preparing individuals for gainful employment. Section 11, Public Law No. 3^7 » 64th

Congress, The Smith-Hughes Act, states (101):

. . . that the controlling purpose of such educa­ tion shall be to fit for useful employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade and shall be designed to meet the needs of persons over fourteen years .of age who are preparing for a trade or industrial pursuit or who have entered upon the work of a trade or industrial pursuit. . .

Research Procedures. The research design for this study may be characterized as historic-descriptive.

Descriptive research attempts to interpret the present through cross-sections of current experience, and historic research deals with past experience in a similar manner.

An evaluation of the present is predicated upon a knowledge and understanding of the past. Lines of development in human thought and action were traced to reach bases for future activities. The result of educational efforts in group life were investigated, and relationships of human activities and Institutions to organized educational institutions sought.

First, a survey and critical analysis of biblio­ graphical material was made in preparation for an activity analysis that followed. An evaluation of the industrial education program was made through Interviews, visits to schools, and group and individual discussions. An evaluation instrument in the form of an outline that abstracted evalu­

ative criteria, reported in Chapter IV, was employed.

Supporting Studies. One dissertation and eight theses have been written on the general theme of industrial education in Puerto Rico. All were submitted to mainland

universities and ranged chronologically from 1936 to 1 9 5 3.

Half of the studies were made of industrial arts, and the remainder were concerned with trade and industrial educa­ tion and practical arts. All were written by Puerto Ricans.

Each of these studies was examined. Vega Brau's

(118) use of the questionnaire to investigate the philoso­ phies of industrial arts teachers was adapted for use in this research, and valuable historical material was found in the thesis written by Juan Espendez-Navarro (28). The remaining studies contained out-dated information and analyses that did not contribute significantly to this dissertation. Other reports, economic statistics, and analyses were also examined for significant data.

Investigative Trips to Puerto Rico. Two trips were made to the island for the purpose of gathering data. The first trip was made in December, 1957, and the second during the latter part of January, 1959.

Several administrators in the Department of Education were interviewed at the time of the first visit, including

Dr. Sanchez-Hidalgo, Secretary of Education, Sr. Fernando Roca, Assistant vocational Director, Sr. Antonio Figueroa,

Chief of the Trade and Industrial Section, Sr. Manual

Hernandez, Acting Chief of the Industrial Arts Sections, and Supervisors Nunez, Vega Brau, and Ginorio.

The second visit was for a period of ten days.

Sr. Garcia Hernandez, vocational Director, and Sr. Ferdinand

Rossy, Chief of industrial Arts Section were interviewed.

Sr. Garcia Hernandez was very helpful in providing infor­ mation about industrial education in Puerto Rico from his fund of first hand experience as vocational director during the years 1948-59. Several schools were visited.

Several days were devoted to meetings with groups and individuals with discussions centered about the working outline that served as a guide. One important meeting was a forum at the University of Puerto Rico at which time the economic and sociological Implications on industrialization were discussed by such men as Sres. Moscoso, Rico, and

Descartes, of the Commonwealth government, and several professors from the University.

Some Philosophical Bases. An evaluation of the role of industrial education in the development of an economy and culture should carefully consider the interrelations between purpose and process, between social Institutions and administrative processes, between a way of life and ways of furthering that way of life. The most effective way of furthering a way of life is to encourage individuals, groups, and communities to define their problems as effi­ ciently as possible.

Purpose may be defined as the objective or end of an activity, and process as a means of accomplishing it.

Educational institutions are generally administered within an operational area that includes both purpose and process.

The administrative process can be judged by decisions that govern it, and a decision is considered to be correct if it selects appropriate means to reach designated ends.

Social institutions may be viewed as regularizations of the behavior of individuals through subjection of their behavior to stimulus-patterns socially imposed. Educational process provides an environment which will develop inter­ action between the community and school and produce adequate objectives and implementations.

The level of economic welfare depends largely upon the skill of the individual, and the level of technical competence of the worker becomes of crucial importance.

Low technical skill means a low income both for the individ­ ual and for a community or nation. Education is a causal factor as income is concerned, and if a country increases the amount of education and technical training, the income will increase. The income will increase far more than the cost of the education. 9 stimulate economic growth. The productivity of the labor force was considered to be a function of the educational system.

The Fomento program is succeeding in reaching pro­ jected goals, and industrial-education is playing a strategic role in the economic development of the island.

However, the rapid increase in industrial activity and immigration are slowly creating a shortage of trained workers.

Industrial education was introduced to the island about the same time that it was receiving critical atten­ tion in the united States. However, not much progress was made until the United States government began supervising the educational system of the island. During a period of approximately 30 years the program spread to all parts of the island, and in 1932 the Smith-Hughes Act was amended to provide federal funds for vocational training. This move separated the objectives in industrial education.

Industrial arts remained in general education while trade : and industrial education became a separate function.

These two phases have different but interlocking objectives, and the administration of both programs has been under the Board for Vocational Education since 19^7.

Over a half million dollars has been budgeted to industrial arts and three million for trade and industrial education Human resources are the keystone to the success of the economy of a community, and a resource at any given time and place is a function of technology. Whether waterfalls are sources of light and energy or obstacles to navigation', depends upon the people who own the waterfalls.

A major problem in Industrial education is the development and implementation of curricula that reflect the technology and economy of a community.

The citizen is a producer as well as a consumer which implies both individual and group efficiency. No longer are school functions confined to the four walls of classroom. The individual must be taught to live as the environments are manifested to him. To realize efficiency there is need for occupational information, efficiency, appreciation, and adjustment. There is a need for personal economics, consumer judgment, efficiency in buying, and consumer protection.

Brief Summary of Findings. The island of Puerto

Rico, colonized by Spain in 1508, continued for almost 400 years in the Spanish colonial tradition. Transferred to the United States of America by the Treaty of Paris in

1898, the population began a transition to both the English language and the economy of the mainland. In 1950 with autonomy and quasi-statehood a reality, the Economic

Development Administration (pomento) was created to 10

for physical facilities during the years 1948-58. Enroll­

ments have stabilized at 3 2 ,0 0 0 for industrial arts and

2 2 ,0 0 0 for trade and Industrial education. Increased

attention to student retention will ultimately place a

greater demand on both phases of industrial education, and

by 1975 it is estimated that the needs of Industry will"

surpass the number of high school graduates by more than

1 0 0 ,0 0 0 . The industrial education curricula are well defined

by the needs of the economy, and the preparation of teachers

is well established although in need of articulation,

especially in the field of industrial arts. The physical

facilities for trade and industrial education are good, but

those for industrial arts are not adequate. The total

program is in need of planning and development.

The major recommendations of the study are: (1) the

development of model industrial arts laboratories in

stragetic locations about the island to be used for cur­

riculum research, both pre-service and in-service teacher preparation, as well as exemplary teaching facilities, and

(2) additional follow-up studies of job placements, work records, and drop-outs in the trade and industrial program to aid in long-range planning in preparation for the period 1 9 8 5-7 5. CHAPTER II

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF PUERTO RICO

Any account of Puerto Rico, because of the force of modern history, must begin with the name of Luis Munoz-Marin.

Governor Munoz represents a well known family in Puerto

Rican history. His father was for many years resident commissioner in Washington and was primarily responsible for the Jones Act of 1917 which gave the people citizenship in the United States, and he, Luis Munoz, also lived for many years in the United States. Like many national heros,

Governor Munoz's career hinged on critical issues, events, and chronological dates.

The year 1940 is such a date in the life of Governor

Munoz and the history of Puerto Rico. This date, although rivaled in later years by the Celebration of the Common­ wealth on July 2 5, 1952, remains the keystone linking the past with the future. Governor Munoz campaigned success­ fully during that year for election as a senator under the political banner of the Democratic Popular party. The party won enough seats to elect Senator Munoz president of the Puerto Rican Senate. This political triumph was followed by his election in 1948 as the first governor

11 12 selected by the people and finally in 1952 by his inaugura­ tion as the first governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto

Rico. When Governor Munoz-Marin took office in 1952 he was faced with the necessity of making good his major promises

— a workable form of self government, and the development of an economy which could provide jobs for all, and a higher standard of living (95,22).

Early Spanish History. Columbus is said to have first Righted the island on November 16, 1493, during his second voyage (120,6). The island was inhabited by a tribe of Indians who called their land Boriquen. The name has since been corrupted to Borinquen.

Rounding Cabo Rojo, at the southwestern point of the island, Columbus landed at an Indian village known as

Aguada, near present-day Aquadilla. He declared the island a possession of Spain and named it San Juan Bautista, -

Saint John the Baptist, on November 19, 1493* Among those present that day was Juan Ponce de Leon.

Ponce de Leon was appointed as the first governor in

1508, sailed from Santo Domingo City, Hispanola, and landed at Guanica on the southern coast on August 12. Three hundred and ninety years later, in 1898, American troops choose this same location for a landing and on August 12i signed the armistice that ended the Spanish-American War. 13

Later Ponce de Leon circumnavigated the island arriving at the present site of San Juan. Here he exclaimed,

"Ay, que puerto rico," - "Oh, what a rich port" (120,8).

Years later this appropriate name, Puerto Rico, came to identify the island while the name San Juan Bautista was shortened and was used to refer to the present capital city, San Juan.

Ponce de Leon chose the site for the first settlement among the hills across San Juan harbor and named the town

Caparra. Later Indians and mosquitoes drove the colonists from this site and the town was reestablished on the site of old San Juan£ setting more protective from Indian attacks where the ocean breeze insured escape from the insects.

The native Puerto Ricans (Boriquenos), at first hospitable and peaceful, later resisted the forced labor and virtual slavery imposed on them by the Spanish. Surprise attacks on the Spanish masters were met by a show of mili­ tary force and six thousand Borquenos were defeated. The'

Borquenos retreated into the mountains in the central part of the island, and at this point in history, 1 5 1 1, the import of African slaves began.

Issues and jealousies developed among the conquista- dores and Ponce de Leon left Puerto Rico for Florida in 1513 in search of the fountain of youth. Following an Intervening 14 period he returned to his position as governor of the island long enough to establish San Juan as the capital.

He died later in Cuba, the victim of an Indian arrow, and never had the opportunity to occupy the residence planned for him as governor. This residence, Casa Blanca, still stands in San Juan. Later his body was returned to San

Juan where it rests in a cathedral.

The Middle Years. Warfare harrassed Puerto Rico for two centuries, in 1595 Sir Francis Drake attacked San Juan, but was repulsed. Late in 1598 the Earl of Cumberland forced the surrender of the fortress El Morro and San Juan

City and occupied parts of the island for five months. The

Dutch attempted to occupy San Juan in 1625, but failed.

Again, in 1797, the British unsuccessfully attacked San

Juan.

During the nineteenth century, as the other Central and South American countries overthrew the Spanish yoke,

Puerto Rico remained loyal to the crown.

In 1868 a brief revolution marred an otherwise thrustworthy record, in 1897 Sagasta, a liberal Prime

Minister of Spain, formulated a grant of autonomy to Puerto

Rico. On February 12, 1898, a cabinet of six Puerto

Ricans was sworn in by the Spanish governor. On July 25,

1898, American forces landed at Guanica, and the projected autonomy ceased to exist. 15

A United States Possession. The Treaty of Paris, between Spain and the United States, ontDecember 10, 1898, ceded the island to the United States. The Foraker Act of

1900 established a temporary civil government. The Organic or Jones Act of 1917 established a permanent civil govern­ ment and gave Puerto Ricans citizenship in the United

States. In 1947 legislation was passed allowing the Puerto

Ricans to elect their own governor and Commonwealth status was voted by Congress in 1950. The long sought autonomy was finally attained on July 2 5, 1952.

Ethnic and Cultural Background. There were about

30,000 Indians at the time of Ponce de Leon's arrival, but by 1544 when they were granted freedom, were already disappearing as an ethnic group.

Besides abortive revolutions, disease and escapes to other Caribbean islands, inter-marriage is said to account for the ethnic extinction (64,9). Toward the end of the sixteenth century, it was reported that no pure- blooded Indians were left.

The Puerto Rican community is composed of descendents of Spaniards, Negroes and Indians. Portuguese, Syrians,

Corsicans, French and Dutch are minority groups (118,9).

The island population was swelled by a stream of immigrants. After the Louisiana Purchase, many Spaniards and Frenchmen moved to the island to escape rule of the 16

Protestant, republican America. Corsicans came after

Napoleon's fall. Frenchmen came from Haiti to escape the wrath of their former slaves. Tories came from Venezuela and Columbia seeking a haven of peace and authoritarian sanity (37,25).

The population problem has been with Puerto Rico since the middle of the nineteenth century but was intensi- fied by the good work of the Department of Health. Dr.

Juan Pons, former Secretary of Health, reports that the

Puerto Rican death rate is 10 per 1,000 presently, less than continental united States, and will soon approach

7.6 per 1 ,0 0 0 — one of the lowest in the world (3 7 ,3 0 7).

Life expectancy increased from 32 in 1900, 42 in 1930, 46 in 1940, to 6l in 1952. At the same time the birthrate was

39 per 1 ,0 0 0 in 1940, 41 per 1 ,0 0 0 in 19^1, 43 per 1 ,0 0 0 in

1947, 37 per 1,000 in 1951, and 35 Per 1,000 in 1952

(37,308).

A study by Dr. Lydia Roberts (84) shows that because of increases in annual income, levels of education, and urbanization, the birth rate is slowly falling.

Political Structure. Under Spanish rule, a Governor-

General was appointed by the crown and the island was governed in colonial fashion. This structure continued for

300 years when, in 1812, Puerto Rico was granted represen­ tation in the Spanish Congress (Cortes). The island i . 17 was allowed the right In 1&15 to engage in trade with foreign countries. Later, slavery was abolished in 1873 by act of the Cortes. As reported, a short-lived self-govern­ ment was granted by Spain in 1897.

With the establishment of the American regime in 1899

(59*56), the first Puerto Rican political parties were founded. They were the Republican, led by Jose Celso

Barbosa, Federal, led by Luis Munoz Rivera, and Socialist, led by Santiago Iglesias.

The organic or Jones Act of 1917 specified the govern mental structure of Puerto Rico during the period from 1917 to 1948. The Legislature was composed of a Senate of 19 members and a House of Representatives of 39 members, elected by the people. Qualified voters elected a Resident

Commissioner who served in the Congress of the United

States for periods of four years, but without voting privileges.

The island was sub-divided into 77 Municipalities whose sub-divisions were comparable to counties. Each

Municipality was further divided into Barrios or districts.

The Governor of Puerto Rico, during this period, was appointed by the President of the United States with the approval of the Senate, and had general supervision of governmental departments and bureaus, granted pardons, and was vested with responsibility of maintaining law and order. 18

He had veto power over legislative acts, however, those with two-thirds vote were referred to the President who had absolute veto power.

Fifteen governors were appointed during the period

1900-1946 (59,37), when Jesus Pinero, a native Puerto

Rican, was named by President Truman as the sixteenth and last appointive governor. Luis Munoz-Marin was elected in

1948 to serve as the last governor under the Organic Act.

The judiciary under the Organic Act was made up of the Supreme Court, appointed by the President, District,

Municipal, Peace, and Night Courts, all elective, and the

United States District Court. The same basic political structure is maintained under the present commonwealth government.

This government is one in which both Puerto Rico and the United states can take pride (95,10). The Governor, his cabinet, and other officials are dedicated men. The economic development program, "Operation Bootstrap," sug­ gests correctly that the Puerto Ricans have been working out their own economic salvation.

Taxation and Expenditures. Puerto Rico makes its own tax laws and expends its money similarly to State

Governments (59*39). Federal customs and internal revenue taxes are collected and remain in the island treasury. In addition, the Commonwealth Government levies and collects 19 taxes that are turned over to the municipal governments.

During the years 1901-1940 the revenues and expenditures

expanded from $1,766,342 and $1,753,754 to $52,743,281 and

$48,794,963 respectively. With minor exceptions, the

Government functioned within a balanced budget.

Geographical Description. Puerto Rico lies in a

strategic location in relation to both the Greater and

Lesser Antilles as well as to the North and South American

continents. It extends thirty minutes north from the 18th

parallel north latitude and lies between 65 degrees 35

minutes, and 67 degrees 15 minutes west longitude (6 2,1 ).

It is 1,500 miles southeast of New York, a thousand miles

from Miami and Panama, and five hundred miles from Caracas,

Venezuela (37,210). Translated into travel time this places

Puerto Rico 6 - 8 hours by air from New York, 4 hours from

Miami, and 2 hours from Caracas. Residents of Caracas fly

to San Juan to buy American-made goods. With the advent of

jet airlines these times w3,ll be reduced. (See Figure 1.)

The springlike climate is conditioned by the trade

winds which provide rain and uniform temperatures. In San

Juan the difference in average temperatures between summer

and winter is only 5 .7 degrees. The total annual rainfall

is about 65 Inches, but with only five days per year with­ out >sunshine. Visible from San Juan is a tropical rain forest where there is nearly 200 inches of rainfall each 20 TRINIDAD CARACAS Statute Miles Major Shipping Routes -f\ I 6 air hours ■F N E W YORK JACKSONVILLE a ir hours Vt 7 FIGURE 1 • ST. LOUIS 8 air hours CHICAGO air hours 5 NEW ORLEANS GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF PUERTO RICO Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Facts. IJ air hours SAN FRANCISCOM air hours ■», ■», V J » « « ANGELES 370 V year. The island's southwest is semi-desert with an annual

rainfall of 30 inches or less (3 7,2 1 1 ). Topography and Population. Puerto Rico is approxi­

mately 100 miles long and 35 miles wide. It contains 3,421

square miles of area, or about three and one-half times the

size of Rhode Island, is larger than Delaware, and almost

as large as Connecticut, or four times the size of Long

Island. A central mountain range extends east and west,

surrounded by level coastal plains. About two-thirds of

the land lies more than 250 feel above sea level (see

Figure 2) and the loftiest peak rises 4,398 feet (59,49).

The, population of Puerto Rico in 1952 was approxi­ mately 2,285,000, its density 668 persons per square mile,

or 1,473 persons per square mile of arable land. These

figures may be compared with the 220 persons per square mile on the> mainland of the United States, The rate of

natural increase has been one of the highest in the world,

and if continued without migration, it would double the

population in 26 years. This would give the island nearly

a million inhabitants by the year 2 0 0 0 , nearly 18 million

in 75 years (37,351). Education. Theifirst efforts to establish educa­

tional institutions in Puerto Rico were made by the Spanish

Catholic church. The San Juan Cathedral was begun in 1512

and among other activities was the cathedral school, on the FIGURE 2

A TYPICAL PUERTO RICAN SCENE

This and all photographs are by the writer. 23

secondary level. For the next 250 years little is known

about the schools in Puerto Rico, t

Charles III sent Field Marshall Alejandro O'Reilly to the island in 1765 to investigate conditions and make a

report. He found that there were only two schools for boys

in the whole island, and that outside of the residents of

San Juan and San German very few knew how to read.

The Governor in 1770 divided the island into 22 districts and assigned a teacher to each. Also in 1770 an attempt was made to establish a university and secondary schools. The records show no implementation of any of these orders or movements. Education in Puerto Rico continued on private and church bases.

The Napoleonic invasion (1808) of Spain produced interesting results in the island. Although pledging allegiance to the Spanish crown, Puerto Rico began to organize plans for self-government. The Economic Society of the Friends of the Country was founded in 1813 with one of its principal aims to foster public education. The restoration of Ferdinand returned Spain and Puerto Rico to its old despotic ways, but the Society continued to func­ tion and by 1820 had begun to produce some tangible results.

The success of the revolution of 1820 in Spain and the introduction of the monitorial system of Bell and 24

Lancaster aided in the rise of the concept of education as

a public function. The Economic Society, in 1820,

declared (5 7,3 3 ),- i It was agreed to open a voluntary annual sub­ scription among the ayuntamientos, fathers of families and persons who interest themselves in public instruction, for the purpose of establish­ ing in the capital a normal school of mutual instruction, bringing a professor from Europe or Havana to prepare teachers, who shall after­ wards practice their profession in the different towns of the Island.

Money was raised, but again no action was taken and

although efforts were made also to aid elementary and

secondary education, all efforts produced fruitless results.

In reading the history of education in Puerto Rico one

finds many such references to frustrated attempts. However,

by 1850 enough schools were in operation to necessitate an

order by Governor Don Juan de le Pezuela, classifying the

elementary schools.

The schools were listed in three classes. First

class schools were San Juan, Mayaguez, Ponce, San German,

Guayama, Aguadilla, Arecibo, Humacao, Caguas and Cabo Rojo.

Second class schools were Anasco, Bayamon, Fajardo, Juana

Diaz, Manati, Naguabo, Patillas, and Yabucoa. The remain­ der of the schools in the island were grouped as the third class. All pupils paid tuition and the municipalities paid tuition for the poor. Private schools and tutoring was probably excluded from this classification but 25 continued to contribute much to the general culture, especially among the well-to-do. By 1864 the school census shows that for elementary education there were 74 schools for boys and 48 for girls with 16 private schools for boys and nine for girls. There were 2 ,3 9 6 boys and 1 ,0 9 2 girls and 88 male and 54 female teachers. The budget that year was 35*542 pesos not includ­ ing the fees of paying pupils. With a population of slightly more than 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 at this time the ratio was one child in every J00 population (57,49). Spain was again torn by revolution in 1868 and throughout the Caribbean area the colonies were in a state of unrest. The Civil War and liberation of slaves in the

United stateB had its effect on Puerto Rico. The 1860's brought hurricanes, earthquakes, conflicts between aboli­ tionists and slave owners, and economic crises. The slaves were later freed in 1873, but not before 5 6 ,0 0 0 people had left the island taking with them two million pesos, much of the monetary wealth of the island.

Governor General Don Felix de Messina arrived on the scene and issued the Organic Decree of 1865 (57,54):

Not only that the intellectual progress of these loyal and docile inhabitants may correspond to the material progress of the island which is developing rapidly, but also that they may be prepared to carry out the plan of studies for the island of Cuba, when it will please Her Majesty to apply it to this Island. 26

This was the first formulation of a system of public

instruction, but being the ideal system devised by a

soldier and lacking adaptability, it was not put fully

into operation.

The year 1880 is the next significant date in Puerto

Rican educational history. By this date there were 432

public schools for boys and girls enrolling a total of

15,218 students at a total educational expense of 191,158

pesos. A new government and constitution in Spain and a

new governor, General Despujol, provided the island with

the Decreto Organico of 1880. The decree included detailed

organization of the elementary and secondary schools and provided for compulsory attendance, the establishment of normal schools, higher standards and increased pay for the

teachers. Still there was much to be desired. Education by decree had always failed but great promise was in store

for the autonomous government of February 11, 1898.

The constitution of this date was to give full

authority to the island to establish its own system of education. The United States soon took possession of the island. Although the Decree of 1880 had not taken effect, indirectly several results were noted.

The number of schools had increased to 628 public and 269 private schools enrolling a total of 44,861 pupils.

The total school budget at this time had risen to 309,810 27 pesos or $185,886. Supervision and a normal school had

begun to have its effects for the first time. This was the

school scene as the American forces came to the island.

Osuna has said that (57,122) the island was as well

off as Spain educationally, but judged according to

American standards it fell far short. Continuing, he

reports (57,122),-

If there were in Puerto Rico during the Spanish government, professional men of worth, as there were; if there were men of letters, poets, orators, and editors, as there were; they were the results of . . . influences more than the results of a well organized system of public instruction. . . .

On October 18, 1898, the last of the Spanish troops

embarked for Spain, and on October 30, 1898, a number of

representative citizens met in the San Juan theater and

adopted resolutions manifesting the interest of island

leaders in public education. Although these resolutions

had no legal sanction and were only a popular expression

of the will of the people, they contributed greatly to

hasten reforms in education (57,128).

The united States officials surveyed the situation

and acted with consideration. All matters relating to

education were transferred to the Department of interior.

An educational survey was begun in January, 1899, after which laws governing public instruction were put into operation. 28

These abolished the fee system, making the school entirely free including textbooks. The schools were graded with prescribed courses of study. Qualifications of teachers and their salaries were designated. High schools, *- a normal school and the professional schools of the Univer­ sity of Puerto Rico were established. And, rules and regulations governing finances and accounts of the Bureau of Education were set. Again the law met with a great amount of opposition because it was not adaptable to exist­ ing conditions.

In 1900 the school population of 324,485 produced attendance of 34,009 or 10 percent, in 1947 the school age population stood at 677*148 with 55 percent of these in attendance. There were 529 teachers in 1899 and 8,881 in

1946. The 522 school rooms of 1910 grew to 4,310 in 1946.

In 1899 the government invested $ .3 0 per person or

$10.37 per child attending school for a total of $2 8 8 ,0 8 9 in public education. In 1947 these figures read $9.35,

$53.43, and $19,606,143. The last figures did not include special appropriations such as for vocational education, school lunches, and other non-departmental functions totaling more than $3 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 gross (5 7,5 9 9).

Other statistics show that in 1899 only 20 percent were literate while in 1947 about 75 percent were so classified, in 1898 there was no stimulus to rise 29 educationally, but by 1947 the people were more ambitious.

With all the progress indicated there were still many prob­ lems existing as Dr. Osuna concluded his work. The schools were still not reaching the population in the same propor­ tion as the continental United States, salaries of teachers were low. The fiscal capacity to support schools was thought to be very low. More teachers were needed.

Transportation expenses were needed. And many auxiliary services were in demand. This was the educational scene as the insular government accepted autonomy in 1948 and projected its economic needs to the year 1975 (5 7,6 0 0).

With the adoption of the new government in Puerto

Rico, the relation of public education to the governmental instructure and the people assumed new proportions. In the

Informe Anual of 1954-1955, Mariano Villaronga, first

Secretary of Education under the commonwealth, explains the organization of the Department of public Instruction in discussing the progress for that year (7 5,3 ),-

The Department of Public Instruction is a tech­ nical and administrative organization designed to direct and supervise diverse educational media that sustain the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Under its direction are the public schools of the country and other educational and cultural ser­ vices. These services and departments that are included besides the regular public schools are: the night schools for adults including the acc^erated program of reading; the vocational programs in agriculture, trade and Industries, home economics, native industries; civic educa­ tion for the community; the publication of books 30

and other materials for study in schools and for the public in general; vocational rehabilitation; educational radio; veterans education; the pro­ gram of school lunches and centers for infant feeding; the program of searching for talent; educational investigations and other miscellan­ eous services.

The regular school system and the supplementary services constitute the central organization under the direction of the Secretary of Public Instruc­ tion, named by the Governor with the counsel and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico. The Secre­ tary is responsible directly to the Governor and Legislative Assembly and through them the public.

In 1957 Sr. Villaronga resigned as Secretary of Edu­

cation and was replaced by Dr. Efrain Sanchez Hidalgo. Dr.

Sanchez, after a period of orientation, proposed and imple­ mented certain organizational changes that provide for an internal structure as shown in Figure 3 (40).

Information obtained from a mimeographed report of the Division of Statistics based on enrollments as of

August 2 9, 1958, show that there would be 660,398 students in public schools and auxiliary services during the 1958-

1959 school year. Of this total 614,708 would be enrolled in public and private day schools, 3 6 ,1 6 5 in night schools,

5,421 in veterans education and 4,104 in vocational pro­ grams. Of the totals 49,857 are studying in private accredited schools, grades 1-12 and 2,254 in non­ accredited schools. These figures do not Include students in vocational classes other than those reported in the Olictna tff| Secretorio de Instruction Publico

Corporation Junta 4f Cemli* 4* A i lif w ta i O ficina de Hermes A* O ficina do do Industrie* T ecnlcot Ri Ik Iwim Asconso P u b lim de C i«fo»

FIGURE 3 Bresford L. Hayward, Toward Comprehensive Educational planning ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Oficina de O flcine de Oficina dc B eces Servleies Intpeccidn L egeles in Puerto Rico7 Report .DEPARTMENT OF . Profesionalas de Queiat PUBLIC INSTRUCTION No. 1 to the Secretary^ of Education

P h |w m | R « I > W da Programs di EdwtM iy Servicios ^uxllloras Serviclot Administrative* ______1 .

O fldn e del Oflclnd del Proerene Division de Oficina del Qflclna del Secretes to da Radio y Education de Secretorle Awslllor Ausilior T elevision le CeauMidod Aualller A vsillor

do Enseffeniv FiwciMMilnl* Division de Centres de Olvlsidn Dlvisii S upw vjilM Alhbitlucljn Elemental y Cemedere* de Eseueles Secundaria Deseyune de do y Curricula E scelsras In lentil Personal de Adwltes Pi

ProdvcelM y S eccien de Di»iii«n Je Compra da E nteftenie Curses y Division do Conservation Servicio Edwcacien Instrvccian Libras y d s Ingles Esem enes do Adminisfrecidn y Servleies Audiovisual V * M d w « l 8 s villa s e Adults* Libras Imprenta deExpedientes Miseeldneos Educative s da Oficina

Division Division do InltMttion y E scu eles Division de Division do Servkie de d« P (unification Adlestrasiienlo Libras Rahabilitacion Presupuesle, Eltod)l(iM» E sceler o Veterans* de Musics Btblietece* V ececienel Oigoiiircian y Metodos

O ficina de Centres E scv ele Aywdo oo Economics a Practice Esludientes 32 previous figures. These include veterans programs and accelerated training for industry.

Several problems faced the Department of Public instruction in 1 9 5 8: population, enrollment, retention, and educational levels.

The projected decline in the birth rate (see Figure

4) does not have as solid a basis in current data as it appears to have. The recent steady drop in the crude birth rate is principally due to changes in the age and sex com­ position of the population, brought about through migration of younger men and women and by the dramatic decline in death rates. The decline in the rate of natural Increase is expected to continue since the crude death rate will soon begin to rise as the average age of the population increases while it is expected that gross birth rates will continue to decline (68,47).

The estimated total population for the school year

1957-1958 was 2,258,000. When compared with the number of pupils enrolled for that year as reported on page 30 (see also Figure 5) it appears that 25 percent of the population were enrolled in public and private schools of less than college level. Data found in Puerto Rico Manpower Needs and Supply (68,51), show that during this time span, 51 percent of the population were 19 years of age or less. FIGURE 4

BIRTH AND DEATH RATES, 1938-1975 Number Per Thousand 50 , .

Historic Data Projections

40

30

Birth Rate ^ i

20

10

Death Rate

0 1938 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 Year Department of Labor and Planning Board, Puerto' Rico, Puerto Rico^ Manpower Needs and Supply. FIGURE 5 TOTAL ENROLLMENT AND ENROLLMENT AT EACH

LEVEL, 1950-1975

Number in Thousands

600 — r— 1— 1— 1—

Total

500

^ Elementary school

300

200

Junto! High School

100 j r Senior High School

1930 1935 1960 1963 1970 1973 So bool Year

Department of Labor and Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico*a Manpower Needs and Su&£l£. Referring to Figure 6 it may be seen that Just under

20 percent of the population were six years of age or under.

The net figure of 31 percent of the population may then be compared with the 25 percent enrolled in public and private schools.

This comparison indicates approximately 80 percent of the potential school age population were enrolled and that about 20 percent were not in school. Statistics issued by the United States Department of Health, Education, and

Welfare indicate only 70 percent enrollment for 1956-1957

The 1950 United States retention rates were used as limiting values in estimating future retention rates in

Puerto Rico. Up to the third grade and also in senior high school Puerto Rico has retention rates approximately equivalent to United States 1950 rates. From the fourth to the ninth grade the number of dropouts in Puerto Rico is much larger than in the United States (6 8,5 6).

The ratio of increase in school population in the junior and senior high school levels is much higher than the increase in population or on the elementary level.

Table 1 lists data on present and projected educa­ tional levels of the Puerto Rican population.

Table 2 illustrates current and projected educa­ tional levels of the labor force. 36

FIGURE 6

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN AGE GROUPS 1950-1975

Par Ganto 100 ■.’.rTTTT*rsn '■mm 00484853534853235353532323232323535348535353

1950 1955 1950 ' 1965 1970 1975

M d i E cmmM c o*

Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Balance of Payments. Puerto Rico - 1955. 37 TABLE 1

EDUCATION LEVEL OF THE POPULATION, 1950-1975 (In Thousands)

Education Level 1950 1955 i960 1965 1970 1975

Population 1,249 1,294 1,374 1,438 1,494 1 ,5 0 0 (15 and over) College 17 21 25 34 42 54

Senior high 68 101 161 212 278 341

Junior high 103 105 145 150 198 190

Elementary 282 290 300 335 330 331

5 years or less 779 - 777 743 707 646 585

Planning Board , Puerto Rico, Balance of payments. Puerto Rico - 1955.

TABLE 2

LABOR FORCE BY EDUCATION LEVEL, 1955 -1975 (in Thousands)

Education Level 1955 i960 1965 1970 1975

TOTAL 645 702 761 806 833

College 14 17 24 29 37

Senior high 53 100 135 179 219 junior high 46 63 74 99 112 Elementary 129 146 166 160 172

5 Years or less 403 376 362 339 293

Department of Labor and Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico * s Manpower Needs and Supply. 38

The lag between educational levels of the population

and the labor force may be seen by comparing corresponding

grade levels and chronological periods. The educational

level of the labor forces continues to loose ground. These

figures point up the importance attached by the Commonwealth

to the problems of retention (40).

The Manpower Resource Commission of Puerto Rico

observed (78,9)>- Operation Bootstrap was launched by Puerto Rico . . . on the assumption that manpower was her only plentiful resource. It looks now as if skilled manpower may turn out to be her scarcest resource and this in spite of the fact that Puerto Rico is devoting much more of her economic resources to education than any other country in the world. . , . The ratio of students in schools in Puerto Rico to full time employed persons is more than one to one. In the united States and in every other country except Israel this ratio is nearer one to two.

The economic resources devoted to education may be

seen in Figure 7.

The amount of money being spent on industrial devel­ opment is relatively small, while the budget allocation for education is more than one-fourth of the total figure.

To ilkstrate further how much money is being spent on education, the data in Table 3 was extracted from Economic Report to the Governor 1956.

The budget for education is gradually increasing when compared with the revenues. FIGURE 7

THE BUDGET DOLLAR IN PUERTO RICAN EDUCATION

THE BUDGET DOLLAR

PUBLIC DEBT SERVICE 2 5' AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 4.0°

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 2.6°!,

ROADS, BRIDGES, ETC.

PROTECTION OF PERSONS & PROPERTY

HEALTH & PUBLIC WELFARE

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Facts. 40 TABLE 3

COMMONWEALTH REVENUES AND BUDGETARY ALLOCATIONS, 1945-1957

1954 1955 1956 1957 (million dollars) Budget Allowance Education 33.0 37.9 43.2 48.9 Total 146.6 1 5 0 .2 1 5 8 .6 182.3 Revenues to Common­ wealth Government 156.1 164.7 178.4

Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Economic Report to the Governor - 1956.

Puerto Rico's drive for economic development is based on a progressive preparation of its labor force. "The pro­ ductivity of the labor force is related to the amount and character of its education. These general ideas are accepted at the center of the government's policy for education (40,1).

Puerto Rico assumed autonomy of her educational pro­ gram in 1948 and it seems particularly significant that great importance was placed at this time on the relation­ ship existing between education and the economy of the island. The next chapter is concerned with the relation of education and particularly industrial education, to the economic development of Puerto Rico. CHAPTER III

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OP PUERTO RICO

The economic development of Puerto Rico at the middle of the twentieth century is dependent upon indus­ trialization, diversification of agriculture, progressive preparation of its labor force, and the balancing of imports and exports. Basic problems that contribute to these necessities are stated by Dr. Jaime Benitez, Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico, in the foreword to Perloff's text, Puerto Rico's Economic Future (60):

Two million United States citizens, with a Spanish cultural background and an uncertain American present, struggle on a small Caribbean island to achieve real democracy and decent standards of living for themselves and their children.

The population density of Puerto Rico is over six hundred persons per square mile, fifteen times greater than that of the United States. Population pressure in the United States would begin to compare with that of Puerto Rico if all of the people of the world— two billion men, women, and children— landed there overnight and if, by the same nocturnal magic, all available mineral resources were eliminated, heavy industry disappeared, and agriculture became the main source of employment.

To understand and interpret the developments of the past ten years, one must turn to the past and examine the economy as it developed during 400 years of Spanish rule. 41 42

Historical Bases. The economy of Puerto Rico, as in many other Hispanic American countries, was first based on the pursuit of gold. Ponce de Leon was named as the first governor and set about to find and mine gold that was known to exist on the island, A moderate amount was mined and added to the wealth of the Spanish Empire ($4 million), but soon (1 5 7 0) this source of wealth ceased to exist.

Coffee, sugar, ginger, and tobacco were introduced as agricultural crops and flourished spasmodically as export crops. However, the Spanish soon became aware of the importance of San Juan Harbor and began to subsidize the economy of the island through income from mining in Mexico.

Subsidization fluctuated with the success of English,

French, and Dutch efforts to capture Spanish gold. The island was attacked many times, but without successful capture. However, attenuating effects of sporadic warfare kept the island’s economy in a poor condition.

Coupled with military attacks in maintaining a con­ stantly unsettled condition were eight major tropical storms which occurred during 1520-1700. If nature was not trying to blow away the scant economy, the warring navies were plundering and absconding with Spanish gold.

The English stepped-up their military action during the eighteenth century, while earthquakes, tropical storms, and epidemics continued to weaken the island economy. 43

The opening of trade and immigration to non-Spaniards

in 1815 gave the stagnant economy a lift. The Empire was

crumbling and falling apart at its economic seams, and the

subsidy from Mexico that had maintained Puerto Rico for

almost 300 years was disappearing.

The Mexican revolution and the ejection of Spain soon

cut off the last of Puerto Rico's external income. From

this point in history until 1898, when the military forces

of the United States occupied the island, the economy

slowly sank to new depths. And, the population began to i rise with the dropping of immigration barriers and a rise

in jibaro birth rates. This only added problems and con­

tinued on until the present.

The population of 150,000 In 1800 rose to 500,000 by

1850, and to 900,000 in 1898. Today the population has more than doubled, and, although there are indications of a gradual decrease in annual population increments, a major problem is the population and manpower pool.

Economy During the Period 1900-1948. Jose padin, an educational leader in Puerto Rico, describes the adminis­ tration of the island by the United States as follows (60):

No good purpose can be served by ignoring or atten­ uating the fact that the American occupation of Puerto Rico was an act of colonial expansion, probably no better but certainly no worse than similar acts perpetrated elsewhere at the close of the nineteenth century. 44

But American ’’imperialism" is inescapably infected with the spirit of democracy and an unquenchable zeal to treat peoples, even dependent peoples, as ends in themselves rather than as resources to be exploited for the benefit of the dominant power. Popular education follows the flag and the dor­ mant energies of the dependent people are gradu­ ally released until their emancipation becomes inevitable.

The period of American occupation may be divided into two economic periods: 1898 to 1940, and from 1941 to

1948, or until the peoples of Puerto Rico assumed control of their political and economic destiny.

Prom 1898 until 1940, the chief economic contribution of the United States to Puerto Rico was inclusion of the island within its tariff wall. With the extension of

United States tariff protection to Puerto Rico, both local and United States capital began to invest heavily in sugar lands and mills. The establishment of these mills led many small landholders to grow cane. The result of high sugar prices were improved roads and rail lines to serve the sugar areas, more efficient power, and construction of irrigation works making possible the cultivation of the semiarid lands of south and southwest Puerto Rico.

Sugar production increased, although the number of mills or centrals declined from 108 producing 349*840 tons in 1909* to 55 producing 485*077 tons in 1919* and 4l pro­ ducing 1,018,804 tons in 1940. By 1940, out of total

Puerto Rican income of $341.4 million, agriculture provided $106.7 million, In contrast with $40.4 million from manu­ facturing, $128 million from services and trades, $3 .1 million from construction, and $6 3 .2 million from govern­ ment and government enterprises. Sugar accounted for over

50 percent of the agricultural income and 40 percent of the manufacturing income.

While the sugar industry was expanding and dominat­ ing the economy, there was no corresponding increase in the prosperity of the average Puerto Rican— whether he worked in the fields or sugar mills, or eked out an existence in the rural or urban slums. Work.in the fields and mills was seasonal and the pay was unbelievably low, even though it was the highest on the island. In 1940, agricultural wage rates were 6 cents an hour in tobacco, 7 cents in coffee and 15 cents in sugar cane. Manufacturing wage rates ranged from 10 cents an hour in shoe manufacturing to

30 cents in sugar mills. Per capita income in Puerto Rico that year was $1 2 1 .

It was natural, therefore, that Munoz Marin and the

Popular Democratic party should emphasize agriculture reform in the late 1 9 3 0 's, and rise to power in the legis­ lature in 1941 on the promise of a new life for the .jibaro and for his brother in the cities and towns (9 5,1 1 ).

The period 1941 to 1948 was marked by a substantial export surplus made possible by unprecedented expenditures 46 of the Federal Government during the war years and a wind­ fall income derived from the greatly expanded rum trade.

During the early forties the island was still under the influence of the depression. Later, agricultural pro­ duction increased 20 percent (9 5>1 7) while in manufacturing, only needlework, textile products, sugar processing, and stone, clay and cement products showed important increases.

The construction industry increased 75 percent.

Population increased 18.3 percent while unemployment declined from 18 to 13 percent, per capita net income increased from $121 to $278— a gain of 130 percent in actual dollars. This income increased from 21 percent of that of the United States mainland in 1940 to 24 percent.

Personal income increased 161 percent compared to 131 per­ cent on the mainland.

The economic prosperity experienced on the mainland as a result of the outbreak of world war II ceased as unrestricted submarine warfare severed the life lines to the island. It was during these years that the Puerto

Rico Industrial Development Company was created to deal with many economic problems.

The PRIDCO is essentially a real estate and special­ ized financing company. This public corporation engages in the purchase, subdivision, lease, and sale of land, and in the construction, lease, and sale of factories, hotels, 47

commercial establishments, and other facilities (95#37).

During 15 years, 1942-1957# PRIDCO constructed 234 building

projects containing 4.8 million feet of floor space at a

cost of $43.3 million.

The cement plant built in 1939 by the Puerto Rico

Reconstruction Administration was absorbed by the PRIDCO.

Profits from the cement plant were reinvested in a glass

container and paper board plants. Later a shoe factory,

clay products factory, and textile mill were built.

During the immediate post war period the plants, until then managed by the government, began to show losses

in revenue. The plants were sold to private enterprise and

PRIDCO assumed a new role of aids-to-industry program.

The industrial tax exemption acts were passed by the

insular Legislative near' the end of this economic period

and provided the bases for expansion into what was to become known as Operation Bootstrap. In the meantime some

of the funds gained from sales of industries to private

capital were invested In two programs: further promotion of the rum industry and tourism. The Caribe Hilton Hotel was constructed and public relations activities were stepped-up to acquaint Americans in general with Puerto

Rico and its advantages.

The industrial development program was reorganized with the attainment of autonomy In 1948. The Economic 48

Development Administration became a department of the

Commonwealth government and provided management for PRIDCO.

Pinal planning and immediate implementation began with

Operation Bootstrap.

Puerto Rico's inventory of resources as the Common­ wealth government moved to attain economic stability con­ sisted of: 1. No known mineral deposits of commercial signifi­ cance . 2. No fuels except bagasse.

3. Very limited forest resources.

4. Limited agricultural lands.

5. Very limited commercial fishing potential.

6. A fully exploited hydroelectric potential.

7. Water adequate for most potential uses.

8. An excellent climate.

9. Beautiful beaches, mountains, and streams. 10. A strategic location.

11. People (95,7).

Operation Bootstrap. The years from 1948 to 1958 are significant in Puerto Rico's economy. Operation Bootstrap had been in the planning stage since 1940, and with the first election of a governor, implementation of the economic program began.

The decision of the Puerto Rican leadership to push forward with industrialization as the major basis for 49 economic development had profound effects on the entire social and economic structure of Puerto Rican society. Not only was the economy broadened and strengthened, but the range of occupational opportunities available to the people was widened and the entire structure of educational and cultural institutions was drastically affected (95*18).

Goals were set to reduce unemployment to less than

5 percent of the work force and to achieve an annual income of $2,000 for every Puerto Rican family by I960.

Over 550 new factories have been established during this time. Certain incentives were granted to concerns wanting to come to Puerto Rico. Only products not being manufactured on the island prior to the program and .those plants that are not moving from mainland installations are allowed these benefits which include:

1. Federal tax exemption

2. A ten year island tax holiday

3. Structures built to order and available for either lease or purchase on long tern bases in selected localities

4. Long-term loans

5. Personnel recruiting, training, and selection

6. Counseling and installation services.

T&x exemptions according to the law of 1948 will expire in 1 9 6 2, However, current interpretations and regulations will extend these exemptions to each new indus­ try for the first ten years of its existence on the island,

A partial list of products and companies who have opened new plants in Puerto Rico will serve to illustrate the extent of the diversification of industry (6 5,5):

INDUSTRIES AND COMPANIES

Abrasives and Tools Hosiery Carborundum Company M.K.M. Hosiery Mills, inc. United Drill & Tool Corp. Tennessee Knitting Mills, Inc.

Aircraft and Auto parts Chemicals

Hi-Shear Rivet Tool Co. Diamond Alkali Co. Maremont Automotive Products, Union Carbide & Carbon Corp. Inc.

Brassieres Electric Shavers

Exquisite Form Brassieres, Remington Rand Inc. Sunbeam Corp. Maiden . Form Brassiere Co. candy Electrical

Ford Gum & Machine Co., Inc. Geneia 1 Electric Co. Howard B. Stark Co. Proctor Electric Co.

Electronics Oil Refineries

Sprague Electric Co. The First Boston Corp. Thor Corporation Gulf Oil Corp.

Footwear Optical Lenses Shoe Corp. of America Paragon, Inc. Vaisey-Bristol Shoe Co.,Inc. Univis Lens Co. Gloves Paper Products

Fownes Bros. & Co., Inc. W. R. Grace & Co. Van Raalte Co., Inc. St. Regis Paper Co. 51

Plastics (Fabricating) Plastics (Moulding)

The Gillette Co. (Paper Mate) Hellmich Mfg. Co. Sani-Smoke, Inc. (De Nlcotea) Lincoln Plastics Corp.

Infants1 Wear Radio and TV Parts

International Latex Corp. National Video Corp. Peter and Pat, inc. Standard Electric Products Co. Measuring Instruments Rubber products yard, Inc. Weston Electrical Instrument Converse Rubber Co. Corp. U.S. Rubber international Corp. Men's Outerwear Sweaters Atlantic Knitting Mills, Inc. Bermuda Knitwear Corp. H. Siegfried & Sons, inc. Varglsh Knitwear Corp.

Metal Products Tobacco

Bostitch, inc. Consolidated cigar Corp. American Can Co. General Cigar Co., Inc.

Textiles

Beaunit Mills, Inc. Indian Head Mills, Inc.

Economic Development and industrialization. Economic development in Puerto Rico has one basic goal, a rise in living standards. As was stated earlier, industrialization, preparation of a labor force, diversification of agricul­ ture, and the equating of imports and exports are basic to this development.

Employment credited directly to Fomento programs

Increased from 8,940 in 1950 to 41,174 in 1957 and factory 52 employment expanded from 6 ,2 6 5 to 3 4 ,6 7 2 during these years

(95>^7). Not reflected in these figures is the indirect employment created by opportunities opened up by such economic activity. Estimates of these, for 1957> range up to 5 ,0 0 0 for factory employment and 2 ,0 0 0 for commercial and tourism jobs (9 5,^3 ).

The dollar costs of the Fomento program shown in

Table 4 probably do not Include more than a fraction of the budget for public education. The cost of the accelerated training program, supervisory training programs, and other short-term programs administered exclusively by Fomento are included. The benefits are directly related to industrial education training programs. Without the training there would be no employment.

The relationship of costs to total benefits assumes indirect benefits to be equal to direct benefits. 53 TABLE 4

RELATION BETWEEN COSTS AND BENEFITS OF FOMENTO PROGRAMS (in thousands of dollars)

Benefits Proportion Year Costs Direct Total to Costs

Industry

1 9 4 9 -5 0 . . . 412 8 ,2 3 0 1 6,460 • • • 1950-51 . . . 2,246 12,614 25,228 1 1 .2 1951-52 . . . 2 ,1 6 1 1 7 ,8 0 8 3 5 ,6 1 6 16.5 1952-53 . . . 2,725 30,581 6 1 ,1 6 2 22.4 1953-54 . . . 2,854 45,409 90,818 31.8 1954-55 . . . 3,911 55,052 110,104 28.2 1955-56 . . . 4,697 73,921 147,842 31.5 1956-57 ...... _ 2 2 jl5S£ 199,172 3 Z m 1 1949-57 . . . 24,257 3 4 3 ,2 0 1 686,402 28.3

William H. Stead, Fomento - The Economic Development of Puerto Rico.

Di Venuti, in a text whose primary objective is to widen the scope of understanding of economics among Puerto

Ricans, states that some of the factors effecting an economy are legal, political, social, psychological and economic.

Economic factors deal with problems of production distribu­ tion, exchange, and consumption.

He says further that (26,107),-

Another set of factors which play a vital role in the development of the island's factor endowments can be grouped under the heading of social organi­ zation. In economics we are concerned not only with climate, but also with those created by men. Together, these go to make up what was earlier described as the industrial climate of the island. Given the best set of the factors of production, these could be rendered ineffective by a social organization in which such factors are not per­ mitted to thrive. Harvey J. Perloff, writing during the late 1940's as

Operation Bootstrap was in the planning stage, pointed out that one of the most important bases should be the reser­ voir of skilled manpower.

Qualitative characteristics of a population are basic determinants of socio-economic progress as well as cultural advance, while education and health are crucial qualitative factors (6 0,5 2).

Puerto Rico made a significant beginning in 1947 in expanding its basic productive capacity. One of the most important measures was the very large increase in facili­ ties for industrial education. The new industrial education program marked a revolutionary change in the tempo of industrial training in the island and, together with the improved system of general education had great significance for the industrialization of Puerto Rico

(60,245). Almost without exception, Latin-American countries' standards of living and education are serious limitations to the expansion of both a technical producing system and a consuming market. Industrialization requires workmen with specialized skills. In the past it had been considered economical to employ a large number of workmen at a low daily wage. Such a concept of labor is fundamentally fallacious since the efficiency of an unskilled, poorly fed and poorly clothed labor force is based entirely on the amount of physical energy that he can expend mechanically.

The growth of industries in the most progressive Latin-

American countries is being accomplished by educational programs to develop a skilled supply of labor. The growth of the school systems in all countries demonstrates the importance that the governments are placing upon literate and skilled workmen to fill industrial and agricultural needs (43,47).

In The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol. 285, January 1953 (36), the sub­ ject of Puerto Rico and her development was discussed by eminent scholars.

In a discussion on similarities and differences between Puerto Rico and other Latin American countries

(36,55) t J. K. Galbraith points out that there are some marked peculiarities in Puerto Rico’s situation; Political stability, technical assistance from the United States, a cadre of trained administrators, a culturally homogeneous population, and a special relationship to the Uhited States.

Millard Hansen, co-editor of Vol. 285, also warns that Puerto Rico is on the border between the highly 56 developed industrial economy of the United States and the less developed raw material economies of Latin America.

Most of the Latin American economies are struggling to create the basic transport, utility, and financial bases for industrial activity while Puerto Rico already has these foundations, Mr. Wade Hamilton, also writing in The Annals. re­ emphasizes the importance of industrial education in this expanding economy when he says (3 6 ,7 6) that the drive to provide jobs for willing workers must rely upon the skills of its people. Scotland, England, and Switzerland learned long ago that in export, trade value is aided by highly trained skills. In recent years, the task of providing skilled workers has been made easier by an exodus of unskilled to the mainland, for this migration aids in pre­ venting the squandering of money and time on those who will not remain in the labor pool.

Mr. Hamilton was unaware in 1953> however, of the increasing potential that trained labor would develop in this migration, especially in certain areas of the con­ tinental United States. With a reported 620,000 in the

Greater New York City area and 25,000 to 35,000 in the

Greater Miami area, certain trades and occupational classifications are becoming increasingly dependent upon the export of skilled workers from the island. In New 57 York the needle trades and hotels and restaurants are especially dependent, in Miami the work record and crafts­ manship of Puerto Ricans is very good in the many small production industries developing in this area.

Hansen (36,111) refers to Frederick Jackson Turner*s thesis of 1892 in which the frontier Is characterized as often a creative place. Hansen then draws the analogy that

Puerto Rico is a frontier— a border state, culture and economy.

He concludes the analogy by pointing out Arnold

Toynbee's proposition that the rapprochement between the industrialized western world and the other regions may be the central challenge of contemporary history.

Dr. Pedro Munoz Amato, Dean of the Faculty of Social

Sciences at the University of Puerto Rico, speaking in a forum whose topic was the Social implications of Indus­ trialization, on January 26, 1959, made the following plea for general education (49)s

The quality of education should be intensified, especially in all functions that pertain to the building of students as human beings capable of understanding their world.

Schools should not subordinate their programs to the needB of the markets up to the point of being dedicated to mass producing competitors in eco­ nomic activities. 58

They should keep in check specialization with educational programs designed to aid the stu­ dent in facing contemporary life.

SOI Luis Descartes, Director of Water and Electrical

Resources, speaking at the same forum, made a plea for re- evaluation of the progress in terns of the new problems that have developed.

He said (23): The advances reached today, and the fact that each new success, instead of relieving us of preoccupations, adds to the complexity of our institutions, makes more significant and urgent the constant preoccupation with^the effects of the transformation . . . the movement needs vig­ orous origins, centralized responsibility and authority, and indivisable impulsion. But as we advance along the planned route, there is great urgency to tighten the bonds more intimately between the daily life of all the citizens and the institutions, procedures, and factors of the program.

Prom observations and readings it may be seen that the Spanish culture through the centuries had been guilty of a program with little or no accounting for year to year

"feed back." Descartes in pleading for this "feed back" could be describing some phases of industrial education which needs a more sensitive and appreciative guidance in its administrative phases as well as a need for teachers who may reflect this same philosophy.

Current Economy and Manpower Needs. The programs of industrial tax exemption and aides to industry have been responsible for an influx of over 500 new plants and a 59

resulting rise in the export of products and imports of

consumer goods. Gains in production are not being over­

taken by increasing consumption imports, see Figure 8.

This fact implies a healthy economic condition.

Teodore Moscoso, former Chairman of the Planning

Board, reported in a forum at the University of Puerto

Rico, that the income from agriculture increased from

$1 5 2,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 in 1948-1949 to $1 5 5,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 in 1957-1958 while industrial production income increased from

$82,000,000 in 1947-1948 to $2 3 3 ,0 0 0 ,00 0 . in 1957-1958.

Increases in external capital investment have contributed to large gains in merchandise exports thereby

contributing to the financing of external purchases.

The per capita income of the population has been

increasing steadily by six percent per year during 1948-

1958 (79,25). Figure 9 (80,21), illustrates both historic

and projected increases for both personal and family

incomes through 1 9 7 5.

These figures are still below the averages found in

the poorer southern states, however, when compared with

the per capita income of $121 in 1940, see page 45, the relative increase may be seen.

The Fomento program, despite a continued increase

in population and a decline in agricultural employment, has 60

FIGURE 8

IMPORTS OF CONSUMER GOODS AND ADJUSTED EXPORTS, FISCAL YEARS 19^9-50 TO 1955“56

Millions of Dollars 500

450 Total Exports 400 Difference Between Exports and Imports of 350 Consumers Goods

300 -

250

Imports of 200 Consumers Goodr

150

1950 1951 19521953 1954 1955 1956 fiscal Year

Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Economic Report to the Governor - 1956. FIGURE 9

PERSONAL AND FAMILY INCOME IN PUERTO RICO 1950-1975

$5425

POR PERSONA POR F AMI LI A (Da Dos o Mas Personas)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1950 1955 I960 1965 1970 1975 Anos Economicos Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Projections of the Eco- nomic Development of Puerto Rico. succeeded in holding unemployment to about 13 percent by

providing over 40,000 direct new Jobs.

This achievement was greatly aided by withdrawals

from the labor force, which dropped from 6 8 6 ,0 0 0 in 1950

to 636,000 in 1957. Moreover, the new sources of income

had raised per capita income from $340 in 1950 to $443 in

1 9 5 7, measured in current dollars, and average family

income from $1 ,7 6 0 in 1950 to $2,215 in 1957 (95,17). The Planning Board attributes the entire growth in

net income in 1956 and 1957 to the plants aided by the

Economic Development Administration (95,70). Net income

in 1956 was $74 million and $100 million in 1957. Employ­ ment in these factories rose from 2 6 ,0 0 0 in 1955 to 3 5 ,0 0 0

in 1957. Other expanding sectors of the economy, trade, services, construction, and government, were clearly based

on the expanding industrial sector. Agricultural income

remained static (9 5,7 0).

The agricultural labor force is predicted to drop to

less than 20 percent (Figure 10) while manufacturing will

employ almost 35 percent. This would mean a complete

reversal of the 1950 labor pattern. The remaining labor areas are expected to remain about the same.

Population growth leveled off by the middle of the

1948-1958 period. Migration to the mainland which hit a peak of 53,315 in 1956 has since dropped: 37,704 in 1957 FIGURE 10

DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR FORCE IN PUERTO RICO 1950-1975

P o rC in to 100

80

60 Gobiemo .v.v.v.v.v.v.v.v Constnicci6n •%vrv r**r"rVft*tiC

M anufactura

Confecci6n 40 a Domicilio

20 A griculture

0

Tran sporte, Comunicactin y Servicios Pdblicos Anos Econfimicos Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Pro.lectlona of the Economic Development of Puerto Rico. 64

and 29,400 in 1958. Over 800,000 are now living in the

continental United States and although the numbers migrat­

ing appear to be large they contribute to less than 1 per­

cent of interstate migration.

The net balance in private remittances during the

fiscal years has changed from a negative balance of

$5,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 in 1947 to a net gain to the island e c o n o m y of

$7,433,000 in 1951 and has steadily risen until in 1955 a

total of $13,451,000 net gain was posted (7 8,2 5).

The potential economic growth has been translated

into employment and education requirements as shown in

Table 5.

TABLE 5

PROJECTED CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT IN PUERTO RICO BY INDUSTRY, POR SELECTED FISCAL YEARS (Thousands)

INDUSTRY 1955 I960 1965 1970 1975 TOTAL CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT . . 539 605 650 730 819

Total private employment. . . 484 542 581 656 743 Agriculture ...... 164 143 133 137 137 Manufacturing, excluding home needlework .... . 67 103 1 36 185 271 Trade (wholesale & Retail) . 89 106 111 125 133 Other ...... 190 201 209 202 Government Employment (Excluding M i l i t a r y ) ...... 55 63 69 74 76 Planning Board, Puerto Rico, Economic Report to the Governor - 1956. 65

The number of senior high school graduates in 1975 is expected to be more than 100 thousand below the needs and the number of junior high school graduates approxi­ mately 400 thousand fewer than would be needed. These circumstances indicate that the development of human resources may proye to be the most crucial problem in the achievement of the projected rates of economic development

(79,63). Engineers, scientists, technicians, and the wide variety of managerial abilities needed in modern industry cannot be trained overnight, and technical, scientific, and managerial manpower is in short supply everywhere. In

Puerto Rico, the supply is pitifully small (95,82).

The economy of Puerto Rico is steadily rising.

Teodore Moscoso, Director, Economic Development Adminis­ tration, reports in the Sixteenth Annual Report 1957-1958

(6 7,3 ) that the per capita income, already one of the high­ est in Latin America, went up 5 percent in 1957-1958.

Massive social welfare and urban renewal programs financed by Commonwealth and Federal funds have relieved the many tensions that are reported in Brown's Dynamite on Our

Doorstep (8). Today, with economic stability a realization, the Planning Board is concerned with correction of errors and readjustment or establishment of new objectives and implementations. Before examining industrial education in Puerto Rico it is necessary to establish bases for evaluation. The next chapter will review industrial education and develop criteria. \

CHAPTER IV

NATURE OP INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Educational philosophers as early as the sixteenth

century were proposing social and economic regeneration

through industrial education. Juan Vives, 1492-1540,

Pestalozzi in the eighteenth century, and Fichte at the

beginning of the nineteenth century in Germany developed

such programs (21). Thus, the attention given to Industrial

education by the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is neither new

nor unique.

Some Historical Bases for Industrial Arts. Termin­

ology applied to the field of education implied by indus­

trial education has passed through many stages of

development. Each step in its evolution has been subject

to semantical and philosophical interpretations, in the

sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, industrial

education was treated as a factor in the training of

gentlemen. With the nineteenth century a new epoch

appeared. Prom this point on, those writing on industrial

education were concerned primarily, although by no means

exclusively, with the training of the laboring classes

(21,5).

67 68

Such early philosophers as Rabelais, Montaign, vives,

Mulcaster, Comenius, Locke, Rosseau, and Milton, found that all of these philosophers referred to the cultural advant­ ages of industrial education in the education of gentlemen

(21 ). Fichte, an early chancelor of the University of

Berlin, considered it important for the scholar, destined to become a leader in the state, to have a general knowledge of the manual arts along with those who were destined for manual occupations (21,151). National rehabilitation was to be accomplished by supplying a vast army of adequately trained workers capable of developing the natural resources of the state (21,152). Germany recovered from the defeats of the Napoleonic Wars to become and remain a world power in industry, science, and commerce.

A contemporary of Fichte, Johann F. Herbart, felt manual arts and trades should form a part of the regular program for every boy. Dasgupta quotes from a translation of Herbart's Outlines of Educational Doctrine (21,164):

Every human being ought to learn how to use his hands. The hand has a place of honor besides language in elevating mankind above the brute.

Rabelais, 1483-1553# wrote that the objective of education respecting vocations was cultural and aesthetic

(21,15). Gentlemen should visit shops and factories and by personal observations learn about trade and industrial occupations (2 1 ,1 9).

Comenius, 1592-1671, contributed the belief that there was a need for exploratory as well as guidance activities. John Milton, the blind English poet and philosopher, 1608-1674, according to Dasgupta's research

(21,81), listed the objectives of industrial education as economic, cultural, aesthetic, and civic. Milton wrote that the immediate objective was to facilitate the instruc­ tion of the humanities and the natural sciences.

John Locke, 1532-1704, advocated manual arts not so much for the sake of culture or encylopaedic knowledge as to train the body (21,93). He was an early progenitor of recreational and therapeutic values in industrial education

(21,96).

Martin Luther, in the sixteenth century, in Germany and Zwingli in Switzerland urged the introduction of train­ ing in manual occupations in schools, and Francke in Halle,

Germany, added tool instruction to the ordinary exercises of the Latin grammar school.

Comenius in the seventeenth century advocated hand­ work in education and wrote that the constructive and destructive instincts are one and the same— to construct something or to pull something to pieces, and that these 70 actions should not be hinsfeced but rather encouraged and skillfully guided. Pestalozzi, 1746-1827, the Swiss educator, empha­ sized learning through sense perception, through observa­ tion and the handling of objects.

Froebel, a student of Pestalozzi, later emphasized construction in his school. He contended that children are creative rather than receptive and tend to express themselves in action.

Still another century later Uno cygnaeus in 1858 reorganized the primary schools of Finland and introduced such courses as woodwork, metalwork, pottery, and basketry.

The attention given Cygnaeus in Finland spread two ways

(3,14-17): to the other Scandinavian countries, and to

Russia which ruled Finland during that historical period.

Victor Della Vos, Director of the imperial Technical

School of Moscow, in 1868, instituted a formal course in mechanical arts (3). Later, in 1876, products from this school were exhibited at the Philadelphia Centenial Exposition.

The Morrill Act of 1862 provided an impetus for the development of agricultural and the mechanic arts, and

Illinois in 1870 and Kansas in 1874 instituted manual training on the college level. However, it was not until

Runkel at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 71 Woodward at Washington University of St. Louis, took notice

of the Russian display in Philadelphia and provided this

addition to their curricula, that other American educators

became acutely aware of the movement.

Current during those fruitful years were two other

educational movements involving manual training: Educa­

tional Sloyd as developed by Otto Salomon in Sweden; and,

the Arts and Crafts movement in England stimulated by

William Morris (4,295). Prom the Scandinavian countries, and Sweden in

particular, came sloyd. A strict translation of this term

connotes skill. It was first used In rural homes and also

as a means of restoring disappearing handicrafts.

Otto Salomon visited Cygnaeus in Finland and per­

ceived the idea that sloyd should be an integral part of

school instruction and organized on a pedagogical rather

than on an economic basis. Upon returning to Sweden he

instituted a normal school for training sloyd teachers.

Educational sloyd had three outstanding character­

istics: (1 ) construction of useful objects, (2 ) analysis

of processes, and (3) educational method. The analytical

approach appears also in the work of Della Vos in Russia.

Both followed logical sequences of pedagogic instruction. 72

Sloyd was introduced in the United States in 1888 by

Gustaf Larsson in Boston. Prom here it spread to other

parts of the country. The Arts and Crafts movement grew out of the teach­

ings of Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskln who cried out against

mechanical duplication, insincerity in art, and meaningless

ornament. This reaction was produced by the industrial

revolution and the factory sytem then engulfing England.

Functional design and the integration of design and crafts­

manship were the basic objectives of this movement (4,296).

The Arts and Crafts movement was also instituted in

Boston in 1897 (4,441) with the incorporation of the Boston

Society of Arts and Crafts.

The Society issued a statement which concluded with:

The conditions of true handicraft are natural aptitude through technical training and a just appreciation of standards. The unit of labor should be an intelligent man, whose ability is used as a whole and not subdivided for commercial purposes. He should exercise the faculty of design in connection with manual work, and manual work should be part of his training in design. (Annual Report and By-Laws, the Society of Arts and Crafts, 1 Boston, 1904, p. 2.) At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the

twentieth century, Teachers College, Columbia University,

through such men as Bennett, Richards, and Bonser, extended manual training to manual arts and then finally to indus­

trial arts. John Dewey recognized the importance of 73 industry and in school and Society (25), in 1899 placed industrial occupations at the very center of the elementary school curriculum. Charles R. Richards interpreted this when he wrote: . . . handiwork is a medium of expression in terms of form, color, and material; in its relation to social life, it is essentially a means of interpreting art and industry. (Manual Training Magazine. Peoria, 111., The Manual Arts Press, III, pp. 2-9.)

However, it was Frederick G. Bonser, at Teachers

College, who early (circa 1910) expanded the concept of

Industrial arts to consider it both as a subject and a method— an end and a means (4,453). He further asserted that industrial arts must justify itself on the same basis as other subjects.

In Life Needs and Education (Posthumous), New York:

Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932 (5,109) Bonser said:

A study of the making of books is not primarily to produce skill or craftsmanship in bookmaking. . . . The purpose is rather to develop insight into an industry whereby the race has put itself on record for untold generations . . . to study the design involved in the choice and arrangement of type . . . to learn of the debt we owe to Gutenberg . . . and to push . . . into social and even political questions .... Compare this body of thought, experience, and activity with the usual course in paper folding, cardboard construction, and bookbinding to see wherein the difference lies. 74

The term industrial arts, used to designate work

developed as a reaction against formalized courses

inherited from Proebel, became popular in the United States

following World war I as the nomenclature for instruction

in industry and the handicrafts for general education

purposes (4,455). A recent (1957) contribution to the field of indus­

trial arts was made by Delmar Olson in a doctoral study.

The purpose of the dissertation, accepted by the Ohio State

University and published by EPSILON PI TAU, Inc., was the

derivation of industrial arts subject matter from, and

reflective of, the technology with implications for

industrial arts programs. Olson states (56,225):

. . . there was established a master list of curricular components as elements of industrial arts subject matter reflective of the technology. This list was obtained by reducing the 526 orig­ inal curricular components derived from the analyses of the industrial arts functions and from the analyses of the several industries cate­ gories. After like terras were eliminated ninety- two components remained.

The components taken individually were seen as units or as categories of industrial arts sub­ ject matter. . . . The master list was con­ sidered to be the body of subject matter for an industrial arts reflective of the technology.

The industrial arts functions referred to by Olson were previously listed in 1937 by Warner in the Ohio High

School Standards for Industrial Arts Education for Junior and Senior High Schools (53> 10-12) and are listed as follows:

The Orientation Function

The Technical Function

The Recreational Function

The Consumer Function

The Cultural Function

Olson concluded that the Orientation Function should be dropped and another function, Occupational, added. He then listed these functions and analyses as follows (5 6,

7 9-1 0 6):

The Occupational Function

Opportunities for men and women Requirements, qualifications, education, experience Rewards, incentives, status, hazards

The Technical Function

Materials, processes, machines Theories and applications Construction, operation, service

The Recreational Function

Hobby possibilities and the home workshop Club activities and organizations Supplies and facilities

The Consumer Function

Selection, including quality, standards, functions Use, including operation, safety, care, maintenance Evaluation: getting one's money's worth 7 6

The Cultural Function

History,and development Great people and great achievements Contemporary status, influences Relationships to the standard of living Legislative aspects Significance to society, to the individual

The industrial classifications considered by Olson in his analyses were (5 6,107-l6 6):

Power 1. Basic types of power 2. Power production 3. Power transmission 4. Power utilization 5. industrialization

Transportation 1. Basic transportation categories 2. Civic-governmental aspects 3 . industrialization

Manufacturing 1. Basic materials categories 2. Basic processes categories 3. Basic products categories 4. Industrialization

Construction 1 . lypes of construction 2 . Industrailization 3. Community aspects 4. Architectural elements 5. Construction elements

Research 1. Basic industrial types 2. Industries as areas of research 3 . industrial research techniques Management 1. Basic components 2 . industries for application 77

Services 1. Basic types 2. Service areas 3 . Industrialization Derivation of Industrial Arts Education.

1. Human Postulate. A child grows and learns through physical and mental activity (54). At first it is activity for activity's sake (112,4) but as the nervous system matures, activity becomes more purposive. Children in early school years are naturally interested in sensory and motor activities (642) such as sights, sounds, handling tools and materials, and in relatively coarse or rough construc­ tion work. A desire to manipulate tools and materials, later, leads to creating minature houses, roadways, stores, and other things suggested by community and adult life.

Ability to analyse and patience develops in mastering con­ trols or skills as are needed to bring about desired results. Occupations take on significance, especially what they have to offer as a life work. Four interests become paramount; conversation or communication; inquiry, a search for knowledge; an impulse to create or construct; and, artistic or aesthetic expression.

Some social and technological implications of these interests are: in the education of children, the laboratory method of instruction must be upper-most in methodology; 0 and, the child learns through his interests in the indus­ trial culture that surrounds his life. Industrial arts is one of the most important social

contributions that has come out of the American scene. The

United States with its democratic approach to the political

relations of man and free economy has made this possible.

2. Economic Postulate. The material culture of man

has evolved from the occupations of gathering food and pro­

viding food and shelter (27,41). Artifacts began as

appendages of these occupations and later assumed decora­

tive or religious significance. Tools overcame the inade­

quacy of man's hands. A survival civilization was replaced

by later civilizations characterized by slavery, agricul­

ture, and the feudal kingdoms. The industrial revolution of

the nineteenth century developed from this background with

the harnessing of steam power. The change from an animal power to technical energy is shown graphically in Figure 11. Dewhurst (24,680) says:

This great progress in human "efficiency" and savings of human energy has been made possible by harnessing tremendous amounts of mineral energy to do the physical work that ueed to be done by man and animals . . .

Four sources of power are hydro, mineral, electrical, and

solar. The technology stems from these sources. The occu­ pations of the age of survival have given place, to modern manufacturing industries and are dependent upon these power technologies. 79

FIGURE 11

THE CHANGING OF ENERGY USE

100 500

H.P. Hours

Animal Energy Energy /5 375

50 250

25 125 20 Human 100 Energy 15 75 10 'echnological 50 5 Energy , .. 25 0 0 1850 1900 920 1940 1960

Dewhurst* Appendix 32: ( )

J. Frederick Dewhurst and Associates. America^

Needs and Resources. 80

3. Cultural Postulate. Industrial arts represents a

rich heritage. Writers have referred to its progress as

far back as the Renaissance. Documentary evidence concern­

ing "practical" or "useful" education dates back more than

2000 years before the birth of Christ. The stone tablets

excavated at Ur in Chaldea (112,12) record the laws under

which young people learned to do practical things. The

Code of Hammurabi. 2250 B.C., refers to several examples of practical or industrial activity.

The events of the 15th and 16th centuries (3*30) com­

prised a period of awakening that resulted in the indus­

trial revolution and the ultimate need for types of

industrial arts activity in the schools. The first of these

events was the invention and development of printing by

Gutenberg in 1450. A second was the revival of classical

learning, and a third was the Reformation.

Man has constantly been concerned with the manage­

ment of the world in which he lives. Artifacts had func­

tional significance during the age of their usage. The

same is true today of many technological advances. Modern

transportation and communication are important in the life

of man and man in turn has the important task of trying to manage his technological culture.

A basic concept of the American way of life includes

recognition of: the unique worth of the individual, the 81 value of reflective thinking, use of the method of intelli­ gence, and the employment of free enterprise. One is free in the United States to develop his potentialities, but his freedom carries many responsibilities with it, such as to refrain from interfering with the considerate develop­ ment of others, and to foster such traits as tolerance, social sensitivity, and efficiency. To accomplish these responsibilities, according to Wilber (122), requires that individuals participate in a,variety of experiences.

In a totalitarian form of government, the individual exists only for the state. Democratic concepts are not permitted to exist. Industrial arts as such, could not flourish in a totalitarian society.

Human, economic, and cultural postulates provide a background from which programs and curricula may be devel­ oped. However, before conclusions can be reached, the status of industrial arts as a profession should be considered.

4. Professional Postulate. The first formal work in industrial education (114,13) was called manual training by Runkle in 1880, and emphasis was on hand skills. The second period of such work was called manual arts by

Bennett (4,441) in 1894 and emphasis was still on hand skills, but the philosophy was extended to include useful and well designed articles. The introduction of the Sloyd 82 system in Boston by Larsson in 1890 influenced the American movement. The third period was referred to by Richards,

Russell, Bonser, and others (112,14) initially during the period from 1902 to 1910 as Industrial arts.

This term implied that all of the old that was good should be retained, but that the point of reference should be industry and not the hand. Another concept called for diversification rather than specialization of skills.

Still another idea called for the use of many materials and experiences in the basic techniques employed by industry.

Based on human, economic, and cultural postulates

Warner (2,4) in 1947 and Olson (5 6,107-1 6 6) in 1957 devel­ oped a curriculum to reflect technology. This curriculum, as reported earlier, is as follows: Manufacturing, Con­ struction, Communication, Power, Transportation, Management, and Service.

Industrial arts education has had professional status for many years. Many problems and issues have been recog­ nized and resolved. One of these has been that of leader­ ship at the local, state, and national level. Two current

Issues are: the problem of international development and the technical institute movement. The American Industrial

Arts Association and its affiliates, EPSILON PI TAU, the International Honorary Professional Fraternity in Industrial 83

Arts and Industrial Vocational Education, as well as the

American Vocational Association, have taken the lead in finding solutions to these and many other problems.

5. Implications for Industrial Arts. A major func­ tion of industrial arts stems from human and economic sources and concerns the overpowering need for orienting youth in modern technology both as regards how it is pro­ duced as well as how it is to be consumed. This function embraces the entire program of industrial arts as a phase of general education from kindergarten through college to adult levels. A second function grows out of the first and con­ cerns technical competency. This function of industrial arts Involves critical thinking, planning, and organization, as well as the mastery of related skills, and may result in new methods, processes and products, and understandings.

The technical function contributes to social, economic, and political elements of the culture.

A third function is consumer literacy through orien­ tation, experimentation, investigation, and manipulation.

This function of industrial arts promotes wide understanding and use of all manufactured goods. Bonser early pointed out that industrial arts is concerned with the ability to choose and use the products of industry wisely. This 84 involved design, form, fitness, function, and use in the broadest sense, Directly related to the consumer function is the opportunity provided by industrial arts for young and old to visualize abstractions. Those who have difficulty in developing or understanding abstract ideas may learn to solve or clarify these problems through industrial arts experiences.

A fou.rth function has life long purpose and concerns the development of recreational interests. This function is based upon human and economic factors which make it impor­ tant to the culture and one of the most important bases of industrial arts.

Two corollaries may be developed from these four functions. The first corollary is concerned with personnel management and implies an understanding and application of group dynamics in an industrial setting. The second corollary may be derived from the cultural aspects of industrial arts and implies the necessity of integration with other facets of education.

Industrial arts should synthesize industry and reflect technology in laboratories provided for these activities. By synthesizing industry, industrial arts presents to all children and youth a more accurate picture of modern technological culture through which the functions 85 of orientation, technical competency, consumer literacy,

and recreation may be realized.

These functions may be realized through a series of

programs designed to reach all people. Such programs

includes normal. elementary through secondary plus col­

legiate and adult; atypical. for those who need the assist­

ance of industrial arts in making physical and mental

adjustments; professional. the Baccalaureate, the Master of

Arts or master teacher degree, and the Doctorate or leader­

ship degree; and, service programs that aid in the training of elementary and other teachers, occupational therapists, and other specialized groups needing industrial arts to

supplement their curricula.

The curricula in the past were based on systematic and abstract analyses of the hand and machine skills of industry. Since thinking becomes significant only when applied to life situations, the modern and true curricula of industrial arts should be based on technological orienta­ tion in a laboratory designed to provide for this function.

Evaluation of industrial arts can only be measured in terms of the success of students in orienting themselves in and learning to manage the industrial culture of which they are a part. This evaluation should be based on the postulated bases of industrial arts reported earlier. 86

As the basic philosophy of modern industrial arts was being formulated, definite steps were taken to estab­

lish a frame work for trade and industrial and technical education. This area of industrial education placed greater emphases on occupational analyses and skills. In the past, a system of apprenticeship produced the European guild system. The semi-secretive nature of skills in this

system impeded the development of new and advanced techniques. Trade and Industrial Education. Public vocational education was an outgrowth of a recognition by society of a need for an educational plan to replace other historic

forms and was intensified by the success of private trade

schools, manual training, and the Morrill Acta of 1862 and

1890. The early 1900's found such private schools as the

Williamson School near Philadelphia, the New York Trade

School, the Hebrew Technical Institute, as well as the

Drexel Institute of Philadelphia and the Pratt institute of

Brooklyn serving the needs for trade training. Other schools such as the apprentice school conducted by the Hoe

Company and the Grand Trunk Railway school in Battle Creek,

Midhigan, also flourished during the early 1900's.

In Springfield and Worcester, Massachusetts, the public schools were used during this period at night for vocational training and in 1906 the Douglas Commission in 87

Massachusetts became one of the earliest state efforts to promote public vocational education (3 9 ).

The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial

Education was founded at about this time (1905). This organization brought together the three elements necessary for the development of industrial educations management, labor, and public education. Labor had generally opposed trade schools, fearing the domination of management and the possibility of a labor surplus. However, labor was willing to have trade schools controlled by public education (3 9 ).

Experimental approaches to public vocational educa­ tion were placed in operation in many parts of the country during this same period in the early 1900's. These schools were in addition to the trade schools maintained by indus­ try. In 1913 an organization was founded by a group of manufacturers and called the National Association of Cor­ poration Schools. This organization met annually for several years and acted as an important lobby in Congress. / State support for vocational education began in 1906 in Massachusetts followed by Connecticut, New Jersey, and

Wisconsin. Beginning in 1907* bills were introduced in

Congress supporting vocational education in secondary schools. The National Society did not at first support the bills, but after the Davis, the Davis-Dolliver, and the first Page bill, they decided to bring in Mr. Charles 88

Prosser to help draft the second Page bill. This bill was opposed by the United States Office of Education and others, and was finally withdrawn. A compromise motion was passed callirg for a commission to study the problem and attempt to resolve differences. The subsequent acts relating to vocational education were a direct result of the work of this commission (3 9 ).

The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 creating the agricultural experimental stations received precedence over the other vocational education bills, but in 1917 the Smith-Hughes

Act was passed creating a permanent expenditure of $7 million for agriculture, home economics,and trade and industrial education! agriculture $3 million; home economics and trade and industry $3 million; and teacher training $1 million.

Later in 1924 Hawaii was given status and in 1931

Puerto Rico was also added. In 1934 the George-Ellzey Act provided $3 million for the years of 1935-1937. The

George-Deen Act of 1936 increased annual allotments to

$13,350,000 and extended the time for the years 1938-1946.

In 1946 the George-Barden Act amended the George-Deen Act to provide for the annual continuing authorization of:

$10 million for agriculture f> 8 million for home economics {> 8 million for trade and industry $ 2 -1 /2 million for distributive education. 89 The George-Barden Act is an enabling act and must be followed each year by an appropriation by the Congress of the United States. In both the Smith-Hughes and the George

Barden Acts the money is distributed on a matching basis, and as of 1958 the federal money represents about 20 per­ cent of the total spent on public vocational education

(110,42).

Table 6 lists the characteristics of reimbursable vocational trade and industrial and technical education.

Some Evaluative Criteria, in planning any trade and industrial instructional program, the following criteria should be considered:

1. The functional instructional content in the

courses should fulfill the requirements of the

occupation as found in the local situation.

2. For adults, especially, courses for the exten­

sion or development of skills or technical

information should be organized in short units

complete in themselves (1 1 5,3 ).

Training programs should be evaluated in terms of three categories: pre-employment, extension or upgrading, and supplementary training.

The sources of potential workers is important, in isolated studies of training and meeting replacement needs, writers have reported that it is necessary to supply TABLE 6

CHARACTERISTICS OP REIMBURSABLE VOCATIONAL TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Types of Programs Purpose For Whom Intended By Whom Taught By Whom Instructor How Courses Are Advisory Committees Is Employed Initiated (For All Programs)

Trade extentioA To give instruc­ Employed trade and An instructor of Generally by local By local board of A. Composition — (evening, part-time) tion and training to industrial adult ability, skill, ex­ board of education education on: Equal representation supplement the job workers including perience, and stand­ through cooperation Request from man­ from management and experience in a craft supervisors and ing in the trade. with advisory com­ agement and/or labor, labor in general ad­ or occupation in foremen. mittees. or visory or craft com­ which training is to Request from advi- mittees with school be provided. .sory committee, or representation to Request from group serve in a consulta­ or individual workers. tive capacity. B. Selection - Apprentice instruc­ To provide techni­ Persons employed Skills taught on- Generally by local By local board of Appointed by the tion (evening or day­ cal shop and other as bqna fide appren­ the-job by employers; board of education education on: school authority on time) related instruction tices in a trade or related instruction through cooperation Request of joint the basis of recom­ supplementary to the industrial occupa­ same as for trade ex­ with advisory com­ apprenticeship or mendations from job experience. tion. tension. mittees. craft committee, or management and labor. subjects to be Request of manage­ C. Functions Relating taught usually deter­ ment and/or labor to Programs: mined in cooperation union. 1. Assist in deter­ with joint appren­ mining training needs. ticeship coomiittees. 2. Recommend compe-

Preemployment Brief intensive Out-of-school An Instructor of Generally by local By local board of vide instructions in training (evening or training for entrance youth and/or adults. ability, skill, ex­ board of education education on: industrial subjects. day-time) into employment in a perience, and stand­ through cooperation Request from em­ 3. Assist in deter­ specific industrial ing in the occupa­ with advisory com­ ployment service, or mining course content job or retraining the tion. mittees . Request from em-1 and length of courses. worker for a new ployers, or 4. Inform the respec­ position. Request from group tive groups of train­ or individual workers. ing services available.

(Same for all programs) Prom Bulletin No. 1, U.S. Office of Education.

vo o TABLE 6 (CONTINUED)

Types of Programs Purpose For Whom Intended By Whom Taught By Whom Instructor How Courses Are Advisory Committees Is Employed Initiated (For All Programs)

Part-time coopera­ To provide train­ Students in Skills taught on- Instructors of re­ By local board of tive (day-time) ing in the occupa­ schools who are the-job by employers; lated and general education through: tion at which he is legally employed related technical and subjects in public Desires and needs employed and at the and working at general education schools employed by of students for same time complete least 15 hours per subjects by instruc­ local board of edu­ training through a general education. week as learners in tors. cation usually part-time employ­ Not considered an industrial occupa­ through cooperation ment , and apprenticeship. tion. with advisory com­ Discovery of oppor­ mittees. tunities for such em­ ployment training through cooperation with employers and advisory committees.

Preparatory train­ To prepare for en­ In-school youth Vocational work Local board of By local board of ing full-time (day trance into useful who have selected a taught by an in­ education employs education through: schools) employment in an in­ specific occupation. structor of ability, all instructors. Survey of employ­ dustrial occupation skill, experience, Instructors of voca­ ment opportunities and provide an op­ and standing in the tional subjects in in conraunity, and portunity to continue trade; general sub­ day trade schools Desires of students a general education. ject taught by in­ usually selected to remain in school It is that type of structors regularly through cooperation full-time and receive vocational education qualified for with advisory com­ initial training in given in full-time teaching the sub­ mittees. specific trades or day trade or techni­ jects. industrial occupa­ cal institute classes. tions in which there is a need, and Cooperation with craft committees in planning facilities and courses*

vo 92 annually one new worker for each six to ten presently employed, A casual review of vocational enrollments in cities of the Uhited States shows that only from 5 to 11 percent of the adult population avail themselves of special training opportunities (1 1 5*7-8). Another important consideration that needs evaluation in a trade and industrial program is the physical plant.

Buildings should be within the area of, adjacent to, or easily accessible from the industries of the community.

Space should be available for expansion. Construction should be of fireproof or fire-resistant materials, and single story buildings are preferable.

Laboratories should be adequate in area to accommo­ date equipment and work space for planned student/teacher load, and suitably located for the type of work that will be done. Equipment should be of a type that will make it possible to train students in processes and methods used in local Industries and should be so placed and installed as to follow the best industrial practice in working methods, safety and comfort of workers, and good house­ keeping (1 1 5,6-9).

Administration has many responsibilities in connec­ tion with the improvement of instruction. Qualified super­ visors who recognize the importance of good instruction and who understand its problems and techniques must be provided. 93

Teachers who have a genuine interest in teaching, good personalities, good appearance, successful occupational experience, and adequate school background must be appointed.

Organized in-service teacher training, suitable classroom and shop facilities, instructional materials, books, visual aids, equipment, and a continual review, modernization, and adjustment of required course of study are other areas of responsibility (1 1 5,2 7).

Instructional evaluation methods may include the following:

1. Formal evaluation of shop, laboratory, or classroom teaching methods and management.

2. Check on opinions and attitudes of trainees or students while enrolled and during employ­ ment.

3. Survey of the employment and achievements of those who have attended.

4. Advice from advisory committees after inspec­ tion of instruction in school and experience with employed persons who have received instruction.

5. The approval of local industry as evidenced by the general support of the program and by the employment and/or advancement of persons who have completed instruction (1 1 5,5 1).

Dr. John P. Walsh, Director, Trade and Industry

Branch, United States Office of Education, states that (119),-

The efficiency of labor depends upon many things. Two such items of great important are the skill of labor and its attitude toward the worlf situa­ tion. Vocational educators have long recognized the greatest emphasis should be put on de\eLoping 94

wholesome attitudes while improving skill and knowledge, vocational educators are also in a position to evaluate, screen, and redirect the efforts of young people. Hence, a well-planned program of vocational education can guide into industrial channels, individuals of vigor who have the aptitude, attitude, and the basic skills best suited to the demands of the openings in industry.

Dr. Walsh suggests the following criteria for evalu ating trade and industrial programs (1 1 9):

1. PREPARATORY TRAINING a. Regular Day Trade Program 1) Occupations Served 2) Equipment 3) Instructor 4) Placement Record 5) Satisfaction of Employers 6) Educational Level of Enrollees 7) Nature of Related Instruction 8) Hours of Instruction 9) Grade Level of Students 10) Size of Classes 11) Availability of Students 12) Individual Help Given 13) The Nature of Advisory Committees 14) interest in industrial Programs b. Cooperative Training 1) Availability of Trainees 2) Quality of School Instruction 3) Placement Record of Program 4) Terms of Training Agreements 5) Nature of Related Instruction 6) Make-up of Advisory Committees 2. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING a. Occupations Involved b. Related Instruction c. Background of Instructor d. Course Outlines e. Nature of Workbooks or Assignments f. Hours of Instruction g. Length of courses or units h. Utilization of Advisory Committees i. Availability of Consultants 95 3. MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT a. Executive Program 1) Courses Available 2) Pees Charged 3) Length of Units 4) Background of instructor 5) Flexibility of Program b. Supervisory Development 1) Courses Offered 2) Length of Units 3) Availability 4) Quality 5) Follow-up 6 ) Training Reports 7 j Opportunities to Observe 8) Number of Companies Involved

Together, the field of industrial education is much too large to be encompassed by a single, detailed survey.

However, the interrelationships that exist seems to make it mandatory that this field be first examined as a whole and then later by its components. This dissertation, then, might well be the initial step in an entire family of research problems. CHAPTER V

SURVEY OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN PUERTO RICO

Part I Industrial Arts Education

A major purpose of this dissertation is to survey and evaluate the industrial education program of Puerto Rico during the decade, 19^8-58. Chapter V concerns industrial arts and Chapter VI concerns trade and industrial education.

Although the history and development of education in

Puerto Rico was reported in Chapter II, a review of the history of industrial education is included at this point to serve as an introduction to an examination of its status.

Historical Bases. The School of Arts and Trades at

San Juan, founded in 1886, offered what was perhaps the first industrial education in the island. The purpose of the school was to provide an opportunity for workmen and others to acquire a broader knowledge of their arts and trades (58,108). This date falls into chronological order with similar developments both in Europe and the United

States, Reference is made in Chapter IV of these develop­ ments.

96 97

The school operated until 1898 when an American com­ mission appointed to inspect it reported that it was below continental standards. Following this report, the school was closed.

The American occupation of Puerto Rico found a cur­ riculum in the public schools devoid of vocational and practical arts subjects. The children of the well-to-do generally prepared for the professions. The upper social classes seldom entered trade and industrial occupations.

The skilled tradesmen employed by the sugar mills and other industries came for the most part from nearby French and

British possessions and from the eastern part of Spain

(74,1). Military government was replaced in 1900 by civil government and Dr. Martin B. Brumbaugh was appointed the first Commissioner of Education. His administration pro­ posed that the schools be of the following types:

1. For general education.

2. For the rural and agricultural population.

3. For trade and Industry (14,2).

The first industrial school under the civil govern­ ment was the Boy's charity School at santurce, with general carpentry and furniture making as the curriculum, with the success of this school the Insular Legislature authorized 98 five additional schools in 1902. These were located at San

f* Juan, Mayaguez, Ponce, Arecibo, and Guayama (23,44).

Ivan Vega-Brau (118,18) reports that Samuel McCurre

Lindsay, united States Commissioner of Education, in 1902, wrote in the Annual Report of the Commission of Education:

We need to teach them how to work; that work is honorable; how to be useful citizens at the same time that they receive instructions from their books.

The insular Department of Education at this same time requested and received from Gustaf Larsson, of the Sloyd

Training School in Boston, models used in preparing sloyd teachers.

In 1903, according to Vega-Brau (118,21), Prank H.

Ball was supervisor of industrial education and manual training. Because of misunderstanding between the Commis­ sioner of Education and a commission appointed for the selection of teachers, the legislature discontinued its support to industrial education In 1907 and the schools were closed. For three years the teaching of some manual training was maintained only through the efforts of a few devoted teachers working under adverse conditions (1 1 8,2 3 ).

Industrial education was again authorized in 1910

(74) but this time as a part of general education and not as trade training. The Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education listed "manual training" shops in schools of 99 nine towns with 500 pupils receiving instruction (1 1 8,2 3 ).

Further interest developed and in 1911 a summer institute for teachers was offered by the University of Puerto Rico with forty-eight students enrolled.

The first manual training shops appeared in 1912, at Bayamon, Cabo Rojo, Rio Piedras, Manati, and Ponce. In

1914, 3 ,0 3 3 boys were receiving instruction: 487 In high schools, 518 in continuation schools, and 2028 in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The program developed rapidly and by 1920 there were 48 teachers (5 8,2 2 7).

Sr. Ferdinand Rossy, Chief of the Industrial Arts

Section, reports the three stages of development (90,214):

1. Manual Training, 1908-1917.

2. Manual Arts, 1917-1939.

3. Industrial Arts, 1939.

Mr. Bainter, Commissioner of Education in 1912, gave the real impetus to manual training by making it a required subject. The objectives given were:

1. To teach pupils to work in a skilled manner, as general equipment of a pre-vocational character.

2. To train boys to think, to grasp an idea and embody it; to develop self-expression and reliance; to train in habits of order and cleanliness; and to teach the dignity of labor; to bring to the forefront the problem of better housing. 100

Manual training was first organized in rural areas during the 1 9 15“16 school year, with drawing and woodwork as the principal activities. The term manual training was exchanged in 1917-18 for manual arts. With the change in name came the historic change in emphasis to skilled crafts­ manship and design, carpentry, architectural drawing, metal work, and electricity were added to the curriculum in most schools.

A second unit movement was begun in 1928-29. Besides other subjects, the work of manual arts was taught using projects adapted to the needs of the country people with objectives of improving living conditions, raising the pro­ ductive capacity of the island, and carrying out a program of social and health instruction.

Manual arts courses were offered in 55 centers at the close of the period 1918-3 8, in the urban zone and in

67 second unit rural schools. One hundred fifty-seven teachers were employed to instruct approximately 1 0 ,0 0 0 students.

The term "manual arts" was exchanged in 1938-39 for industrial arts. The present 6-3-3 plan was initiated in

1942-43 and junior and senior high sohools established.

At the beginning of the period, the industrial arts section was still administered by the general education division. However, in 1949-50* It was placed under the 101 direction of the Commonwealth Board for Vocat ional Educa­ tion.

Program Description. Ten objectives for Industrial arts are listed by the Industrial Arts Section of the

Division of Vocational instruction as follows:

1. Contribute to the general education of the stu­ dents, as an integral part of living in an industrial era.

2. Develop desirable social habits.

3. Explore student interests and abilities.

4. Orient in the selection of a trade or occupation.

5. Provide technical instruction as a basis for vocational education.

6. Develop hobbies acceptable for leisure time.

7. Contribute to improving conditions in the school, the home and the community. £ 8. Develop the student as a good consumer

9. Teach the processes and products of industry.

Industrial arts deals with the materials of indus­ try, organization, processes, operations, products, and occupations.

Students receive orientation in production, consump­ tion, and recreation through experiences in planning, pro­ ducing, servicing and repairing consumer goods. Young people learn how manufactured goods are made and how to use and maintain them Intelligently. They develop skill 102 and resourcefulness In working with technical problems.

They learn facts and procedures about tools, materials, processes, mechanics and design; about wood, metals, plastics, ceramics, textiles,paper and other industrial materials; about electricity, motors, engines, and other items of interest and concern to all people at home, on the farm, at work and at play.

Junior high school students attend a laboratory of industries course where they receive an orientation of all areas offered in industrial arts. An individual study is made of each student in order to help him discover his interests and aptitudes for the different areas of work.

A student selects areas during the second year to receive a more intensive preparation and is permitted to concentrate on an area of his choice.

Senior high school students are encouraged to con­ tinue the study of industrial arts as an elective course.

Industrial arts is divided into two parts: manipu­ lative skills, including the use of tools, equipment and materials; and, related information, including the under­ standing of manipulative techniques, the scientific and mathematical principles involved, consumer information, safety and the socio-economic problems of industry.

The program includes six areas: drawing, woodwork, metal work, electricity, graphic arts and crafts. Each is 103 subdivided into interrelated work activities. For example; the craft area includes ceramics, textiles, plastics and leather.

The University of Puerto Rico offers a four year program leading to a bachelor's degree for the preparation of industrial arts teachers. Courses are offered during the regular school year and summer session. Extra-mural and extension courses are offered for students unable to attend regular courses.

Additional preparation is given by means of an in- service training program. Pilot shops have been developed for the orientation and preparation of teachers and school principals. Other activities include sectional meetings, workshops, study groups, visits, instructional aids, bulletins, and orientation manuals.

Industrial arts teachers participate in the organi­ zation of a work experience program. Students spend a part of the school day in industrial and commercial firms where they acquire valuable practical experience. Activities. These include the following (30,15):

DRAWING

First Year Second Year Third Year

Cross Section­ a. Lettering a. Working Draw­ ing Tracing ing Sketching b. Drawing with b. (Applied) Instruments Graphs c. (Applied) c. Principles of Architectural Drawing Principles of d. Orthographic d. Principles of Design Topographic Drawing Interpreting e. Isometric e. Principles of simple drawing Structural Drawing f. Oblique f. Principles of Commercial Art g. Perspective Development

GRAPHIC ARTS

First Year Second Year Third Year

Principles of a. Silk Screen a. Principles of Photography Composition Principles of b . Photography b. Principles of Linoleum Print­ Press Printing ing Finger Painting c. Relief Work c . Bookbinding Penmanship d. Celluloid Printing Principles of e. Bookbinding Bookbinding f. Principles of Composition a Imposition 105

3. METALWORK First Year Second Year Third Year

a. Etching (metal) a. Simple Sheet a. Sheet Metal Metal work b. Art Metal b. Foundry Prac­ b. Wrought iron tices c. Copper and Tin c . Forge work c. Arc Welding Foil d. Metal Engraving d. Bench work d. Lathe Work e. Principles of e. Plumbing Prin­ e. Simple Plumb­ Jewelry Making ciples ing f . Soft Soldering f . Pattern Making g. Simple Machine g. Elementary Auto-mechanics h. Work (mechanics)

4. ELECTRICITY

First Year Second Year Third Year a. Splices a . Repair work a. Construction of Simple Motor b. Bell wiring b. A.C. Simple b. Construction wiring of Signal devices c . Simple house- c . Battery and c. A.C. Wiring wiring Transformers d. Magnetism d. Communication d. Principles of Electronics e . Simple Repair e. Principles work of A.C. Motors f. Communication equipment 106

5. WOODWORK First Year Second Year Third Year a. Simple Tools a. Basic Hand a. Pattern Making Tool Opera­ tions b. Jig Sawing b. Joints b. pattern Turning c . Simple Wood c. Staining and c. Principles of Turning Shellacing Cabinet Making d . Simple Joints d. Upholstery d. Lacquering e. Sand Papering e. Principles of e. Cane Weaving cane weaving f. Enamelling and Varnishing

6 . CRAFTS First Year Second Year Third Year a. Papier Mache a. Principles of a. Four Harness Work Textile Work Loom b. Coconut work b. Two Harness b. Needle Work Loom c. Tortoise Shell c . Advanced work c. Tailoring Work on first year d . Basketry d. Tailoring d. Ceramics e. Gypsum, Clay e. Ceramics e. Potter's and Plasticine wheel work Work f. Card Weaving f. Modeling f . Construction of Plaster Molds g. Frame Weaving g. Tile Work g. Keene Cement Work h. Principles of h. Keene Cement h. Glazing Crochet Work i. Tailoring i. Concrete work i. Firing j. Copper foil k. Principles of plastics 1. Principles of Glass Work ■ m. Principles of Slip casting n. Principles of Glazing 107

Activities in the third year of junior high school may be offered during the first year of the senior high school by students who have taken only two years of indus­ trial arts in the junior high school.

The objective of the laboratory of industry is not to make the student a skilled worker, but to orient him within different areas and allow for acquisition of a degree of skill in those jobs or techniques that may be of interest. Content of both junior and senior high school industrial arts is divided into manipulative experiences and related information (3 0 ,1 8).

Location of Programs

1. Second Unit Schools. Industrial arts in these schools ' was taught as farm shops up to 1 9 5 6, and were under the administration and supervision of vocational agricultural personnel.

There are 145 second unit schools with a total of 62 industrial arts teachers in 58 schools. This number con­ stitutes about 14.7 percent of all industrial arts teachers.

A total of 4,393 students is enrolled, 1,411 in the seventh,

1,677 in the eighth, and 1,305 in the ninth grades.

Classes meet daily for 90 minutes, and are organized as general shops with two or more areas.

2. junior High School. These classes meet 80 minutes daily and are found in all schools. There are 316 teachers 108 in 117 schools. This figure represents 75 percent of the industrial arts teachers. There are 18 teachers in combined programs involving junior and senior high school students.

In 1958-59, 2 5 ,2 5 4 junior high school student enrolled in industrial arts: 3,228 in the seventh; 12,105 in the eighth; and, 9 ,9 2 1 in the ninth grades (3 0 ,1 2 ). Th§ program is offered mainly for boys with only about 150 girls taking a course in home mechanics together with the boys.

3. Senior High School. Only 34 out of the 91 senior high schools offer industrial arts as elective courses.

The class period is 100 minutes daily.

4. Auxiliary Programs. There are also work experi­ ences programs in one junior high and 13 senior high schools with a total of 357 students. The enrollment for

1957-58 was 5 5 6. The decrease in 1958-59 is due to the effects of Memorandum No. 151 of June, 1959, regulating the organization of this type of program in secondary schools.

Students enrolled in the work experience program during

1957-58 earned.$108,293.93 (30,29). There are 71 adults taking industrial arts during the evenings in one location, Rio Piedras,

Enrollments. At present there are 355 Industrial arts shops in the public schools of Puerto Rico with 418 teachers and a total enrollment of 32,784 students. These data may be compared to those for 1948 found in Table 7. 109

TABLE 7 INDUSTRIAL ARTS ENROLLMENT - 1948

Number and Total Industrial Type Enrollment Boys Girls Arts Teachers Senior High 22 1 5 ,6 5 1 6,992 7,632 1,408 30

Junior High 77 32,958 16,718 15,610 10,853 183

Rural Second Unit 65 26,510 14,341 11,287 2,953 65 Ivan Vega Brau,’ industrial Arts in Puerto Rico - its Status and Pro,lection.

Table 8 shows enrollment in greater detail for the

three years of 1 9 56-59 TABLE 8

ENROLMENTS BY GRADE LEVELS, PROGRAMS, AND SCHOOLS 1956-1959

1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 Junior High 24,717 25,078 35,254

Senior High 2,228 2,502 3,137

Second-Unit 4,018 4,253 4,393

Work Experience 482 556 357

Adult 48 75 71 TOTALS 31,493 32,464 33,212 Jesus M. Figueroa, The Industrial Arts Program in Puerto Rico. 110

The enrollment in industrial arts has increased 115

percent during the years 1948-58, while the increase in

instructors has been only 50 percent.

The largest increase was 133 percent, in the junior

high schools followed by 114 percent in the high schools

and only 49 percent in the second-unit schools.

Comparable data (75*3-9) (see Figure 5) show that the

junior high school enrollment advanced by approximately 97

percent, high schools by 152 percent, and second-unit

schools declined by 13 percent.

These data indicate that the junior high program has a net increase of about one-third, that the high school program lost ground, and that the second unit program

increased by over 50 percent.

The loss in the high school program can be accounted

for by the parallel increase in trade and industrial pro­ grams. The increase in the junior high and second unit

schools is in line with the increased emphasis on industrial

education.

Figure 12 illustrates the rapid rate of increase in

the first six years followed by a period of little change.

The upturn indicated by data from 1958-59 implies a still greater emphasis on industrial arts in the coming years.

The industrial arts program in the urban schools is made up of 20 laboratories of industry, 241 general and FIGURE 12

INDUSTRIAL ARTS ENROLLMENT 19^8-1958

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-- 19^9 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

Jesus M. Figueroa, The Industrial Arts Program In Puerto Rico. Ill 32 units shops; There are 62 general shops in the second

unit schools, a grand total of 355 shops.

The prevailing influence has been in the direction of general shop programs, although the concept of the laboratory of industries has received some attention.

TABLE 9

ENROLLMENT BY AREAS OP INSTRUCTION

Area Enrollment

Crafts 3,351 Graphic Arts 3,874

Drawing 7,019

Electricity 4,495

Woodwork 9,300

Metalwork 4,745

Total 32,784 Jesus M. Figueroa, The Industrial Arts Program in Puerto Rico.

Drawing and woodworking continue to be predominant, however, metal working and electricity are gaining. The least emphasis is on graphic arts and crafts.

Three and four areas are generally taught in the general shops. This pattern follows closely that found on the mainland of the United States (122,118). 113

TABLE 10

DISTRIBUTION OP AREAS TAUGHT

Number of Areas Taught Percent of Teachers

1 10 2 18 3 21 4 35 5 11 6 5

Jesus M. Figueroa, The Industrial Arts Program in Puerto Rico.

Teaching staff. There were 418 industrial arts teachers in the public schools of Puerto Rico during

1958-59. Over one-third have less than a minimum of prepara­ tion, another third are provisionals with preparation extending upwards from a high school diploma, and the remaining third may be considered to have adequate profes­ sional training.

A salary schedule governs all secondary teachers.

The provisional teacher is given a beginning salary of

$130 per month; regular certification, minimum collegiate preparation, $150 per month, and bachelors degree prepara­ tion, $185 per month. Each year of experience adds $5 per month up to a maximum of 14 years or $60. This results in a minimum of $130 per month or $1 ,5 6 0 per year and a max­ imum of $245 per month or $2,940 per year. 114

TABLE 11

LEVEL OP TEACHER PREPARATION

Number Preparation of Teachers Percent With less than minimum requirements 137 33 Possessing a certificate 152 36

B.A. in Industrial Arts 125 30

B.A. in Education 3 .7

Master's degree 1 .3

TOTAL 418 1 0 0 .0 Jesus M. Figueroa, The Industrial Arts Program in Puerto Rico.

The mean salary for industrial arts teachers in

1958-59 was $195 per month. The 25th percentile of the salary distribution reaches from $130 to $159 per month while the uppa?quarter of the distribution ranges from $200 to $239 per month (30,41).

Comparing these salaries with the personal income data found in Figure 9, an average annual salary of $2,345 is between four and five times the average per person for the island.

The annual turnover of teachers has averaged 3 6 , or

9 per cent (30,43). About 25 percent of theindustrial arts teachers in 1 9 5 8 -5 9had two years or less experience. 115

Another 25 percent had from three to six years experience.

The upper 25 percent had from 14 to 29 years of fexperience.

Administration and Supervision. There was only one

supervisor for the urban program and one for the rural zone

before 1950. There were also head teachers in three of the

larger school districts. After the program was transferred

to the vocational Education Division in 1950 the supervisory

personnel was increased to one general supervisor of chief

of section, one teacher trainer, and five assistant super­

visors. The assistants had their headquarters in the dis­

tricts they served, while the supervisor of second unit

schools was assigned to the vocational agriculture section

until 1 9 5 6, when he was returned to the industrial arts

section.

Since 1956 the industrial arts section has been com­

posed of one chief of section, one teacher trainer and

administrative assistant, six general supervisors, and two

curriculum technicians.

Administrative salaries are based on a schedule. The base monthly salary by increments determined by experience

and professional training and range from a minimum of $250 to $410 per month. There is a $10 per month Increment for

each year of experience up to 14 years plus $20 each for the bachelor's and master's degrees. 116

The supervisory staff made 438 visits to schools during 1957-58. Also during 1957-58, a total of 34 group study meetings were held, two workshops, and one meeting for school principals.

In-service teacher preparation for industrial arts teachers appears to be one of the major responsibilities of the central office. One supervisor is primarily responsible for in-service training. He is assj&ed by the supervisors as they are needed. Another supervisor has as his responsibility the industrial arts program in the rural schools. In addition, this supervisor acts as an administrative assistant to the section chief.

Five supervisors are responsible for industrial arts programs in specified areas and cities in the island.

Each supervises, recommends for employment, advises on problems, and approves material and equipment requests.

Two curriculum technicians working in the central office, process material and equipment requests, develop teaching materials, and process data.

Physical Plant, standards have been set by the central office of the Industrial Arts Section for basic requirements in planning laboratories. These standards have been established as 60 square feet per student. The supervisory staff has recommended the construction of FIGURE 13

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS SECTION Section Chief

Administrative Assistant Administrative Assistant and and Teacher Trainer Supervisor of the Rural Zone

Curriculum Technician Curriculum Technician

I 1 i Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5

Superintendent of Schools

School Principals J from Ferdinand Rossy

Industrial Arts Teachers 118 separate buildings 3 0 ' x 6 0' where new schools are planned.

Although the second unit schools are below standard, the junior and senior high schools meet this standard with minor exceptions. Typical layouts and photographs of Indus trial arts laboratories in selected schools may be seen in

Figures 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, '20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25.

A survey of 355 laboratories revealed that 48 or 13 percent were in good condition, 156 or 44 percent in fair condition, and the remaining 1 5 1, 43 percent were in poor condition (3 0 ,5 2).

Over $500,000 has been budgeted to industrial arts for the purchase of equipment, materials, and supplies dur­ ing the years 1948-58. As each new laboratory is opened

$3 ,0 0 0 is allocated for equipment.

The material and equipment costs per pupil in second unit schools has been steadily increased, in 1 9 5 6 -5 7this amounted to $1 .5 0, while in 1 9 5 7 “58 it was increased to

$2 .0 0 , and in 1 9 5 8 -5 9 to $3 .0 0 .

The same per pupil costs in the junior and senior high schools has increased from $2 .5 0 in 1 9 5 6, to $3 .2 0 in

1 9 5 7, but was lowered to $3 .0 0 in 1 9 5 8.

Each second unit school shop received an average of

$48.89 for new equipment during the school year 1 9 5 7-5 8.

Other school shops averaged $107.40 during the same period. FIGURE 1^ GENERAL SHOP LABORATORY, MANATI JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

i_r Leathercraft Textile

Store Room

Teacher ns Planning Desk I 30' Lino Center Photography-

Drawing Tagles Printing Area 120

FIGURE 15 GENERAL LABORATORY

Manati Junior High School FIGURE 16

INDUSTRIAL ARTS BUILDING, FAJARDO

232'8"

T ElecteicWy !□□□□□□ □□□□□□ 1 n n D0 0 fC n E==n ° n n n Graphic Arts' Geriera^ □ D 0 □ □ D Crafts IndustriesT „ Q , o Industriesstfl es y o o L T a Q [ 11 1 □ □ 1 h 1 1 1 r 1 1------1 K—L

*351 1/2" MecfEafticEs

Transport on

[ 11 I U D

^ General □ Woodwork 0 H □ ro i L M 35 122

FIGURE 1? HANDICRAFTS LABORATORY

Fajardo 123

FIGURE 18 ELECTRICAL LABORATORY

Fajardo 124

FIGURE 19 WOODWORKING CLASS BUILDING FORMS FOR BASKETBALL COURT

Fajardo FIGURE 20

LABORATORY OF INDUSTRIES

Drawing Store Room Textiles □ □ Dark 20 * Room Plannini Center / Graphic Elec- Ceramics Metals Arts trical Store Room

O

Arecibo High School 125 126

FIGURE 21

A TYPICAL GIRL STUDENT

Arecibo High School FIGURE 22

LABORATORY OF INDUSTRIES

Photographs Dark Room Printing

Drawing

Table

Storage

Weaving

Storage Linoletm Planning : 31ocfe Center 127 Manti FIGURE 23

GRAPHIC ARTS LABORATORY

Planning Center Printing Silk Screer

Photograp: Papei Linoleum Cuttei Block

42' Einstein High Sfihool, Santurce 128 129

FIGURE 24

WOODWORKING

Arecibo Junior High School 130

FIGURE 25

WOODWORKING

Einstein High School, Santurce The funds for 1958-59 were divided equally for all shops.

Each received an average of $112.49 for new equipment.

These figures were for shops already established (30,53).

The second unit schools received an average of

$108.87 for materials during 1 9 5 7 -5 8while the other

schools averaged $125. Again in 1958-59 the monies were divided equally with each school receiving approximately

$110 for materials. In addition to the amounts allocated by the central office, the local superintendents assign to

each industrial arts teacher a limited and varying amount

from a fund that is set up for maintenance and minor

repairs of the school plant. This sum varies from $40 to

$75 annually (30,55).

A curriculum technician in the central office acts

as purchasing agent and buys materials and equipment for all in accordance with recommendations made by area super­ visors. All orders are delivered to the Department of

Education's general warehouse and then distributed. Because of the details involved, materials are purchased a year in advance for delivery in July and August of the new school year.

The problems of inventories, depreciations; antici­ pated replacements, and insurance in both the Industrial

Arts and Trade and Industrial Sections were discussed with key personnel. Inventories in quadruplicate are maintained 132 for each shop: one each for the teacher, principal, superintendent, and central office. When supervisors make requisitions they refer to the inventories. However, these inventories do not show depreciation.

Budgetary allotments usually provide for immediate needs. There are no plans for long-range replacement nor is there any insurance coverage to cover losses of build­ ings, equipment, and materials. This last applies to indus­ trial arts as well as trade and industrial education.

Teacher Education. Industrial arts teacher prepara­ tion is conducted principally at the University of Puerto

Rico. Some courses are offered at Catholic University in

Ponce and at inter-American university in San German.

The Department of Industrial Education in the Col­ lege of Education of the University of Puerto Rico (81,8),-

. . . aims at the preparation of teachers of shop work for the junior and senior high schools. The curriculum contains a wide range of industrial courses such as woodwork, metalwork, electricity, drawing, furniture making, architectural drawing, etc.

The College of Education traces its beginning from a normal school opened in Fajardo in 1900. This normal school was transferred the following year to Rio Piedras and with other professional schools became the University of Puerto Rico on its founding in 1903. The first summer workshop devoted to teacher preparation in industrial 133 education was held on the University of Puerto Rico campus in 1911. Although the current program was begun in 1934, early training was conducted under the supervision of

Herman Hjordth in 1911.

Under the direction of Dr. Jaime Benitez, Chancellor of the university of Puerto Rico, a large industrial arts schools was established as an integral part of the univer­ sity in 1948. Since that time the physical plant has been transferred to the division of Vocational Education, in the

Department of Public instruction, and forms the basis for the Miguel Such Vocational School, one of the largest in the united States.

Professor Jose Conde Marin, Chairman of the Depart­ ment of Industrial Education, administers a program that not only prepares industrial arts, but also trade and industrial education teachers. The faculty of the depart­ ment is as follows (8 1,5 2-5 6):

Jose Conde Marin, Chairman M.A., New York University

Diego Conde Marin, Instructor B.A. in Education, University of Puerto Rico Juan Cruz Jimenez, Assistant Professor M.A., New York University

Rafael Echandi Estrella, Instructor B.S. in Industrial Education University of Puerto RJ.co 134 Carmen Gonzales de Iturregui, Assistant professor B.S., university of Puerto Rico

Rafael J. Hernandez Romero, Assistant professor B.S. in Architecture, Syracuse University

Antonio P. de Jesus, Assistant professor B.S., Uhiversity of Puerto Rico

Juan Kalil, Assistant Professor B.S. in Industrial Education University of Puerto Rico

Miguel A. Rodriguez Colon, Instructor B.A., University of Puerto Rico

Nino Sparacino, Lecturer

A total of forty-five courses with a gross of 120 credits are listed as active offerings for industrial arts teacher preparation. Twenty-one of the courses have been offered intermittently and with limited enrollments during the past five years (18) (See page 135 for UNIVERSITY OF

PUERTO RICO CURRICULUM) The prescribed minimum requirements for permanent appointment as an industrial arts teacher are as follows:

1. Twelve credits in professional education a. Methods 3 credits b. Curriculum 3 credits c. Educational Psychology 6 credits

2. Twenty-four shop credits

3. Twenty credits in electives

A certificate is issued after completion of two years experience in teaching industrial arts. 135 The curriculum for a concentration in industrial arts is as follows:

UNIVERSITY OP PUERTO RICO CURRICULUM (Concentration in Industrial Arts) Course Credits FIRST YEAR Spanish 6 English 6 Physical Science 6 Social Science 6 Humanities 6 30 SECOND YEAR Humanities 6 Educational sociology 3 Educational Psychology 6 Secondary Education 6 Furniture Making 4 Mechanical Drawing 4 Metals 4 33 THIRD YEAR Biological science 6 English Composition and Grammar 6 Advanced Spanish 6 Sociological Problems in Puerto Rico 3 Adolescent Education 3 industrial Arts Methods 3 Industrial Arts Curriculum 3 Graphic Arts 3 Electricity — I 36 FOURTH YEAR History and Philosophy of Education 4 Finishes 3 Crafts Laboratory of Industry I Furniture Making 4 Construction 3 Practice Teaching 5 Applied Design 2 Electives - 5 . 33 Total credits required 132 University of Puerto Rico, Bulletin of Information: 136

The methods course Is scheduled during the third year. When an industrial arts student leaves after only two years of study, he starts teaching without adequate concepts of teaching. The same situation exists in the case of electricity which is scheduled for the third year. The program consists of four areas: wood, drawing, metal and electricity. However, teachers get their training in wood, drawing and metal during the sophomore year.

The majority of education courses are taken as elec­ tives. These include Adolescent Psychology, philosophy of

Education, Secondary Education, Audio-Visual Education,

Safety Education and History of Education.

Derivation of Philosophies. The evolution of objec­ tives in industrial arts education has like many other areas developed through modifications of theories and prac­ tices. These came through interaction between personnel employed by chance as well as predetermined employment pat­ terns within communities or population areas. Lindbeck

(45) found in recent research that the claims for industrial arts at best were only calculated guesses or working hypotheses.

Some of the hypotheses in Puerto Rico have become standard operating procedures. The nature of its geography and its educational lines of communication have been responsible for an industrial arts program almost devoid of 137 auxiliary viewpoints. Most of the teachers have received their baccalaureate training at the University of Puerto

Rico or from supervisors. The graduate training in indus­ trial education received by the supervisory, administra­ tive, and collegiate personnel has followed the same pattern.

Historically, Mr. Hjordth represented the sloyd influence. This may be seen in the introduction of sloyd models as early as 1902, and in the importance attached to wood carving and the cottage industries. Later, as more

Puerto Ricans emigrated to New York City, the influence of both Columbia and New York University became and remains very dominant. The fact that Governor Munoz spent many years in New York City has undoubtedly strengthened these i ties.

The influence of the late Dr. Robert Thompson, of

New York University, can be noted. However, it is not neces sarily the purpose of this dissertation to evaluate these influences but to record their presence.

Vega-Brau in his thesis of 19^8 (118) carried out research on teaching objectives. He found that less than one-fourth, or 18 percent of the instructors returning his questionnaire claimed that the industrial arts program provided exploratory experiences. Vocational training was claimed by 16 percent, while only 3 percent recognized 138 guidance as an objective. Only four instructors out of 278 stated that they made provisions for aiding in the develop­ ment of consumer appreciations and literacy. Vega-Brau said (118,78):

Industrial arts teachers in Puerto Rico tend to be confused about the objectives of the work they are doing. The data show that instructors placed emphasis on skill, probably to the exclu­ sion of other values.

No provision was made for detailed research in this phase of the dissertation, however, the returns on an evaluation of work accomplished in industrial arts in junior high school organizations (Evaluacion De La Labor

Realizada En Artes industriales En Las Escueles Intermedias

Organizadas) were made available. The intent of this research of the Department of Public instruction was to develop more realistic time scheduling. However, Part I, consisting of 31 questions bearing on teaching objectives was used to determine significant changes that might have occurred in teaching objectives during the period 19^8-58,

Part I was completed cooperatively by the principal and the teacher, and had the following alternate answers:

All, the majority, some, and none.

Other parts of the evaluation were devoted to pro­ fessional and experience backgrounds, scheduling factors, and instructional areas. The material has never been completely classified and interpreted, due to changes made 139 in administrative personnel and the importance attached to outcomes.

The objectivity of the answers would be difficult to ascertain, and, unfortunately, all of the items are stated to elicit positive answers. A total of 27 schools took part in the evaluation. Seventy teachers responded on the questionnaire. No attempt was made to use the other parts of the evaluation.

To interpret the answers given to Part I it was necessary that the 31 questions be grouped. Table 12 serves to compare objectives held for industrial arts, Page 140, with the results of the Lindbeck and Olson researches.

With these categories the answers to the questions were, classified.

Certain assumptions were made in interpreting the questions:

1. An imbalance toward positive (all, majority) answers implies an acceptance of the objective.

2. An imbalance toward negative (some, none) answers implies a rejection of the objective.

3. An even spread of answers implies a lack of com­ prehension of the objective or misunderstanding.

For the Consumer Function, questions 2, 7, 20, and

22 all show a trend toward the negative.

The Technical Function can be subdivided into related or integrated information and manipulative skills. Questions TABLE 12

ANALYSIS OP FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

Lindbeck Research Olson Research Puerto Rico Objectives

A Consumer Education Consumer Function 8. Teach the student to be a good consumer. B Industrial knowledge Technical Function 5_. Provide instruction for future Manipulative Skills vocation. Learning, through 9. Provide knowledge related to Manipulation the products and processes cf industry.

C Leisure activity Recreational Function 6. Develop the worthwhile use of leisure time.

D Desirable Habits Social Function 2. Develop desirable social habits 7. Provide experiences that will improve the conditions in the school, the home and community. E Creativity 3. Explore interests, capacities and abilities that stimulate creative expression in industrial arts. otrt TABLE 12 (CONTINUED)

Lindbeck Research Olson Research Puerto Rico Objectives

F Guidance Occupational Function 4. Give orientation in the selec­ tion of a trade or occupatinn, 10. Train the student in some aspect of Industrial arts as a means to earn a living.

G Cultural Function .1. Contribute to the general education of the student, as an integral part of living in an indsutrial era. 141 142

10, 18, 2 3 , 2 7, and 28 all fall Into the related informa­ tion sub-heading and all consistently show a negative imbalance. The remaining questions indicate positive reactions in slightly varying degrees.

A strong imbalance toward the negative is indicated for the recreational function.

With the exception of Question 19, that might be listed as related or integrated, all of the questions revealed positive Imbalance in the case of the social func­ tion. Question 19 shows negative reactions.

A negative imbalance is indicated for Creativity.

Although there seems to be a misunderstanding of the orientational value of industrial arts in Question 8, there is an imbalance in Questions 30 and 31 for the Occupational Function.

Question 21 indicates negative imbalance for the

Cultural Function while 29 indicates positive imbalance.

Question 29 touches on the problem of bilingualism.

Summing up and comparing these data with Vega-Brau's work in 1948, the Consumer Function remains unaccepted.

The Technical Function, but not the corollary of integration, is accepted. This follows the trend found in 1948. How­ ever, the rejection of the corollary runs counter to the ninth Puerto Rican Objective. The Recreational Function does not appear to be implemented. A Social Function is accepted and observation reinforces this position. The

individual worth and dignity of man is expressed and with

it respect for authority and democratic government.

Creativity is neither accepted nor comprehended. The

Occupational Function is accepted. This has increased in

strength since 1948. The Cultural Function appears not to be understood.

There is an increase in the acceptance of stated

objectives, however, the rejection of the recreational, con­

sumer, and cultural functions and the hypothesis of crea­

tivity seems particularly significant. Vega-Brau's remarks

noted on page 138 could be repeated in describing present

conditions.

During the past ten years, 1948-48, the enrollment

in industrial arts has more than doubled, and the number of

instructors has increased by over 50 percent. The enroll­ ment in industrial arts has increased by 133 percent in

junior high schools while the industrial arts enrollment of

senior high school has a little more than doubled. Over a half million dollars in equipment and supplies has been purchased for industrial arts during this period. The framework of the industrial arts program is ade­ quately developed. The objectives, courses of study, and administrative details are concretely described. The staff­

ing of the laboratories because of greater financial 144

Incentives outside have caused excessive turnover. There is a need for more research in this aspect of teacher education.

More study is also indicated for the area of physical plant— layout, equipment, supplies, requisitioning,and related details. In-service training toward comprehension and achievement of teaching objectives is of prime impor­ tance.

Regardless of these problems, progress on the island is, to quote Governor Munoz, a dynamic contribution in

American Federalism. The school system is responding to such a vision of pioneering, which is an echo of statements credited earlier to Hansen and his references to Frederick

Jackson Turner's frontier thesis and Arnold Toynbee's proposition of rapprochement.

The Department of Public Instruction is implementing a way of life by coming to grips with the problems inci­ dental to industrialization. The purpose behind education is recognizing the citizen as both producer and consumer, and the curricula are keyed to economic efficiency.

Judging the purpose of industrial arts education in

Puerto Rico, one may conclude from this survey that a significant contribution is being made to the economy and culture of the island by industrial arts education. CHAPTER V I

SURVEY OP INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN PUERTO RICO

Part 2

Trade and Industrial Education

Trade and industrial education in Puerto Rico devel­ oped from earlier manual training programs. Almost every town supported a manual training department by 1930 (74,22).

Most programs consisted of woodwork and mechanical drawing, however, the Roman Baldorioty de Castro School in San Juan offered these in addition to printing, plumbing, machine shop, and electricity.

A vocational school of arts and trades was organized at the University of Puerto Rico early in 1930, and offered day unit trade courses in automechanics, electricity, machine shop, cabinet making, power sewing-machine opera­ tion, and industrial needlework. The Smith-Hughes law was amended in 1931 to extend federal benefits to Puerto Rico.

The Dr. J. Gomez Broso Vocational School was organized in 1932 as a vocational trade school in the old quarters of the Roman Baldorioty de Castro Technical School. Simultan- eiously an evening trade extension program with special emphases on building trades was organized. 145 146

Subsequent studies made during this period indicated

a need for a program for the needle trades, trade training

programs for smaller cities, and a complete program of

trade extension. Enrollments in trade and industrial

education during the years 1932 to 1948 totaled 3 6 ,3 1 2 (74).

Dr. J. C. Weight and Mr. L. C. Hawkins of the United

States Office of Education made a survey of trade and indus­

trial education in 1947. Their recommendations gave direc­

tion and added emphasis to the building program, curricular

offerings, and cooperation with PRIDCO (57,459).

The outstanding event of 1947-48 was the opening of

seven vocational schools for the training of veterans.

Pour vocational schools had been constructed in Aguadilla,

Fajardo, Cayey, and Utuado. These were completed in

January, 1948. The active enrollment in March, 1948 was

1563 veterans. The total enrollment in all programs was

3,377. The appropriation for the regular program of trade

and industrial education in 1947-48 was $188,779,20, and

combined with an appropriation of 604,900 for the veterans

training program totaled $7 9 3,6 7 9.2 0 .

The Legislature of Puerto Rico between the years 1944

and 1950 made appropriations of $2 ,6 8 3 ,5 0 0 for the construc­

tion of vocational school buildings and $5 0 7 ,5 0 0 for the purchase of equipment. These buildings were constructed

large enough to accommodate 1 ,0 0 0 students each (74,30). 147

Program Descriptions. The trade and industrial edu­ cation program in Puerto Rico may be classified as follows:

1. Evening trade extension classes.

2. General continuation classes, types A and B.

3. Trade preparatory classes, types A, B, and C.

4. Accelerated industrial training classes.

5. Point pour programs.

6. Technical training programs (70,108-119) (76,7-9)

(77,1). Trade extension classes are organized as short-unit courses and include manipulative and technical instruction as well as safety, first aid, state and federal labor laws, and socio-economic problems. Classes are organized both for the evening hours and part-time during the usual work­ ing hours of trade and industrial occupations. Some part- time extension classes are of a cooperative type, with students alternating between work and school.

General continuation classes include training for out-of-school youth as well as diversified occupations for day students.

Trade preparatory classes are organized for both full and part-time students.

The accelerated industrial training program is in accordance with the present government policy of fostering the rapid industrialization of the Commonwealth and is not 148 subsidized by the federal government. The main objective is to train personnel in specific operations involved in different manufacturing processes throughout short, inten­ sive courses. These courses are planned in accordance with recommendations of industrial managers.

Courses offered under this program are scheduled in accordance with the requirements of the community. The academic preparation and age requirements for admission to these courses vary according to type, duration, and objec­ tives of the work. The training is free.

The company pays the instructor for his services, and, upon completion of the training period, the Vocational

Division reimburses the company for the total compensation paid to the instructor.

The United States Department of State designated all vocational schools in Puerto Rico as training centers for

Point Four students from many foreign countries including the English, Dutch, and French possessions of the Caribbean area, participants are selected on the basis of regional needs, within the framework of the Foreign Operations

Administration technical co-operation program.

Participants in the program comprise two categories of personnels

1. Junior participants, age 17 to 22, enroll as

students in vocational schools for periods of six months to one year. 149 2. Senior participants come to Puerto Rico

generally for shorter periods of time, for

observation and in-service training with

specialized instruction in fields of interest.

The program is intended generally to develop addi­

tional skills in the Caribbean area in teaching techniques

and in the dissemination of information for middle-level

craftsmen with a potential for supervisors, trade school

teachers, and to develop skills in specific trades.

The training is intended to supplement and strengthen

the technical resources of the Caribbean area in those

fields which contribute to increase industrial productivity,

expanded trade, and produce a greater agricultural output.

Point Pour students who complete their formal train­

ing before the time allotted, are sent to local industries

where they gain experience in the application of their

newly acquired skills and in the use of certain tools and machinery which the school does not provide.

The technical training program consists of courses for aviation mechanics, tool and die making, and television.

Candidates are carefully selected on the basis of ability,

interest, and experience. 150

The trade and industrial education program may be further described by listing the occupational classifica­ tions that are offered. These are:

1. Advanced Structural Design 2. Aircraft and Engine Mechanics (Technical Training) 3. Autobody Repair and Painting 4. Auto Mechanics 5. Baking 6. Barbering 7. Carpentry and Woodworking 8. Commercial Art 9. Cosmetology 10. Diesel Mechanics 11. Drafting 12. Dressmaking 13. Electric Wiring and Electric Motors 14. Furniture Making 15. Furniture Upholstery 16. Machine Shop 17. Masonry and Bricklaying 18. Ornamental iron Work 19. Plumbing and Pipe Fitting 20. Power Sewing Machine Operation 21. Practical Nursing 22. Printing 2 3 . Radio-Television 24. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 2 5. Television Maintenance and Repair Service 2 6. Tool and Die Making 2 7. watch Repairing (76,17-30)

Location of Programs. The trade and industrial edu­ cation programs described in the previous section are offered in five vocational high schools at; Arecibo, caguas,

Mayaguez, Ponce, and Rio Piedras, and in seven senior high schools with vocational trade and industrial departments at: Aguadilla, cayey, Fajardo, Guayama, Humacao, Utudado, and Vieques.

Courses in auto mechnics, carpentry and woodworking, dressmaking, electric wiring and motors, and power sewing 151 machine are found in all twelve schools. Next in order of

frequency are furniture making and plumbing and pipe fit­

ting, which are taught in all but the school on Vieques

Island and in Utuado.

Autobody repair and painting, construction drafting,

radio-television, and refrigeration and air conditioning

are next in frequency, and only the Miguel Such Metropoli­

tan school in Pio Piedras offers the entire listing of courses. The schools in Mayaguez and Ponce offer all except aircraft and engines, printing, bakery, tool and die making, and watch repair.

Enrollments. Trade preparatory courses with the

largest enrollments in 195 8-59 were power sewing machines, electric wiring and motors, auto mechanics, dressmaking, furniture making, and plumbing and pipe fitting. Total enrollment in trade preparatory classes during the first semester of 1958-59 was 6800 students. This number was almost double the total trade and industrial enrollments for the period 1932 to 1948.

The total enrollment for trade and industrial offer­ ings leveled-off in 19 5 5 “56 and has stabilized at about

22,000 students. Enrollments doubled each year during the first four years of Operation Bootstrap, 1947 to 1950, and continued to gradually increase during the years 1951 to

1955. 152

TABLE 13

ENROLLMENT IN DAY TRADE PROGRAM - NOVEMBER 30, 1956

Trades Type A Type B Type C Totals

1. Aircraft & Engin Mach. 60* 60 2. Autobody Repair & Paint. 227 19 246 3. Auto Mechanics 593 34 627 4. Bakery and Pastry 32 14 46 5. Barbering 22 22 p. Bricklaying & Masonry 217 56 273 7. carpentry-Bricklaying 27 17 44 8. Carpentry & Woodworking 335 47 382 9. Commercial Art & Design 32 12 44 10. Construction Drafting 237 69 306 1 1 . Cosmetology 134 30 164 12, Diesel Mechanics 193 20 213 13. Dressmaking 578 46 624 14. Dressmaking-Power Sewing 20 15 35 15. Electric Wiring & Electric Motors 635 39 674 16. Furniture Making 491 28 519 17. Furniture Upholstery 42 8 50 18. Machine Shop 233 24 257 19. Ornamental Iron Works 124 16 140 20. Plumbing & Pipe Fitting 466 40 506 21. Power Sewing Machines 718 21 739 22. Printing 115 96 211 23. Radio-Television 286 17 303 24. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 222 30 252 2 5. Tool and Die Making 2 6* 26 26. Watch and Clock Repairing 30 7 37

Totals 86* 5,987 727 6,800

^Technical training. T & I Section Data. TABLE 14

TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL ENROLLMENT - 1948-1958

Trade & industry 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58

Day Trade 1,093 1,141 1,411 2,214 3,688 6,072 5,996 6,775 6,787 7,027

Diversified Occupations 364 384 434 476 514 866 912 909 910 885

Accelerated Training 572 1,045 4,808 7,596 8,742 9,933 7,522 10,288 8 ,2 5 0 8,549

Veterans 1,817 3,146 4,560 1,904 1,077 2,747 4,013 5,078 5,219 5,617

Total 3,846 5,716 11,213 1 2 ,1 9 0 14,021 19,618 18,443 23,050 2 1 ,1 6 6 22,078

T. & I. Section Data

M VJ1 u> 154

The current enrollment Is approximately 1 percent of the total population of Puerto Rico, 22 percent of those employed In the manufacturing industries, and a little more than 4 percent of total private employment. The latest available figures for the United States indicate that only

0 .6 percent of the total population is enrolled in some phase of trade and industrial education (1 1 1 ).

Participation in the Point pour program has been primarily by people from the Latin American countries and the Caribbean Area. However, there is representation from all parts of the world, and the Par East countries almost equal the Caribbean Area in the number of participants.

TABLE 15

POINT POUR PARTICIPANTS - 1950-1958

International Areas participants

Latin America - 20 countries 2,777 Caribbean Area - 23 Island Communities 832 Africa - 24 countries 170 Near East - 8 countries 134 Southeast Asia - 4 countries 149 par East - 17 countries 780 Europe - 13 countries 108 Canada 6 Virgin Islands 11 United States 454

112 countries 5,344

T. and I. Section Data. 155

Teaching Staff. A minimum of three years of journey­ man trade experience is required of all trade and indus­ trial instructors, with the exception of the diversified occupational teachers who must have two years of occupa­ tional experience.

Professional training minimums are listed as 225 clock hours in approved vocational education courses to be taken within three years of initial employment. School

Directors are required to take 270 clock hours of prepara­ tion, Assistant Supervisors 315 clock hours, and Supervisors and Teacher Trainers 450 clock hours.

A resume of staff personnel shows:

Trade and Industrial Teachers 151 Academic Teachers 142 Coordinators 20 Supervisors 19 Assistant Directors 14 Directors 12 Counselors 12 Registrars 5 Accelerated Class Teachers 5 Librarians 1

Trade teachers' salaries in Puerto Rico are based on

$200 per month. Special teachers receive a higher basic salary because of the highly technical character of the trade and competition from private industry. These teachers are from the following trades:

Aircraft and Engine Mechanics $500 month Commercial Art and Design 400 month Television 400 month Tool and Die Making 400 month Watch and Clock Repair 250 month 156

An increment of $5 per month per year of teaching experience up to a maximum of $60 a month is allowed.

Other salary increments for preparation, completion of cer­ tification requirements, and teaching experience may be seen in Table 16. The increments increase each year until

1 96 1-6 2. Physical Plant. The buildings are generally one story, "factory-type,” fireproof construction with ample room. This is illustrated by Figure 27, which shows the vocational school at Cayey.

The major construction program was conducted during the years 1944 to 1950. At that time over three million dollars was expended for buildings and equipment. These expenditures have been followed by a planned program for the purchase of new and the replacement of obsolete equip­ ment as well as materials and parts. During the past five years, 1954-58, $6 5 0 ,0 0 0 has been budgeted for equipment and $746,000 for materials and parts.

A satisfactory inventory of equipment was unattain­ able, A system of purchase order numbers was inaugurated in

1954, but this does not indicate the location or condition of the equipment. No insurance is carried on buildings or equipment.

Job Placements. One important criterion for evalu­ ating trade and industrial programs is the job placement and employment records of the trainees. Two studies TABLE 16

TRADE TEACHER SALARY INCREMENTS - PREPARATION

Preparation 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1 96 0-61 1 96 1-62

Completion of certifica­ tion requirements $10 $10 $10 $10 $10 $10

Bachelor's Degree 25 30 35 40 45 50

Master's Degree 55 60 65 70 75 80

Doctor's Degree 85 90 95 100 105 110

Additional $10 compensation of certification requirements applies only to trade teachers and diversified occupations coordinators (T. and I Section Data). 157 158

FIGURE 26 VOCATIONAL SCHOOL

Cayey 159 concerning job placements were available: day trade grad­ uates for the years 1954-57, and a pilot study of the accelerated training program.

Type B day trade schbols have been graduating stu­ dents since 1954. A study of job placements was made for the years 1954 to 1 9 5 7. The number of graduates during these years is as follows:

Year Graduates

1954 136 1955 782 1956 934 1957 ...Jga Total 2,803

•"The schools reported on 2,701 graduates or 96.4 per­ cent of the total for the period.

There are no comparable data with which to evaluate the placement record seen in Table 16. The rapid expansion of the economy and its effects on the labor pool prevent comparison with other parts of the United States. However, the data indicate a favorable placement record. Over 77 percent were employed or in school and about 6 percent unemployed. The record of unemployed graduates is less than half of that for the island (see page 62).

Interesting, significant but diverse observations could be made of the data found in Table 17 by educators in differing areas of the United States. The high percentage of placement in the ornamental iron work trades is perhaps 160 TABLE 17

STATUS OP GRADUATES OF THE TYPE B VOCATIONAL TRADE TRAINING PROGRAM 1954-57

Number of Percentage Status students of total

Employed in trade trained 1,175 43.50 Employed in related occupation 111 4.11

Employed in unrelated occupation 287 14,22 61.94

Inducted in Armed Forces 244 9 .0 3

Continued study elsewhere 197 7 .2 9 16.32

Unable to work, illness 8 ,30

Not working, marriage 44 1 .6 3

Deceased 2 .08 2.01

Unemployed 157 5.81

No information 376 . 1.2,22 TOTAL 100.00

T. and I. Section Data 3.61

confusing because this is the major area for training in

welding, and probably the placement reflects this occupation

rather than the other.

The data in Table 17 compared with that found in

Table 18, shows no significant correlation between place­ ments and average hourly salaries.

Accelerated training was studied in a pilot study made of placement and follow-up of workers who were trained

in the Cayey area during the period from August 17, 1953 to

June 25, 1957. The placement record of 482 students was as

follows s 31 dropped out of the program, leaving 451 avail­

able for work. Of this number 310 worked in the factories

in the immediate area. Another 16 worked on piece work in

their homes. Of the total available to work, 125 were

classified as unemployed due to low production, family problems, migration to the continent, health or other

reasons.

A summary of the study shows:

1. Of the personnel trained under this program 72 percent are working in the occupation for which they were trained.

2. Of the trained personnel 7 percent are working in similar occupations in other factories of the area where no organized training programs were established. 162

TABLE 18 PERCENTAGE OP PLACEMENT BY TRADES 1953-54 TO 1956-57

Trades Percentage 1. Ornamental Iron W o r k ...... 90.0

2. Furniture Upholstery ...... 85.7 3. Commercial Art and D e s i g n ...... 78.6

4. Plumbing and Pipe F i t t i n g ...... 77.2

5. Machine S h o p ...... 70.6

6. Bakery and P a s t r y ...... 6 9 .2

7. Cosmetology ...... 6 9.0

8. Dressmaking ...... 6 5 .2

9. Printing...... 6 5.0

10. Autobody Repair and Painting ...... 64.2

11. Power Sewing Machine Operation ...... 61.9

12. Diesel Mechanics ...... 6 9 .0

13. Electricity ...... 5 7 .8

14. Refrigeration Mechanics and Air Conditioning . 5 6.0

15. Masonry and Bricklaying...... 56.0

16. Furniture Making ...... 53.3

17. Construction D r a f t i n g ...... 47.8

18. Auto Mechanics...... 42.9

19. Carpentry and Woodworking ...... 42.0

20. Watch and Clock Repairing ...... 40.0

21. Radio-Television ...... 38.7

T. and I. Section Data. 163 TABLE 19

AVERAGE HOURLY SALARIES OF GRADUATES BY TRADES 1953-54 TO 1956-57

Number Highest Lowest Average of Hourly Hourly Hourly Trade 1Cases Salary Salary Salary

1. Masonry and Bricklaying 17 1.50 .75 1.03 2. Commercial Art & Design 10 1 .2 0 .50 .99 3. Construction Drafting 50 1.50 .6 1 .95 4. Machine Shop 49 1.50 .50 .94 5. carpentry & woodworking 32 2 .5 0 .40 .90 6. Ornamental Iron Work 25 1.63 .6 0 .89 7. Plumbing & Pipe Fitting 110 1.50 .50 .8 8 8. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 44 1.25 .6 2 .82 9. Diesel Mechanics 36 1 .1 0 .50 .81 10. Radio-Television 1 .5 0 .38 .80 11. Electricity 68 2 .0 0 .40 .79 12. Power Sewing Machine 150 1 .2 5 .35 .73 13. Auto Mechanics 100 1 .6 2 .20 .70 14. Autobody Repair 23 1 .6 3 .43 .70 1 5. Cosmetology 14 .87 .40 .68 16. Dressmaking 89 1.75 .20 .68 17. Printing 24 1.50 . .45 .6 7 18. Watch and Clock Repair 6 .85 .50 .6 5 19. Furniture Making 67 -.90 .40 .64 20. Bakery and Pastry 7 .70 .55 .60 21. Furniture Upholstery 5 .75 .50 .60

T. and I. Section Data.

3. Of the trained personnel that left the area 2.4 percent migrated to the United States.

4. At present, 51 percent of the students trained in power sewing machine operation are working in this occupa­ tion.

5. Of the trainees working at present 22 percent changed from the factory where they were trained. 6. Twenty percent of the trainees changed the occu­

pation in which they were trained.

7. Two and two tenths percent of the trainees were

promoted in their jobs.

8. Sixty-six and 8 tenths percent of the trainees

are between 18 and 24 years of age.

9. Fifty percent of the trainees have a school preparation above the 9th grade.

10. Of the employed trainees dropped due to low pro­

duction 70 percent have a school preparation below the 7th grade.

Student Drop-outs. Student drop-outs have been

analyzed by Sra. Zenaida carrion de Bonilla, General Super­

visor of the Vocational Guidance Section, Vocational

Education Division, in nine Type B vocational schools for

the period 1951-1954 (13).

The purpose of the study was to determine the number

and causes of drop-outs, and to assist in making adjustments

(13,2). The vocational school populations of Fajardo,

Humacao, and utuado were studied.

Enrollments in trade and industrial, commercial and general courses in three schools were examined over the period 1951 to 1954, and the gross number of drop-outs were listed. About 45 percent of the sophomore class of 1951-52 in trade and industrial education graduated in 1954. In 165 commercial courses this same percentage occurred, in gen­ eral courses 53 percent, and in all high schools in Puerto

Rico 56 percent.

Greatest number of drop-outs occurred between the

10th and 11th grades, 25 percent, in all three categories.

A like number dropped-out between the junior and senior years, 20-25 percent. The data for all high schools paralleled the specific course figures- (13,4-6).

The reasons given for dropping out in order of fre­ quency were found to be (1 3 ,6 ):

1. Emigration to the United States

2. Joining the Armed Forces k

3. Economic

4. Migration

5. Illness

6. Matrimony

7. Work in other occupations

Later, another study was made in six other schools, and Table 19 lists the findings.

The averages for these six schools were: 37 percent between the 10th to 11th grades and 17 percent between 11th and 12th grades. These are considerably higher figures and may be accountable by the inclusion of the larger cities of San Juan (Metropolitan), Mayaguez, and Ponce. 166 TABLE 20

ENROLLMENT IN TRADE COURSES OP SIX HIGH SCHOOLS

1952-53 1953-54 195 4-5 5 Drop- Percent of City 10 11 12 Outs Drop-outs

1. Aguadilla 95 65 39 56 59 2. Arecibo 221 138 104 117 53 3 . Cayey 123 82 53 70 57 4. Mayaguez 271 166 114 157 58 5. Ponce 263 143 94 169 64 6 . Metropolitan 512 338 269 243 47

Totals 1,485 932 673 812 Av. 55 Zenalda Carrion de Bonulla, Mortalidad En Los cursos De Oflcios (Tlpo B) En Nueve Escuelas Superlores - Anos 1951-52 A 1953-54. :

The major reason for leaving school, emigration to the mainland, closely parallels the peak period of emigra­ tion (see page 62). Economic needs, the next most preva­ lent reason, may be associated with the expanding economy.

In both instances, the conditions affecting student drop­ outs and the basic problems of retention would seem to be quite fluid and in need of further and almost constant attention.

Again, the major reasons for dropping out were

(13*8):

1. Emigration to the United States

2. Economic

3. Going to work in other occupations 167 Teacher Preparation. Trade and industrial teacher preparation is composed of two phases: pre-service at the

University of Puerto Rico, and special courses organized by the Board for Vocational Education. Enrollment is limited to persons who have trade experience or who are acquiring i such experience and will meet trade requirements as they complete professional courses in trade and industrial education (7 1,1 2 0 ).

The undergraduate curriculum at the University of

Puerto Rico is similar to that required for industrial arts.

No shop work is required, but eleven courses totaling 35 credits in industrial education are offered, bringing the total to 132 credits. These are:

1. Methods

2. Principles and Practices

3. The Curriculum

4. Shop Organization and Management

5. Tests and Measurements

6. Labor Problems

7. Applied Art and Design

8. Applied Mathematics

9. Applied Science

10. Coordinationof Vocational Education

11. Observation and P£$ctic$ Teaching 168

In-service teacher training is conducted by person­ nel attached to the central office. These courses are organized as the need arises.

Administration. The organization of the Trade and

Industrial Section is similar to that found in the Indus­ trial Arts Section. The section is headed by a chief supervisor and consists of general supervisors and teacher trainers. Figure 27 shows the current personnel in the section and their responsibilities.

The salary structure in the central office conforms with that found throughout the Department of Public

Instruction. Table 21 includes not only the supervisory salary schedule but also that used for school directors.

Cost Per Unit of instruction. A study of per capita cost of instruction In the day trade courses for the school year 1956-57 was made by the Trade and industrial Section.

The following factors were considered:

Personal service $696,003.99 Travel expenses 10,000.00 Electricity, water supply, etc. 37,000.00 Communications 3,075.00 Materials, supplies and parts 142.800.00 Equipment 83,155.44 Transportation scholarships 59,993.18 Academic teachers 189.778.00 Vocational guidance 22,873.56 School lunchrooms 94,999.76 Administration Total $1,350,088.66

T. and I Section Data 169

FIGURE 27

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE IN THE TRADE ANDINDUSTRIAL SECTION

JESUS FIGUEROA CHIEF OF SECTION

REGULAR COURSES TECHNICAL COOPERATION

M. Vercher - Girl Programs R. Ortiz - School Programs J. E. Perez - Teacher A. Baez - On-the-Job- Trainer Training J. Dominguez - Boy Programs E. Arill ~ Boy Programs - Purchasing Vacancy PRACTICAL NURSING COURSES R. de Morales - Nursing

ACCELERATED TRAINING

A. Alicea - In-plant DIVERSIFIED OCCUPATIONS Training C. Lopez - In-plant Training C. Rodriguez - D. 0. J. Davila - Appren. - Sewing Programs Centers STUDIES AND STATISTICS

EXTENSION COURSES R. Iglesias - Studies J. Ramires - Apprentices and Fish. R. Sanchez - Extension

T. and I. Section Data. 170 TABLE 21

BASE MONTHLY SALARY FOR ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL

Directors:

Registrar $225 Director I 250 Director II 270 Director III 300 Director IV 350 Supervisors:

Supervisor I 300 Supervisor' II 325 Supervisor III 350 Supervisor TV 410

T. and I. Section Data.

Total enrollment in the day trade courses at the end of the school year was

Type A 104 Type B 5,664

Type C 1.019

6,787 students

The per capita cost was found to be $198.92. Since only students in the Type B program participated in academic subjects, a per capita cost was found separately for Type A and C students excluding expenditures for academic subjects.

The per capita costs were as follows:

Type B Programs $204.46

Type A and c Programs 170.99 171

Comparative statistics are available for the esti­ mated expenditure per pupil in average daily.attendance,

1 9 5 6 -5 7 (50,28). The range is from $462 in New York to

$150 in Arkansas, and the average is $300 for the United

States. Of 48 states reported, only South Carolina ($192),

Kentucky ($186), Alabama ($184), North Carolina ($181),

Tennessee ($168), Mississippi ($151), and Arkansas ($150), fall below the $198 per capita costs for trade and indus­ trial pupils in Puerto Rico.

Assuming that the average daily attendance was only

85 percent of the total 5,769 enrolled in Types A, B, and C courses, the expenditure per pupil in these classes would advance to $203. Although, this does not change any of the foregoing relative standings, it does present a more realistic value.

Other bases of comparison were used. Table 22 shows the rank order of twenty states according to total enroll­ ments in these programs. Other rankings are made for com­ ponent programs (111,42).

Commonwealth expenditures for trade and industrial education in Puerto Rico as reported to the United States

Office of Education (101-110) for the years 1948 through

1957 &re listed in Table 2 3 . These statistics do not show monies spent for the accelerated program. TABLE 22

RANK ORDER COMPARISONS FOR TWENTY SELECTED STATES 1956-1957

Evening Total Day Trade Trade Extension Apprentice State & Local States Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment Financial Efforts California 1 2 1 l 3 New York 2 1 2 2 1 Pennsylvania 3 3 7 8 4 Texas 4 8 3 12 17 Ohio 5 15.5 6 4 9 Michigan 6 9.5 8 3 5 Washington 7 15.5 5 11 ' 12 Florida 8 5 10 9 7 Georgia 9 - 4 - - Illinois 10 9.5 14.5 5 10 Massachusetts 11 4 16 15 2 Wisconsin 12 - 17 10 11 Colorado 13 19 9 - - Louisiana 14 9 13 18 13 Indiana 15 16.5 12 13 14 PUERTO RICO 16 6 20 6 23 New Jersey 17 12 14.5 14 6 Alabama 18 - 11 19 20 Minnesota 19 16.5 19 7 15 Connecticut 20 13.5 18 16 8 United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Digest of Annual Reports of State Board for Vocational Education Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1957. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1958. 172 173

TABLE 23 COMMONWEALTH EXPENDITURE FOR TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Year Amount 1948-49 $ 109,143.38 1949-50 104,132.99 1 9 5 0 -5 1 237,683.73 1951-52 269,366.03 1952-53 428,369.84 1953-54 419,723.06 1954-55 502,701.90 1955-56 575,909.38 1956-57 648,518.31 United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Digest of Annual Reports of State Board for Vocational Education Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1 9 4 8 and June 30, 1957. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1949 and 1958.

These expenditures have increased sixfold during this period and the total represents approximately $68 per student enrollment.

Determining changing Needs. No courses have been eliminated from the trade and industrial program for the past five years. Some courses have been transferred from one school to another to meet local needs.

Others have been consolidated because of lack of enrollments.. In a prepared statement the problems of coping with a highly fluid situation are discussed:

We have relied more on the following sources:

1. Advisory Committees:

a. General state level committee 174

b. Local school committees c . Craft committees

2. The Employment Service of the State Labor Department

3. Continuous contact with the Economic Development

Administration

4. Visits to industries by supervisors, local

directors and teachers

The weight of numbers reported on enrollments is very

impressive. A total of 36,312 students enrolled in trade

and industrial education courses during the first 16 years

of federal aid while 151,341 students have enrolled during

the past ten years. The program in 1957“58 has increased

sixfold, with the accelerated training program increasing

17 times that of 1948-49. Also, there are impressive data

supporting the Point IV Program, with 112 countries repre­

senting all parts of the free world and a total of 5,344 student participants.

The physical plant is quite adequate, however, as reported earlier, problems of inventory control and insur­

ance leave much to be desired.

The data available on job placement, although show­ ing a good record for accelerated training, indicates a limited correlation between current Type B enrollments and placements. The sample does not allow for final conclu­ sions. Much research work is needed. 175 More research is also indicated in the area of drop-outs in the Type B program. Again, the data are not sufficient to draw firm conclusions or recommendations.

However, the predominant cause of drop-outs, namely emi­ gration, should be considered in adjusting economic planning. CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This dissertation concerns the industrial education program of Puerto Rico and its contribution to the economic development of the Commonwealth during the years 1948-58.

A survey and critical analysis of available data and an activity analysis of the details of the organization and management of the program were made. These were classified and reported in earlier chapters. This chapter concerns an interpretation of these data. The first step in this interpretation is the summarization of significant data reported in preceding chapters.

Summary. Historical references found in Chapter II show that Puerto Rico was discovered by Christopher Colum­ bus in 1493 and colonized by Spain in 1508. Remaining loyal to the Spanish Crown up through the nineteenth century, the island was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris in 1898.

Citizenship In the United States was granted the population of the island in 19^7. The island was granted governmental autonomy in 1950, and the Commonwealth of

Puerto Rico was established in 1952.

176 177 The Commonwealth government is similar to state governments, and is represented in Congress by a resident commissioner, but without voting privileges. Because of this,federal customs and internal revenue taxes are col- 4' lected and retained in the Commonwealth treasury.

The Economic Development Administration of the Com­ monwealth, commonly known as Fomento, was created in 1950.

Its major objective is to translate the economy of the island from one crop agriculture (sugar) to a balance between farming and manufacturing. Industries wishing to move to or develop on the island were exempted, from federal corporation income taxes, property and business taxes, and municipal fees and excises. The goal was 50,000 new jobs added to the labor force between 1950 and i9 6 0.

The economic development of Puerto Rico and the pro­ ductivity of its labor force were considered to be functions of the amount and character of the educational standards set by the Commonwealth, as is reported in Chapter III. Great importance has been placed on education and particularly on industrial education. Almost 26 percent of the Common­ wealth budget dollar was spent on education by 1 9 5 7.

The Fomento program succeeded in holding unemploy­ ment to about 13 percent while providing over 40,000 new jobs. Factory employment expanded from 6 ,2 6 5 in 1950 to

34,672 in 1957. Indirect employment created by this activity was estimated to be 5,000 In 1957. These data, from Chapter III, indicate that industrial employment alone has almost achieved the goal set for i9 6 0.

The economy of Puerto Rico is steadily rising. The per capita income increased from $340 in 1950 to $443 in

1957j and in 1957-58 increased by another 5 percent. The potential economic growth when translated into employment and educational requirements, as shown in Table 5, indi­ cates that employment in manufacturing will increase from

67.000 jobs in 1955 to 136,000 in 1 9 6 5. The manufacturing labor force will reach 271,000 in 1975 and the number of senior high school graduates in 1975 is expected to be

100.000 below the needs of the economy.

The attention given to industrial education by the

Commonwealth is neither new nor unique. Chapter IV reports that educational philosophers, as early as the sixteenth century, were proposing social and economic regeneration through industrial education. Fichte in Germany in the early nineteenth century considered it important that the scholar have a general knowledge of the manual arts.

National rehabilitation in Germany following the Napoleonic

Wars was accomplished by educating a vast army of workers capable of developing the resources of that nation. Johann

Herbart, a contemporary of Fichte and a source of educa­ tional philosophy in the United States, pointed, out in his 179

Outlines of Educational Doctrine that the hand has a place of honor besides language in elevating mankind above the brute. Industrial arts in 1958 has evolved from the philoso phies of Fichte, Herbart, and the incidental movements of

Pestalozzi, Salomon, and others in the nineteenth century.

The work of Bennett, Richards, and Bonser at Teachers

College, Columbia University, developed industrial arts previous to World War I and gave it recognition as an integral part of general education.

Bonser expanded the concept of industrial arts to consider it as both a subject and a method, Warner at The

Ohio State University during the period 1 9 25-1 9 6 0, was responsible for the derivation of a doctrine for industrial arts based on human, economic, cultural, and professional postulates, Olson and other students of Warner developed, following world war II, an Industrial arts curriculum to reflect technology.

This was based on several functions: orientational, technical, recreational, and cultural. The Industrial divisions involved are; power, transportation, manufactur­ ing, construction, communication, management, and service.

Trade and industrial education was an outgrowth of the recognition in the United States, of a need for an educational plan to replace historic forms of trade 180 training. The Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 were early efforts to recognize and stimulate vocational education.

The Congressional efforts preceding World War I culminated in the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 which created a permanent expenditure for agriculture, home economics, and trade and industrial education. Subsequent acts continued to expand the funds available to the states on a matching basis. The George-Barden Act of 19^6 provided for an annual continuing authorization also for distributive education.

Trade and industrial education answers the need for an efficient labor force whose strength is based on skill and matters related to the work situation. The criteria for evaluating trade and industrial education are detailed in Chapter IV. The most important concern the occupations served, the instructor, the physical plant, and the place­ ment and work record of the students.

The effort to develop industrial education in

Puerto Rico were similar to examples in Europe and the

United States, and began in San Juan in 1886. These were discontinued in 1898, but resumed in 1902. Manual types of training developed in the island until by 1932 were found in almost every community. The division between industrial arts and trade and Industrial education came in 1932 when the Smith-Hughes Act was amended to include Puerto Rico. 181

Industrial arts continued to be administered as a part of general education until 1949 when it was placed under the direction of the Commonwealth Board for voca­ tional Education. The program description for industrial arts closely parallels the curricula based on the functions reported earlier, as shown in Table 12.

The total enrollment in industrial arts has doubled during the years 1948-1958. Considering the increase in total attendance in Junior and senior high schools, the junior high school program has had a net increase of about

33-1/3 percent, the high school program lost ground slightly, and the rural second unit program increased by

50 percent. These data are found in Chapter V,

The prevailing influence has been in general shop programs, with almost two-thirds of the industrial arts teachers instructing in three and four areas. Drawing and woodworking are the predominent areas with metal working and electricity next. The least emphasis is placed on graphic arts.

The industrial arts teacher is paid a salary that ranges between $130 and $245 per month for twelve months.

The mean salary of $195 per month, is below the beginning salary of $200 per month, paid trade and industrial teachers.

However, the average annual salary of $2,345 is about four times the average per capita income of the island. 182

The level of Industrial arts teacher preparation is

critical because 33 percent are teaching with less than the minimum requirements for certification. About 36 percent

have a minimum preparation and only 31 percent hold baccalaureate degrees.

The administration of education in Puerto Rico is

centralized in the Department of Public instruction, headed by Secretary Efrain Sanchez Hidalgo. The Industrial Arts

Section is headed by a Chief who delegates authority and responsibility through General Supervisors and Curriculum

Technicians. The major responsibilities of the section are curriculum studies,' in-service teacher preparation, physical plant problems including equipment and supplies, and direct supervision of teachers.

Over a half million dollars was budgeted to indus­ trial arts during the decade of 1948-58. This was used to purchase equipment, materials, and supplies. A survey of the physical plant, as reported in Chapter V, revealed that of 355 laboratories, 13 percent were in good condition,

44 percent in fair condition, and 43 percent in poor condi­ tion.

Budgetary allotments are being used to implement the immediate needs. A critical problem concerns basic long- range curriculum planning and the resulting needs of the physical plant. 183 Teacher preparation for industrial arts is centered at the University of Puerto Rico. Although the curriculum at the university is designed for a full four years of gtudy, many students leave school at the end of two years to teach industrial arts.

A comparison of teaching philosophies in 19^8 and

1958 is reported in chapter V. There is an increase in understanding, acceptance and implementation of the objec­ tives for industrial arts.

Trade and industrial education in Puerto Rico developed from earlier manual training programs and began receiving federal subsidies in 1932. The first major expansion in the program came in 19^7-48 with the construc­ tion of several vocational schools for the training of veterans of World War II. These programs may be classified as trade extension,- general continuation, trade prepara­ tory, accelerated industrial training, Point Four, and technical training programs. Trade extension classes serve for evening and day hours. The accelerated training program has as its objective the training of personnel in specific operations involved in different manufacturing processes through short intensive courses. Apprentice training is supervised by a separate board with the excep­ tion of related instruction. Participants in Point Four programs fall into two categories, junior, age 17 to 22, 184 and senior, older people who come for short periods for observation and for in-service training. The junior participants enroll in vocational schools offering trade preparatory curricula. The technical training program is limited to aviation mechanics, tool and die making, and television. The trade preparatory classes follow the same pattern as found on the mainland with the exception of a greater emphasis on dressmaking and power sewing machine operation and ornamental iron work.

Conclusions. The enrollments in industrial arts and trade and industrial education have reached plateaus but all projections of the factors affecting economic develop­ ment point toward a greatly increased need for high school graduates whose training has been influenced by these pro­ grams. Thus it may be concluded that a still greater emphasis should be placed on industrial education and further expansion of the programs.

A critical evaluation of the industrial education programs based on criteria developed in Chapter IV leads to the following statements:

1. INDUSTRIAL ARTS

a. Curriculum. Industrial arts has been form­ alized by the central office as reported in Chapter V.

Although the major objective is orientation, in accordance with the needs of the economic development of the island, 185 other important objectives such as technical competency, consumer literacy, recreation, and desirable social habits are evident. b. Professional Development. The curriculum at the

University of Puerto Rico compares favorably with those in mainland colleges.

The rapidly expanding economy has slphoned-off many industrial arts teachers and to replace these men partially trained personnel have been employed. This may be con­ cluded from data reported in Chapter IV. To meet this problem, a greater degree of articulation between the pre­ service and in-service .programs may be required.

The stabilization of industrial arts enrollments will influence the demand for industrial arts teachers.

Both collegiate and in-service programs will be affected by this stabilization. This will be replaced by rising enroll­ ments and will greatly increase the demand for teachers.

While other data and projections indicate a decline in birth rate and a retarded gross increase in population, the concerted drive for retention, reported in Chapter II, will vastly increase the demands placed on industrial education.

c. Physical Facilities. These are barely adequate for the prescribed curricula. Increased budgets and attention are implied. 186

d. Articulation. The total program is reasonably well articulated. This is evident through the basic organi­ zational structure under the Board for Vocational Education and the supervision of the vocational Director, as reported in Chapter V, but a need for increased attention to this factor is implied by the absence of any joint planning by the Department of Public Instruction and the university.

2. TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION a. Occupations Served. The data found in Chapter

VI concerning enrollments by trades, the placement of grad­ uates of trade preparatory programs, and average salaries by trades, indicate that the trade preparatory program is succeeding in meeting the needs of the economic community.

The accelerated program is attaining even greater success.

The close attention given to changing needs, reported in

Chapter VI, indicates the extent of the articulation exist­ ing between the Trade and Industrial Section and Fomento.

b. The Work Record. The rise in productivity in the island, reported in chapter ill, may be related directly to the trade and industrial education programs.

Over 85,000 persons were processed by trade and industrial education during this same period. With the expected ratio of 2:1, the trade and industrial program must prepare to train much larger numbers than at present. Using this rule of thumb, the increase in employment in 1 9 5 5-6 0, 3 6 ,0 0 0 in 187 manufacturing (chapter III) means the processing of 72,000 to 80,000 persons. Table 14 contains data that indicate that this number will have been enrolled in trade and industrial courses during the years 1955-1960.

Interpretation of the data in Table 5 indicates that present facilities should be able to handle the demands until 1970-7 5, when the expected up-surge will require more trained people than the present facilities will be able to handle.

Several alternate plans are implied from these data: general expansion of present facilities, a reliance on recruitment and return of some Puerto Ricans to the island, or the increased use of facilities during the period

1 9 5 9 -7 0to overcome the necessity of expanding the present physical plant,

c. The Instructional Staff. A high quality of instruction may be implied from the job placement and work experience data found in Chapter VI. The minimum require­ ment of only three years of journeyman trade experience as compared with five for the mainland appears to be one weak­ ness in this area. However, although not reported, it may be implied from the general industrial expansion that the lower standard has developed from a short supply of skilled tradesmen. The standards for professional training 188 may be considered to be equal to those found on the main­ land . The differential in salaries between industrial arts and other general education subjects, and trade and industrial education has attracted personnel to this field of education. The added salary increments offered for teachers of highly technical subjects, reported in Chapter

VI, further implies the importance attached by the Common­ wealth to industrial education.

d. Physical Facilities. These appear to be ade­ quate, as seen from information contained in Chapter VI and reviewed earlier in this chapter. However, the absence of adequate inventory controls and the articulation of over­ all planning with the Industrial Arts Section, implies the necessity of greater attention being focused on this problem.

A general summation of the total Industrial education program found in Puerto Rico may be characterized by this statement; "Developed from sound philosophical bases and keyed (to a rapidly expanding economy, industrial arts and trade and industrial education have participated in and contributed to the industrialization of Puerto Rico, and together they have implemented human resources to the success of the economy of this State." 189 Recommendations. These are Intended to be of assistance to the Improvement of well established, func­ tioning organizations. However, all social structures when • viewed objectively may be seen to contain certain elements that when corrected lead to improved operations.

1. INDUSTRIAL ARTS. It is recommended that*

a. Pilot model laboratories should be developed in each of the several Districts. Staffed by superior teachers, these facilities would serve as centers for curriculum development, stations for preservice student teaching, and work-shops for in-service teacher preparation.

b. Greater articulation in teacher preparation by increased laison between the University of Puerto Rico and the Industrial Arts Section through periodic profes­ sional workshops should be conducted.

c. Improved articulation with the Trade and

Industrial Section should be implemented through a planning committee made up of representatives of industrial arts, trade and industrial education, Fomento, and school admin­ istrators.

d. Financial incentives similar to those employed by trade and industrial education should be used to insure an adequate staff. 190

2. TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. It is recommended that j

a. Follow-up studies be made of job placements and work records. These should be employed in making long-range plans for the period 1965-75.

b. Studies be made of the drop-outs from trade and industrial programs to establish retention and related employment problems.

c. Inventory controls should be employed.

d. Consideration should be given to the develop­ ment of a technical management curriculum whose graduates could aid industry as well as service, maintenance, and agricultural demands.

pureto Rico during the decade 19^8-58 has been successful in implementing the philosophies of Industrial education. The result of these efforts have made signifi­ cant changes in the economy of the Island. The changes being made in the economies of other nations have been accomplished in Puerto Rico during "Operation Bootstrap." SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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4. . History of Manual and Industrial Education up to 1870*1 Peoria, Illinois: The Manual Arts ' Press, 1926.

5. Bonser, Frederick G. Life Needs and Education. New York; Columbia University Press, 1932.

6. Bonser, Frederick G. and Mossman, Lois Coffey. Industrial Arts for Elementary Schools. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923.

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9. Butts, R. Follman. The College Charts Its Course. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1939. 10. Byram, Harold M. and Ralph Wenrich. Vocational Educa­ tion and Practical Arts in the Community School. New York: Macmillan Co., 1956.

11. callan, Louis John. Industrial Arts Teacher Education Program, a Comparative Analysis and Evaluation of Selected Teachers and Colleges. PhiIh dissertation. The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio? 1952.

191 192

12. Camara de Comerclo de Puerto Rico. Algunos Contrastes Antillanos. San Juan: Camara de Comerclo de Puerto Rico, 1945. 13. Carrion de Bonulla,, Zenaida. Mortalidad En Los Cursos De Oficios (Tipo B) Bn Nueve Escuelas Superiores - Anos 1951-52 A 1953-5%". Unpublished Report by the Vocational Guidance Section, Hato Rey: Vocational Education Division, Department of Public instruction, 1954. 14. casellas, Jovet, Bonosio. Trades and Industries Curriculum and Organization as a Part of the Voca­ tional Education program in Puerto Rico. Master's thesis, Austin, Texas: university of Texas, 1951.

15. Clark, Harold F. work as Education. Columbus, Ohio: Epsilon Pi Tau, university station, Box 3111, 1947.

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19. Cordero, Rafael. La Economica de Puerto Rico y Sus Problemas. Rio Piedras: university of Puerto Rico, I9W: 20. Creamer, Daniel. The Net income of the Puerto Rican Economy 1940-1944"! Rio Piedras: University of Puerto Rico, 1944.

21. Dasgupta, Debendra Chandra. The Place of Vocational Education in Modern Educational Theory from the Six­ teenth to the Twentieth Century! Ed.D. dissertation, Berkeley, California; university of California, 1932.

22. Del Pilar, Luis, Vocational Education: A Need for Puerto Rico. Unpublished Master's thesis. Cincinnati, Ohio: University of Cincinnati, 1953. 193

23. Descartes, Sol Luis, paper read before forum, Univer­ sity of Puerto Rico, January 26, 1959.

24. Dewhurst, J. Frederic and Associates. America’s Needs and Resources. New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, i955. 25. Dewey, John. The School and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1899.

26. Di Venuti, Biagio. The Economics of Puerto Rico. San . Juan: Department of Education, commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1957.

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28. Espendez - Navarro, Juan. An Historical Development of Practical Arts and Vocational Education in the" Island of Puerto Rico l898-193§i Master * s thesis. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana U n i v e r s i t y 1 9 4 0.

2 9. Faber, Jack J. Industrial Education in the Americas. Anniversary address, Theta Field Chapter. San’ Juan: Epsilon Pi Tau, 1958.

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31. Florida, State Department of Education. Florida School Facilities Conference. Tallahassee, Florida: State Department of Education, 1956.

32. Font Rafael. Improving Industrial Arts Education in Puerto Rico. UnpublishedMaster's thesis. State College, Pa.: Pennsylvania state University, 1936.

33. Garcia Hernandez, Lorenzo. "Education in a Scientific Age," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education. Vol. 47, No. 9, November, 195&.

34. Good, Harry G. Education Through Work. Columbus, Ohio: EpsilorTpi Tau, university station, Box 3111, 19*»3. 3 5 . Godron, Wendell C. The Economy of Latin America. New York; Columbia University press, 1950. 194 36. Hansen,. Millard^ et al. "Puerto Rico. A Study in Democratic Development," The Annals. Vol. 285. Philadelphia: The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1953.

37. Hanson, Earl Parker. Transformation: The Story of Modern Puerto Rico. New York; Simon and Schuster, 1955. 38. Harvard University. Report of the Harvard Committee. General Education in a Free Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945.

39. Hawkins, Layton- S., Charles A. Prosser, and John C. Wright. Development of Vocational Education. Chicago: American Technical Society, 1951.

40. Hayward, Bresford L. TOward Comprehensive Educational Planning in Puerto Rico. Report No. 1 to the Secre­ tary of Education^ Hato Rey: Department of Public Instruction, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1958.

41. Hibben, Thomas and Rafael Pico. Industrial Development of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island of the United States. San Juan: Puerto Rico Development Company, 1948.

42. Hill, James Levan. A Stud$*'of the Various Aspects of Industrial Arts as influenced by the Changing Condi­ tions of our American-~c~fyllization from 188Q to i960. Ed.D. dissertation. State College, Pa.: Pennsyl- vania state University, 1953.

43. Hughlett, Lloyd J. Industrialization of Latin America. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1946.

44. Institute of Field Studies, The. Public Education and the Future of Puerto Rico. New York: Teachers College, Columbia university, 1950.

45. Lindbeck, John R. A Framework for Research in Indus­ trial Arts. Unpublished thesis, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1958.

46. Mays, Arthur B. Principles and Practices of Vocational Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1948.

47. Meyer, Adolph E. The Development of Education in the Twentieth Century! New York: Prentice-Hall, 1 9 4 9. 195 48. Morrison, J. Cayce. The_Puerto Rican Study. New York: Board of Education, lj35&.

49. Munoz Amato, Pedro. Paper read before forum. Univer­ sity of Puerto Rico, January 26, 1959.

50. National Education Association. Research Bulletin. Vol. 3 6 , No. 1, Washington, D.C.: Rsearch Division, National Education Association, February, 1958.

51. National Manpower Council. A Policy for Skilled Man­ power. New York: Columbia University Press, 1954.

52. ______. Womenpower. New York: Columbia University Press, 1957. 53. Ohio, State Department of Education. Ohio School Standards. Industrial Arts Education for Junior and Senior High Schools. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Department of Education, 1947.

54. ______. Suggested Outline of Syllabus for Electrical Unit. columbus, Ohio: Ohio state Department of Education, 1953.

55. ______. The Ohio plan. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Department of Education, Division of Vocational Education, 1953.

5 6. Olson, Delmar W. Technology and Industrial Arts. Urbana, Illinois: College of Education, University of Illinois, 1958.

57. Osuna, Juan Jose. A History of Education in Puerto Rico. Rio PledrasT Second Edition, Universityof Puerto Rico, 1949.

58. . Education in Puerto Rico. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1 9 2 3 .

59. Pagan, Bolivar. Puerto Rico the Next state. Washing­ ton, D.C.: Bolivar Pagan, 1942.

60. Perloff, Harvey S. Puerto Rico's Economic Future. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950.

61. Pico, Rafael. "Comparisons and Contrasts in the Greater Antillas," Hispanic American Studies No. 2 . Coral Gables, Florida: Uhiversity of Miami, 1941. 62. Pico, Rafael. The Geographic Regions of Puerto Rico. Rio Piedras: University of Puerto Rico, 1950.

6 3 . . Tecnica y Planificacion. Rio Piedras: University of Puerto Rico, 1948. 64. Puerto Rico, Commonwealth of. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Washington, D.cT! Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1954.

6 5. ______. Facts. San. Juan: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1957. 66. Puerto Rico, Economic Development Administration. Report on the Scholarship Program of the Department of industrial Services of the Economic Development Administration. 1951-52 to 1958-59. San Juan: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1958.

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68. Puerto Rico, Department of Labor and Planning Board. Puerto Rico1s Manpower Needs and Supply. San Juan: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1957.

6 9. Puerto Rico, Division of Vocational Education. Annual Descriptive Report of the Commonwealth for Vocational Education! Hato Rey: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, '1957. 70. ______. Commonwealth Plan for Vocational Education. San Juan! Department of Education Press, 1955.

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7 2. Puerto Rico, Trade and Industrial Section. Directory for Trade and industrial Education. Hato Rey: Department of public Instruction, 1957.

7 3 . Puerto, Department of Public Instruction. Estudio De La Procedencia De Los Estudiantes Marticulados En Los Cursos De Oficios De Las Escuelas Superiores De Puerto Ricoj Hato Rey: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1955. 197 7^. Puerto Rico, Department of Education. Fifty Years of American Education in Puerto Rico: vocational Edu­ Tsmrcation^ san Juan: Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. 75. Puerto Rico. Department of Public instruction, informe Anual 1954-1^5. San Juanj Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1957. 7 6. Puerto Rico, Trade and Industrial Section. Trade and Industrial Education in Puerto Rico. Hato Rey: Department of Public Instruction, 1957.

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81. Puerto Rico, University of. Bulletin of information: 1957-1958; 1958-1959. Rio Piedras: College of Education, 1957.

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8M. Roberts, Lydia, et al. Patterns of Living in Puerto Rioan Families. Rio Piedras: University of Puerto Rico, 19^9.

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AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, John Richard McElheny, was born in Logansport,

Indiana, on February 15, 1913. I was educated in the public schools of Logansport and received a Bachelor of

Science degree in Industrial Education at Purdue University in 1935. A Master of Science degree in Education was received from Purdue in 1942. I studied at the University of Colorado during the summer of 1951. I was an instructor at The Ohio State University .In 1957-58 and completed course and residence requirements there for the degree,

Doctor of Philosophy.

I began teaching industrial arts in the secondary schools of Russellville, Indiana, in the fall of 1936 and taught consecutively in Alexandria, Indiana, Joliet,

Illinois, and East Chicago, Indiana, public schools. I became Chairman of the Industrial Education Department at the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, in February,

1949, and continue to serve in that capacity. 1 also serve as Director of the Duplicating and Printing Arts Department of the University of Miami, in September of i9 6 0, I am to serve as a consultant too the Secretary of Education of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.

202 203 I served thirty-nine months as a Chief Petty Officer in the United States Naval Reserve during tie years 1942-

1945, and taught machine tool practice at Great Lakes

Naval Training Center for twenty-four months.

1