The Social and Cultural Reasons Why Women Still Shy Away from Weights in 2018 Kiara Lowery Director: Leslee Funderburk Ph.D, RD, CSSD, CSCS

ABSTRACT

Where Are The Ladies: The Social and Cultural Reasons Why Women Still Shy Away From Weights in 2018 Kiara Lowery Director: LesLee Funderburk Ph.D, RD, CSSD, CSCS

This study sought to determine gym usage, specifically the use of weight training equipment and experience, sociocultural factors that have impacted fitness practices, ideas of femininity and muscularity, and any specific reasons that kept women from weight training during the era of fourth wave feminism and “strong is the new sexy”. Participants included female college students and female members of a private, strength- athlete focused gym. Participants were recruited via flyers posted in a private gym, in various buildings on Baylor University’s campus, through Canvas notifications posted by professors of the principal investigator, and Facebook. Three hundred and sixteen surveys were included in this study and responses were interpreted with Stata 15.1 Statistical Software and Qualtrics to determine significance with the assistance of Dr. Kevin Dougherty. Responses revealed that the gym and various fitness spaces are microcosms of how traditional feminine ideals influence women’s fitness practices.

APPROVED BY DIRECTOR OF HONORS THESIS:

______Dr. LesLee Funderburk, Family and Consumer Sciences, Nutrition Sciences

APPROVED BY THE HONORS PROGRAM:

______

Dr. Elizabeth Corey, Director

DATE: ______

WHERE ARE THE LADIES?: THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL REASONS WHY WOMEN STILL SHY AWAY FROM WEIGHTS IN 2018

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Baylor University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Honors Program

By Kiara Lowery

Waco, Texas

May 2019

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ...... iii

Dedication ...... iv

Introduction ...... 1

Background ...... 3

Chapter One: The Boom of Women in Strength Sports ...... 7

Chapter Two: How Gender Roles Influence Fitness Goals and Are They Changing . . 12

Chapter Three: Methods ...... 15

Chapter Four: Results ...... 17

Chapter Five: Discussion ...... 25

Chapter Six: Conclusion ...... 28

Appendix: Survey Administered to Participants ...... 30

Bibliography ...... 37

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research endeavor would not have been possible without the guidance of my thesis advisor, Dr. LesLee Funderburk. With her experience in sports nutrition, writing training protocols, the effects of exercise on body weight and composition and much more I knew she would make important contributions to my work. I am beyond thankful for her insightful edits and ideas that ultimately shaped this project into everything I hoped it would be. I would also like to thank the other two members of my defense committee, Dr. Stanley Wilfong and Dr. Jay Yoo. The diverse backgrounds they both offer helped me to realize how interdisciplinary my research question is. I hope this project encourages more research into how gender roles influence other aspects of our lives. He may not know how big of an impact he’s made in a lecture hall of hundreds of students, but my Introduction to Sociology teacher Dr. Kevin Doughtery helped me believe this once daunting project was possible. His teachings gave me something to model this project after and even helped me decide on a name for it. I also have him to thank for assisting me in statistically analyzing my data.

iii

DEDICATION

To Olivia, my father and step-father, and Michael, my love, I dedicate this project. Olivia, your encouragement, willing to listen to my plans, and support in my powerlifting endeavors gave me what I needed to finally start this project. Daddy and Dad, thank you for raising me up to believe that I can accomplish any strength goals, not in spite of, but because of my gender, and as you love to remind me, daddy, because of my genes. Daddy, some of my most vivid childhood memories are of you I lifting at Bally’s together. Both of your backgrounds in powerlifting, football, and track and field are part of the reason I am where I am today. Starting me early in lifting weights as an eleven-year-old and taking my goals seriously helped to improve my self-esteem and widen my horizons for what it means to be a woman. Michael, this project required more creativity and vision than I had myself. If not for the in-depth conversations we had about the problems in the fitness industry and the shady schemes of some social media influencers, this project would not be this large in scope. There were many times I demanded hours of silence, escaped to campus, or cancelled social activities in order to work on this project. Thank you for your patience and making sure I prioritized my school work. Above that, thank you for investing your money, time, and effort into helping me become a competitive powerlifter and setting goals for me that are beyond my wildest dreams. Because of you I refuse to settle for nothing less than the world.

INTRODUCTION

My fathers, biological and step-father, made weight training and the pursuit of strength a part of my life. There weren’t any physical limitations placed on me because of my gender; if anything, they always expected more. Throwing shot-put and discus for my middle and high school track and field team fueled my obsession with testing my body’s physical strength. Once I graduated high school and went on to college, I thought that was the end of lifting heavy weights for me. I believed that the body I had built no longer matched my changing fitness and physique goals. All my life I struggled with achieving my “goal weight” and always perceived my body as being bigger than it was. I chose clothing that was too big for me to hide the imperfections I saw. The summer between my sophomore and junior year of college, I rededicated my life to fitness and was determined to lose weight. I lifted weights five to six times a week with moderate weight for high reps and sets and ran almost daily. Over the course of a few months of changing my eating habits and being consistent in the gym I lost twenty pounds. I thought I had reached my prime in the fitness area of my life. Enter my current boyfriend who I started dating between the fall and spring semesters of my junior year. He had undergone a weight loss journey of his own but had found his home in competing in Strongman competitions. On our first date, which was at the gym he trained at, he taught me how to log press and pick up stones. He saw a raw strength in me that I did not yet see in myself, so now I had three men in my life encouraging me, expecting me even, to lift heavy weights. In high school I wanted to compete in powerlifting meets like my step dad, but I never did. Now I had someone so intimately

1 involved in my life to help me venture out and pursue my dreams. In May 2018 I competed in a Strongman meet. In September 2018, I competed in a powerlifting meet and fell in love. In January 2019 I did it again. In June 2019 I am scheduled to compete in a national meet and have been invited to compete again in October at the Stateline

Showdown, whose meet director is Chakera Ingram, an all-time world record holder in two different weight classes. This is my story because those that came before me were athletes. This is my story because the men in my life do not think femininity conflicts with strength. But what do the lives of other women look like because they are encouraged to stick to cardio to achieve a slightly toned, slim-waisted physique? Men are supposed to be the ones with the muscles, right? What would society look like if these gender norms did not exist and how does something as trivial as differences in fitness goals between men and women reveal the way people think? How did these differences arise?

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study is to survey women concerning the usage of the free weight area in two gyms in Waco, TX. The survey questions assessed weight training experience, societal and cultural factors that have impacted fitness practices, ideas of femininity and muscularity, and any specific reasons that keep participants from lifting weights in the era of fourth wave feminism and “strong is the new sexy” (Rampton).

There are many studies stating the benefits women experience from weight/resistance training. In a summary of evidence from randomized controlled trials that sought to determine whether strength training influenced anxiety, chronic pain, cognition, depression, self-esteem, and sleep published in the American Journal of Lifestyle

Medicine, it was found that only 27% of women aged 18-24 reported some type of muscle-strengthening activity compared with 45% of men of the same age (O’Connor et al.). For both sexes, this percentage diminishes with age which is problematic because sarcopenia, “the loss of skeletal muscle mass, muscle strength, and impairment of functional status”, is a phenomenon seen in aging adults (Fuggle et al.). Ways to decrease the severity of sarcopenia and retain quality of life include resistance training as well as increasing protein intake and vitamin D supplementation (Fuggle et al.).

There is also evidence of increased bone density with resistance training which can combat osteoporosis especially in females (Layne and Nelson). Other health related outcomes include improved glycemic control, decreased insulin resistance, lower blood pressure, and reduction of symptoms of depression and mental fatigue (O’Connor et al.).

Unfortunately, many women are still intimidated or reluctant to lift weights in a traditional gym environment because they do not have the knowledge to lift safely, believe they will become bulky, or do not think weight lifting will help them achieve their fitness goals (Salvatore and Marecek). Despite data supporting that “women use gyms in greater numbers than men”, there still remains a binary; “women do cardio, men lift weights” because “women go to the gym to get smaller and men go to get bigger” (Newhall). Women who violate the binary must “negotiate their lifting behaviors”; “no woman has the privilege of not thinking about how to build her body in relation to the current acceptable version of the feminine body” (Newhall). The question becomes ‘how much weight or muscle is too much to the point that it violates my socially perceived femininity?’.

In a study conducted by Maxine Leeds Craig and Rita Liberti, the organizational processes of a chain of women-only gyms were examined and compared to the historically masculine gym (Craig and Liberti). Women found comfort in the

“organizational culture of nonjudgmental and non-competitive sociability”, but the organization of the gym only perpetuated the “assumption that women’s fitness needs were different than those of men” therefore “gender division was built into the gym’s organizational logic”; “this feminized culture did not arise merely in the absence of men” but these organizational processes “shaped customers’ interactions and encouraged gendered identities” (Craig and Liberti). In other words, this chain of women-only gyms limited women in their fitness pursuits and perpetuated gender differences founded on outdated gender roles instead of creating a gym culture in which these women felt safe enough to venture out of or stay within their comfort zones.

Apart from the general health benefits, many women have misconceptions of what heavy weight training will do to their physique. In a study entitled “Gender in the

Gym”, Jessica Salvatore and Jeanne Marecek found that in 2010, using the search term

“build muscle” on Google images returned 2.7 million images, 75% of which solely featured men (Salvatore and Marecek). They also found that “women reported the

Stairmaster would be more useful than weight lifting” to serve their fitness goals, free weight equipment was labeled as masculine, and women reported lower comfort levels and higher evaluation concerns than men (Salvatore and Marecek).

In a revolutionary study conducted by Shari L. Dworkin aptly named “Holding

Back: Negotiating a Glass Ceiling on Women’s Muscular Strength”, female participants in the “non-lifter” category “expressed fears that with the ‘wrong’ kind of exercise, their bodies might develop ‘excessive’ bodybuilders’ musculature” (Dworkin). This infers that there is a lack of knowledge about how muscle hypertrophy occurs and what it takes to achieve it. Of note, elite, nationally ranked powerlifters and bodybuilders have very specific goals they work toward. The primary goal of competitive powerlifting is to lift as much weight as possible, and as for bodybuilding, the goal is to develop massive, full, vascular, symmetrical musculature that will please judges at bodybuilding shows. Years of intense training, proper diet and sometimes the use of sports enhancing drugs and/or steroids produce a heavily muscled physique; in other words, they get the physique they train for (Dworkin). This goal isn’t achieved through lifting light to moderate weight recreationally like the general population that weight trains. Women can achieve their fitness goals by implementing moderate weight/resistance training because it can “reduce body fat and increase basal metabolic rate” over time (Kraemer

5 et al.). Even though the benefits of weight/resistance training have been researched and proven time and time again, many women are still hesitant to take up this specific form of exercise.

CHAPTER ONE

The Boom of Women in Strength Sports

Strength sports like powerlifting, CrossFit, Strongman/Strongwoman, Olympic weightlifting, and bodybuilding all prescribe a unique training regime and athletes of these sports all have different physiques as a result of their training. What is appealing about all of them is that they encourage a person, especially someone who is competing, to set goals in order to see measurable progress. For the two sports whose events are consistent, powerlifting (squat, bench, and deadlift) and Olympic weightlifting (clean and jerk and the snatch), an athlete can easily compare the amount of weight lifted from meet to meet as a means of determining progression and strength (Archibald).

In order to progress one must also maintain a healthy lifestyle that includes proper nutrition, sleep, and stress management/recovery (Jeffreys). Anecdotally, there are communities at the gym, online forums and apps such as Instagram and Facebook, that connect people with similar goals, provide a sense of belonging, and can be a place where knowledge, perspectives, and opinions are shared. The previously mentioned apps allow athletes to share their workout videos, meet recaps, tips, advertise their online and/or in-person training services, training apparel/equipment and upcoming meet announcements. Social media plays a key role in the growth of women in powerlifting because its visual base of communication allows women to see what they can look like and what they can do if they lift heavy weights (Belfer).

The powerlifting community recognizes 19 national and 9 international federations (“Powerlifting Federations”). In one national federation, USA Powerlifting, the number of female competitors has doubled from 3,000 to 6,038 between 2014 and

2016 alone (Belfer). Websites and Instagram pages like Girls Who Powerlift (GWPL),

Sisters of Powerlifting (shining light on female powerlifters who are also POCs), and

Girls Gone Strong, are hubs for women “challenging traditional concepts of femininity”

(Belfer). GWPL’s website includes a blog section with articles entitled “You Are

Worthy”, “One of the Easiest Ways to Fear LESS”, “What It Really Means to be a

Female Powerlifter”, and even “Tips to Know if Your Child is Ready for Powerlifting”.

If a casual internet surfer didn’t already know the mission behind the website, it can be found in the logo, “strength is beautiful, uplift and lift heavy”. Unlike bodybuilding or trying to “build a better booty” by following an Instagram fitness model’s 30-day challenge, powerlifting is about what your body can do, not what it looks like.

Competitive powerlifters typically aim to lift as much weight as possible at the lowest bodyweight they can realistically maintain or achieve; powerlifting is a weight class sport and a Wilks score (a numerical value that allows strength between multiple athletes to be compared despite differences in weight) is used to determine how competitive an athlete is (Wilks Calculator - Omni).

Many female powerlifters have walls that display them in a feminine and powerful light, demonstrating that strength and power do not have to conflict with beauty, that in fact strength is beauty in and of itself. Powerlifters @haparican,

@megsquats, @ayshahaleyy_, and many others train in makeup, meshing the stereotypically masculine world with something that has been a symbol of femininity

8 for centuries. Social media expands what is socially acceptable and makes seeing women who are stronger than most men, normal.

Historically, women and men have always differed in their reasons for exercising/working out; “masculine body ideals prescribe strength, while feminine body ideals prescribe thinness” and this can be attributed to gender roles, which will be focused on later in this document (Salvatore and Marecek). Many women who are being influenced by women who lift heavy, are seeing that female bodies are much more capable than they may have previously realized and are embracing body types that diverge from thinness.

There are critics, not necessarily of women demonstrating both traditionally feminine and masculine traits simultaneously, but of CrossFit (CF), and potentially other strength sports, mirroring “attractive and heteronormative femininity”

(Washington and Economides). The continuation of holding up outdated, rigid beauty ideals by a group that is thought to diverge from them is problematic, but CF and other strength sports are expanding the idea of the socially acceptable female body type. A study published in 2004 revealed female collegiate athletes, that “clearly were in great physical condition with low body fat”, struggled to reconcile their muscularity with

Western body ideals (Krane et al.). Fifteen years later, there exists a powerlifting community that publicly bashes men for being so insecure in their own masculinity that they would label Stefanie Cohen as “manly” or “unattractive” because she deadlifts four times her body weight (123 pounds). In spite of instances like these occurring, authors of “Strong is the New Sexy: Women, Crossfit, and the Postfeminist Ideal” Myra

Washington and Megan Economides believe that “CF’s fitness focus in practice appears

9 to be more on an attractive body, rather than a strong, functional one” thus “in keeping with postfeminist media culture’s obsession with femininity” (Washington and

Economides). Of the major strength sports, it is clear that Crossfit is focused on the body’s general physical preparedness and functionality (Glassman). CF athletes exhibit what it means and looks like to be a well-rounded athlete; the Workouts of the Day

(WOD) combine cardiovascular endurance, muscular endurance, strength, and agility and the typical elite CF body type is the cornerstone of muscularity and leanness. By performing grueling WODs consistently and eating healthy, the body has almost no choice but to look a certain way. Just as defensive linemen are usually the largest players on the football field or Olympic gymnasts are usually short, narrow-hipped, and muscular as the result of decades of training and genetics, it is reasonable for elite

Crossfitters to look similar because of the idea of somatotype characteristics of different athletes (Toriola et al.). In an interview with Broadly, a segment of Vice, Ivy Knight, a competitive powerlifter, attributes some of the aesthetic focus of the bodies of females on Instagram to women being “proud of the body you’ve [they’ve] worked so hard to create” (Belfer).

Women are not only flocking to strength sports because of the health, physical, and aesthetic benefits, but also for the mental ones. In an interview for Broadly, Dawn

Deacon-Maroscher, Cynthia Leu, Jessica Stalter, and Becci Holcomb all attributed an improvement in their mental health and confidence to powerlifting; Deacon-Maroscher experienced increased confidence at work and how she felt in her clothes, Leu overcame bulimia by having strength-based goals rather than wanting to weigh less. Of

10 note, Statler is a recovering alcoholic, and Holcomb was in an abusive relationship

(Belfer).

In another interview Amanda Kohatsu (@haparican) says that she began lifting to protect herself from her abuser who was also her boyfriend (That1legmonster and

EQVISIONS). Throughout the relationship she tried to minimize herself because she thought that’s what her partner wanted. In addition to Amanda, Ciarra Hutton and

Christy Senay, and likely many other women, also felt pressure to strive for thinness and perfection because society tells them they are “play things” for men; these women decided to shift their focus from being small physically and mentally to taking up space in a male dominated sport and combatting their brokenness. Working in the fitness industry as coaches and being competitors themselves, powerlifting colors their lives.

Intense training can create a physique that the majority may not be accustomed to seeing and that is okay with these female powerlifters because they lift for themselves, not to be considered attractive; femininity is on a spectrum. Powerlifting gives women the opportunity to create new societal norms, debunk old ones, and build mental and physical fortitude.

CHAPTER TWO

How Gender Roles Influence Fitness Goals and How They Are Changing

How society identifies the differences between male and female are somewhat founded upon biological differences, but also originates in part from interpretations of the Bible and can be seen in the separation, limitations placed upon, and treatments of each gender. Females were created to aid men, bring forth children, be subservient to their husbands, and ultimately inhabit different roles and responsibilities than men

(Gen. 2, Gen 3:16, I Cor. 11:3). Culturally, these passages are outdated seeing as many women now have careers away from home and some are the breadwinners of their households. More and more women are putting off marriage and having children until later in their lives in pursuit of independence and academic/financial success (Bui and

Miller).

On the other hand, participants in a study initiated by the Women and Children subcommittee of the Healthy by Design Coalition, many women pointed to their caregiving roles and responsibilities, lack of physical leisure-time activities, and appearance expectations (“the pressure to maintain an expected appearance”) as reasons why they do not engage in exercise (Duin et al.). Gender differences can also be seen in the gendering of careers. Traditional careers for women include social work, nursing, elementary education, and full-time mothering while traditional ones for men include careers in STEM, trades, and construction (Perrone). These differences can be attributed

12 to characteristics thought to be typical of men and women; soft, nurturing, dainty, and clean versus aggressive, outgoing, and sweaty (Krane et al.).

Throughout history, women have pioneered movements that demanded they have the same rights as men, such as the ability to leave the home and join the work force, vote, drive in Saudi Arabia, and most recently in China where the #MeToo movement has forced the drafting of legislation that “defines sexual harassment and also makes employers responsible for preventing it” (Hubbard, n.d.; Yu, n.d.). In the

U.S., the passing of the Title IX amendment in 1972 “prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded educational program or activity”, making it clear that even after decades of progress, equality hadn’t fully been achieved (Overview Of

Title IX Of The Education Amendments Of 1972 | Department of Justice).

Differences in fitness goals and exercise habits are related to the way society differentiates between men and women. A study conducted by Jessica Salvatore and

Jeanne Marecek revealed that women expressed more evaluation concerns at the idea of bench pressing than using a StairMaster in a public gym and burning fat vs. building muscle are gendered fitness goals; women “reported that their fitness goals were better served by fat-burning exercise”, such as the StairMaster, “than by muscle-building exercise” such as the bench press (Salvatore and Marecek). It is important to consider the nature of cardio equipment compared to weight training equipment. Anecdotally, especially in busy commercial gyms, waiting to use weight machines or squat racks and bench presses can be confrontational so by comparison, cardio equipment requires less hassle and confrontation with other gym-goers.

Even among the ranks of elite female powerlifters, the sport is still largely gendered as male, though time and time again females have demonstrated with their strength that the sport is for everybody. Fans and members of the powerlifting community still show bias toward people like Larry Wheels and Stan Efferding, taking what they say as truth while attributing the success of female powerlifting greats to steroids and sports-enhancing drugs (That1legmonster and EQVISIONS). Although there has been major progress, the powerlifting community and the rest of the fitness world still has a lot of work to do in terms of dismantling sexist stereotypes that are perpetuated through marketing and media, championing strong women that don’t meet the feminine ideal, and creating a culture that informs women on how to reach their fitness goals, educate them on the benefits of building lean muscle mass, and stop selling them a ‘get skinny fast’ dream.

CHAPTER THREE Methods

Three hundred and sixteen female college students from a private university and members of a privately-owned gym in Texas participated in this study. Participants were recruited via Facebook, canvas/email notifications from the principal investigator’s professors, and flyers posted in the gym and in various buildings on the

University’s campus. Most of the participants were recruited through the pre-health department of the private university. The study was described as a survey seeking to determine gym usage, specifically of weight training equipment, sociocultural factors that dictate usage, ideas of femininity and muscularity, and any specific reasons that kept women from weight training during the era of fourth wave feminism and “strong is the new sexy” (See Appendix for survey). The final sample was divided between college students that attended the private university (n=300) and non-college students of the private university (n=16), little to no weight training experience (n= 186) and a year or more of experience (n=130). Participants did not receive any incentives for participating and consent was granted by reading the consent form at the beginning of the survey and continuing to complete the survey. The survey included a short demographics section, items related to body image, perception, and beliefs about weight training, and a short answer question and knowledge assessment. For most statements there were five to seven selections to choose from ranging from strongly agree/very important to strongly disagree/not at all important while the knowledge assessment offered true or false options, each of which has a correct answer. The knowledge

15 assessment was included to gauge myths women believe and was inspired by a similar knowledge test that was administered by Carla Diann Smith for the purpose of her research in “Adolescent Perceptions of Female Muscularity”. Participants were also asked to rank items such as weight, muscular strength, and physical attractiveness in order of importance for themselves. The free response question read “if you currently do not have any experience lifting weights or avoid lifting weights, describe the reasons why in a few sentences” to which 40.8% of participants responded. All data was quantitatively analyzed except for the open-ended question which was qualitatively interpreted to find trends and emerging barriers women stated as keeping them from lifting weights. This question allowed participants to elaborate on items they responded to earlier in the survey and shed light on other issues or reasons. Most participants completed the survey in under ten minutes. Data was collected from January 31, 2019 to

March 11, 2019.

CHAPTER FOUR Results

As expected, women who were less experienced or had no weight training experience at all were more likely to believe common fitness myths, have more traditional views of femininity as it concerns muscularity, and report feeling inexperienced in the free weight area of a gym. In order to see trends among women with little to no experience compared to women with more than a year of weight training experience, cross tabulation was conducted. The variables chosen to be the independent variables were selected based on a hypothesis that women with little or no experience would see the free weight area as a gendered space (weight lifting is masculine) and would be less knowledgeable about things concerning fitness and effective weight loss.

54.55% of female students who agree that “lifting weights is masculine” also agree that “The words ‘weightlifting’ and ‘femininity’ are contradictory,” as compared to 11.79% of female students who disagree that weightlifting is masculine. The relationship is statistically significant based on a chi-square test (p<.001).

Recoded: The words weightlifting and femininity are Years of weight training experience contradictory no experi less than 1-3 years 3+ years Total

Disagree 68 40 57 40 205 56.67 60.61 73.08 76.92 64.87

Neither disagree nor 10 10 8 4 32 8.33 15.15 10.26 7.69 10.13

Agree 42 16 13 8 79 35.00 24.24 16.67 15.38 25.00

Total 120 66 78 52 316 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pearson chi2(6) = 14.6413 Pr = 0.023 Women who have more years of weight training experience are less likely to agree that “The words ‘weightlifting’ and ‘femininity’ are contradictory.” Thirty-five percent of women with no weight lifting experience agree with this statement as compared to 15.38% of women with more than three years of weight lifting experience. The relationship is statistically significant based on a Chi-Square test (p<.05).

There is not a statistically significant relationship between years of weightlifting experience and agreement with the statement “Women who lift as much or more than some men are less feminine than women who do not.”

Women who have no experience lifting weights are more likely to agree that “cardio is more effective for weight loss than heavy lifting” (73.33%) compared to women who have lifted less than one year (56.06%), 1-3 years (41.03%), or 3+ years (26.15%). The relationship is statistically significant based on a Chi-square test (p<.001).

There is not a statistically significant relationship between years of weightlifting experience and agreement with the statement “Being docile, empathetic, gentle, and sensitive are adjectives I would use to describe women.”

Women who have lifted weights for more years got more items correct on a basic fitness quiz than did women with less weight lifting experience. Women with 3+ years of weight training experience had an average score of 7.56 correct out of 10 items, whereas women with no weight lifting experience had an average score of 6.49 correct. The difference in means across the four categories of weight lifting experience was statistically significant at a level of p<.001 (ANOVA F-test).

Analysis in the following table restricted to women who agree that “cardio is more effective for weight loss than lifting heavy”.

Among women who agree that “Cardio is more effective for weight loss than lifting heavy,” there is no significant relationship between currently trying to lose weight and year of weight training experience.

The following independent variables for the cross-tabulations were selected based on the hypothesis that women who were members at The Underground

Performance Gym—Waco felt more comfortable in a gym setting and would respond positively to ideas of female muscularity. It is important to note that while The

Underground is not exclusively a strength athlete focused gym, it does have weight training equipment that caters to Strongmen/Strongwomen, powerlifters, and other strength sports. The gym contains little cardio equipment and has a “let’s lift some heavy weight” atmosphere.

Although there is no significant relationship between these variables, most likely because only 13 participants were members of The Underground Performance Gym—Waco, it is important to note that all but one participant from the Underground reported feeling comfortable in a gym environment.

All 13 of the participants from The Underground reported that muscular strength was either very or extremely important to them compared to the more varied responses from participants who saw the advertisement elsewhere. There is no significant relationship between these variables.

100% of the participants who are members of The Underground Performance Gym—Waco disagreed with the statement that “femininity and weightlifting are contradictory”. There is no significance once again due to the small sample size from members of The Underground.

Other important statistics from the data:

. 37% agree to some degree that the goal of exercise is weight loss

. 70% want to lose weight

. 58.9% have less than a year of weight training experience

. 83.5% felt like they’re being watched by men when they workout at a gym

. 19.9% agreed to some degree that women who lift as much or more than some

men are less feminine than women who don’t lift

. 35.8% felt their weight was the most important determinant of their health and

how they felt about themselves

Overall, years of weight training experience and choice of gym membership are determinants to more progressive views of femininity and female muscularity.

Analysis of Question 26: Reasons why you avoid weight training

Of 316 participants, 129 responded to this free response question. Among the responses, a dominant theme rang clear: women don’t feel they have the knowledge to lift safely. Women also stated other barriers to lifting weights:

. Don’t have the time

. Too many men/no female friends to go to the gym with

. Enjoy other forms of exercise, view lifting weights as boring, not interested or

prefer cardiovascular exercise

. Intimidated by the gym atmosphere/evaluation concerns/fear of judgement

. Health reasons

. Feel they’ve gained enough muscle tone already or don’t want to get too big

. Fear men correcting them

Strangely enough, most women that responded felt like the men were more qualified and much stronger in so far as that they are men. This is evident in the fear of being corrected by men. The health reason mentioned as a barrier happened to be an eating disorder which is known to affect more women than men and is associated with evaluation concerns. Other respondents called attention to key issues in society:

“I also think that less women lift weights because our culture and society portray muscular females as less desirable and female muscle tone is unnecessary for female attractiveness. I think more men lift weights because our culture and society often portray media that shows large muscles on men as empowering and sexually/physically attractive. When I ask men why they lift weights, they often say they ‘want to look bigger’, have ‘bigger muscles’, etc.”

“women at the gym are hypersexualized”

“We are expected to look perfect without working out at all, which is impossible. Thanks, society.”

Overall, the free response question added to the list of barriers cited in previous research that women face in weight/resistance training. Through their responses, participants identified how differences of perception and expectations of males and females in society affects their exercise habits.

CHAPTER FIVE Discussion

These data support the hypotheses that women are generally less comfortable in gym environments, believe common health/fitness myths, and that if they have more traditional beliefs surrounding femininity then they are more likely to respond more negatively to ideas of muscularity in women. Many of these beliefs are the product of how women are portrayed in media, which includes TV, advertisements, and social media, and the gendering of boys and girls at a young age, largely by parents, through nursery design, choice of name, and toys (Tortorello). There are also different behavioral expectations for girls and boys. It is more common to see muscular men than women although both genders can achieve a moderate or high muscularity. Society largely tells women to lose weight, or get smaller or be more “womanly”, while telling men to increase muscle size or be more “manly”. Not only is this harmful for women, especially for those who choose consciously to defy norms, but it also harms men who don’t prioritize physical strength or muscularity. As demonstrated in a quote from the free response question in the results section, muscularity in males defines sexual/physical attractiveness as it is portrayed in media. Though definitions of femininity and masculinity are in flux, women and men who don’t abide by traditional gender norms are many times seen as less feminine or masculine.

The benefits of resistance/weight training for men and women are evident but the gym remains a gendered space whose lines are not crossed without women contemplating what it means to be feminine or being hit with social anxiety (Newhall).

In a world of true equality “both men and women would be comfortable being in gyms and using all the equipment in them”, but among the women surveyed it is clear that there is a ticket required for admission into the free weight area that men automatically possess (Salvatore and Marecek). It is important to note there has been progress in the fitness industry as seen in the evolution of the gym from the Arnold Schwarzenegger- esque boys clubs of the 60s and 70s where women weren’t allowed to a more inclusive space that women actually dominate in terms of membership.

An interesting barrier women cited was the fear of men approaching them to correct their form. Assuming women have experienced this incidence before, the assumption in this situation is that men know more about weight training than women do, so much so they felt compelled to approach and correct a stranger. No one gender is born with objective knowledge concerning weight training, but through being represented in society a certain way, women feel as though men have a sort of monopoly on knowledge concerning weight training.

The barriers women face in the gym involve multiple self-perpetuating cycles: women feel uneducated or out of place in the free weight area so they avoid it therefore preserving the gender division and remaining incompetent. Women that have memberships to gyms similar to The Underground Performance Gym—Waco are not representative of the general population of women. Though participants from this gym were few, they all responded similarly to ideas of femininity, muscularity, and answered more questions correctly in the knowledge assessment section of the survey. Many members of this gym compete in Strongman/Strongwoman, powerlifting, and

26 bodybuilding so these responses are indicative of women who have high goals of strength and muscularity.

For future research, more women that are members of this gym and gyms like it could be interviewed to understand their journey in strength sports and weight training assuming they developed this mindset and way of thinking over time. It would also be interesting to see how their thoughts of femininity influence dating patterns; social media has shown that some women who compete in strength sports don’t look for the same level of commitment to physical strength that they have in their partners and some heterosexual women are perceived as homosexual on the basis of their physique which has implications for the pool of potential partners. Another idea for future research would be to conduct a study of social media on comments in response to posts featuring women defying traditional gender norms, that is lifting as much as or more weight than some men. This gives a researcher the opportunity to see societal responses to anti- heteronormative femininity in real time. Lastly, it would be interesting to survey men on their level of comfort in the gym, responses to women weight training, and their perceived level of competency.

Based on responses analyzed in this study, women felt more inclined to stay in their comfort zone, whether that be cardio, sports they played in high school, or not exercising. A few respondents were previously dancers, a discipline notorious for discouraging its athletes from becoming too muscular and one that is popular among females. Children are conditioned into appropriate behaviors according to their gender at young ages and the idea that men are supposed to lift weights is one of them.

CHAPTER SIX Conclusion

This study has added to the existing body of research by identifying social and cultural barriers women face in including resistance/weight training in their fitness routines despite living during the time of the fourth wave of feminism. Women have made tremendous gains and expanded their roles in other aspects of their lives, but women’s fitness practices remain largely stagnant; according to previous research and the results of the survey administered, women participate in a self-perpetuating cycle: they feel they lack knowledge, have evaluation concerns, or view weight training as masculine all which keep them from gaining competency. It was apparent that portrayals in media and the heavy gender stereotyping of young children has led many participants to believe men innately have competency concerning weight training.

If women are going to break this cycle, four key points need to be addressed: knowledge, social, using the scale as a tool, and understanding that movement is movement. Knowledge is likely the most obvious because as seen in the results, the more knowledge women had the more likely they were to have progressive views of femininity and female muscularity and the less likely they were to believe common fitness myths. A basic education can be acquired from the internet, YouTube and

Instagram in particular because of the visuals available through video. The caution is to make sure the fitness influencer has some sort of credentials and experience. Secondly, there was a social barrier; women were intimidated because they were outnumbered.

Working out can be thought of as a social activity to be done with friends and all involved might feel a sense of accountability and encouragement.

Another emergent barrier that is problematic was body weight. A large majority of participants reported that they want to lose weight and even more alarming, almost

40% use their weight to define their health and self-esteem. The scale is to be treated as one tool of many at one’s disposal. There are other ways, arguably less psychologically damaging ways, to find self-worth or measure progress like lifting more weight than last week, shaving seconds off your mile time, or consistently reaching protein intake goals.

Lastly, women should understand that movement is movement. Choice of exercise, whether that be weight training, cycling, kayaking, kickboxing, etc. should be based off what fits an individual’s lifestyle and enjoyment. With weight training in particular, there are modifications for exercises based on ability and mobility. Fitness can meet a person wherever they are, making the barriers women face in the gym sociocultural and psychological ones, not actual, but this doesn’t mean they’re any less powerful or damaging.

APPENDIX

Survey Administered to Participants

Baylor University Health, Human Performance and Recreation

Consent Form for Research

PROTOCOL TITLE: Where Are The Ladies: The Social and Cultural Reasons Why Women Still Shy Away From Weights in 2018

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Kiara Lowery

SUPPORTED BY: Baylor University

The purpose of this study is to understand why women are less likely to embrace weightlifting as part of a physical fitness regimen. We are asking you to take part in this study because you are a woman who appears to exercise regularly. If you choose to be in the study, you will be asked to answer a brief survey following this consent form. You do not have to answer any questions that make you feel uncomfortable. There are no benefits to you from taking part in this research and you will not be paid for taking part in this study.

A risk of taking part in this study is the possibility of a loss of confidentiality. The researcher plans to protect your confidentiality by not collecting personally identifiable information. Authorized staff of Baylor University may review the study records for purposes such as quality control or safety.

You can contact the researchers with any concerns or questions about the research. Our emails are listed below: Kiara Lowery ([email protected]) and Dr. LesLee Funderburk ([email protected]).

If you want to speak with someone not directly involved in this research study, you may contact the Baylor University IRB through the Office of the Vice Provost for Research at 254-710-1438. You can talk to them about: • Your rights as a research subject • Your concerns about the research • A complaint about the research

Taking part in this study is your choice. You are free not to take part or to stop at any time for any reason. No matter what you decide, there will be no penalty or loss of benefit to which you are entitled. If you decide to withdraw from this study, the information that you have already provided will be kept confidential. Information already collected about you cannot be deleted.

By continuing with the research and completing the study activities, you are providing consent.

1. Age: 18-22, 23-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50+ 2. Gender: male or female 3. Year/classification (if applicable): freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, N/A 4. Years of weightlifting experience: no experience, less than a year, 1-3 years, 3+ years 5. Location of advertisement for this study: Baylor’s Student Life Center, other on campus building, The Underground Performance Gym—Waco 6. Do you believe weight training will cause you to become too big? 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree not disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 7. Are you uncomfortable in a weight training or gym environment? 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree not disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 8. Muscular strength is important to me. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 9. The words “weightlifting” and “femininity” are contradictory. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 10. Women who lift as much as or more than some men are less feminine than women who don’t lift weights. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree

11. Cardio is more effective for weight loss than lifting heavy. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 12. I feel like I am being watched by men when I work out at the gym. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 13. Exercise should be a part of everyone’s lifestyle. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 14. Weightlifting is masculine. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 15. I feel knowledgeable in the weight room. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 16. My personal physical attractiveness is due, in part, to my muscle tone. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 17. Losing weight is the goal of exercise. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 18. I was or am encouraged to lift weights.

1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 19. Being strong and physically fit makes me sexually appealing. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 20. How much I weigh is the most important determinant of my health and how I feel about myself. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 21. I currently want to lose weight. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 22. I currently want to be stronger and have more muscle tone. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 23. Being docile, empathetic, gentle, and sensitive are adjectives I would use to describe myself. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree 24. If building muscle means gaining weight, I would rather not build muscle. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Mostly disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Mostly agree 5. Strongly agree

25. Rank the following items in order of importance to you and your body specifically, 10 being of the least importance and 1 being of the most importance. Physical Attractiveness Muscular Strength Physical Coordination Physical Energy Level Weight Muscle Tone (firm/sculpt) Health Sex appeal Body Measurements Physical Fitness

26. If you currently do not have any experience lifting weights or avoid lifting weights, describe the reasons why in a few sentences.

Knowledge Test 27. Fat is turned into muscle during fat/weight loss. True or False 28. Cardiovascular workouts like the treadmill, StairMaster, or HIIT are the most effective for fat loss. True or False 29. It is possible to eat “clean” (i.e. eating whole, minimally processed foods with high nutritional content) without a caloric limit and lose weight. True or False 30. It is possible to eat processed foods with high fat and sugar content and still lose weight. True or False 31. Strength training inhibits fat/weight loss. True or False 32. Increasing muscularity can help females feel better about their bodies. True or False 33. Strength training decreases the risk of osteoporosis, reduces risk of injury, and reduces stress. True or False 34. Females who lift weights will develop large, bulky muscles. True or False 35. Females and males have equal relative strength (ratio of strength to lean body mass (total body weight minus weight due to fat mass)). True or False

36. Females who lift weights may damage their ability to have children. True or False

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