Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. Thanks to the invention of Youtube.com, this commercial can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4paUNGshJQ or using the search term “2003 American Express Jamal Mashburn.” 2. The varied spelling here is significant. The term Voudon or Vodún is used to recognize the most untainted religious practices that are indigenous to West Africa. Vodou, then, is a specific reference to the syncretized practices of Haiti. Voodoo refers the Americanized practice of African-based spirituality, most often associated with Louisiana. 3. In Equiano’s narrative, he makes reference to a conjure woman figure beckon- ing to him in his dream. Within days, he goes to see the very same “fortune teller,” to use his term for her (111). 4. I construct this term from Audre Lorde’s concept of biomythography, as discussed in Tate’s Black Women Writers at Work (115). 5. Farah Jasmine Griffin creates the Ancestor/stranger paradigm in her study of the African American migration narrative, Who Set you Flowin’?:The African American Migration Narrative. Griffin builds her idea from Morrison’s discussion of the Ancestor in the essay “Rootedness: The Ancestor as Foundation.” 6. Elizabeth McHenry discusses the rise of the New Negro and literary societies and how both affected black folk culture. See especially chapters 1 and 2. 7. I borrow the concept of “literary archaeologies” from Toni Morrison’s 1987 essay “The Site of Memory.” Feng articulates her idea of rituals of rememory, in which she also builds on one of Morrison’s concepts. I address how these ideas work in conjunction with my scholarship in the final subheading of Chapter 1. See Feng for a more detailed description of her concept. 8. See Montgomery’s chapter “Ifá Paradigm” in her The Spirit and the Word for a complete description and application of the Ifá Paradigm as a literary theory for Africana literature. 9. Turner makes a clear distinction between his messianic visions and the trivial- ness he associates with conjure (Greenburg 46), and Equiano gives a very short narrative about his own skepticism toward the supernatural via African traditions until experience teaches him otherwise (111). 10. I am referring to Tucker’s article “Recovering the Conjure Woman: Texts and Contexts in Gloria Naylor’s Mama Day,” from which I borrow my language. 11. In his introduction to Chesnutt’s tales, Richard Brodhead discusses how conjure worked against the total domination of enslaved Africans by proving that 166 Notes

there was a limitation to the power of the master. He argues that Chesnutt’s stories exemplify such limitations and that this, perhaps, was one of the inten- tional themes of Chesnutt’s collection. 12. Theophus Smith argues in the introduction to Conjuring Culture that conjure should not be conceptualized in the limiting view of binary oppositions such as good and evil. Rather, conjure has the capacity to both heal and harm. This is not seen as a contradiction, as an African cosmology does not recognize such concepts of good and evil in the same way as Christian doctrine dictates. 13. Loa is a term used to describe the spiritual entities or deities practitioners of Vodou communicate with, give offerings to, and serve in the practice of their religion.

Chapter 1

1. This definition is taken from the American Heritage Dictionary, 4th edition (934). The Oxford English Dictionary online (2009) was also referenced in determining the history, definitions, and etymology of the word “witch.” 2. Deren 75, 156–58. 3. Inquisitors of the Catholic Church Bernard Gui, Jacques de Morerio, and Nich- olas Eymeric were granted the power to define and act against heretical acts involving occult arts. Gui and Eymeric each wrote highly influential handbooks on their experience that shaped how medieval Europe defined witchcraft. See Bailey, “From Sorcery to Witchcraft” 967–77. 4. These include astronomy, alchemy, spiritual and demonic magic, and necromancy. 5. Bailey discusses the differences between witchcraft and the learned occult arts, to which the Catholic Church turned a blind eye. See “From Sorcery to Witch- craft” 964. 6. See 183–246 in Mules and Men for Hurston’s discussion of her hoodoo training. 7. Bailey suggests that Formicarius was reprinted until 1692; ironically, this is the year the Salem Village witch craze began. See “From Sorcery to Witchcraft” 977. 8. See Bailey, “From Sorcery to Witchcraft” 987. He also notes that the males who were executed for witchcraft had some association with a female who was believed to be a witch, usually a wife, mother, or other family member. 9. Carolyn Morrow Long discusses the changes to and modifications of European paganism and folk religion after the Protestant Reformation declared sacramen- tal objects unholy. See Spiritual Merchants 11. 10. See Raboteau’s discussion of the exception to this commonly accepted idea (27–31). 11. Giles Corey was the only male to be accused, tried, and executed for being a witch during the Salem witch trials (Breslaw, Reluctant 183). 12. Here I am referencing the “Curse of Ham,” or Hamitic myth, which has his- torically been used to justify the enslavement of people of African descent based on a particular interpretation of biblical scripture (Genesis 9:18–27). For a full discussion of the myth and its racist implications, see Mbiafu and Mitsch 9–33. Notes 167

Also see excerpts from Benjamin Moseley’s A Treatise on Sugar (1799; 159– 68); House of Commons Sessions Papers (1789; 168–80); and Matthew Gregory Lewis’s Journal of a West India Proprietor, Kept during a Residence in the Island of Jamaica (1834; 181–93) in Srinivas Aravamudan’s critical edition of William Earle’s Obi, or The History of Three-Fingered Jack (2005). 13. See Long (Spiritual Merchants, ch. 1) for a considerable comparison of African- based and European folk religion and the commonalities between them. 14. Code Noire, or the Black Codes were a body of legislation which dictated how enslaved Africans would be treated under the law of Caribbean colonies. These laws were not intended to protect slaves, but rather to provide organization and structure to slave colonies. See Long’s Spiritual Merchants, 18 and Barbara Bush’s Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 26–66. 15. Barbara Bush provides a lengthy discussion of women using African-based practices of healing and harming to influence slave insurrection (74–77). 16. See Sharpe’s chapter “The Rebels Old Obeah Woman” and Karla Gottlieb’s monograph. 17. Marronage refers to the act of running away from one’s slave master, usually to a Maroon colony hidden in the deepest part of the island or in the mountains. The term is most often used in reference to slavery in the Caribbean. 18. Mambo is a term in the Haitian Vodou religion for a female priestess. Maya Deren poetically retells the mythic history of the Haitian Revolution and specifically points to a mambo who appears before the insurgents to initiate a ritual sacrifice for protection and courage (see Deren 62 and subsequent notes). 19. Obeah practices were outlawed in Jamaica in 1792. 20. See Bush 78. 21. Rememory is the term Toni Morrison coins in the novel Beloved to signify the process of recalling an experience from a traumatic past or the ability to share the memory of unspeakable acts across generations as a type of cultural memory. 22. Trudier Harris discusses “folklore in literature” as a creative process in which African American authors (Morrison specifically) produce original folk char- acters, sayings, stories, and other lore that are completely fictional while often signifying on older, well-established folk traditions (see Harris, Fiction and Folklore: The Novels of Toni Morrison, introduction). 23. See Ashford. 24. See Chesnutt “Superstitions.” 25. Lorde discusses her notion of biomythography in Tate (115). She describes it as fiction that is built from biography, dreams, history, and myth. 26. Breslaw, Reluctant 85–87. 27. Ibid. 175. 28. Rosenthal references Erikson (141) and Boyer and Nissenbaum (181). (Rosen- thal, “Dark Eve” 77–79). 29. Rosenthal, “Dark Eve” 77–79. 30. This line is taken from Paul Lawrence Dunbar’s poem “We Wear the Mask.” 168 Notes

31. There are several sources that document Tituba’s deposition. See Breslaw, “Confession” 542–49 and Reluctant 127–32; V. Tucker, “Purloined Identity” 627; and “Salem Witch Trial Papers.” 32. Tituba is referred to as such within the judicial records of the Salem witch trials. See “Salem Witch Trial Papers.” 33. See Breslaw, Reluctant 21. 34. For a discussion of water-gazing, see White 90. 35. Joseph Bin-bin Mauvant is the African-born ancestor of Alourdes “Mama Lola” Kolwaski—the central figure in Karen McCarthy Brown’s ethnographic study Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn. 36. Here I purposely change the spelling from Vodou, which signifies the Haitian religion, to Voodoo—an Americanized spelling that specifically refers to the practice as it was retained in New Orleans and other parts of Louisiana. 37. Ward 23; Long, New Orleans 22–23; Fandrich, “Mysterious” 152–53 all document the speculation about Charles Laveaux’s racial identity as a French planter but point to evidence in the historical records that suggests that he was indeed a free person of color. 38. There is speculation that Paris deserted Laveau, died of the yellow fever epi- demic, or possibly returned to his home, Saint Domingue. None of this has been corroborated in the historical record. See Ward 38; Long, New Orleans 49–50; Fandrich, “Mysterious” 155–56. 39. See Fandrich, “Mysterious” 166; Long, New Orleans 151–64. 40. The execution of Jean Adam and Anthony Delille in the summer of 1852 for robbery and the murder of a slave woman is the incident in question. Both Ward and Long address the execution and how it has become part of the Laveau legacy. See Ward 123–25; Long, New Orleans 151–54. 41. Long also documents the birth of two daughters to Jacques Paris and Marie Laveau. These two children disappear from the historical record, and Long assumes both children died in their youth (New Orleans 49). 42. There is no supporting evidence that either of the Laveau women worked as a hairdresser, but the belief is still being disseminated through popular culture, oral histories, and some scholarly studies. Ward believes that this myth is more likely part of the younger Marie’s history (73). 43. See Long, New Orleans 191–205, where she compares the lives of the other Laveau-Glapion relatives who might have been mistaken for the daughter of the Widow Paris in the late nineteenth century. 44. Long, New Orleans 197; and Fandrich, “Mysterious” 163. 45. Local journalists, desiring to photograph and otherwise exploit the exclusive Voodoo celebration, made careers out of trying to reliably locate and attend the annual festivities. See Fandrich, “Mysterious” 146–47. 46. Long, New Orleans 66. 47. Ward 149–53. 48. Ward 164; Fandrich, Mysterious 178–79; and Long, New Orleans 200. 49. Long, New Orleans 194–95. Notes 169

50. Here I am referring specifically to the 1822 revolt planned by Denmark Vesey and Gullah Jack Pritchard in Charleston, South Carolina, and the Nat Turner rebellion of 1831 in Southampton County, Virginia, both of which involved elements of the supernatural. See Rucker chs. 5 and 6. 51. Ward 45–47. 52. Long, New Orleans 72–78. 53. Hurston relates this tale as heard from Luke Turner in Mules and Men (192–93). Ward’s study also makes mention of the cashmere shawl (169). 54. Flowers includes cameo appearances by Laveau and Hurston in Another Good Loving Blues. I discuss the details in Chapter 4. 55. Lee uses the term granny midwives where I have substituted conjure woman. While Lee is speaking particularly about the midwife figure in African Ameri- can literature, the conjure woman often crosses into the realm of childbirth and healing practices associated with birth and mothering and vice versa. I believe Lee and I are, however, theorizing on the same phenomena in post-1965 publications by African American writers. For this reason, I substitute my term to maintain a continuity of language and terminology.

Chapter 2

1. Walter Rucker also mentions this incident (35–37). 2. Rucker describes the use of obeah, which he argues is derived from Akan ante- cedents, in the British Caribbean as recourse against slavery (39–45). 3. Rucker dedicates entire chapters to the role of syncretic African spiritual magic in the New York slave conspiracy (ch. 2) and in South Carolina (ch. 3). 4. Folklore and oral histories surrounding the Haitian Revolution dictate that prior to the first maroon attack a Vodou ceremony was held at Bois Caiman in which a sacrifice to Ogun, the loa of war, was made in order to invoke his protection and goodwill. 5. See Rucker, ch. 3. 6. Rucker, ch. 6. 7. See D. Brown for a brief discussion of the history of the terms conjure and hoodoo. Also see Chireau, Black Magic 55. 8. Rucker suggests that Turner’s mother was African-born, though he also indi- cates that this point has yet to be verified by historical evidence (190). 9. Douglass gives more attention to his encounter with Jenkins in “My Bondage and My Freedom” (1855) than he did in his first narrative, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself (1845). 10. William Wells Brown is credited with publishing the first American novel written by an African American author. He published Clotel; or, the President’s Daughter in 1851. His play, The Escape; or a Leap for Freedom, published in 1858, is credited as the first play written by an African American. 11. For a discussion of published folklore studies that took as their primary focus the topics of conjure, hoodoo, Voodoo, and other African retentions in the American South, see Anderson 5–11. 170 Notes

12. See Chesnutt’s “Superstitions and Folk-Lore of the South” for his candid discussion about from where the inspiration for his conjure stories came. 13. See Anderson 56, 62, 78, and 140 for discussions of whites who participated in conjure activity or served as practitioners. Concerning Dr. Buzzard, see 14, 124–25, and 129–31. 14. Hogue develops the white/black binary, a “system of structured racial discrimi- nation that forms the essence of the internal colonial relationship,” as a discourse to critically engage American race relations that “extend into political institutions, educational systems, social practices, and all [other] forms of social structures” (23). 15. This particular story was not published in the 1899 edition and reprints of Chesnutt’s The Conjure Woman. “The Marked Tree” was an unpublished story until it appeared in The Crisis (Dec. 1924–Jan. 1925). It is included in Duke University Press’s The Conjure Woman and Other Conjure Tales, which published all Chesnutt’s conjure stories as a collection. 16. Rucker references the 1740 Slave Act of South Carolina, “which made the administering of poison a felony punishable by torture and execution” (111). 17. Chireau, Black Magic 21; and Anderson 109. Note the physical appearance of conjurers. 18. I am using “controlling images” within the framework of Collins 72–84. 19. J. Roberts 96. 20. Fett 85–92. 21. See Long’s chapter “African Origins and European Influences” (Spiritual Mer- chants) 3–26. 22. See Walker “Looking.” 23. See B. Smith and McDowell. 24. Long, Spiritual Merchants 1–8. 25. Chireau, Black Magic 22. 26. Collins, ch. 4. 27. Karen McCarthy Brown discusses her initiation process in chapter 11, “Plenty Confidence” 311–28. 28. According to folk belief, if a child is born with a veil or caul over his or her face, which is the unbroken membrane of the amniotic sac, that child is believed to have the ability to see ghosts and spirits and communicate with the dead. 29. Hurston details the Jamaican belief in duppies in Tell My Horse (see “Part I: Jamaica”). 30. See Bush 137–42; Moitt 89–100; and Fett 65, 176–77 for discussions of enslaved women’s use of abortion and infanticide as resistance.

Chapter 3

1. See Fett 41; and especially Anderson 35 for discussions of Christianity in pre- middle passage Africa. 2. See Raboteau 25–33 and 44–75 for a specific comparison between African religious retentions and Christian practices in the New World. Notes 171

3. Raboteau 43–92; and Anderson 35–36. 4. By conjuring fiction, I am referring to fiction by African American writers that positions the conjure tradition or conjure figures as prominent foci of the story line. The texts I refer to throughout this chapter are examples of such fiction. 5. The spiritual practices of the Fon, Yoruba, and Bakongo are considered to have the highest retention levels in the New World. African-based religion in the Americas (Vodou, Santería, Condomblé, etc.) are syncretized forms of the religious traditions from these particular groups. The Fon are linked to the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, which is known today as Benin and Togo. The Yoruba are located in present-day Nigeria, and the Bakongo are located in Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. For more details on the specific traditions of each group see Long, Spiritual Merchants, particularly chapter 1. 6. See my analysis in Chapter 2, where I go into more detail about Douglass’s account of the root. 7. See Long, Spiritual Merchants 17–36. Also see Raboteau for his discussion of Afro-Protestant cults in the Caribbean (27). 8. The titles to which I am referring include Yellow Back Radio Broke Down (1969), Mumbo Jumbo (1972), and The Last Days of Louisiana Red (1974). 9. See Wheatley’s poems “On Being Brought from Africa to America” and “Thoughts on the Works of Providence.” Also see J. Lee (27–48) and Marrant (47–75). 10. Creel goes on to detail the ritual of grave ornamentation by the Gullah. Tracing this ritual to the Bakongo, Creel describes how “personal belongings, broken pottery, and porcelain, playthings, lighting utensils, objects pertaining to medi- cine, food, and water” were often left on fresh graves (88). The belief among the Gullah was that death was not the end of one’s journey. They believed in an afterlife in which the deceased’s spirit would linger near the place of burial. Each living person had an obligation to “appease the spirits of the dead so they will not trouble the living,” which many did by leaving objects associated with the deceased on the grave site (86). Creel argues that the notion of an afterlife is strongly connected to Christian belief. 11. Considered “the highest and most powerful of all [Voodoo] gods,” Damballah represents life, creation, and all that is good, according to Zora Neale Hurston (Tell My Horse 118). He is often depicted as an African python or serpent; the other loa, or Voodoo deities, look to Damballah for power and wisdom. 12. Mambo is a commonly used term in the Caribbean that designates the rank of priestess to a female Vodou practitioner. 13. In 2006 Congress designated the coastal region and outlaying Sea Islands of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida a National Heritage Area under the National Heritage Area Act. This area is now recognized as the Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor. Due to the distance from the mainland, slaves brought to work on the Sea Island plantations along the Cor- ridor were often left in isolation, which allowed them and their descendants to retain much more of their African customs and traditions without the larger influence of the dominant culture. Much of the retained African language and culture is still being preserved by slave descendants in the twenty-first century. 172 Notes

For more details, see Creel’s article and the official website of the The Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor, http://www.gullahgeecheecorridor.org/. 14. Raboteau 22–23; Long, Spiritual Merchants17–36. 15. Long, Spiritual Merchants 10–11. 16. Hamington 9–29; Andolesen 207–18; Athens 103–8. 17. Hamington cites the Gospel of Matthew (1:18–24); the Gospel of Luke (1:26–38); the Protevangelium of James (19:18–20:4); and the writings of St. Jerome as his evidence. See Hamington 57–65. 18. The perpetual virginity of Mary was established in the Protevangelium of James around 4 BCE, though this is not accepted by biblical scholars. The Protevan- gelium of James pushes forth the idea that Mary was virgin before, during, and after the birth of Jesus. Hamington notes that even though the text is nonca- nonical, “it caught the imagination of Christians and helped spread the leg- endary virginity of Mary . . . At the Lateran Council of 469, Mary’s perpetual virginity was officially declared a part of Church teaching” (62). See 60–63 for more discussion on the perpetual virginity of Mary, mother of Jesus. 19. I am specifically referring to the requirement of “true women” to be “pure” when they approached the marriage bed. See Welter’s essay. 20. See Walvin and Kitson. 21. The story of Haagar is found in the Old Testament book of Genesis. Briefly, Sarah, the barren wife of Abraham, gives her husband a slave, Haager, to be her sexual surrogate. When Haagar gives birth to a son, Ishmael, Sarah becomes jealous and casts Haagar and her child out into the desert without food or other provisions. 22. See Collins (ch. 4) for a discussion of the Jezebel myth as a controlling image of African American womanhood. 23. Daly 162; Reuther 144. 24. Hamington 53–55. 25. See the monographs Norris and John A. Phillips for a comprehensive look at how narratives of Eve have evolved across culture and time. 26. Hamington 76 and 85. 27. Montgomery interview. 28. According to Hammonds, black women have been socialized to remain silent about the harsh realities surrounding the history or black female sexuality. This silence and shunning of sexuality were meant to combat the rampant stereotypes and misconceptions concerning the promiscuity and overzealous sexual appetites of black women. See Hammonds’s article for a more detailed discussion. 29. Raboteau 295. 30. Ibid. 50. 31. Chireau, Black Magic 27–33. 32. A reincarnation belief among the Igbo of Nigeria, the ogbanje is a spirit— usually of a young child tragically killed before its time—who returns from the world of the dead to haunt and torment the living (see Ogunyemi).

Chapter 4

1. Muddy Waters (McKinley Morganfield), “Louisiana Blues.” Excerpted lyrics taken from Clar 177. Notes 173

2. Johnnie Temple, “Hoodoo Woman” (Decca 7385, Oct. 1937, Reissue Docu- ment DOCD-5238). For the full text of this song, see Yronwode. 3. The 1910 United States Census for Newport Ward 2, Jackson County, Arkansas, lists a Caroline Dye, age 67, as head of the household. There is, mysteriously, no occupation listed (Roll T624_53; Page: 29B; Enumeration District: 73). For a discussion of these particular songs, also see Chireau, Black Magic 146. 4. Anderson 99–100. 5. “Marie Laveau” is a popular folk song in Louisiana. The song is performed by amateurs and professionals alike. Fandrich cites the complete lyrics in her dis- sertation and transcribed the lyrics from Dejan’s Olympia Brass Band’s 1989 album New Orleans Jazz! For complete lyrics, see Fandrich, “Mysterious” 237. 6. The Sly Fox (Eugene Fox), “Hoodoo Say” (Sparks 108 [78 RPM], 1954). Excerpted lyrics taken from Clar 178. 7. Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, “Louisiana Hoodoo Blues” (Paramount 12290, May 1925, Reissue VJM 82, Biograph 12001). Complete lyrics transcribed by Davis 229. 8. Bessie Brown, “Hoodoo Blues” (Columbia 14029, July 1924, Reissue Document DOCD-5527; composed by Spencer Williams). For complete lyrics please see Yronwode. 9. The Haitian Revolution is said to have been partly inspired by the Vodou ceremony at Bois Caiman in 1791. See Deren 62. Denmark Vesey’s conspiracy to revolt in Charleston, South Carolina, was assisted by Gullah Jack Pritchard, a well-known conjure man. See chs. 3, 5, and 6 of Rucker’s work. 10. For specific article references, see Anderson 3–5 and the edited collection of original articles by D. Waters. 11. Laveau’s obituary was published in the June 26, 1881, edition of The New York Times; Lafcadio Hearn wrote the obituary for Dr. John (Harper’s Weekly Maga- zine 29 [1885]: 726–27). 12. Puckett published Folk Beliefs of the Southern Negro in 1926, while Hyatt and Herskovits published Folklore from Adams County and Myth of the Negro Past, respectively, in 1935 and 1941. 13. Hurston’s article, “Hoodoo in America” eventually became the book length study Mules and Men. It is under this title that most readers continue to make use of her early folklore collections. 14. According to Charles Joyner in the introduction to Drums and Shadows, many of the leading scholars of the early twentieth century disavowed any correla- tion between African cultural survival in African American culture and folklore. Hurston was among the few researchers of her time (along with Herskovits) who supported the idea of African cultural continuities in the Americas. See Savannah Unit Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows xvi–xx. 15. Bessie Smith, “Washwoman Blues” (Columbia 14375-D, Aug. 1928). Lyrics by Spencer Williams. See Davis 349 for complete lyrics. 16. Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, “Barrel House Blues” (Paramount 12082, Dec. 1923, Reissue Queen of the Blues, Biograph BLP-12032, n.d.). Excerpted lyrics taken from Davis 22. 17. Bessie Smith, “Poor Man’s Blues” (Columbia 14399-D Aug. 1928). See Davis 327–28 for complete lyrics. 174 Notes

18. Texas Alexander, “Tell Me Woman Blues” (Okeh 8673, Nov. 1928). See Yron- wode for complete lyrics. 19. Little Hat Jones, “Two Strings Blues” (Okeh 8712, June 1929). See Yronwode for complete lyrics. 20. Bessie Smith, “Gin House Blues” (Columbia 14158-D, March 1926). The complete lyrics are transcribed in Davis 283. 21. Bessie Smith, “Please Get Him Off My Mind.” (Columbia 14375, Aug. 1928). Lyrics found in Davis 327. 22. John Lee “Sonny Boy” Williamson (I), “Hoodoo Hoodoo” (Bluebird Records, Aug. 6, 1946). See Yronwode for complete lyrics. 23. Cripple Clarence Lofton, “Strut That Thang” (Vocalion 02951, April 1935). Excerpted lyrics taken from Clar 180. 24. See Thompson 108; Fennell 31. 25. Baron Samedi is the loa of death and in this particular instance serves as the spirit who will usher Effie Dupree’s spirit to the invisible world. See Deren 112–13 and 117–18 where she discusses the Ghedé spirits, of which Baron Samedi is an integral part. 26. By literariness I mean the use of classic narrative and literary techniques such as characterization, allegory, narrative structure, point of view, and other genre- specific methods used in the rendering of a story. I am not privileging Western literary conventions here but referring also to specific norms such as vernacu- lar language, orality/aurality, rhythm, authorial/narrator intrusion, call and response, and other elements found in nonwritten forms of narrative. 27. In chapter 4 of her monograph, Fett discusses the literary structure of oral histories of conjuration that were recorded between 1870 and 1940. The examples of orally recorded conjure tales she cites are documented in Southern black oral histories and folklore collections (84–108). 28. Ibid., 84–108. 29. The story “Black Death” by Zora Neale Hurston was part of an unpublished collection of work until the 1995 publication of The Complete Stories by Harper Perennial. 30. The recurring image of the professional rivalry between conjuring figures appears between Naylor’s Ruby, Dr. Smithfield, and Miranda “Mama” Day and between Jewell Parker Rhodes’s John, Nettie, and Marie Laveau. Kasi Lem- mons’s film Eve’s Bayou (1997) also includes a professional rivalry between Mozelle Batiste (Debbie Morgan) and Elzora (Dihann Carroll). 31. Shange’s novel Sassafrass, Cypress & Indigo (1982) features a magical child healer in training in her character Indigo. 32. See Carroll’s chapter on Tina McElroy Ansa (17–26). 33. For a detailed description of the various kinds of charms used in traditional African religions and their Americanized counterparts, see Long, Spiritual Mer- chants 6–9. Works Cited

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Akan, 169n2 Barbados, 19, 21; Tituba in, 26, 27–36, Ancestors, 9, 24, 44, 48, 53, 84, 96, 87, 113 124–26, 146 Baron Samedi, 144, 174n25 Ancestor vs. stranger. See Griffin, Farah Bibb, Henry, 57; Narrative of the Life Jasmine and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an Anderson, Jeffery, 4, 56, 91, 129, American Slave Written by Himself, 169n11, 170n1, 170n13, 170n17, 57 171n3, 173n4, 173n10 biomythography. See Lorde, Audre animal sacrifice, 20, 61 Black Arts movement, 10, 67, 68 Another Good Loving Blues. See Flowers, Blake, Henry. See Delaney, Martin R. Arthur Blake; or the Huts of America. See Ansa, Tina McElroy, 4, 6, 10–12, 48, Delaney, Martin R. 69, 71, 78, 88, 90, 96, 101–3, blood, 31, 32, 44, 81, 98, 104, 123, 114–17, 125–26 174n32; Baby 156 of the Family, 11, 69, 78, 101, blues, 5, 6, 12–13, 128–38, 157; 155–56; Hand I Fan With, The, bluesman, 123, 137–38, 11, 101–2, 155; Herman, 102–3, 140, 141–43, 145, 150–51; 115; Lena McPherson, 6, 12, 78, blueswoman, 135, 137; definition 101–4, 114–15, 155, 160; Nurse of, 134–35; lyrics, 13, 128, 133, Bloom, 6, 48, 71, 101 137, 157; music, 4, 127–34, 138, Anyanwu. See Butler, Octavia 141, 151, 155, 157; singer, 130, ashé, 7, 34 Aunt Caroline Dye, 13, 129 141, 144, 147 Aunt Cuney. See Marshall, Paule Bodeen, Lucas “Sweet Luke.” See Aunt Peggy. See Chesnutt, Charles W. Flowers, Arthur Brown, Blacksnake. See Phillips, J. J. Baby of the Family. See Ansa, Tina Brown, Karen McCarthy, 78, 168n35, McElroy 170n27; Mama Lola: A Vodou Baker, Houston A., 2, 68; Modernism Priestess in Brooklyn, 78, 168n35 and the Harlem Renaissance, 68 Brown, William Wells, 10, 58, 169n10; Bambara, Toni Cade, 66, 68, 80, 90, Uncle Dinkie, 58 115, 159; Minnie Ransom, 5, 71, Burton, Rainelle, 10, 12, 71, 119, 160; 80–81, 95, 115–16; Old Wife, 80– Root Worker, The, 119–21 81, 116; Salt Eaters, The, 12, 69, Butler, Octavia, 12, 79, 121, 159; 80, 115; Velma Henry, 81, 115–16 Anyanwu, 79–80, 87, 121–22; Baraka, Amiri, 127 Wild Seed, 87, 121 186 Index

Catholicism, 19, 46, 85–86, 97–108, double consciousness, 8, 11, 90, 95–104 126 Douglass, Frederick, 10, 57, 60, 92–93, caul, 6, 78, 101–2, 156, 170n28 169n9, 171n6; Sandy Jenkins, 10, Chesnutt, Charles W., 10, 93, 95, 118– 57, 92 19, 132, 152–55; Aunt Peggy, 6, Dr. Buzzard, 61, 170n13 10, 48, 60–66; 86, 93, 118–19, Dr. John, 132, 173n11 153; Conjure Woman, The, 10, 60, Dupree, Melvira. See Flowers, Arthur 62–67, 93, 118, 153, 170n15; Uncle Julius McAdoo, 61, 62, 153 Eagleton, Harlan. See Jones, Gayl Chireau, Yvonne, 1, 4, 12, 22, 64, 90, Elegba, 149 91, 95, 118, 126, 129–31, 136, Elzora. See Eve’s Bayou 169n7, 170n17 Equiano, Olaudah, 2, 10, 56, 165n3, n9 Christ, 83–84, 86, 92, 94, 98, 99, erotic, the. See Lorde, Audre 104–9 Christianity, 11, 57, 88, 90–100, Erzulie, 12, 106–9, 116 107–11, 118–22, 170n1; white Escape; or a Leap for Freedom, The. See Christianity, 94 Brown, William Wells Condé, Maryse, 9, 30–37, 46, 48, 50– Eve’s Bayou, 64, 119, 174n30; Elzora, 52, 56, 81, 87, 113, 160; I, Tituba, 119, 174n30 Black Witch of Salem, 9, 30, 81, 113; Mama Yaya, 31–32, 81, 113 Fett, Sharla M., 4, 13, 65–66, 72, Congo, 107, 171n5. See also Kongo 118–25, 136, 152–55, 170n20, Congo Square, 39, 45, 47 170n30, 170n1, 174n27 Conjure Woman, The. See Chesnutt, Flowers, Arthur, 4, 10, 13, 23, 37, 49, Charles W. 64, 69, 71, 90, 95, 122, 140, 150, conjuring moment, 5–7, 12, 33, 60, 62, 159; Another Good Loving Blues, 66, 121, 139, 151–56 64, 69, 122, 140, 150–51, 159; controlling images, 64, 73, 111, 170n18 Hootowl, 72, 82, 123–25, 144– crossroads, 139, 145, 149, 151 45; Lucas “Sweet Luke” Bodeen, 13, 72, 87 123–24, 140–45, 150– Dahomey, 69, 107, 171n5 51; Melvira Dupree, 5, 13, 64, Damballah, 83, 97–98, 109, 112–13, 71–72, 82–87, 121–25, 140–43, 171n11 150, 156, 160 Dash, Julie, 12, 88; Daughters of the Fon, 69, 171n5 Dust: A Novel, 12, 87; Lil Bet, 82; Nana Peazant, 82 From Trickster to Badman. See Roberts, Daughters of the Dust: A Novel. See John W. Dash, Julie Davis, Angela, 127, 130 Geechee. See Gullah Delaney, Martin R., 58–60; Blake; or the Ghamus, Maudy. See Delaney, Martin R. Huts of America, 58–60; Gamby Gholar, Gamby. See Delaney, Martin R. Gholar, 59–60; Henry Blake, 59; Glapion, Christophe, 39–40, 45 Maudy Ghamus, 59–60 Glapion, Marie Eucharist. See Laveau, divination, 2, 5, 17, 30, 33, 57, 69, 91, Marie 121 Glapion, Marie Philomène, 39, 41 Index 187

Griffin, Farah Jasmine, 6, 9, 11, 100, Kongo, 7, 44, 139, 171n5, 171n10 165n5; Ancestor vs. stranger, 6–7, konnaissance, 15, 18, 32, 146 99–103 Kramer, Heinrich, 15–18, 84 griot, 37, 51 Gullah, 7, 96, 98, 171n10, 171n13 Laveau, Marie, 42–47, 48–50, 52, 72, Gullah Jack. See Pritchard, Gullah Jack 83, 85, 97, 109, 111–14, 129, 132, 168n41, 173n5, 174n30; Haagar, 105, 172n21 Glapion, Marie Eucharist, 39–42; Haiti, 12, 18, 19, 21, 47, 55, 90, 91, Widow Paris, the, 38–42, 168n43 107, 118, 144, 165n2, 167n18, Lee, Valerie, 3, 22, 53, 70, 95 168n36 Lil Bet. See Dash, Julie Haitian Revolution, 21, 43, 47, 55, literary archaeologies, 48, 165n7 167n18, 169n4, 173n9 Loa, 2, 12, 21, 56, 84, 85, 106, 107, Hampton Folklore Society, 131 112, 114, 166n13, 169n4, Hand I Fan With, The. See Ansa, Tina 171n11, 174n25 McElroy Lorde, Audre, 25, 104, 113; Henry, Velma. See Bambara, Toni Cade biomythography, 25, 165n4; “Uses of the Erotic,” 104, 113 Herman. See Ansa, Tina McElroy Lucumí, 1, 19, 23, 54, 69, 91 Hogue, Lawrence W., 62, 170n14 Hootowl. See Flowers, Arthur Malleus Maleficarum. See Kramer, Hopkinson, Nalo, 4, 23, 69, 85 Heinrich Hurston, Zora Neale, 4, 6, 8, 18, 23, Mama Day. See Gloria Naylor 40, 49, 67–68, 72, 130–33, 144, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in 153–56, 158, 166n6, 169n53, Brooklyn. See Brown, Karen 169n54, 170n29, 171n11, McCarthy 173n13, 173n14, 174n29 Mama Yaya. See Condé, Maryse Marshall, Paule, 69, 100; Aunt Cuney, Ifá Paradigm. See Montgomery, 95, 101; Avey Johnson, 101; Georgene Bess Praisesong for the Widow, 69, 101 Immaculate Conception, 104 Mary Magdalene, 107 Interesting Narrative of the Life of McPherson, Lena. See Ansa, Tina Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus McElroy Vassa, the African, The. See mer. See Hopkinson, Nalo Equiano, Olaudah “Molly Means.” See Walker, Margaret Islam, 96 Montgomery, Georgene Bess, 9, 114, I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem. See 159; Ifá Paradigm, 9, 165n8 Condé, Maryse Morrison, Toni, 3, 4, 6, 9, 22, 48, 70, 95, 159, 165n7, 167n21, 167n22; Jamaica, 19, 21, 25, 52, 89, 167n12, Pilate Dead, 79; Song of Solomon, 167n19, 170n29 11, 69, 79 Jenkins, Sandy. See Douglass, Frederick Muhammed, Bilali, 96 Jes Grew. See Reed, Ishmael Mumbo Jumbo. See Reed, Ishmael Johnson, Avey. See Marshall, Paule Jones, Gayl, 110 Nana Peazant. See Dash, Julie 188 Index

Nanny Griggs, 21, 53 Ransom, Minnie. See Bambara, Toni Nanny of the Windward Maroons, 21, Cade 25, 36, 52–53 Reed, Ishmael, 12, 68, 94, 106, 159, Naylor, Gloria, 3, 5, 24, 66, 71–79, 171n8; Jes Grew, 108; Mumbo 84–85, 88, 165n10; Bailey’s Café, Jumbo, 12, 68, 94, 106–8, 171n8; 12, 79, 110–11; Eve, 12, 79, Papa LaBas, 108 110–11, 147; Mama Day, 5, 7, “Revenge of Hannah Kemhuff, The.” 11, 69, 75, 120, 155–56; Miranda See Walker, Alice “Mama” Day, 24, 71–79, 120–21, Rhodes, Jewell Parker, 12, 46, 69, 174n30; Sapphira Wade, 48, 71, 71–72, 83, 97, 111, 160, 174n30; 78, 83, 161 Voodoo Dreams, 6–7, 12, 46, 48, Nider, Johannes, 16–18, 44, 84 51–52, 72, 83, 97, 111 nonbeliever, 6–8, 163 rituals of rememory, 9, 23–25, 30, 48– Nurse Bloom. See Ansa, Tina McElroy 49, 53, 162, 165n7 Roberts, John W., 2, 3, 65, 93, 154 obeah, 1, 15, 19, 21, 23, 24, 29, 30, 31, Root Worker, The. See Burton, Rainelle 33, 37, 51, 55, 159, 163, 167n16, Rucker, Walter C. 57, 169n 50, 169n1, 167n19, 169n2 169n2, 169n3, 169n5, 169n6, ogbanje, 121–22, 172n32 169n8, 170n16, 173n9 Ryan, Judylyn S., 3, 91, 94 Old Wife. See Bambara, Toni Cade orisha, 2, 34, 85 saints, 19, 44, 86, 92 Oshun, 149, 151 Salem witch trials, 9, 19, 25, 37, 166n11, 168n32 Papa LaBas. See Reed, Ishmael Salt Eaters, The. See Bambara, Toni Cade Paris, Jacques, 38, 168n41; fictional Salt Roads, The. See Hopkinson, Nalo character, 86, 97 Satan, 16–17, 20, 27, 84, 110, 113 Petry, Ann, 9, 30–31, 34, 37, 46, 51, Seven Sisters, 13, 53, 129 159; , Tituba of Salem Village seventh son, 78, 144 30–36 sexuality, 12; and black women, 74–77, Phillips, J. J., 4, 13, 69, 137; Blacksnake 106, 109–17, 128, 172n28; and Brown, 137–38; Eunice Prideaux, orgasm, 114; and spirituality, 12, 71, 137–40; Mojo Hand: An 16, 17, 85, 90, 104–6, 109–17 Orphic Tale, 4, 13, 69, 137–40, Shange, Ntozake, 11, 69, 73, 82, 88, 155 89, 95, 146; Aunt Haydee, 71, politics of silence, 116, 172n28 82–83, 103; Indigo, 5, 11, 71, Praisesong for the Widow. See Marshall, 73, 82–85, 98–104, 155, 159–60, Paule 174n31; Sassafrass, Cypress, and Prideaux, Eunice. See Phillips, J. J. Indigo, 69, 73–75, 82, 98, 146, Pritchard, Gullah Jack, 52, 56, 169n50, 150, 160, 174n31; Sister Mary 173n9 Louise, 73, 98–102, 104; Uncle professional rivalry, 7–8, 155, 174n30 John, 73, 98 Protestantism, 9, 16, 19, 89 Shangó, 34, 149 Protestant Reformation, 19, 166n9 Sister Mary Louise. See Shange, Ntozake Index 189

Smith, Bessie, 130, 135, 157, 173n15, Virgin Mary, the, 12, 45, 92, 104–9 173n17, 174n20, 174n21 Vodou, 1, 12, 19, 21–23, 37, 43, 55, 69, snakes, 44, 78, 85, 112–13, 139. See 91, 94, 107, 118, 165n2, 166n13, also Damballah 167n18, 168n35, 168n36, 169n4, spirit possession, 2, 12, 20, 91, 112 171n5, 171n12, 173n9 Spirituality as Ideology in Black Women’s Vodún, 165n2 Film and Literature. See Ryan, Voodoo, 1, 9, 12, 29, 39, 42–44, Judylyn S. 47, 90, 117, 128, 131, 165n2, spirit work, 1–3, 7, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21, 168n36, 168n45, 169n11, 171n11 47, 51, 53, 55, 71, 81, 84, 88, Voodoo Dreams: A Novel of Marie 110, 155, 161, 163 Laveau. See Rhodes, Jewell Parker St. John’s Eve, 40, 90 “Strong Horse Tea.” See Walker, Alice Walker, Alice, 3, 66, 68, 159; The Color Purple, 89; “Revenge of Hannah Tallant, Robert, 43–44 Kemhuff, The” 6, 82, 155; “Strong Tell My Horse. See Hurston, Zora Neale Horse Tea,” 11, 69 Tituba, in history, 24, 25–30, 47–49, Walker, Margaret, 55, 67 50–52; in Condé’s fiction, 30–32, water-gazing, 33–36 35–37, 50, 81, 87, 113–14; in Waters, Muddy, 128, 129, 135, 142, Petry’s fiction, 30, 32–33, 35–37; 157, 172n1 and race, 27–29, 168n31, 168n32 Widow Paris, the. See Laveau, Marie trickster, 26, 27, 35, 80 Wild Seed. See Butler, Octavia Turner, Nat, 10, 56–57, 169n50 witch, 15–20, 25–29, 36, 72, 83, 166n1, 166n7, 166n8, 166n11 Uncle Dinkie. See Brown, William Wells witchcraft, 9, 15–20, 25, 33, 46, 58, Uncle John. See Shange, Ntozake 117, 166n3, 166n5, 166n8 Uncle Julius McAdoo. See Chesnutt, Works Progress Administration (WPA), Charles W. 41 veil. See caul Yoruba, 69, 107, 133, 171n5