MARCII 15. 1961.

Vol. XI II. No. 9 Price- THREE SHILLINGS

.J - !I_------

This pa intin ~ , s ho wing .. messenger dc li vcr i n~ :1 message stick, is the central feature of an Australian Museum exhi bit dealing with Aboriginal methods o t' communication- message !.licks, smo ke signa ls and sign la nguage. An article o n the Museum's new Aboriginal exhibits appears on paJ.:e 279. * THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM HY DE PARK , SYDNEY

ll OA itD OF TR STEE . I' IU•.SHn;N 'I : I . U. S P h NU :. R <.: now ·r•t s·a,.;..:: 1·. ll. SP f:.1 CER

OFFi t.:l i\L TH ST f.~E T II H liON. T ill.:. (.J ff f:.l• J USllCE. THF HO . T il e I>RES IDb I Of T l Cl:. Lliui~LA fi V E COU "'CII . T H E 11 0 . T HE C H I EF SEC RETARY. THE HO . T ilL A fl OR,F:.Y · vE~ERAL Tllb HO . Til E TREASURER. THE HO . 1 H I:. M I I'. IS I I;.R FOR PUBLIC WORKS. THE HO . TI-ll:. Ml ISTF-R FOR rDUCATION . T H E AUOITOR-GEI'.ERAL. T H E PRES1DE1 T OF T H E EW SOUTH WA LES MEDlCAL BOARD. HIE SU R EYOR-GE ERAL A D C HIEF U RVEYOR. THE CROv , O LICITOR. ELECTIVE TR USTEES : 0. G. I CKERY. B.E., M.l.E. (Aust.). FRAl".K \\'. HILL 1 PROF. A. P. E LKI • M.A., Ph.D. G. A. JOH~!:>O~ . F. McDOWELL. PROF. J . R. A . M cMLLLAJ.'i , .M.S .. D .S .Agr. R. J. NOBLE. C.B.E .. B.Sc.Agr .. M.Sc .. Ph .D . E. A. J . HYDE . .E. J. KE Y. M.Aust.I.M.M. PROF. R. L . CRO C~R . D . c. F. L. S. BELL, M.A., F.R.A.l. J . \\·. GOOD ELL C.M.G.

D IRECTOR: J . \ . E A 1 S. Sc.D. DEPUTY DIRECTOR : H . 0. FLETCHE R. M. ' c. SCIENTIF IC STAFF: Birds. Reptiles and Amphibians: J . A. KEAST. M .A .. M.Sc .. Ph.D .. Curator: H. G . COGGER. 13 .. , tGen ..:ic.), ASSIStant C ur>ttOr. Mammals: B. J. MARLOW. B.Sc., F.Z ... Cur:1tor. Fishes: G. P. WHITLEY, F.R.Z.S., Cur:~tor. Insects a nd Arachnids: C. 1 • SMn H ER . !Vl.Sc.. Cur:1tor: D. K. ~kALPlN E. M . c .. A ~shtant Cur:.Jllll. Molluscs: D. F. McMICII AEL, M.A .. Ph.D .. Curatm. Crust:~cea and Coe lent erate~ : F. A . M ci'\1~ 1 LL. F. R.Z. ·.. tu :H~' r. 'Norms and Echinodcrms: E LIZA I:I E'I'II C. POPE. 1\ 1.~ ~· .. C m:llvl . Minerals and Rocks: R. 0 . ('I! A LJ'vt J:::RS, r\.S.T .C .. ' u rnw r. Fossils: H. 0. FLETCIIER, M.Sc .. Curator. f\nthropology: I·. D. M cC A I~ lilY , l )lp.r\nthrot) .. Cun llllr.

tmi'I'OIUAL i\S~ I STAN ' I' ANI) l'llUUC t-:Dl'C A no~ OFFICE~: I ~ El.i\ I'IONS (Wii' l(;l>:ft: PI• II' R CO l I 1!'. KXIIIlll I'ION lll ~ l 'AlU'i\ t l': N ' l . i\U I' N O J )ESU~N s•:CTlO'II: I . .1 . Bl H •IA .

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Cl• ullhtlllltll' l t'lllhut>lht. I' i\ ll tr ~ II W f•lll• I I \ I• 11, I H I'· •I{' "" \\ . ltll t. - CONTENTS

Page

GEMSTONES OF A USTRALTA-R. 0. Cha/mers 275

NEw ABORIG I NAL EXHIBITS AT THE M USEUM-Frederick D. M cCarthy 279

TI-lE ROBBER CRAB- A CRUSTACEAN MYSTERY- Frank M cN ei/1 283

THE BLUE WREN-/ cm R ow/ey 287

USES OF R ADIO-ACTIVITY lN ENTOMOLOGY AND I NSECT-PEST C ONTROL- M. F. Day, S. W . Bailey and K. R. N orris 29 1 FOSSI L f NSECT S-1 . W . £ vans 294 TRIGGER PLANTS- David K. M cAlpine 297 fREA K FISHES-G. P. Whitley 298

L A D AND FRESHWATER I NVERTEBRATES OF T ilE SYDNEY AREA-£. C. Pope and D. F. M cMichael 302 WJLLIAM HOLM ES, T 11 E AUSTRALIA M USEU 'vi'S FIRST CUSTODIA -G. P. Whitley . . . . 306

e The photo on our front cover was taken by Australia n Museum photogra pher H oward H ughes. The painting depic ted is typical of the new techn;ques used in the Museum· Aboriginal section­ tech niques designed to make the exhibits both educltiona l ami entertaining. VoL.- Xlll. No. 9 MA RCH 15, 196 1 AUSTRALIAN BOOKS

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SKINDIVING IN AUSTRALIA Edw ord du Cros The first Australian book on the subject by a n expert. An id eal gift for beginners and experienced skindi vers. WeB ill ustrated ...... 25 I- (post 1/ 3)

Handbook of TREES AND SHRUBS for t he Southern Hemisphere by Richmond f . Harrison A bi ~ new book wit h over 350 ill ustrations. many in colour. " Incompa rable in magmt ude and magnificence, in bounteous informati on. (Country Life) 63/- (post 2/ 6) THE AUSTRALIAN SEASHORES W. J. Dakin The fasci nating ani mals and plants of the seashore. Colour a nd black-and-white photographs ...... 50/- (post 2/ 1)

available at all bookseller s and ANGUS & ROBERTSON (PUBLISHERS) PTY LTD 89 CASTLEREAGH STREET, SYDNEY

Page 274 The Australian Museum Magazin e THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM MAGAZINE Published Quarterly by the Australian M useum College Street, Sydney Editor: 1. ·w. Evans. Sc.D . A nnual Subscri ption, Posted, 14/-

~--=--- VoL. Xlll. No. 9 MARCH 15, 1961

Gemstones of Australia By R. 0 . CHALMERS

G EMSTONES are varieties of minerals water, fi ll s bedding planes and joints in a possessing special qualities of beauty, fine-grained clayey sandstone, and occasion­ durability and rarity. T he beauty of a stone ally replaces fossil shells and bones. A in most cases depends on the co lo ur, number of highly cri tical conditions have to transparency a nd lustre. A ustralia's two be fulfi lled before precious opal can form ; most important gemsto nes a re opal and hence, it takes its place among the precious sapphire. !'tones because of its rarity and beauty. Opal consists of silica combined with a T hese q uali ties more than compensate for its variable percentage of water. The common rela ti ve softness. variety is of world-wide distributio n, occur­ The two chief New South Wales opal ring in resino us opaque masses of varying fie lds are White Cliffs, in the West Darling colour. The beauty of precio us o pal is not district, and L ightning Ridge, near Walgett, due to transparency o r lustre but to a discovered in 1889 and the early 1890's bri ll ia nt play of colo urs that fl ash in a respecti vely. L ightning R idge is the home ground-mass of common opal. T his is due of the uniq ue black opal, in which the to structures with in the o pal breaking up colo urs fl ash out from a greyish or blu ish­ white light into its component colo urs. O pal black background. T he val ue of New South shows vario us colo ur patterns, each with a \Vales opal is over £1,500,000, which is distinctive name, such as " pinfi re", "flash" ':lore than half the total Australian produc­ and "harlequin" opal. The value of opal tiOn of £2,500,000. T hese are official depends in part on its depth of colour, its figures and are probably an underestimate. pattern and on whe ther red is a predominant . In recent years New South Wales produc­ colour. no.n has been negligible, the principal source Prior to the discovery of the famous bemg the two South A ustralian fie lds­ Austra lian fie lds p recio us opal was found Coober Pedy. o n the road to A lice Springs only in relati vely small q uantities in volcanic (discovered in 1915) and Andamooka. at rocks in Hungary, Mexico, Centra l America the northern end of Lake Torrens ( dis­ and Nevada (U.S.A.). In Australia the covered in 1930) . opal fie lds of econo mic importance a re A ltho ugh opal in western Queensland was fo und in the a rid inla nd regio ns of the conti­ discovered earlier and occurs over a much ~en t. T he precio us o pal is d istributed larger a rea than in the other two States, onl y Irregularly in veins or nodul es of " potch" or a very small amoun t is now produced from common opal that is deposited from ground- o ne mine. the H ayricks, near Qui lpie. T he

March, 1961 Page 275 A group of quanz cry tals f rom undle, ew South Wale .

curious "boulder opal." in whi ch ramifying R uby. o ne of the ra rest a nd most precious ve ins of precious opal occur in ironsto ne of a ll gem sto nes. i ll lso a variety of corun­ nodules. is peculiar to Queensla nd. dum. but is no t found in A ustrali a . Sapphire is one of the precious varieties Common con.mdum is opaque. is a non­ of the mineral corundum (aluminium d escri pt. dirty. greeni h-grey colour. a nd i. oxide). possessing a deep-biue colour and valuable only as a n abrasive. It i almo t perfect transparency. This gemsto ne occurs unbeli evable that these lovely transparent in many basall areas thro ugho ut the eastern blue. red , golden a nd green gemstone have Austral ian highlands. In New South Wales exactly the same che mical composition and sapphire has been worked commercially, on the same physical a nd optical properties a a sma ll scale. alonQ: the banks of Frazer's the commo n varie ty. Creek in the lnverell district. Practicall y the Be ryl is a tra n. pa rent green stone. some­ whole Australi an o utput comes from times wi th a yellow tinge. When beryl has a A nakie. 192 miles west of Rockhampto n, pale greeni sh-blue ti nt it is known as a4 ua- Queensland. Here it is recovered as water­ ma rine. O ccasio na lly gem-q uality beryl worn fragments from a ncient stream deposits were found in the cou rse of tin mining in the of graveL sand a nd si lt . now lying under Emmaville and Torrington d istricts'· in the basalt fl ows. ln addition to the blue variety, New E ngla nd area of New South Wale . sapphires of a rich golden colour a re found E me rald. the deep-green variety of beryL at A nakie. T hese golden sapphires rank as was won from a tin mine near Emmavillc one of Australi a's fin est gemstones a nd some 70 years ago. but it was a sma ll and d eserve to be bette r known. Anakie is also sho rt-lived indus try. Comme rcial mining for noted for green saprhires a nd the lustrous e meralds has aL o been carried o ut a t Poona. black opaque sta r-sapphires that have in the Murc hison d istrict of We. tern a ro used much interest in A merica. A ustra I ia.

The A ustra/ian luseum lal(a:int' Topaz is fo und in granite a reas through­ commoner gemstones and are widely out the eastern Australian highla nds, as in distributed in Australia. Worthy of note are Tasmania and F linders Island and at Stan­ the deep-red garnets of the almandite variety thorpe, Queen land. The choicest gem fo und in the Pre-Cambrian schists and va riety however. comes fro m N ew So uth gneisses o f the Harts Range, Central Wales. Large crystals. o r waterwo rn pebbles, Australia. These are sometimes cut and perfectl y flawless and transparent, can still be marketed under the name "Australian recovered today from heaps of mullock left ruby," which is quite mi sleading and led a by tin ~1iners a long the _ba~ks of the Oban well-known Australian authoress into serious River. m the Guyra dtstn ct of the New erro r in describing mining fields of Central England tableland. N ew So uth Wa les. When Australia. cut these stones have a most attractive clari ty and brilliance . All Australian to paz Rock Crystal show de licate tints of blue a nd g reen, a fact which surpri es the layman since most C lear. colo urless quartz known as rock people think of to paz o nly as a brownish­ crystal, the yellow variety, citrine, the yellow stone of great brilliance because of yellowish-brown cairngorm (the well-known the predominance of such material from the deco rati ve stone of Scottish Highland BraziI ia n field . ceremonial dress) and amethyst, the beautiful purple variety, all occur through­ Zircons occur in decomposed basalt at out the numerous gra r1ite areas of the eastern Hanging Rock. N ew South W ales, and are Australian highlands, especially in the New abundant in the gravels of vario us streams at England a rea. The clearest, most flawless Uralla. lnvere ll , Aberfoyle and Bald Kno b, and largest masses of rock crystal come from in the New E ngland area of the same State. the well-known molybdenite and bismuth Zircons are al o associated with sapphires at mines of Kingsgatc, near G len Innes. One Ana kie. Attractive to nes ra nging in colo ur o f these masses weighed 25 lb. Perfectly from deep-red to golden yellow have been clear crystals a lso have been found near cut, but they are not sufTiciently abundant to Hanging Rock, Nundle and at the Conrad have given ri se to an industry. ln recent Mine, H owell. Waterworn pebbles of all years pale-straw to colo urless crystals fro m the varieties of quartz a re found in the the Strangways Ranges, Central Australia, gravels of the rivers in the Oban district. "" have been cut in A li ce Springs. f ncidentally, Tourmaline of gem quality, both green the blue zirco n. which is the common sto ne and p ink. is found only on Kangaroo island, in the trade, does not occur na turally. lt off the So uth Au tra lian coast, although the is made by subjecting reddish-brown 7ircon common opaque black variety frequently to heat treatment. This is done in Bangkok, occurs in granites througho ut the continent. Th~ il a nd , o n rough material fro m [ndo­ Chma. Diamond is found in every State in Garnet and va ri ous members of the quartz Australia excep t the No rthern T erritory. family, while very attractive a nd durable, The most important source is New South lack value because they a re a mong the Wales. where it wa first found about 100

Cut cttnne ( left) fro.m . Oban Creek wetght~ g ~oz., a nd ~ut catrngorm, weigh ­ Ing !oz., from New wngla nd. Both these ne New South Wales stones were c ut ~d presented to the useum by 0. le M . Knight.

March. 196I Page 277 A superb, perfectly tran parent, pale blue cu l topaz Cleft) weighing I t oz.. from Oban, and a pale yellowi h-green beryl. remarkably free from naws a nd weighing a liltle over t oz., from HefTernan' Wolfram Mine, Torrington, New South Wale ~ .

years ago m a few locali ties on the and this, together with their small size, Macquarie River between Bathurst a nd ma kes them mostl y unsui table for cutting a Wellington. Commercial mining first began gemstones. in 1867 at T wo Mile Flat, on the Cudgegong Diamond is ind ispensable as an abrasive River, 19 miles north-west of Mudgee. ln because of its s uperior hardness, and during 1872, it was discovered near Bingara, on the war the Copeton field supplied a small the Gwydir R iver, and fi na lly the most but useful quota for ind ustry. Recently. important Australian field was discovered in over a period o f a few years. a large gold 1875 at Boggy Camp, near Inverell, o n d redge working on the Macquarie River near Cope's Creek, a tributary of the Gwydir. Wellington, New South Wales, recovered an Later this became known as Copeton. a ppreciable quantity o f small ind u trial T he origin of diamond has exercised the d iamo nds fro m the large a mo unts of allu­ minds of many geologists. In the Copeton vium p ut th rough in the search for gold. but. district there is an occurrence of diamond operations have now ceased . With these embedded in a parent rock, dolerite, but two exceptions, there has been no d ia mond apart from this the origin is quite unknown, ind ustry in Australia for the last 40 year . every occurrence being in ancient stream It will be seen that practically every well­ gravels, often lying under basalt flows. In known gemstone has been found in A u tralia some places the diamonds have been washed except ruby. While o ur gemstones are of into the alluvium of present-day stream considerable scientific interest we cannot beds. The ancient gravels are very often so cla im to rank as o ne of the world's chief firmly cemented together that in crushing producers, since o nly about one-half per them there is risk of damage to the cent. of the world's to ta l production comes diamonds. from this country. Nor can the gemstone ind ustry claim great im portance in Austra lian sto nes are sma ll , seldom A ustralia's econo my, as it fo rms les than exceeding 6 carats (about one-thirtieth of an o ne-fiftieth per cenl. of A ustralia's total ounce). The average size is much smaller mineral production. T he two most note­ than this. T he giants of the African fie lds worthy features o f o ur gemstone industry are not found here. Australi an diamonds are that Austra lia is the world's chi ef pro­ arc harder than diamonds from any other ducer of opal a nd that Queensland sa pphire part of the world, but this is only a relative production is by no means negligible. matter as diamond is the hardest of known substances, natural or artificial. T hey are [Photos with this article are by Howard nearly always slightly yellowish in colour H u~-thes. ]

Page 278 The Australian tvl useum t.1aKa:)lll' A particularly striking exhibit, p art of which is seen above, shows how the Aborigines make and use stone implem ents. Their methods are dem onstrated by cast hands holding actual implements. Photo.-1-loward Hughes.

NEW ABORIGINAL EXHIBITS AT THE MUSEUM

By F f{EDERICK D. McCARTHY

Q NE of the most striking features of the The labels contain the most up-to-date modernisation and reorganisation of the information about the Aborigines. A Australian Museum's exhibits, now being minimum of labelling is used in most of the carried out, is the new Australian Aborigines exhibits ; in some, however, a higher ratio section. of labels to specimens has been found desirable and, in several, what we consider to T his section has been designed to satisfy be over-labelling has proved to be essential all types of visitors-to be attractive and to give the subjects their proper context. interesting to the casual visitor, instructive to those wishing to learn about the One of the most successful of these Aborigines, and suitable for use by the exhibits illustrates how the Aborigines make Museum's education officers with school and use stone implements. The public classes. The problems faced in preparing generally know that the Aborigines were a new exhibits are familiar to most curators in Stone Age people in pre-wbite times, but to museums where only one djsplay can be most individuals knapped implements look allotted to any particular p hase of a subject just like so many broken stones. The an~ has to satisfy a ll types of visitors. By exhibit. therefore. has to be of an unusual thetr very nature, the 20 new Aboriginal nature to attract and interest the vi.sitor and, exhibits with which we are concerned in this this done, to teach him how to recognize arti.cle could not all be treated in the same such implements in the countryside. manner, but fortuna tely space a nd light were The subject is important to the specialist adequate. because of the light it throws on the making

March, 1961 Page 279 and uses of prehistoric implements else­ ''The Stone A ge in Australia" exhibit where. lt wa decided to demonstrate each required a different trea tment because. of the technical processes by using actual although archaeology i only in its infancy in implements held in cast hands. and this Australia. the unfamiliar implements had to problem was solved so successfully that an be shown in a recognizable manner in the impression is given of a native tanding time-period to which they belong. ln other behind the exhibit and poking his arms words, wc had to illustrate the archaeo loQ ical th rough holes in the wa ll. ll has proved hori7ons in a way that would arrest '"'a nd fascinating to the public. The exhibit begins interest the visitor and let him know how with knapping techniques. followed by a the archaeologist builds up the story of the section on the shaping and trimming of prehistory of his country. knapped implements and of an axe. from the T o do this, we showed a profile in cut-out rough flaking of a blank and the pecking of board of three key cave-sites, painted a the body to the grinding and mounting of the group of Aborigines living on the floor of bl ade. A liberal series of implements show each one, and below them attached sets of implements in their periods to sanded layer rh e va rious stages of manufacture. The of boa rd in different colours. Other open range of u es of implements, shown by camp-site industries are shown on separate painting and specimens. include the cutting­ mounts on the floor. Cave paintings are up of a kangaroo. knocking oysters off rocks, shown where relevant. Thus, here at a trimming a club shaft. shaping a bark dish, glance may be seen how long we know the and cutting down a sapling. Aborigines have lived in Australia.

Models of huts ~lrH.I windb reaks show th e diA'crent kinds of Aborigina l dwelling . With this exhibit arc a painting of a camp scene an d pho tos of li:fc about the hut .

Pho to.- H o ward Hughes.

Page 280 Tlte A /1 .\lra/ian f\ l 11~ e um tvfaga:.illl' Following secti o ns illustra te the enrich­ A series of o ther ex hibits, each one of a ment of Abori!?inal culture from. foreign limited subject, made it possible to use a source. : they d1splay ll ~ e . axes, ptcks a nd high p roportion of specimens a nd ill ustra­ other advanced types o f 1mplements made tions to la be.ls. .In " Methods of wi th the Neolithic techniques o f pecking and Communicatio n" two seated Aboriginal men polishing. a nd the c ultural ~mpo rta n ce of ( half li fe-size) , one ha nding a message stick the vi its of the T o rres Stra 1t •sla nders to to the other. a re pa inted in the middle of the Cape York and o f l ndone ians to A rnhem exhibit a nd a re surrounded by a wide variety Land. Allhough a minimum of labelling is of these sticks ; sign la nguage a nd smoke used in this exhibit. it is o ne that requires signals a re explained by a la bel on which the eit her some knowledge o f archaeology o r a subject is illustrated with a coloured sketch. will ingness. on the part of the visito r, to Where possible specimens have been blended . tudy the materia I, a nd fro m this point of with actio n diagrams or paintings. The view the exhibit is diffic ult to reduce to "Fishing G ear" ex hibit displays hook, net, visual standards. spear. ha rpoon and poison methods, but it rel ies on a shell-hook making sequence. and Vi itor look with a mo re personal a cast fish transfixed on a spear, as features intere t in. a nd a quic ker unde rsta nding of, of a subject fa miliar to every visitor. "How exhibit which deal with mate rial familia r to T rees are Climbed " a ttracts the chi ld at them in their everyday life. " Dress a nd o nce, as Abo rigines a re seen half-way up Ornament" is o ne. ln this d isplay, o n a la rge tree-trunks. " Twines" draws the eye fric7e 9 ins. high and 16 ft. lc ng, we have with a life-size painting of an attractive illustrated an extensive seri es of a bo ri ginal young woman, rolling twine on her hip , from men and women from d ifferent parts of who m lines run to the hair on another Aust ralia, contras ting their daily a ttire. or woman's head, a possum a nd a pla nt-to lack of il. with t he striking and colourful re present the huma n. animal and vegetable patterns of their ceremonial dress. T he rele­ sources from which the twines originate. vant ornaments, g ro uped according to the part of the body on which they are worn. a re Tribal Boundaries shown on differently colo ured backgrounds, while a rose-pink ma in la bel draws the " Tribal Map" incorporates the strictly­ attention at once. o bserved territorial boundaries. important because many people do not realize that the Abo rigines were confined to their own a reas Aboriginal Huts and could not wander at will according to their fighting prowess. T he tribes are set out The domestic and econo mic life of the on a perspex sheet illuminated from behind. Aborigines is also ideal mate ria l fo r visual a nd photographs indicate the close economic presentation, as no ne of it is of a complicated a nd religio us link between the Aborigine and technical na ture. As ma ny people in a nd their country. Visitors enjoy finding out A~ stra li a do not k now that the Abo rigines the na me of the tribe in whose te rritory they bullt huts of any kind, we have used models are now living. of the vari ous types of windbreaks a nd huts, Two of the exhibits dealing with spirit together with a painti ng o f a camp scene a nd concepts in Abo riginal life a re set out on the photographs of life about the huts. closed circle principle. The Aborigines .The same approach has been fo ll owed believe that a spiri t lives in the body of each W1th hu nting a nd fi shing traps. where the person, a nd that death is due to thi spiri t models are blended wi th backoround a nd either leaving the body or being captured by acti? ~ paintings of the traps u~ed. T hese a sorcerer. T h us. in " The Spirit Concept''. ex h1b1ts were designed a lso to emphasize the a line, the circle of life, extends from a very restricted ra nge o f simple tra ps used by mother a nd her new-born babe to a n outcrop the Aborigines a nd the fact that the hunters o f rock in which a huge shadowy culture­ ~u~ t ~e in attendance, be pa ti ent and have he ro has deposited a stock of spirit-children. T~ llltlmate knowledge of the game sought. who emerge to fertili:te the mother, to whom e message of exhibits of this kind is im­ the line returns. The circle encloses a series parted to the visitor a lmost a t a glance. of spirit boards.

March, 196 1 Page 281 beains by expla ining the instruction and init iati on of a medicine-man a nd the source of his magical powers. The treatment of ''LIFE THROUGH sickness is then described . fo llowed by magic in hunting, fig hting, divinatio n, totemisrn , THE AGES" love a nd rain-ma king. Bone-pointing, Kurdaitcha shoes and o ther well-known "Life Through the A ges", a col­ methods of sorcery are illustrated. and some oured chart slwwin.g the progress of rare specimens shown . Pictures in a frieze life through geological time. has just painted in grey and white (running the full been. published by the Australian length of the exhibit) illustrate each section M useum. of the exhibit, which as a whole flows smoothly from sectio n to section, though The chart (34 in. x 24 in.) relies on each part may be studied separately. It was illustrations more than on wording. fo und impossib le to deal adequately with an and is designed for hanging in schools ingredient of Aboriginal life which has such so that it may be seen by all children, wide ramifications witho ut what we consider whether they are studying the bio­ to be too high a proportion of labels, and logical sciences or not. It can also be people must read the labels if they wish to used as an aid in the teaching of understand the subject. science, and will be of value to lay people interest.ed in biological subjects. We followed a general principle of using as much ill ustration as possible to explain The chart illustrates the kinds of life the material and subject to tbe visitor. that have existed from the primitive Colour has been used as part of the design invertebrates of more than 800 million rather than as a feature in itself. Thus, in years ago to the present. It shows the " Medicine and Magic", muted colours are geological periods and their durations. used to blend with the solemn nature of the subject, and light grey serves well where the It is on sale at the Museum, price illustrations and specimens provide adequate 61- posted). (6/9 colour and variety. In " Dress and Orna­ ment" we found blocks of different colours necessary to give life to the exhibit as a "Death in Arnhem Land" illustrates the whole. Colour has been used in the lettering same theme from another angle. H ere the and labels to add to the attractiveness of the skulls, bark coffins and graveposts, with exhibits. totemic designs painted on them, are corn bined with sketches of the many stages CORAL SEA COLLECTIONS of delayed disposal of the dead, from mourn­ For two weeks in August a nd September last ing to the final passing of the spirit, and the year, the Museum's C urator o f Molluscs. D r. D. throwing of the skull into the sacred water­ F. McMichael, was the guest of the Royal Australian Navy aboard H .M.A.S. Gascoyne dur­ hole of the clan. The various steps in this ing a survey cruise to some outlying islands of the prolonged rite progress easily from one to Coral Sea. the other, the specimens are colourful, the Mr. K. Hindwood. the Museum's honorary orni­ skulls are personal and death is an important thologist, and Dr. D. L. Serventy. of the theme. For these reasons hardly a visitor C .S.I.R.O., also made the trip, to tudy the bird­ passes by this exhibit. life of the islands. Dr. M cMichael brought back many specimens of fishes, shell s and other m arine invertebrates. Medicine And Magic which w ill be added to the Museum's collections. H e obtained 456 s pecimens of fishes belonoing to " Medicine and Magic" offers a strong some 80 odd species, which a re stilt"' being contrast to all the other exhibits because its identified. Noteworthy amongs t these are a series technical procedures cannot be explained in of Surgeon Fishes (one of which wounded a man a few words. Its basic theme is to demon­ witJ1\ the spine on its ta il ) .. some beautifully coloured coral fi shes. many pomacentrids. and strate how magic penetrates every aspect of severa l sm aller kinds new to our collections. the life of the Aborigines. The exhibit One species at least m ay be new to science.

Page 282 The A u srra/ian Museum lv/aga:ine THE ROBBER CRAB-A CRUSTACEAN MYSTERY

By FRANK McNEILL H!STORY records that. in the latter part of the Lndian Ocean. Since those early days of the 16th century, Sir Francis Drake a mass of information has become available visited an island in the southern Celebes dur­ on this still intriguing subject but of such ing hi s famed circumnavigation of the globe a controversial nature that it is now difficult in the ship Golden H ynd. It was there he to sort fiction from fact. observed a remarkable land-dwelling crusta­ The very uniqueness of this strange cean which has since become known as the species, Birgus /atro. is probably the reason Robber or Coconut Crab. This was why so much circumstantial evidence about probably one of the first reports of its kind its unusual ways of life has been both to reach the countries of Europe. An reported and repeated by numerous authors. earlier reference to the same crab enigma If a subject is intriguing, there is always a appears to be a report by a n Arab merchant tendency to exaggeration, and this appears of the ninth century, who noted the strange to be the case with much of the available habits of the crustacean on an island data on the Robber or Coconut crab, which

A }Ou ng example of the Robber Crab in the Austra li a n Museum·s coll ection.

Photo.-Howard J l ughcs.

Page 283 March, 1961 is found on many widely-scattered tropical two objects so remote in the scheme of i lands eastwards from the Indian Ocean to nat ure as a c rab a nd a coconut tree'' the mid-Pacific region. Darwin doubted, however, if the crab couid actually climb trees. Crab Climbs Coconut Palms Nevertheless, this ability to cJimb has An author named Rumphius ( 1705) si nce been firmly established. and the habit published the fi rst detai led description and is no t confined to coconut trees, for these do account of the R obber Crab. It was also no t grow in some places where the crab is he who first claimed that it ascended coconut found. No irrefutable evidence exists wh ich palms to dislodge the nuts, and later supports the claim that the crab can dislodge descended the palms to feed on the kernels nuts. and the _mo~e feasible a n~ more accept­ after tediously husking and breaking open able explanatiOn IS that the chmbino is done the nuts with its claws. to d rink the sap o r the water acc~mu l ated The latter part of the crab's technical in the leaves. o r to consume soft fruits and name. meaning robber. has reference to the b ... rries. The cra b's return jo urney to the foregoing claim, and its application by the ground is a far more difficult operation than scientist Linnaeus in 1769 was inftuenced the ascent. A climber has more than once by what Rumphius had published. The great been seen to solve thi problem by loosenino naturalist, Darwin , in his Narrative of the its hold and falling a nything from 12 ft. t ~ Voyage of the Beagle ( 1845) was even 15 ft. moved to state: "I think that this is as Modern investigators have belied the fre­ curious a case of instinct as ever I heard, and quently published claim that the Robber likewise of adaptation in structure between C rab can husk and break open coconuts.

Robber Crabs can some­ times break open coconuts and eat their internal flesh. This Australian Museum exhibit shows an adult crab tearing husk aside t') gain access to the inside of a nut.

Photo.-lioward H ugh"'·

Page 284 The A u.wralian kluseum Magn:.illl' While there is no denying that the creature fo r food on those islands where the crusta­ has been s~e n i~ the wild state eating the cean's mai n diet is coconut. This is usually Re hy intenor of coconuts. some competent a nocturnal operation, for it is mainly at observers of very recent years have been night that the crab ventures from its hiding­ convinced that these were nuts that had places to feed. The main attraction to the fallen to the gro und a nd were fo und by the hunters is said to be the abdomen or hinder crab. in a conditio n ~he re access to .the body of the Robber Crab, which is classed interior wa ea y. Whtle the preseD:t wnt ~ r as an epicurean treat. This part is a compact ha not o bserved Ro bber Cra bs m the1r oily mass which will yield as much as a quart natu ral state, he has noted that, on islands of o il. Most museum specimens have the where fa llen coconuts receive the attention same oiliness permanently present, and it of rats, these rodents a re able to gnaw gives off a ra ncid odour. throuoh the husks and inner shells to reach ln some places th e Robber Crab has been the ~dibl e interiors. Being inveterate reported as li ving quite long distances from scavenge rs. the Ro bber Crabs would natur­ the sea. as much as 30 to 40 yards above ally take advantage. o.f uch readi l .y - avai l ~b l e the sho reline. One author stated that he had food. either by dnvmg off the mdustnous seen specimens in the Solo mon Islands at an rat · or by simply feeding o n their leavings. elevation of 300 ft. In such places they The account of the Ro bber Crab's have been known to make their homes or coconut-eating ha bit g iven to us by Darwin hiding-places in the vacated burrows of large is worth repeating here. It is o nly one of a conventional la nd crabs. Nearer the sho re­ number of similar accounts ro be found in line they commonly hide by day in crannies the literature of the last century which. it and crevices among tumbled coralline lime­ now appears, were no t fully substantia ted. stone boulders. a mong the roots of Darwi n record that "the cra b begins by mangroves o r in burrows which they exca­ tearing the husk. fibre by fibre, and always vate at the base of coconut trees. The last­ from that end unde r which lhe eye-holes are named type of habitat is shown in the group situated; when this is completed the crab exhibit of Ro bber Crabs on display in the com mences by ha mmering with its heavy Australian Museum. claws on one of these eye-ho les till an open­ ing is made. T hen . turning ro und its body. by the aid of its posterio r a nd narrow pair Robber Crabs 18 ins. Long of pincers. it extracts the white a lbumino us Large examples of the Ro bber Crab grow substance." Admittedly there is great to 18 ins. in length and weigh as much as strength in the cra b's two front claws, a nd 6 lb. They are, strangely enough, a giant this alone could give rise to all sorts of type of Hermit Crab, but do not occupy the suppositions. However, there seems little shells of mo lluscs as do all other H ermit doubt that the enla rgi ng of a ho le fo und in Crabs fo und so commonly on every sho re­ a fallen coconut woul d pro ve a compara­ line a nd in every sea. ti vely simple task. Their closest relati ves a re several species !his is borne o ut by the story told to the of L and Hermit Crabs (Coenobita) which wnter by the late Charles H edley, of the infest practically every tropical island shore­ Australian Museum staff . fn 1898, when he line in the same area of distribution. A was a. ~ember of a Royal Society (Lo ndo n) problem of the Robber Crab's origin that ~xpedJtJo n to Funifu ti Isla nd, E llice Gro up, will a lways confo und zoologists is whether m the western Pacifi c, he placed a captured it has evolved fro m a shell-living type of Robber Crab in a light metal biscuit tin. Hermit Crab by dispensing with such an secu~ely tying down the lid. Overnight, the encumbra nce at some period in a past age. capttve. managed to escape by first punching o r at no stage in its development ever ~ ho l e. tn a wall of its prison and then enla rg­ occupied a shell. Other more simple T~ th1s by literally tearing the metal aside. problems than this have yet to be solved d e formidabl e strength of the claws, thus concerning this enigma of the crustacean e~o n s trated. accounts for the respect class. lt appears obvious that much of the nattves have for the crab when capturing it confusio n and wide divergence in published

March, 1961 Page 285 accounts of the crab's habits is due to varia­ the shallow edge of the sea for short periods tion in the pattern of behaviour at different either to hatch their eggs or release already­ localities in the wide range of distribution. hatched larvae. Although apparently no Never have its habits or its life history be;::n observer has ever seen them go into the in vestigated with any degree of complete­ water, this is probably done at night. If they ness. As is common practice with other did not enter the sea there would be no kinds of land crabs, it is obvious that at explanation for the scattered occurrence and least the females of the Robber Crabs enter wide range of the species.

SCHOOL CLASS AT THE MUSEU!tl

This school class has come to the Australi an Museum for a lesson on birds. and is here seen studying the ex hibit " The Bird's Year: · under the guidance of Museum E ducation Officer Miss Patricia McDonald. Lessons for school classes of all ages, on a ll subjects illustrated by ga ll ery exhibit. are a regular feature of the Australian Museum·s e·ducational work. Teachers wishing to bring classes should appl y to the education officers by telephone or letter.

Page 286 The Australicm Museum Ma!!azi rz e THE BLUE WREN

By IAN ROWLEY Wildli£e Survey Section. C.S.T.R .O .. Canberrn.

BLUE Wrens belo ng to the genus M alurus, which comprises some 14 species, all except one of which a re confined to Australia, the exoeption occurring in New Guinea. These wrens are cha racterized by their cheerful song, sma ll size, long legs and long ta il , which .is carried nearly upright ; the males are all brig htly colo ured , while the fema les are usually brown. Between them these species cover the entire continent of Australia. T he Superb Blue Wren (Ma/urus cyaneus ) , to give it its full title, or Blue Wren as it is commonl y called, is certainly the most widely known of the 14 species. Its distributio n coincides with the area of densest huma n settlement and stretches from South Queensla nd down the eastern seaboard thro ugh N ew So uth Wales and Victo ria to T asmania, where a disti nct sub-species occ urs (see fig. 1), and South Australia. T he species covers a n a rea of co untry stretching 100 to 200 miles from the sea thro ughout this ra nge and a narrow stri p along the Murray River fro m its mo uth to Kerang in V icto ri a, broadening to incl ude the western Riveri na. Whether this inland population is the relic of a fo rmer more widespread one, o r whether the species is spreading, is at p resent unknown. Blue Wrens have adapted themselves to the changed environment fo llowing settle­ ment far better tha n a ny other member of the genus, and are now commo n resid ents of our city parks a nd gardens. In contrast, Top: A male B Iue Wren banded 18 M . sp/endens, the West A ustralian counter­ months ago. Some wrens have carried part soecies, has failed to colonize, o r remain thei r bands 4{ years. Bottom: A female in proximity to, huma n ha bita tion ; the same Blue Wren car rying food for her nestlings. applies to M. 1nelanocephalus and M . /Gin­ The two uppe1· bands on the left leg are berti, both of which occur near Brisba ne, the her individual colour combination (green latter also near Sydney. and orange) , and the lower band is a numbered aluminium one supplied by the In their natura l setting Blue Wrens inhabit Aus tralian Bird-banding Scheme. The the damper sections of the bush where there coloured cell uloid bands are duplicated on is shrubby growth p roviding nesting sites and the right leg in case they a re lost. cover from pred ators, interspersed with clea rings, over which they search fo r food in Photos.- Author.

March, 1.961 Page 287 a series of hops, propelled by their long thin harems, males o utnumbered females, and the legs; tea-tree-covered creek banks are latter were often attended by two or more favourite places. It is easy to see the similar­ consorts-an imbalance confirmed by similar ity between this environment and man-made studies in Sydney. gardens; since Blue Wrens tolerate the presence of humans and survive the added predators, such as cats and small boys, the Territories Defended advent of settlement has probably favoured From watching these wrens as individuals the species as a whole by providing more it was clear that they were intensely territor­ suitable habitat than was previously avail­ ial, inasmuch as they maintained a defended able. area of about two and a half acres from which others of the same species were Plumage repulsed and o utside which the territory­ owner became a trespasser in a neighbouring During the breeding season male wrens assume their full plumage ; with the Blue Wren this is chiefly in shades of blue and black, the pale blue feathers looking almost as though they were enamell ed by some Oriental craftsman and the whole effect, both in colour and intensity, being one rarely found in birds. Once breeding ceases (usually J an ua ry-February) all the adults enter a moult from which only the older males (more than three years old) emerge with full blue plumage; younger males remain in eclipse and closely resemble the females, except that the bill, the !ores and the area around the eye are dull brown, whereas in the female they are bright orange­ brown. This eclipse plumage, and the young birds' habit of remaining with their parents throughout their first winter, give the impression that the cock is herding a harem of females, and in consequence the name MELSOUQNE "Mormon Wren" became firmly established, although ornithologists proved it to be with­ out foundation many years ago.

Banding

For the past fe w years a number of Fig. 1: Shaded areas show the distribution of the people have banded Blue Wrens in Blue Wren (Malurus cya!leus ). connection with the Australian Bird-banding Scheme. About five years ago all the wrens in an isolated population near Canberra doma in. Within these territories wrens may we re trapped and given different combina­ satisfy a ll the ir requirements-breeding. tions of coloured celluloid bands, so that feeding and roosting-a nd some individuals they could easily be recognized as individuals spend their entire li ves, from hatching to ripe and their life-histories recorded by repeated old age, within the confines of the same acre observa tions. All the nestlings were banded or two of shrubs and lawn. too, and so gradually a quota of known-age, Over the years the locati ons of territorjes pedigreed birds was built up in the popula­ remained remarka bly constant ( ee fig. 2). tion, which enabled plumage changes and although the inhabitants changed as natural social relationships to be documented. It losses occurred and were made good. Some soon became clear that, far from maintaining changes in boundari es occurred with season.

Page 288 The Australian Museum MnKatJn e probably in response to food supply ; this life. By the time they mature the parents growth was amoeboid in nature. spreading are again engrossed in nest-building and where resistance was least, e.g .. into a n open have other things to worry about. As a paddock not usua lly frequented. result of this greater tolerance, our observa­ Movements within the populations were tions have shown that it is quite common sma ll and such dispersal of young as for a breeding pair to be attended by a male occurred chiefl y concerned females, one of from one of their previous season's broods, which travelled fo ur miles to nest outside and that bird (in full plumage by now) another C.S.LR.O. la boratory in Canberra ; would help feed the nestlings and later might this was the greatest distance a wren is even undertake the complete care of an known to have moved .

Nesting Around Canberra nesting usually starts in September and finishes in January, vary­ ing with seasonal ·conditions. The nest itself is a small ball of grass with a side entrance and lined with softer materiaJs, such as feathers, wool and horsehair ; it seldom measures more tha n 4 in. across by 5 in. in height, and may be placed from one to 20 ft. above the ground (average 3 ft.) in a moderately dense bush, grass tussock or pile of brushwood. Three or four eggs are laid and incubated by the female for a bout 14 days; both parents then feed the young, which remain in the nest for another 12 days. For 10 days after leaving the nest the fledglings remain in dense cover being fed. After this they venture into the open and can fly quite strongly, by which time the female is usually sitting on her next clutch of eggs so that the care of the young falls largely on the males.

Social Organization Blue Wrens have interesting and unusual social habits. With most species of small passerines the offspring leave their parents soon after they are able to fend fo r them­ selves, especiall y if the species is multi­ brooded. Wrens nest several times in a season but no such family break-up occurs. During wi nter the family group moves and Fig. 2: The boundaries of Blue Wren territories feeds as a unit, roosting together at night; at Gungahlin, Canberra, in the spring of 1956. it is not until the spring and the breeding season return that any dissension arises, and early-fledged brood while the parents this is mainly confined to young females who attended a second clutch. In all cases wander off to fiH vacancies in other groups where this develo pment was fully docu­ nearby or farther a field. mented these "supernumerary" males were Young males appear to mature later than invariably offspring from the sa me oroup · the females. and therefore do not evoke somet1m. es such relationships continu0ed for' parental jealousy during their first year of several years. Occasionally the male parent

March, 1961 Page 289 might disappear (?dead) and then the super­ of banded nestlings at Gungahlin. Australian numerary would take his place. so that a Capital Territory, the headquarters of the m ea~ ure of inbreeding must occur with this C.S. L.R.O.'s Wildlife Survey Section, has spectes. frequently confirmed that such behaviour­ As mentioned above, breeding lasts for almost unique in o rnithology-is of common three or four months. and the resulting occurrence in this species. young remain in the family group even after fndividual colour-banding of Blue Wrens they become capable of independent life. has uncovered many interesting facets of Towards the end of the season it often thei r life; perhaps it may also enable the happens that the offspring of the earlier public to gain still greater pleasure from the broods take oart in the feeding of their later­ company of these colo urful birds in our hatched brothers and sisters. Observation parks and gardens.

Book Review

ENCYCLOPAEDIA ZOOLOGICA. Illustra ted in the illustrations arc magniflcent, and a lthough colour. Volume l V. H o kliryu-Ka n Publish­ some specialist mig ht conceivably conside r. for hi ing Co. Ltd., J a pa n; 3 17 pp. 7t in. x I Ot in. g roup. that there are inaccuracies of structure or colour. a nd it would require s peciali t to decla re, Price, $25.00. fro m c lose examinatio n of the illustra tions and of Th1s volume. whi ch is the fourth and last in it. transla ti on of the te t. w he ther the nomenclature erie , deals with Arthropoda, Annelida, Nema­ were sati factory. nevertheless the '-"Ork i a thelminthe , Trochelminthc , Nemertini. Plathe l­ wonder ful collection of colour-ill u !rations of minthcs, Ctenari a, Coelenterata, Po rifera, Mesozoa some 1. 300 o r more form . and Protozoa. lls fi rst part consi ts of 45 pages -~h ere a re indexc i~ both Roman and Japane e prc enting an account of the structure of each of scnpt : t~e former g 1vc entrie for both genera these 11 group as repre cnted by various type .. and spec1cs, a nd clearly show the number of the In this introductory part there are line drawings text page o n w hich the s pecies is described, of external morphology ilnd key sections · these together with plate a nd illustra tion number. illustrations carry numbers pl aced adjac~nt to While a non-Ja panesc reader (unless he can structural features w hich arc named, in Japanese and English, in the legend. read J a panese) cannot use o r apprai e the text. and while pcciali ts mig ht have re ervations about The main part of thi work is a set of 123 arrangeme nt. nomenclature a nd details of the colour-plates. each ill ustrating from three to as illustrations (the revie'"' e r is no t implying that he many as 30 forms in natural colours· interleaved ha found matters o n w hich he believe. that with the e plates arc notes on ea~ h form. in rc~e r va tion hould be made). the work is of J apanese, with scientific names in Ro man script. considerable value for students and amateur !hu , t~ e notes on each form a re in the ma in naturalist . maccess1ble to a no n-Japanese reader. However, G. L. KESTEYEN.

Page 290 The Australian Atuseum Magn:im· Uses of Radio-Activity in Entomology And Insect-Pest Control

By M. F. DAY, S. W. BAILEY and K. R. NORRIS Of the Division o( Entomology, C.S.I.R .O .. C anberra.

AMONGST the many examples of the uses of atomic radiation its applications in entomology may seem small. They are, howeve r. diverse a nd significant. Only three of the more spectacular examples can be mentioned in this brief report. These are the control of insects by the release of males sterilized by radio -activity. the control of pests in stored gra in. and the use of radio­ active tags fo r trac ing marked insects. An entirely new concept of insect contro l was developed by the ento mo logists of the United States De partment of Agriculture when they discovered that populations of the screwworm Callitroga, which develo ps in wounds in li vestock. could be effectively reduced by the release of males sterilized by atomic radiation. When native female flies mated with the sterile males they produced e_ggs which fa il ed to hatch and the popula­ non decli ned rapidly. The screwworm was introduced into south-eastern U.S.A. abo ut 1933. and by 1958 ~as estimated to be costing the live­ stock mdustry 20 millio n dollars annually. The pest was eradicated in 15 months at a cost of less than 10 millio n do llars.

3,000 Million Flies Sterilized Wheat weevil in pill boxes being prep~r~d for experime nts to de termine their sensitiVI tY to h Field trials began in 1956-57. Four i rrad ia tion. undred sterile males per square mile were Photo.-U.K. ALom ic Energy Research E$tablishrnent. ~lea sed each week fro m July, 1958. to ~ ~m be r . 1959, finally covering an area of 8 0 gall ons of honey a week. Abo ut 40 ~orker f · 0 squa re miles. No screwworms were each eight-hour shift were reqUired to 0~~d after June, 1959. The problem of 1 produce the in ects. ra s 1 ~g and sterilizing the 3.000 million flies required for this job involved insect-rearing Extraordina ry and entirely successful pre­ ~~n an unorecedernted scale. An airplane cautio ns were taken to stop the escape of a fl~ar at Sebring, F lo rida, was converted to fli es fro m the building. Five-day old insects E:a hctory for the mass-production of fli es. were sterilized by exposure to 5 ,000r 4 5~ week a bo ut 40 tons of meat and (roentgens) of gamma radiation from a 70 Ia'r 0 ga llons of bl ood provided food for the curie cobalt-60 source (see photo on the vae, and the adult flies consumed 35 nex t page). This was housed in a concrete March, 19 6 1 Page 29 1 Equipment in Florida, U.S.A., for the irradiation of screw­ worm pupae by cobalt-60. Photo.-U.S. Department of Agriculture.

shed sepa~ated from the main building. and U nlike the terile-male-release technique. all operatton were carried out by remote which was a new concept in insect control. control. the possible use of irradiatio n against insect T he steril ized fli es we re packaged in pests o f g ra in a nd o ther sto red product wa cartons, about 1.000 of which could be an o bvio us application. H owever, it ha carried by sma ll aircraft. The cartons were nowhere fulfilled it promise, although. very automati ca lly opened when released from recently, the o utlook has become much more t ~e plane. Twenty-eight planes fl ew five to favoura ble. stx ho urs e~e ry day during the campaign. Research has shown that doses as high as Eggs from mfeste

Po::e 292 T lie A u stralitm l\lfuseum ~l aga: i11 t' considerable dislocation of the no rmal hand­ tions of the ma rked insects, but, provided a r procedures. A s treatment would have dosage of high enough activity is applied t~te limited to ma jo r handling centres, s u ~h initially, insects may be detectable for a few as terminal elevators. much of the potenttal weeks after marking, which is sufficient for ·nsect damage would have a lready occurred. many purposes. ~0 be really effecti ve a ll grain should be Insects may be " tagged" with radiotracers disinfested before sto rage: this would call by incorporating 32P in the larval diet, for many low-cost units o r a smaller number whence it is readily assimilated in the course of portable units that could serve different of normal phosphorus metabolism. Other­ localities of the State's country el evat~r wise, adult insects may be given a radio­ systems. R a di o - act i ~e isoto pes would SUit active meal before liberation. neither of these reqUirements. Tagged insects are detected with a count­ Very recently a new fa~ily of electrical ing apparatus which transfo rms energy from particle accelerato r rnachmes has been radio-active disintegrations into impulses developed. These I?roduce a beal? o~ intense which can be counted. There is a continuous radiation and requ1re fa r less shteldmg than " backgro und radiation" which makes such a source that radia tes in a ll directions. N o counting devices register at a slow rate all radio-active materials are built into these the time but when a radio-active insect is machines. and so they are perfectly safe brought ~ l ose to a detecto r there is a marked when switched off . Thus, they might become increase in the response of the counter. porta ble. One of tlhe most promising instru­ Insects may be detected alive in the fi eld ments is the " insulating core transformer", with a po rtable Geiger counter-or, more and it may be the pro totype of machines usually, samples of trapped, ki lled insects are that will enable irradiation to take a useful spread o ut and exposed . to t h~ more place in storage techno logy. complicated laboratory countmg dev1ces. The inherent limitations of irradiation Employing radio-isotope marking must not be forgotten. Although it may methods much valuable research has been effectively rid grain of a ny insect pests carried ~ u t in the United States, Russia and present at the time of treatment, there is no elsewhere o n the habits and dispersal of residual effect. It is essentia l that treated pests. A large pa rt of this research has bee!l grain be put into clean, insect-free silos or concentrated o n insects which transmtt the work is wasted. Thus, the introductio n human diseases, such as mosquitoes and of this technique would in no way reduce the other blood-sucking fli es, blowflies and maintenance standards required at the storage silos. ho usefli es. Mosquitoes, made ra di o-acti~e. by ;.earing Although irradiation would be a very the larvae in solutio ns contammg ·P, or u se~ul_ tool. it cannot, by itself, solve o ur isotopes of o ther elements. h~ve been found gra m-mfe~tat i o n pro blem s. to disperse usua lly up to a mil e or less ~ro m the release point, though o ne excepttonal Marking Insects In Dispersal Studies record of 20 miles was obtained for A edes The technique of marking insects has long taeniorlzynchus in Florida. Housefli es have been employed in studies of their behavio ur also been recorded u p to 20 miles from the and dispersal. Formerly paints, dyes and release point. and. although t_he usual range dusts of va ri ous sorts were used , but in ma ny of travel is th ree to fo ur mtles. they have modern studies of this type the insects are been shown capable of spreading rapidly mark~d with rad io-active isotopes. The through residential areas. visiting kit~~~ns ch~m tcal element which is most generally and privies indiscriminat.ely. The po ss t~tltty sut~able for this purpose is phosphorus, exists that odd ho useflt es and mosqUitoes Wht.ch can be readily prepared in a highly may .. hi tch-hike" in cars o r other forms of radto-active state. T he isotope of transpo rt. but this is less li kely to have been Phosphorus, 3~ P . has a ha lf-life of about a responsible fo r the movemen.t of the. stro ng­ fortntght-that is. a sample exhibits o nly fl ying blowfl y Phormia r egma. ~ ht c h has \~ut h~ lf its radio-activity after the lap se of been recovered 28 miles from Its re l ~ase t ts penod. Some is also lost in the excre- point in Oregon after 13 days of wandenng.

March, l961 Pa!(e 293 Fos si/ Insects

By J. W. EVANS

JN a gallery of the Australian Museum is the " Lucerne F lea". Springtails lack wings displayed one of the most remarkable and the earliest insects were wingless. Never~ fossil insects ever discovered anywhere in theless, Springtails are not ancestral to any the world. This fossil (which is illustrated group of winged insects. in "The Hand book of the Australian Museum" ) and those of a few other insects on display in the public galleries represent Earliest Winged Insects only a very small part of the magnificent study-collection of fossil insects which the The next geological period after the Museum possesses. Devonian is known as the Carboniferous, and during this the first forests came into The study of these fossils, as well as assist­ existence, although there were some tree­ ing in the understanding of the evolution like plants growing during the Middle of insects , helps fill in a few of the many Devonian. It was during the Carboniferous gaps in our knowledge of past geography that the earliest winged insects appeared. and past climates. We know from the fossil record that wings The earliest known fossil insects are in insects developed from lateral flaps on Springtails (Collembola). These fossils were the three first segments of the body, behind found in Middle Devonian strata in Scot­ the head- that is to say, on the thorax, land, and the insects of which they are the which also bears the legs of insects. These remains ljved some 300 million years ago. flaps enabled gliding or, anyhow, acted like Although most people have never noticed a parachute when an insect jumped or the existence of Springtails, these insects accid entally fell. Needless to say, until the are, though small, very abundant, and live advent of trees, insects were ground or water mostly in damp situations. One, an intro­ dwellers and so bad no need for such glid­ duced species, is well known to farmers in ing flaps. H rence, the correlation of the some parts of Australia as a pasture pest, beginnings of forests and winged insects.

A reconstruction of a Palaeodictyopteron from Carboniferous strata in Europe. Note the lobes on the first segment of the thorax.

Page 294 The Australian Museum Magazine T he earliest known winged insects be­ for the folded hind wings and the soft abdo· longed to an o rder now no lo nger in mens. As an example of such a Carboni ­ existence, known as the Palyaedictyoptera. ferous insect may be mentioned cockroaches, Like present-day dragon-flies, these were and present-day representatives of this group unable to fold their wmgs backwards over are little-changed descendants from their their bodies when resting a nd had to keep ancestors which li ved some 250 million years them open at right-angles o r folded upwards. ago. It has been mentioned that wings devel­ While abundant remains of Carbonifer­ oped as glid ing fl aps on the front part of an ous insects have been found in Europe none insect's body and that there were originally are known from Australia. three pairs of such fl a ps. Insects, however, The next geological period is known as the only have two pairs of wings as the flaps on Permian. While the Carboniferous was a the first segment of the tho rax never devel­ time of high rainfall (since without rain oped into wings. They were, however, re­ th e lush forests wh ich were the origin of tai ned by some of the Palyaedictyoptera and the E uropean coal measures could not have by insects in other Carboniferous orders. flourished), the Permian in the Northern hemisphere was a time largely of desert con­ Although the rise of the Palaedictyoptera di tions, although contemporaneously there was associated with that of forests, many of were extensive glaciations in the Southern these insects must have li ved in open con­ hemisphere. However. in neither hemisphere ditions, as some were of a very la rge size, were conditions everywhere at any one time measuring as m uch as 3 ft. across the so inhospitable as to prevent insect life extended wings. flou rishing. We know from the fossil record that d ur­ A rich assemblage of Lower Permian in­ ing Carboniferous times insects appeared sects has been found in Kansas, U.S.A. which were able to fold their wings so that T hese occur in argillaceous limestone which they could li e flat over their bodies. This was laid down in shallow water, doubtless would have enabled them to frequent places bordered by forests. Many of the contained from which the Pa laedictyoptera were ex­ in sects are splendidly preserved, and their cl uded and to take shelter under stones and wings, as is a lways the case with insect in crevices. Moreover, the wings, when fossils, are the most abundant of the re­ at rest, could serve as a protecti ve cover roams. Some complete bodies have also

A Palaeodictyopteron from Lower Permian trata in Kansas. U.S.A., showing the preservation of the wing pattern.

March, 1961 Page 295 been found. A point of particular interest is the fact that, as well as the structure of the wings being preserved, in a few instances so also is their colour-pattern-though, of course, no trace of actual colour remains. It is in the Kansas beds that the first representatives of the order Hemiptera oc­ cur. This Order comprises insects known as sucking bugs, and includes today such crea­ tures as c1cadas, scale insects, aphids and water bugs. In most present-day Hemiptera the hind wings are larger than the front ones and the two pairs are locked together by hook-like -structures. However, the Kansas fossil bugs had fore and hind wings which were similar The wing of a fossil scorpion fly from Permian in size and shape and which were not strata near Newcastle, New South Wales. coupled together during flight. Conse­ quently, compared with modern bugs, they elude the insect referred to at the beginning must have been very weak fliers. of this article, which had a ridged oval area on the wing, presumably associated with In a recent issue of this magazine men­ stridulation. Another large fossil from tion was made of a fossil-insect reserve near Brookvale is a cicada-like insect (Fietcheri­ Warner's Bay, New South Wales. The beds ana triassica). Like present-day cicadas, which outcrop on this reserve belong to the these were doubtlessly able to produce Upper Permian geological period and are sound, and as birds had not been evolved especia1ly rich in bugs and Scorpion Flies by Triassic times one can suppose that sound (Mecoptera) and, to a somewhat lesser ex­ production was not the hazard to the safety tent, Lace-wings (Neuroptera) and beetles. of cicadas that it is at present. Were it not Bugs (Hemiptera) are divided into two for the fact that the greater part of cicadas' sub-orders-the Heteroptera, comprising lives are spent underground, they might such insects as stink bugs, bed bugs, assassin have been exterminated by birds well bugs and water bugs, and the Homoptera, before now. Some closely-related, cicada­ which includes cicadas and aphids. R epre­ like fossils have been found in J urassic sentatives of both sub-orders have been strata in Central Asia. T his suggests that found at Warner's Bay, and this indicates Australia was not then at all times separated that, even as long ago as 200 million years, by sea from the Northern hemisphere. the two groups had a separate existence. Among the many insects discovered in the Triassic beds of Queensla nd are the first Although, as has already been mentioned, recorded moth and the fi rst recorded aphid. most fossil insects consist of wings only, in Upper Permian strata in Russia many com­ A great many remains of fossil insects are plete insects have been discovered. known from Tertiary strata in different parts of the world. These consist mostly of in­ sects which are very similar to those living Large Fossils at present, and, while of little evolutionary significance, they are of importance from In Triassic strata, which is next in the point of view of di stribution. The best sequence to the Permian, insect fossils have preserved of any insects known as fossils been found at Brookvale, near Sydney, and are those contained in Baltic amber, which near Ipswich, Queensland. Unlike the is a plant resin. Large quantities of such Warner's Bay insects, those from Brookvale insects have been discovered, and several are very large, though remains of onl y a represent species which now live only in few species have been found. T hese in- the Southern hemisphere.

Page 296 The Australian Museum Magazine TRIGGER PLANTS

By DA VID K. McALPINE

TRIGGER PLANTS (Stylidium) , with their erect stems of numerous bright pink flowers, are familiar objects of the Australian bush. being particularly abundant in the open eucalypt forests. The stem arises from a tuft of short, grass-like leaves and bears flowers up to half an inch in diameter. Apart from their decorative appearance, there is something else that attracts atten­ tion to the flowers. This is the trigger mechanism, a remarkable pollination device, which gives the p lants their name. To under­ stand th is it is necessary to consider the structure of an individual flower.

There are five petals, but, as one of them A trigger plant. is diminutive, only the four large rounded ones are at first apparent. A long, slender, From Curtis' Botanical Magazine. bent column arises from the centre of the flower, and bears the male and female family (Orchidaceae) may be cited, Aus­ organs at its tip. The column is sensitive tralian representatives being the Duck to touch, and, when irritated, bends quickly Orchid (Caleana major) and the Green­ across to the other side of the flower. An hoods (Pterostylis). In these, however, it insect alighting on the flower is likely, there­ is not the column which moves but the front fore, to receive a dab of pollen on its back petal or labelll!lm, upon which the insect from the male organs. At a later stage the alights. stigma, the female portion at the tip of the column, ripens. If an insect which already There are over 100 species of typical trig­ carries pollen grains visits a flower with a ger plants of the genus Stylidium and. though ripened stigma some of the pollen from it most of these are Australian, the genus also may adhere to the stigma when the " trig­ occurs in southern Asia, the extreme south ger" is set off. The column regains its of South America and in New Zealand. ln sensitivity a quarter of an hour after being New South Wales there are only seven kinds of trigger plants, but Western Australia sprung, and the process can be repeated has, according to one authority, 93. In the until the flower is fertilized. latter State there are yellow forms in addi­ Not every kind of insect is capable of tion to the usual pink to white ones. This pollinating the flowers of the trigger plant. is an exam pie of the richness of the flora lt has been shown that a small bee (Exo­ of Western Australia as compared with the neura humulata) is an important agent and east. Banksia provides another example, that larger bees may fail to fertilize them. fo r 40 of the 48 known species occur in Western Australia.

Similar Mechanism In Orchids There are other plants besides trigger plants which have sensitive moving parts to ensure pollination. Certain of the orchid

March, l96J Page 2f? FREAK FISHES

By G. P. WHITLEY

A striking feature of most fishes is their uniformity. The individuals in a school are as alike as peas, and even if they are looked at under a microscope their varia­ tions appear very slight. Fishes caught nowadays not only agree with old published accounts of their species, but are scarcely different from their foss il allies or ancestors in deposits laid down millions of years ago. Yet, during years spent in examining speci­ mens, one comes across occasional odd ones which stand out because of some remarkable variation. Some of these "sports" are due to freak food o r water conditions. Other variations are due to injury or disease or to artificial conditions in fish hatcheries, and others to some little-understood deep-seated causes, interesting to students of evolution and genetics. Hundreds of cases of freak fishes have been described in a vast and scattered li terature over the last 400 years. The earliest records have been discussed by E. W . Gudger in "The Scientific Monthly'' of September, 1936; Bashford Dean's " Bibliography of Fishes" refers to many published before 1923 while recent accounts This stingaree ( Uroloplw s sp. ). with its disc in are to be sought annually in the "Zoological strips, was trawled in 20 fathoms in Victoria. Record" and in the files of angling journals Because of its a ppearance it was nicknamed and newspapers. Modern students often Dracula's G host. cannot be bothered to do the tremendous amount of reading entailed in research into Certain localities in Australia produce these cases so, to lighten their labours, I unusual fishes: yellow luderick are caught have given more citations than usual in this almost yearly off Malabar, near Sydney, and article. pugheaded Murray Cod have been taken In the space available here, I can only from time to time in the Murrumbidgee mention a few interesting Australasian cases. River from the 1880's until recently. This Abnormal flatfishes have already been dealt indicates that abnormal conditions may be with in "The Australian Museum Magazine" inherited and fishes having them can survi ve (Vol. IX, No. 11, 1949, p. 381), and so in competition with their normal neighbours. have two-mouthed fishes (VII, 5, 1940, p. In popular opinion and in newspaper 179), two-headed fi shes and sharks (VI, 5, accounts such freak fi shes are assumed to be 1937, p. 154 and VI. 12, 1939, p. 432) , new species, but this is not the case; they pugheaded abnormalities (VIII, 6, 1944, p. take the same scientific names as thei r more 200) and abnormal spines in leather-jackets normal brethren. (lii, 12, 1929, p. 423). Unusual markings Australia has so far not produced any on fishes were considered in "The Australian examples of fishes with reversed scales or Museum Magazine" (VU. 10, 1941 , p. cyclopean (one-eyed) fishes. though such 339). have been found elsewhere. Internal

Page 298 Tire Australian Museum Magazine The tail of this grunter (Pe/sartia lwmera/is) is nussmg, probably bitten off by a fish or shark, and the fins have partly grown around where it was in an effort to replace it. abnormalities are harder to trace (e.g .. Ventral fins may be lacking entirely m mirror-image viscera in which the organs fishes whose species usually have them. A normally on the left a re on the right, cases snapper (Chrysophrys guttulatus) from off of more than two ovari es, etc.), yet a Merimbula. New South Wales, trawled in number of hermaphrodite specimens (having April, 1949, lacked them as also did agar­ both male and female organs) have been fish (Euleptorhamphus) from the Noosa found, and hermaphroditism is indeed River, Queensland. normally the case in the young of some In Argentina, it has been shown that fis hes. vertebral deformity in atherines (silversides Fish fanciers have long admired the or hardyheads) can be caused by malnutri­ beautiful Veil-tailed Goldfish in aquaria, yet tion-the fishes cannot get enough weeds, so Nature, on very ra re occasions, produces a turn to animal food, and their brains become veil-tail in a marine fish. A snapper so heavily infested with larval trematode adorned was illustrated in a New Zealand worms (Diplostomulum) wh ich cause mal­ newspaper ("8 o'clock", Auckland, October formation of the spine and give a switchback 19, 1957,p. 12) . appearance to the fish (de Plaza and Boschi , 1957, Republ. Argent. Min . Agric. Ganad . . In skates and rays the pectoral fins occa­ Dept. inv. pesquer., pp. 5-26, illustrated). SIOnally fail to join up with the head to form The Australi an Museum has several sway­ a disc, but one extraordinary little stingaree backed fishes, viz.. a Murray cod, a (Urolophus sp. ) , trawled in Victoria, was hunchbacked whiting. a dumpy or fore­ nicknamed Dracula's Ghost, it looked so shortened mullet, a butterfly bream strange. Its disc was split several ways and, (Nemipterus) and a luderick. In November, unless the condition was due to mutilation, 1934, some Coogee fishermen caught a cannot be accounted for. snapper with the tail curved sharply dow n­ L eather-jackets may have their tails bitten wards almost at a right angle to the axis of off by some other fish o r chopped off by propellers of boats. The wound heals into *Pope, "The Australian Museum Magazine,'' VIII, a stump and the fish may re-grow fins round 11 , 1945. p. 383: "The Daily Telegraph,'' the tall-end. Quite a few cases of these February 8. 1945; "The Daily Mirror," May 19 freaks have been featured* and one, " Mr. and 20, 1949; "The Sun," May 31, 1949; ''Truth,'' Nobody" , was for 15 months in Taronga June 12, 1949; "Tight Li nes," 11, 4, 1950, p. 6; "T he Daily Mirror." January 2, 1950; "The Daily Park Aquarium, Sydney, dying in August, Telegraph," January 6, 1950; "The Daily Mirror,'' 1950. November 10, 195ll.

March, 1961 Page 299 r

A mullet (Mugil dobula) with "0- moutb," pro- bably caused when its jaws were pulled out by a fis her- man's hook. l the body. However, investigations have not A four-inch herring with three eyes. from yet been made to see if the conditions of Greymouth, New Zealand, was reported in these fishes were caused by worms. "The Sunday Sun," Sydney, April 3, 1938, p. 13. Marlin swordfishes sometimes damage The Port J ackson Shark is occasionally their snouts when ramming their prey or beetroot coloured or partiaiJy red, instead colliding with ships. Cases of marlin without of brown, through feeding on purple sea swords have appeared in New Zealand urchins. (Morrow, 1951, " Copeia," p. 303). A marlin with two swords, from Townsville, Members of the blackfish (luderick) and Queensland, was illustrated m A. drummer families are notably prone to D'Ombrain 's " Game Fishing Off the freakish bumps, on the head or body or to Australian Coast", 1957, (plate opp. p. 63) abnormalities of colour. A special exhibit and a twin-beaked Striped Marlin from New of these fishes is being prepared for the new Zealand in "The Daily Telegraph", Sydney. Fish Gallery of the Australian Museum to on March 12, 1948 ; see also " Outdoors and help spearfishermen and others to recogni se Fishing", Vol. 5, 1950, p. 163. The Shovel­ the various kinds. nose Ray (Rhinobatos) usually has an We have xanthistic luderick (i.e., fishes acutely pointed snout, but some examples with a greater or lesser preponderance of have a semicircular outline as if the shape of yellow in the usually bronze or grey coloura­ the snout had been altered by bumping. tion) from several parts of New South

A ga rfish (Reporhamphus ausrralis) with a three-pronged, instead of a si ngl e, beak.

Page 300 The Australian Museurn Magazine Osteoblastitis is the term given to an excessive growth of bone, probably due to excess lime in the fish's diet. The bumps on the skull of the snapper and the "arthritic" Bird- Identification bones of the batfish (Platax) are cases in point. Diners sometimes encounter bulbous bones in the backbone or tail of leather­ Exhibit jackets; there is nothing unsavoury about these. Similar exuberance of bone-produc­ An exhibit of Australian birds, tion is found also in threadfins and specially designed to enable members mulloway or jewfishes (Polynemidae and of the public to identify the birds they Sciaenidae). see in their gardens, in the bush and at " 0-mouth" is a strange condition which sea, has been opened at the Australian seldom occurs. T he mouth is round like a Museum. letter 0 , probably due to the jaws having been pulled out when the fish was previously Four hundred and sixty of the 670 hooked. Sometimes teeth grow in the new species of Australian birds are 0-shaped mouth-opening. A luderick and a represenled in the exhibit, and the mullet exhibiting this condition, both from others will be added as soon as New South Wales, are in the Australian specimens come to hand. Many of Museum. those not yet represented are to be T he Museum also has a garfish (Repor­ found in the main bird gallery, and are luzmphus australis) with a three-pronged specially indicated. mandible instead of a sing]e beak and another garfish with a deformed mouth. A The new exhibit is in the upper snapper with malformed jaws was gallery, above the reptile gallery. exhi bited by Miss E. Pope, of the Museum's scientific staff, before the Linnean Society of New South Wales in 1936. And so the sad list of misfits might be considerably extended. Unusual specimens should be preserved for further study; the Wales. but notably from off Malabar. One actual fish is better than a photograph, for canary-yellow example is shown in our Fish some oersons seem to have succumbed to Gallery ( Melleuish, "Ang]ers' Digest," the te1i1ptation to add a bit here and there March, 1959, p. 7 ; Whitley, " Proc. Roy. when " retouching" a photograph of a freak Zoo!. Soc. N.S.W.," 1950-51, 1952, p. fi sh for publication. Museums in the past 29). A xanthistic drummer (Segutilum. gib­ placed too much stress on monstrosities ; soni) from Point Lookout, Queensland, was interesting as they are in their wayward way, recorded by Ben Cropp ("Anglers' Digest," we are nowadays more interested in the December, 1958. p. 7). A semi-albino Rock marvels of Nature in the normal state. Blackfish and an a lbino and abnormally deep drummer (Kyplzosus fuscus) have also been [Photos in this article are by Howard noted. Hughes.]

An unusual luderick was caught in the Hawkesbury River, New South Wales, in Handbook of South Australian Fishes November. 1957: it was reported to have Mr. T. D . Scott, Curator of Fishes at the South Australia n Museum. Adelaide, spent several measured 12 ins. long, 6 ins. deep and 2 weeks at tre Australian Museum in November ins. thick. Another, from Greenwell Point, studying specimens in connection with a handbook New South Wa les, lacked a tail. of South Australian fi shes he is preparing.

March, 1961 Page 301 Land and Freshwater Invertebrates of the Sydney District

By E. C. POPE and D. F. McMICHAEL

M ANY people are interested in the natural history of the sea-shore, and quite a lot has been written about sea-~hore animals in recent years. But pract1cally nothing has been written recently about the invertebrates of the land and fresh water, which are almost unknown to many natura­ lists. Most terrestrial invertebrates, apart from insects, spiders and a few garden pests, are rather smal], and often they are noctur­ nal or so secretive in habit that they pass unnoticed by casual observers. Probably the best known are the molluscs, especially the garden snails and slugs. Among the introduced snails, the common species Helix aspersa is almost universal in suburban gardens, while a second species, Bradybaena similaris, seems to be spreading rapidly in recent years. Less common is the glassy, flattened Cellar Snail ( H elicella eel­ /aria), while a nother small, pointed soil­ snail, Subulina octona, is found commonly throughout the world.

Snail Helps Gardeners One native snail, Strangesta capillacea, has managed to survive the invasion of man and introduced snails, and it appears occasionally in suburban gardens, especially T he Squirter Worm ( Didymogaster sylvaticus) if there are bush areas nearby. It is carni­ ejects jets of fluid from pores on its back when vorous, preying on Helix aspersa, slaters handled. and, regrettably 7 earthworms. On the whole Drawn by B. P. Bertram. it is beneficial to gardens and should not be destroyed. including M. middenense, which is fo und A few small species of native snails may jn sand-dune country along the coast. still be found among humus and leaf-litter A number of introduced slugs occur com­ in bush areas in suburban Sydney, but most monly in the Sydney area, principally the of the larger species have retreated into the yellow-brown L imax flavus, the grey-black uncleared bush as settlement has advanced. Agriolimax agrestis and the great Grey Slug The patches of residual rain-forest along ( Limax maximus), which reaches the enor­ some of the streams in the Royal National mous size (for a slug) of nine inches Park are the home of the large Meridolum or more. T his last species is spotted with marshalli, the dead shells of which are used black and is omnivorous, feeding on gar­ by bower birds for decoration of their bage, humus and similar fare. One native bowers. Several other smaller species of species of slug, Triboniophorus waelfii. is Meridolum occur in bush around Sydney, often fo und in the pockets of brush left

Page 302 The Australian Museum Magazine around Sydney and in adjacent gardens. It local rivers are the Long-Armed Prawn is strik ingly marked, being yellow-green in (Macrobrachium novaehollandiae), in which colour, with a narrow red or orange border the first pair of legs in the male is enor­ right around the foot, and a red diamond or mously elongated, and the small freshwater trtangle on the back, near the respiratory crab Halicarcinus australis. opening. Still smaller crustaceans, such as Water Quite a few snails a re fo und in the fresh­ Fleas (Daphnia) , Copepods (of several water creeks and ponds around Sydney, as species) , Seed Shrimps (Cypris) and the well as a number of bivalves. These have peculiar little shrimp-like Estheria packardi, been described in earlier issues of this which is almost completely encased in its magazine, and s pace does not allow their horny bivalved "shell", may be found by inclusion here. The most interesting of them careful searching with a fine net. The al­ are the freshwater mussels V elesunio ambi­ most stingray-shaped little Shield Shrimp guus. which is found in muddy streams, and (Lepidurus viridis). which seems to prefer Hyridella australis and H yridella depressa, to swim upside-down, may also be seen in which live together in clear sandy streams, small pools in swampy areas west of the like the Wo ronora River. city. It is keenl y sought by aquarists as fish-food. A recent addition to Sydney's Freshwater Crustaceans freshwater fauna is the dainty little jellyfish Craspedacusta sowerbyi, the discovery of A few crustaceans a lso occur m fresh which was recorded in an earlier issue of this water; these include two species of fresh water crayfishes o r yabbies, Euastacus nobi­ magazine. lis and Euastacus serratus, while freshwater Most of the other invertebrates are essen­ shrimps are represented by Paratya austra­ tially land-dwellers, but they are neverthe­ liensis, which occurs commonly in the Syd­ less very dependent on the amount of moi s­ ney water reservoirs. and Atya striolata, ture in their environment ; consequently, which occurs only sporadically. Other in­ they generally hide away by day in damp teresting crustaceans found occasionally 111 places, such as among leaf mould or under

Top left: Strangesta capil/acea, the Carnivorou Native Snail. Bottom left: Merido/um marshal/i, a large native snail f rom Royal National Park. Top right: Meri­ do lum middenense, an inhabitant of coastal country. Centre right: Bradybaena similaris, a common introduced species. Bottom right: He/ice/la eel/aria, the Cellar Snail. a widespread introduced carnivor­ ou pecies. All about natural size. Photo.-H oward Hughcs.

March, 1961 Page 303 G. sanguinea. which is dark red. The blue worm is sometimes found curled up in a hole eaten out of a strawberry, but is not guilty of damaging the fruit. It is there to try and capture the small beetles which have eaten out the hole. Another interesting local worm is the long, thread-li ke Gordian worm (Gordius sp.), which often appears mysteriously in kitchen sinks or buckets of water. The worm spends part of its life as a parasite inside the body of an insect or spider. When ready to breed, it bursts out of its host's body, enters the water of a pond or stream and, after pairing, the female lays eggs. These worms are quite harmless to humans. The Shovel-headed Garden Worm (Placocephalus kewensis). Earthworms Drawn by B. P. Bertram. Earthworms must be counted among the more prominent of Sydney invertebrates. logs. While some, such as the introduced Again, introduced species seem to be most common slaters Porcellio scaber and P. lae­ successful, so that Allolobophora ca/igi­ vis, may emerge almost nightly and forage nosa (the commonest kind), Eisenia foerida around, others, li ke the Geoplana flatworms, and E. rosea (the pinkish worms in compost usually only move about freely in the open after long periods of rain or during very humid weather. At such times they may appear in suburban gardens, especially those adjacent to bushland.

Crustacean Invades Kings Cross Flats Some land invertebrates have managed to penetrate into highly populous and built-up areas in the heart of the city. The tiny crustacean arnphipod Talitrus sylvaticus, which norma lly lives among and feeds on rotten leaves in forest litter or in compost heaps, has on several occasions invaded ft ats in Kings Cross during prolonged wet periods, when it has been found snipping off the car­ pet pile in its search for food and shelter. Three kinds of planarian ft atworms turn up in Sydney gardens during prolonged damp weather. All are fl attened , brightly coloured on the upper surface. and exude a copious mucus. The commonest, Placocep­ halus kewensis, is from 8 ins. to 12 ins. long when extended, and has a flattened shovel-shaped head. Its long ochre-yellow body bears five longitudinal brown or black stripes. Only 2 ins. or 3 ins. Ion~ and poi?te~ at both ends are Geoplana caerulea. w~tc h ts dark navy blue on its upper surface When engorged with blood, this leech will be four or five times the size shown here. wtth a central white longitudinal stripe, and Photo.- Howard Hughes. Page 304 The Australian Museum Magazine painlessly making a wound with their sharp jaws, proceed to suck blood which they st?re and use for food. Not only are they diffi­ cult to di slodge, but the wounds go on Increase in Price bleeding owing to the chemical hirudin which the leech introduces into the wound to pre­ of Magazine vent coagulation. Attached leeches may be induced to let go by holding a lighted match As has previously been announced, or cigarette-end near them, or by the appli­ the price of "The Australian Museum cation of insect repellants. The best way Magazine" is increased to 3/ - a copy to avoid leech bites is to apply plenty of (3/ 6 posted) as from this issue. The insect repellant (such as dimethylphthalate subscription rates (posted) will there­ or benzyl benzoate) before entering the fore be 14/- a year and £2/ 2/- for bush. and to keep an eye open for these three years (the full volume). pests. Tn as short an article as this it is possible This has been made essential by only to mention a few of the more promin­ rises in the costs of printing, paper ent invertebrates found in the Sydney district. and process-engraving in recent years. In all , more than 300 species occur in the area, and there are probably quite a few more species as yet unknown to science. The li st of articles which follows wi11 give further heaps) and a species of Lumbricus are information on various invertebrate groups. those most frequently encountered by gar­ deners. However, at least seven species of native FURTHER READING earthworms can a lso be found. The most Allan, Joyce: " Land Shells of Australia·• (parts 1 and 2), Aust. Mus. Mag., Vol. 10, No. 2 and interesting of these is the squirter worm No. 3. "Aftermath of Rain," Aust. Mus. Mag., Didymogaster sylvaticus, which is found Vol. I 0, No. 6. "The Introduced Grey Slug," under rotting logs in the Royal National Aust. Mus. Mag., Vol. 11 . No. 6. Park ra in forests and other bushy areas. Brereton, J. Le Gay: "The Way of Life of the T_hese worms a re tough and solid, with a Slater," Aust. Mus. Mag .. Vol. 13, No. 3. dtameter of half an inch or more, and may Francois, D.: "Freshwater Crayfishes," Aust. grow up to 18 ins. in length. When disturbed Mus. Mag., Vol. 13, No. 7. or handled they often emit a series of jets McMichael, D. F.: "Shells of Rivers and Lakes·· ( parts I, 2 and 3). Aust. Mus. Mag .. Vol. 10, of fluid from a li ne of pores along the middle Nos. 11 and 12, and Vol. J I. No. 1. "The Fresh­ of their backs. T hese fountains of fluid water Aquarium ." Aust. Mus. Mag., Vol. 12, may ri se up to two feet in the air, but No. 11. they are relatively harmless, though the McNeill, F. A.: "Deserters from the Sea:· .<\ust. fluid will sting if it gets in one's eye. Mus. Mag., Vol. 9. No. 8. "An Elusive Jellyfish from Freshwater." Aust. Mus. Mag., Vol. 11 , Another type of segmented worm which No. 7. occurs in the Sydney district is the F ive­ Pope, E. C.: "When the Rains Come:· Aust. ~tr i ped Leech (Hirudo quinquestriata). It Mus. Mag.. Vol. 9. No. 12. "Earthworms and Soil Building in Australia." Aust. Mus. Mag., Vol. ts common in the damper parts of the Royal 10. No. 3. "Squirter Earthworms." Aust. Mus. National Park a nd in the Blue Mountains Mag .. Vol. 11. No. 12. valleys. Sometimes these worms attach them­ Au~ tra l ia n Mu~eum Leaflets Nos. 15 ( Plaoarian Worms) . selves to unwa ry bushwalkers, and, after 30 (Go rdian Wo rms) and 45 (Earthworms).

March, 1961 Page 305 William Holmes, the Australian Museum's First Custodian

By GILBERT P. WIDTLEY

' It was under the administration of Governor Darling, that a Museum was very judiciously founded in Sydney, and the si tuation of Colonial Zoologist was given to Mr. W. Holmes, who died at Morton Bay in August, 1830."

T his brief quotation from D r. Johann A ustralian M useum" in his "Australian Lhotsky's " Journey to the A ustralian Alps" Quarterly Journal of Theology," i , January, ( 1835) was for many years all that we knew 1838, and who later became the first man about the establishment of the infant to discover vertebrate fossils in Australia. Australian Museum and its fi rst custodian, Holmes lived in Castlereagh Street, but and it seemed impossible to fi nd out much in 1828 returned to England, where he more. However, an editorial in T he applied successfully for an order for a grant Australian Museum Magazine in 1927, the of land in New South Wales. On May 16, Museum's centenary year, gave a few more 1829, he arrived back in Sydney on the details. "Elizabeth" and, at a salary of £ 130 a year, Now, unexpectedly, at this late date, more continued his employment at the Museum, information can be added since Mr. A. E. then situated in the Old Post Office, Bent H olmes, of Manly, a collateral descendant of Street. He did not take up the land to which William Holmes, has suppJied me with a he was entitled as he evidently wanted to hi story of the family and a paper by W. J. look around for a good spot when travelling Goold in the ''Newcastle and Hunter District for specimens. But he was fated not to live Historical Society Monthly Journal", 5 long, for in All!gust, 1830 he was accident­ ( 10), 1951, which bears on the matter. We ally shot while collecting specimens at still have no portrait of Willjam Holmes, but Moreton Bay, in what is now Queensland. the facts which have emerged about him are T his reference to his work in the "Sydney worth brief record here towards a more Gazette" of August 31, 1830, was detailed history of the Australian Museum unconsciously posthumous, probably having which is now being compiled. been delayed before publication: "The pub­ William Holmes was probably born in lic are not generally aware that a beauti­ Lancashire at a bout the end of the 18th ful Collection of Australian curiosities, century (certainly before 1803). He the property of Government, is deposited in emigrated from London in 1826 in the the Old Post Office. T his Museum is under bar_q'!e . "Elizabeth" (Captain Collins), the superintendence of Mr. Holrnes, who, arnvmg m Sydney on April 7, 1827, to take between the hours of ten and three, politely up his post as. colonial zoologist at the shows the same to any respectable ind ivi­ Museum. A fellow-passenger was the R ev. duals who may think fi t to call . It is well C. P. N. Wilton, M.A., appointed to worthy inspection." St. A nn's Church , R yde, New South Wales William H om mes was undoubtedly the ~ h o is o~ interest to us because he published fi rst man to mould the Australia n Museu m Suggestwns for the Establishm ent of an into being.

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