Physical Science International Journal

15(2): 1-25, 2017; Article no.PSIJ.34889 ISSN: 2348-0130

Metastable Non-Nucleonic States of Nuclear Matter: Phenomenology

Timashev Serge 1,2*

1Karpov Institute of Physical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia. 2National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, Moscow, Russia.

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analyzed and interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/PSIJ/2017/34889 Editor(s): (1) Prof. Yang-Hui He, Professor of Mathematics, City University London, UK And Chang-Jiang Chair Professor in Physics and Qian-Ren Scholar, Nan Kai University, China & Tutor and Quondam-Socius in Mathematics, Merton College, University of Oxford, UK. (2) Roberto Oscar Aquilano, School of Exact Science, National University of Rosario (UNR),Rosario, Physics Institute (IFIR)(CONICET-UNR), Argentina. Reviewers: (1) Alejandro Gutiérrez-Rodríguez, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Mexico. (2) Arun Goyal, Delhi University, India. (3) Stanislav Fisenko, Moscow State Linguistic University, Russia. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/20031

Received 17 th June 2017 th Original Research Article Accepted 8 July 2017 Published 13 th July 2017

ABSTRACT

A hypothesis of the existence of metastable states for nuclear matter with a locally shaken-up nucleonic structure of the nucleus, was proposed earlier. Such states are initiated by inelastic scattering of electrons by nuclei along the path of weak nuclear interaction. The relaxation of such nuclei is also determined by weak interactions. The use of the hypothesis makes it possible to physically interpret a rather large group of experimental data on the initiation of low energy nuclear reactions (LENRs) and the acceleration of radioactive α- and β-decays in a low-temperature plasma. The possible mechanisms of LENRs implemented in a Rossi E-CAT reactor are discussed. It is also suggested that the metastable isu -states of a different type occur as a result of high- energy collisions of particles, when heavy hadrons (baryons, mesons) are formed in the collisions of protons with characteristic energies higher than 1 TeV. This kind of concept makes it possible to + − physically interpret the recently recorded anomaly in the angular e e correlations of positron- electron pairs emitted in the radioactive decays of excited 8Be nuclei formed by the interaction between protons with kinetic energy ~ 1 MeV and 7Li nuclei. A recent hypothesis of the existence of yet another, fifth fundamental interaction by Feng et al, in addition to the strong/weak nuclear, electromagnetic, and gravitational interactions, might be introduced to explain this anomaly. ______

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

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Keywords: Metastable non-nucleonic states of nuclear matter; low energy nuclear reactions; heavy hadrons; heavy quarks; inner shake-up state of nuclear matter.

1. INTRODUCTION down quarks and electrons, but with relatively suppressed (and possible vanishing) couplings to Recent studies [1,2] suggested that there might protons (and neutrinos) relative to neutrons, i.e. it be a fifth fundamental interaction, in addition to interacts with neutrons but is “protophobic” and the strong/weak nuclear, electromagnetic, and ignores protons. The latter allows one to explain gravitational ones. They were initiated by the why the X boson might have avoided earlier study [3], in which the authors studied the detection. It was shown that the Standard Model radioactive decays of excited 8Be nuclei with can be easily extended to accommodate a light energies of 17.64 and 18.15 MeV, formed in the gauge boson with protophobic quark couplings interaction of protons with kinetic energy Ep = [2]. As a result, the postulated boson was 7 1.10 MeV and Li nuclei, using LiF 2 and LiO 2 associated with a new, fifth, fundamental targets. The above excited states were recorded interaction, which should be introduced into the as resonances at Ep = 0.441 MeV and Ep = 1.03 physical science [1,2]. 7 γ 8 MeV in the process Li ( p, ) Be under study. It will be shown below that the recorded The authors [3] studied the formation of a + − + − anomalies in the angular e e correlations in the positron-electron pair e – e resulting from the radioactive decay of excited 8Be nuclei can be internal conversion that accompanies the birth of qualitatively interpreted on the basis of a new two α -particles in the radioactive decay of the concept rather than the fundamental hypotheses 8Be nuclei. They expected a sharp drop in the made in [1,2]. We assume that metastable states + probability of the correlated formation of an e – can occur in the nuclear matter when the mass of − Θ the nucleus is insufficient to bind a part of the e pair as the opening angle between quarks into nucleons, which gives rise to local positrons and electrons in the laboratory frame of shake-ups in the nucleonic structure of the reference increases. However, they recorded an nucleus. For these anomalous excited states, the “anomalous” increase in the angular function relaxation dynamics of the nuclei crucially Θ 0 within an angular range of ~ 130-140 , depends on the weak nuclear interaction. Earlier, considering this anomaly as a result of the this assumption made it possible to physically + − formation of the e e pair in the decay of a interpret a rather large set of experimental data hypothetical neutral isoscalar boson formed in on the initiation of LENRs and acceleration of the above process, with a rest mass equal to radioactive α- и β-decays in a low-temperature 16.7 MeV/ c2, where с is the speed of light in plasma. It will be shown that such states of the vacuum. In this decay, the opening angle would nuclear matter with a shaken-up nucleonic be 180° in the system of the center of mass of structure can occur in the high-energy collisions + − the e e pair. It was suggested that the of nuclei too, such as protons in the colliding beams with characteristic energies higher than 1 introduced isoscalar boson, with its expected -14 TeV. The concept to be introduced will allow one lifetime of ~ 10 s, might be a good candidate to understand why the decay of highly excited for the relatively light gauge boson performing hadrons (baryons, mesons) formed in these the role of the mediator in the secluded WIMP collisions is effectuated by the weak nuclear dark matter scenario. However, the later analysis 8 interaction. [1,2] showed that the Be anomaly, which is consistent with all existing experimental 2. ELECTRON FACTOR IN INITIATING constraints, can be adequately interpreted only when one puts forward a hypothesis of existence NUCLEAR PROCESSES of another type of boson, a protophobic gauge Phenomenological approach [4-7] implies that vector boson X, which is produced in the decay 8 the dynamic interrelation between the electron of the excited state of Be* down to the ground 8 8 and nuclear subsystems of an atom, which is state, Be* → Be*X , and then decays as X → + − mediated by the electromagnetic component of e e . It is the boson that could be related to the the physical vacuum (EM vacuum), is the key elusive dark matter in the Universe. According to factor in initiating LENRs [8-12] and the [1,2], this gauge boson, with a mass of about 17 radioactive decay of nuclei [5,8,13]. This 2 MeV/ c , is the mediator of the weak force. The interrelation manifests itself in experimentally boson has milli-charged couplings to up and recorded facts that the occurrence of radioactive

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decay of nuclei is accounted for by the positive of quarks involving vector W -bosons. At the difference between the total mass of the initial same time, the deficit of the total mass of this atom subsystems, electron and nuclear (whole nucleus prevents from the formation of a neutron. atom rather than the nucleus alone), and the total The resulting state of local anomaly in the mass of its decay products [14,15]. When the nuclear matter with a shaken-up nucleonic mechanisms of LENRs and the decay of atomic structure is characterized as a metastable inner- A shake-up state, or isu -state. The latter is nucleus Z N (Z and A are the atomic and mass indicated by the subscript on the right of the numbers of the nucleus N , respectively) are nucleus symbol in the right-hand side of (1). The considered, the nuclear matter is usually subscript in the electron symbol in the left-hand represented in the form of interacting nucleons. side of (1) indicates that this stage of the process In the K-capture, however, when the electron of is activated. The initiated chain of virtual the inner shells of an atom interacts with the conversions of quarks in which the vector W- surface of the nucleus, giving rise to a new bosons are involved must be interrupted by the daughter nucleus, the nucleonic structure of the − nuclear matter is unchanged. At the initial irreversible decay of the virtual W -boson producing the initial nucleus, electron, and irreversible stage of this process, the electron ~ interacting with the nucleus surface emits a antineutrino ν : − neutrino ν . The resulting virtual vector W - A → A + − + ν~ boson, integrated into the nuclear matter, Z- 1 M isu Z N e . (2) interacts with the u-quark of one of the protons and is converted to a d-quark. As a result, this Consequently, the overall process can be proton is converted to a neutron, and a nucleus represented as an inelastic scattering of an A electron by the initial nucleus: Z- 1 M is formed. However, the situation can drastically change when the K-capture is A + − → A + − + ν + ν~ energetically forbidden, which are the cases Z N ehe Z N e . (3) under consideration below, and the electron can acquire a rather high (on chemical scales) kinetic The nuclei in which the nuclear matter is in a energy Ee ~ 3-5 eV, which can occur in a low- metastable isu -state will be called “ β -nuclei”. temperature plasma. In this case, when the The threshold energy for this process producing electron shells are not yet ionized by these νν~ electrons, the scattering of electrons with the a pair, which is accounted for by the above kinetic energy (de Broglie wavelength λ ≈ neutrino-antineutrino rest masses, is about 0.3 0.5 nm) by atoms and ions initiates the oscillation eV [16]. of the electron subsystems of the atoms and ions, increasing the probability of interaction It is common knowledge that the nucleus is a between the electrons of the inner subshells of system of nucleons bound into a whole by the atoms and ions and their respective nuclei. exchange interactions in which the quarks are exchanged using pions. Therefore, the formation The first, irreversible stage of this interaction is of three quarks not bound into a nucleon in a characterized by the emission of a neutrino ν nucleus, which in this case can be regarded as − and the integration of a vector W -boson into “markers” of new degrees of freedom, in fact, A means that the mass of the nucleus is insufficient the nuclear matter of the initial nucleus Z N : to provide the traditional proton-neutron arrangement of the nuclear matter in the system A − A under consideration. The subsequent relaxation N + e → − M + ν . (1) Z he Z 1 isu of the locally formed isu -state, which can be transferred by the mediating pions to other As a result, the nucleonic structure of the formed nucleons of the nucleus, is initiated only by the A nucleus Z −1 M isu , with a charge less by one than weak nuclear interactions, which are effectuated by the mediating quarks in the formation and that of the initial nucleus, is locally shaken up. 0 − absorption of gauge vector neutral Z and Indeed, the interaction between the vector - ± W charged W -bosons. In the case under boson and the u-quark of one of the protons of consideration, this relaxation terminates with the A – the nucleus Z N can only produce a virtual d- decay of the virtual vector W -boson followed by quark followed by a chain of virtual conversions the formation of the initial nucleus in the emission

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of an electron and antineutrino. The lifetime of A the Z N nucleus and me is the rest mass of the the formed β -nuclei found in the metastable isu - electron. state can be rather long, from tens of minutes to several years, and the nuclei in this state can be For example, in the laser ablation of metal directly involved in various nuclear processes samples in an aqueous solution of uranyl, when [4,5]. a low-temperature plasma is formed in the vapor near the metal surface, the interaction between It should be noted that the relaxation the plasma electrons and the 238 U nuclei initiates rearrangement of the nuclear matter when the the formation of " β-protactinium" nuclei followed products of these nuclear conversions are by a β-decay of the 238 Pa nuclei that produces formed is effectuated primarily by forming a 91 isu purely nucleonic structure of the nucleus, thorium-234 and helium-4 nuclei as the products obeying the principle of least action. While the of decay of the initial uranium-238 nucleus: relaxation processes of de-excitation in nuclei 238 U + e− →238 Pa +ν →234 Th + 4He + with a proton-neutron (nucleonic) structure can 92 he 91 isu 90 2 . (4) go via the excited states of the nucleus and e− +ν +ν~ + Q 27.4( MeV ) include γ-quanta emission steps, this type of relaxation in β -nuclei is virtually impossible. In this case, the effective rate constant for the 238 Therefore, if the atomic nuclei in which the initiated decays of U nucleus increases by 9 − nuclear matter is in a partial “non-nucleonic” orders of magnitude, giving rise to a kind of “ e - state are involved in the processes, the catalysis” [4]. The deficit ∆Q of structural energy mechanism of relaxation of the formed products for the formed β-protactinium nucleus is ∆Q ≈ – is always accompanied by energy loss due to the 3.46 MeV. An unexpected result was recorded in emission of neutrino-antineutrino pairs, or due to experiments with a beryllium sample. The the URCA process [17], rather than the emission beryllium nanoparticles formed in the solution of γ-quanta by excited nuclei, as in the relaxation after one-hour laser action showed an of nuclear products characterized by the proton- anomalously high rate of formation of thorium- neutron arrangement of the nuclear matter. It is 234 nuclei for more than 500 days after the laser for this reason that the corresponding nuclear ablation was completed. The half-life for the processes are safe for the environment. nuclei initiated by the laser ablation that produce thorium-234 was 2.5 years. Naturally, this Of special interest are the cases in which the phenomenon could be associated with the formation of isu -states in the nuclear matter is accumulation of β-protactinium nuclei in initiated in initially radioactive nuclei because the – beryllium nanoparticles in the laser ablation, relaxation process with a vector W -boson which lasted as short as an hour. decay can initiate a general radioactive decay of the isu -state nucleus that results in the formation Additional examples are the β – -decay of 60 Co , of daughter products of the decay of the initial 27 137 140 - radioactive nucleus. According to [5,18], the 55 Cs and 56 Ba nuclei initiated by the е - general stability of the nuclear matter in a catalysis mechanism, for which the half-life T½ is metastable isu -state can be lost by changing the 1925 days, 30.1 years, and 12.8 days, boundary conditions for the components of the respectively [4], [7]: electric field intensity vector of the EM vacuum at the surface of the nucleus in whose volume the 60 Co + e − → 60 Fe + ν → 60 Ni + nucleonic matter shake-up occurred. The index 27 he 26 isu 28 , (5) − ~ A 2e + ν + 2ν + Q 82.2( MeV ) characterizing the M nucleus instability that Z- 1 isu occurs in the process (1) is the absolute value of 137 Cs + e− →137 Xe +ν →137 Ba + the structural energy deficit ∆Q (∆Q < 0) of this 55 he 54 isu 56 . (6) metastable isu -state nucleus, which is defined as 2e− +ν + 2ν~ + Q 18.1( MeV ) ∆ = − 2 Q (m A m A )c . In this case, the mass of Z N Z- 1 M 140 + − →140 +ν →140 + the AM nucleus is taken as 56 Ba ehe 55 Cs isu 57 La Z- 1 isu . (7) = + − +ν + ν~ + m A m A m , where m A is the mass of e 2 Q 05.1( MeV ) − M N e N Z 1 isu Z Z

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In these examples, the deficits of structural 137 140 clearly seen for the 55 Cs and 56 Ba nuclei and 60 energy ∆Q, which prevent the isu -state 26 Fe isu , 60 minimal for the 27 Co nuclei. The available 137 140 54 Xe isu and 55 Cs isu nuclei from coming to the experimental data [8] on the initiated decays of stable ground states of the nuclear matter 137 Cs , 140 Ba , and 60 Co validate this 60 137 140 55 56 27 – referring to the 26 Fe , 54 Xe , and 55 Cs nuclei, is conclusion: the half-lives of β -active cesium- -0.237, -4.17, and -6.22 MeV, respectively. It can 137 (30.1 years) and barium-140 nuclei (12.8 be expected that the initiation effect of electrons days) drop to about 380 and 2.7 days, on the β – -decay of nuclei in a low-temperature respectively, whereas the half-life of cobalt-60, plasma will be best manifested when the equal to 1925 days, remains practically absolute value of structural energy deficit ∆Q for unchanged. The Feynman diagrams for the β – - the isu -state nuclei to be formed is the highest. decays, positron β + -decays, and α-decays of This implies that in the above cases the nuclei initiated by the е--catalysis mechanism are acceleration of radioactive decay would be plotted in Fig. 1.

a b

c

d

− + Fig. 1. Feynman diagrams for initiated ( a) β -decays, ( b) β -decays, and ( c, d) α-decay

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+ − The unexpected character of the result that the 2n → d + e +ν~ , (10) decay of a radioactive nucleus can be affected isu by external actions consists in the fact that this effect is associated with electrons, which cannot which produces a deuteron, electron, and interact with the nucleons of the nucleus as antineutrino, is rather long, at least, tens of nuclear matter fragments, but can initiate, with minutes [13]. It was assumed that the synthesis − occurs by the interaction between a tritium the help of vector W -bosons, local shake-ups nucleus t+ and nucleus 2 : in the nucleonic structure of the nucleus. At the nisu same time, the experiments show that the external excitation of a radioactive nucleus as a + + 2 → + + + d nisu t n Q 25.3( MeV ) , (11) whole system (for example, by the action of γ- radiation) cannot affect the rate of radioactive Where n stands for a neutron. This is decay and, hence, the above initiation of the accompanied by another process: nucleus instability. In these cases, the nuclear matter manifests itself as a whole system of + +2 → 3 + + − +ν~ + interacting nucleons with their inherent individual d nisu 2 He n e Q 27.3( MeV ) characteristics. (12)

Section 6 will show how the external actions of Which is a result of the weak nuclear interaction. very high energy can give rise to isu -states in the nuclear matter, which account for the decay of The authors [13] also postulated that the nuclei. interaction between electrons and a tritium nuclei t + may produce a hypothetical β-trineutron 3n : 3. POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF isu

NUCLEAR-CHEMICAL REACTIONS + + − →3 + ν t ehe nisu . (13) The simplest β-nuclei are β-neutrons and β- dineutrons, which can be formed by the The rest mass of the neutral nucleus 3n was interaction of high-energy electrons with protons isu + + assumed to be equal to the rest mass of the p and deuterons d , respectively; for example, tritium atom. It is the formation of 3n that the in the laser ablation of metals in an ordinary or isu heavy water, as well as in a protium- or initiated decay of tritium nuclei in the laser deuteron-containing glow-discharge plasma: ablation of metals in aqueous media and the synthesis of tritium nuclei can pass through [13]: + − 1 p + e → n + ν , (8) + − − he isu + →3 +ν → 3 + + t ehe nisu 2 He 2e ~ . (14) + + − →2 + ν ν + 2ν + Q .0( 019 MeV ) d ehe nisu . (9)

3 It should be noted that the half-life T1 2 of nisu in If the half-lives T1 2 of these β-nuclei are − 1 2 the e -catalysis is of the same order of sufficiently long, the neutral nuclei nisu and nisu 2 , which are characterized by the baryon numbers magnitude as that of nisu , which is many orders equal to one and two, the rest masses equal to of magnitude shorter than the half-life of the the masses of the hydrogen atom and deuterium, tritium nucleus ( T = 12.3 years) [13]. respectively, and by zero lepton charges, can be 1 2 efficiently involved in various nuclear processes [4-7,13]. It is shown in [5] that the introduced concept of a β-nuclei with a rather long lifetime formed in the Analysis of experimental data on the synthesis of glow discharge in a deuterium-containing gas tritium nuclei t+ in the laser ablation of metals in a makes it possible to physically interpret a group of data [9,10] on the initiated radioactive decay of heavy water shows that the half-life of the β- T1 2 W nuclei in the surface layers of a tungsten dineutron decay, cathode (foil). Note that although 5 isotopes of

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tungsten ( 180 W , 182 W , 183 W , 184 W , 186 W ) are phase, with the unmatched spins and parities of 74 74 74 74 74 the colliding and resulting nuclei. potentially α-radioactive nuclei,

Experimental works studying the conversions in A → A−4 + 4 + 74 W 72 Hf 2 He QA , (15) the glow discharge in a deuterium-containing gas recorded the formation of new elements in the they are usually considered as stable isotopes surface layer of the tungsten cathode after it was because of an anomalously large period of their treated by the plasma for 4 to 7 hours, which half-life, T ≈ 10 17 −10 19 years, which is many include not only stable isotopes of erbium, 1 2 ytterbium, lutetium and Hafnium, but also orders of magnitude greater than the lifetime of radioactive isotopes of ytterbium and hafnium the Universe. The values of heat release QA in [9,10]. While the formation of the stable isotopes the radioactive α-decay of tungsten nuclei with could be assumed to be related to the diffusion of mass numbers A equal to 180, 182, 183, 184, impurity elements from the cathode bulk to its and 186, are 2.52, 1.77, 1.68, 1.66, and 1.12 surface treated by the plasma, the formation of MeV, respectively. Based on the energy the radioactive isotopes definitely points to the consideration alone, one can admit that there are radioactive decay of tungsten isotopes. As all α-decays producing several α particles for the possible reactions for the initiated decay of above stable isotopes of tungsten, including the various tungsten isotopes are already reported decay producing nine α particles for the [5], only a few examples are given below for tungsten-180 isotope. illustration:

The concept dealing with the formation of 180 +2 →169 + 9 + 4 + 74 W nisu 70 Yb 4 Be 2 He metastable isu -state nuclei that we are (16) − ~ developing distinguishes three mechanisms for 2e + 2ν + Q (10.09 MeV ), initiated nuclear conversions, including radioactive decays of nuclei: 182 +2 →171m + 9 + 4 + 74 W nisu 70 Yb 4 Be 2 He (17) 3.1 Mechanism of Nuclear Fusion 2e− + 2ν~ + Q (10.34 MeV ),

A The neutral particles nisu (A = 1, 2, 3) with long 182 W +2n →180m Hf + 4He + Q (10.26 MeV ), (18) enough lifetimes formed in a low-temperature 74 isu 72 2 plasma can diffuse along grain boundaries deep into the cathode and interact with the metal 184 W +2n →178 Yb +2 4He + Q (12.28 MeV ). (19) (tungsten) nuclei in the cathode surface layers. In 74 isu 70 2 this case, the interaction and fusion of 2n isu In (16) - (19) it is taken into account that in A addition to the major masses 169 to 180, the nuclei with 74 W isotopes can give rise to excited A+2 * mass spectra of the products recorded the birth 74 W nuclei at the first process step. In and growth of the peak of mass 9. It should be addition to the overall excitation energy, noted that the absence of the basic mass 4, indicated by the asterisk, equal to about 10 MeV corresponding to helium nuclei, in the mass relative to the stable ground state of these nuclei, spectra recorded in [9], [10] can be attributed to their nuclear matter due to their fusion with 2n the extremely low solubility of helium in tungsten isu [19] and the high diffusivity of helium in the zone can be partially in an unbalanced isu -state with a between the boundaries of foil grains. It is lost stability in the nucleus bulk. All of this causes obvious that these transport processes can be the resulting conversions accompanied by the 2 emission of α particles and daughter isotopes. accomplished only when the lifetime of nisu is Note that in contrast to the nuclear reactions that long enough for the diffusive transport of these occur in the collision of reactants in the gaseous neutral nuclei along the foil grain boundaries to phase, the energy factor alone due to the surface layers. This agrees with the conclusion possible effect of the environment is enough to that this time must be no less than tens of effectuate the above nuclear conversions in the minutes for the synthesis of tritium in the laser region of grain boundaries of the solid metal ablation of metals in a heavy water [13].

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3.2 Mechanism of e− -catalysis synthesis (SHS) [24]. The composition of the condensed products of thermite powder mixture (Al + Fe O ) combustion in air was studied [23]. The above consideration implies that there may 2 3 The purity of the initial materials was 99.7 to 99.9 be another way of initiating the α-decay of mass %. It was shown that in the combustion of tungsten isotopes in a glow discharge in iron-oxide aluminum thermites with a flame experimental studies, when electrons with kinetic temperature higher than 2800 K, 0.55 mass % of energy Ee ~ 3-5 eV interact directly with stable − stable calcium is formed. The initial thermite isotopes of tungsten in the e -catalysis. Possible powder systems (Al + Fe 2O3) did not contain any examples of these processes are given below: calcium. According to [23], the calcium could be formed in the following nuclear reactions: 183 + − →183 +ν →175 + 4 + 74 W e 73 Ta isu 71 Lu 22 He , (20) 27 14 41 − Al + N → Ca + Q 21( 8. MeV ) , (22) 2e + 2ν~ +ν + Q 96.3( MeV ) 13 7 20

27 14 40 186 − 186 174 4 Al + N → Ca + n + Q 12( 44. MeV ) . (23) W + e → Ta +ν → Lu +3 He + 13 7 20 74 73 isu 70 2 − . (21) 3e + 3ν~ +ν + Q 17.7( MeV ) The formation of calcium in the experiments [23] implies that the temperature of electrons in the − flame of combustion of iron-oxide aluminum It should be noted that the concept of e - thermites in air can be much higher than the catalysis can be helpful in understanding the flame temperature estimated using the energy of formation of much less than all new isotope atoms and ions. It is the case that is typical for products recorded in experiments. Therefore, the the low-temperature plasma in a glow discharge. 2 processes with nisu nuclei are considered as In this case, the interaction of high-energy 27 14 basic for the initiated decays of W stable electrons with nuclei 13 Al and 7 N could isotopes. produce nuclei 27 and 14 , respectively. 13 Mg isu 6 Cisu The above data allow one to state that the 27 Among these nuclei, the nucleus 13 Mg isu shows nuclear decay of initially non-radioactive tungsten the highest activity in the nuclear interactions isotopes accompanied by the formation of lighter because the deficit of its energy relative to the elements (erbium, lutetium, ytterbium, hafnium), 27 which is initiated in a low-temperature plasma nucleus 13 Mg is ∆Q = - 2.61 MeV , whereas the (glow discharge), can be considered as a new energy deficit for the nucleus 14 C is much less, type of artificial radioactivity, which is different 6 isu from the artificially induced radioactivity initiated ∆Q = -0.16 MeV . by nuclear reactions (e.g., by bombardment with alpha particles or neutrons, giving rise to Following [7], assume that when the nucleus of radioisotopes). It should be remembered that the an atom, or ion is in a pre-decay metastable isu - 27 stable isotopes of many nuclei, from neodymium state (supposedly, 13 Mg isu ), the lability of its to bismuth, including a tantalum-181 isotope, for electron subsystem is higher and it is likely that which initiated decays similar to those described this subsystem can partially overlap the electron above are also recorded [9,10], are potentially α- subsystems of the neighboring atoms radioactive in the same sense as tungsten (specifically, the nitrogen atom). It is obvious that isotopes. the high values of energy release in the overall processes (22) and (23) should act as the factor 3.3 Harpoon Mechanism initiating the spin-spin interaction of the electron subsystems of both atoms and the formation of The reactions between multi-electron atoms are common “molecular” orbitals with the correcting of highest complexity for understanding the action of spin electron-nuclear interactions for mechanism of low-energy nuclear processes. each atom. The emerging bonds bring both These processes are usually considered in the atoms closer to each other, and the formation of study of transformation processes in native common orbitals is more intense as the nuclei systems [20-22]. It was recently shown [23], are brought closer to each other. This brings however, that reactions of this type can occur in about a kind of “harpoon mechanism” in which the initiation of self-propagating high-temperature the atom with an isu -state nucleus captures the

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adjacent atom. The complete integration of the Analysis of the nuclear radioactive decay may electron subsystems of both atoms initiates the require the discrete Kramers’ activation fusion of the nuclear matter of the isu -state mechanism (“roaming” over energy levels to nucleus ( 27 Mg ) and the adjacent nucleus reach a certain boundary) [25], which is 13 isu commonly used in the physicochemical kinetics. 14 ( 7 N ). In this case, the overall processes can be Here we imply the dynamics of energy written as accumulation by an unstable isu -state nucleus on its “last” bond, the disruption of which leads to the decay of the nucleus along a certain 27 Al +14 N + e− → 41 Ca + e− +ν +ν~ + 13 7 he 20 , (22 a) path. Q 21( 8. MeV ) 4. NUCLEAR CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN − − ANDREA ROSSI'S E-CAT REACTOR 27 Al +14 N + e → 40 Ca + n + e +ν +ν~ + 13 7 he 20 (23 a) Q 12( 44. MeV ) The above concept of initiating low-energy nuclear-chemical reactions by the mechanisms − Earlier, the harpoon mechanism was considered of nuclei fusion and e -catalysis can be used to for the nuclear transmutations in native systems physically interpret the results of testing A. [7]. Rossi's energy E-Cat reactors as well [26]. Let us briefly discuss the results of testing the E-Cat Because weak nuclear interactions are involved working chamber of the Rossi’s reactor, in the formation of the nuclear matter in the final presented by a group of international experts nucleus as a set of interacting nucleons, a [27]. The working chamber was a hollow ceramic significant part of the energy can also be cylinder 2 cm in diameter and 20 cm long, into released by emitting neutrinos and antineutrinos which the researchers loaded a fuel: about 0.9 g when the final nucleus can be formed in the of finely dispersed nickel powder with all stable ground state, obeying the spin and parity isotopes present ( 58 Ni , 60 Ni , 61 Ni , 62 Ni , and conservation laws. At the same time, when the 28 28 28 28 64 final nuclei are formed in the excited state, the 28 Ni of 67, 26.3, 1.9, 3.9 and 1 %, respectively), non-ionizing radiation of neutrinos and and 0.1 g of LiAlH powder ( 6Li and 7 Li antineutrinos will be accompanied by the 4 3 3 emission of X-rays or gamma quanta. These isotopes of 8.6 and 91.4%, respectively). The X-rays were already reported experimentally cylinder was sealed and then heated. The tests [23]. were carried out for 32 days at chamber heating temperatures up to 1260ºC (first half of the time) The above phenomenological analysis shows and 1400ºC (second half of the time). The that in order to understand the mechanism of energy released in the tests was measured using nuclear transformations observed in the burning the value of the heat flux produced by the of thermite mixtures, of great importance is the chamber. In the tests, the overall excess energy development of new theoretical approaches to of 1.5 MWh was produced, corresponding to the simulating the dynamics of nuclear processes on chamber efficiency higher than 3.5. The the basis of quantum-chemical analysis rather researchers recorded changes in the isotopic than estimating the quantum mechanical composition of the main fuel components (nickel, probabilities of some processes. This simulation lithium), for which the initial composition of stable will involve (1) calculations of the electron elements was close to the tabulated natural structure of an atom when isu -state nuclei with a composition. After the tests, the isotopic shaken-up nucleonic structure are formed; (2) composition of the recorded components was model calculations of the spatial instability of the dramatically changed: almost all nickel powder, atom electron subsystem, which is caused by the more than 98%, was a nickel-62 isotope (about loss of the nucleus stability; (3) calculations of 4% initially); the fraction of lithium-7 dropped to the overlapping of these “mobile” orbitals with the about 8% and lithium-6 jumped to about 92%. electron orbitals of the adjacent atoms and The isotope abundances of the initial fuel formation of molecular orbitals that initiate the and final “ash” in the tests are listed in Table 1 approach and fusion of the corresponding nuclei. [27].

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Table 1. Isotope abundances for the initial fuel and final ash in the tests [27]

Ion Fuel Ash Natural Counts in Measured Counts in Measured abundance peak abundance [%] peak abundance [%] [%] 6Li + 15804 8.6 569302 92.1 7.5 7Li + 168919 91.4 48687 7.9 92.5 58 Ni + 93392 67 1128 0.8 68.1 60 Ni + 36690 26.3 635 0.5 26.2 61 Ni + 2606 1.9 ∼0 0 1.8 62 Ni + 5379 3.9 133272 98.7 3.6 64 Ni + 1331 1 ∼0 0 0.9

According to the above concept, the recorded The above list of reactions implies that the change in the isotopic composition of main fuel specific (per component unit mass) energy components, nickel and lithium, in the presence release is the highest for the lithium-7 nuclei. At of the hydrogen given off in the decomposition of the same time, when the mass fraction of the LiAlH 4 at the above temperatures may be caused lithium-7 isotope in the system is low, the total by the formation of a protium-containing plasma contribution to the heat release of the nuclear in the reaction volume and the occurrence of 1 reactions of nisu nuclei with all other fuel 1 neutral metastable nuclei nisu . Like neutrons, elements, such as aluminum and nickel isotopes, these neutral nuclei can interact with the nuclei can become dominating. The almost complete of elements constituting the fuel, accounting for disappearance of isotopes 7 Li and 58 Ni in the the changes occurring in its elemental and 3 28 isotopic composition, which is accompanied by ashes, which was recorded after the chamber the corresponding energy release: was tested for more than a month, implies that the values of rate constants are rather high not 7 Li +1n →2 4He + e− +ν~ +νν~ + only for the processes (24) and (27), but also for 3 isu 2 , (24) the other nuclear processes in which the new Q 17( 35. MeV ) chemical elements are formed.

27 Al +1n → 4He + 24 Mg + e− +ν~ +νν~ + To understand the specific mechanisms 13 isu 2 12 , (25) accounting for the major changes in the fuel Q 60.1( MeV ) composition during the E-Cat operation, including the almost complete exhaustion of the 27 Al +1n →28 Si + e− +ν~ +νν~ + lithium-7 isotope and the dominant growth of the 13 isu 14 , (26) nickel-62 isotope in the ash, it is necessary to Q 11( 58. MeV ) consider the other nuclear reactions, which can also change the isotopic composition of the initial 58 Ni +1n → 4He + 55 Mn + e+ +ν +νν~ + nickel. In these reactions, the energy carried 28 isu 2 25 , (27) away by the formed neutrinos and antineutrinos Q 35.2( MeV ) can noticeably reduce their heat releases, as compared to the above reactions: 60 +1 →4 +57 +νν~ + 28 Ni nisu 2 He 26 Fe Q 47.0( MeV ) , (28) 58 +1 →59 +νν~ + 59 = ⋅ 4 , 28 Ni nisu 28 Ni Q 22.8( MeV ), T1 2 (28 Ni ) 6.7 10 yr 61 +1 → 4 + 58 +νν~ + , (29) 28 Ni nisu 2 He 26 Fe Q 80.2( MeV ) (32)

62 +1 → 4 + 59 + − +ν~ +νν~ + 28 Ni nisu 2 He 27 Co e 60 +1 → 61 +νν~ + , (30) 28 Ni nisu 28 Ni Q 04.7( MeV ), , (33) Q 34.0( MeV ) 61 1 62 − + → +νν~ + 64 +1 →65 + +ν~ +νν~ + 28 Ni nisu 28 Ni Q 81.9( MeV ), , (34) 28 Ni nisu 29 Cu e Q 45.7( MeV ) , (31)

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234 238 62 Ni +1n → 63 Ni +νν~ + Q 05.6( MeV ), 5. TIME VARIATION OF THE U U 28 isu 28 , (35) ACTIVITY RATIO IN GROUND-WATER T ( 63 Ni ) = 100 1. yr 1 2 28 FLOW SYSTEMS

64 1 65 65 One of the manifestations of the above- + → + νν~+ = , 238 28 Ni nisu 28 Ni Q 32.5( MeV ), T1 2(28 Ni ) 52.2 h described initiated U nucleus decays is the (36) well-known time variation of the basic, close to unity, ratio of the activity levels of uranium-234 The long half-life of the 59 Ni isotope practically and uranium-238 involved in the same decay 28 chain of radioactive transformations excludes the process in which the other nickel (uranium/radium series) in the surface ground isotopes decayed in the tests are “replenished” waters of seismic and volcanic regions [29]-[31]. with the 58 Ni isotope, whose fraction is twice η 28 The activity i , introduced as the decay rate of the fractions of the other nickel isotopes. the i-th uranium isotope, is defined as η = , Therefore, the almost complete absence of the i ki Ni 60 where k and N are the decay rate constant 28 Ni isotope in the ash should be attributed to i i the processes (28) and (33). It can also be and the number of i-th isotope nuclei to be θ assumed that the processes (29) and (34) decayed, respectively. Note that the fraction i 61 account for the disappearance of the 28 Ni of the uranium-234 isotope in natural uranium θ ≈ isotope in the ash; meanwhile, the process (34) ores is as low as 234 0.0055%, with a half-life 62 234 5 brings the isotope 28 Ni to the ash, providing its ≈ ⋅ T1 2 ( U) 2.45 10 years. At the same time, prevailing abundance among the other nickel θ ≈ isotopes in the ash. The additional contribution to the fraction of the uranium-238 isotope is 238 this prevailing abundance is made by the “low” χ ≡ θ θ ≈ ⋅ −5 99.3%, yielding 234 238 54.5 10 , with value of rate constant for the decline of the 62 Ni 28 a much longer half-life T (238 U) ≈ 4.47 ⋅10 9 isotope in the reaction (30), which describes the 1 2 formation of cobalt with a low energy release in years. The corresponding decay rate constants = ⋅ χ −1 the process. It is also important to note that the are related by the formula k234 k238 . 63 long half-life of the 28 Ni isotope practically prevents from increasing the abundance of the It means [30] that in undisturbed minerals older than several million years, the abundances of isotope 64 Ni in the ash, and the process (31) 28 238 U and its intermediate α -decay product, provides an almost complete conversion of this 234 isotope in the initial nickel to the copper-65 U , reach a state of secular equilibrium. Under isotope. these conditions, the activity ratio (AR), 238 T ( U )θ 234 238 η η = 1 2 234 ≡ U U AR , will Admittedly, the above arguments can only 234 238 T (234 U )θ qualitatively explain the ash composition 1 2 238 recorded in the test. In this case, of high interest equal unity. However, natural waters, especially could be a comparative study of the elemental in seismically active regions, typically are and isotopic composition of the ash and initial enriched in 234 U with 234 U 238 U AR between 1 fuel by inductively coupled plasma mass and 10 [30]. The uranium concentrations and spectrometry [28], successfully used before for 234 U 238 U AR ratios in saturated-zone and studying the isotopic composition of impurities in the nickel in the laser ablation of a nickel sample perched ground waters were used to study the in water. Here, it is important to study the hydrologic flow in the vicinity of Yucca Mountain changes in isotope ratios for various elements in [30]. The U data were obtained by thermal the ash and initial fuel, primarily for the base ionization mass spectrometry for more than 280 element (nickel), as well as for the elements samples from the Death Valley regional flow formed in the processes (25) - (31), such as system. Wide variations in both U concentrations −1 234 238 magnesium, silicon, manganese, iron, cobalt, (commonly 0.6–10 g l ) and U U AR and copper. (commonly 1.5–6) were observed on both local and regional scales. The ground water beneath

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the central part of Yucca Mountain had emergence of high mechanical stresses, initiated intermediate U concentrations but a distinctive shifts in the ore, and the formation of cracks and 234 U 238 U AR of about 7–8. It is necessary to add fissures. These processes in the U ore at high that about 600 seismic events have occurred local mechanical pressures can not only change near the site in the last 20 years alone, with a the structure of groundwater flows in the zone, 5.6-magnitude earthquake that happened as but also give rise to high local electric fields and recently as 1992. There is also an evidence of initiate the decomposition of water molecules relatively recent volcanic activity in the area. and the formation of high-energy (on chemical scales) electrons. In this case, the concept Similar results were reported elsewhere [31], developed in this paper allows us to expect that the formation of cracks and fissures in a uranium where the measurements of the 234 U 238 U AR ore can initiate the radioactive decay of uranium- in groundwater samples were used for − monitoring the current deformations in the active 238 nuclei by the e -catalytic mechanism, faults at the Kultuk polygon, West Shore of Lake producing isu -state β-protactinium nuclei. Note Baikal, for earthquake prediction. It was that it is the phenomenon of mechanically 234 238 activated nuclear processes discovered in the observed that the U U AR fluctuated in works of Deryagin et al. [32,33] that can be time, with the duration of cycles and amplitudes regarded as the starting point in the new stage of of 234 U 238 U AR fluctuations were variable in studying LENRs, which is usually attributed to the work of Fleischmann and Pons [34]. For the range of 1.5-3.3, and the cycles of instance, it was experimentally recorded that the 234 238 in water were synchronized in U U AR destruction of targets made of a heavy (D 2O) ice the lines of the monitoring stations in the by a metal striker with an initial velocity of 100– sublatitudinal and submeridional direction at the 200 m/s produces neutrons, and their number is time intervals when seismic shocks occurred at several times higher than the background level the Kultuk polygon. The U concentrations in the [32]. In contrast, no new neutrons were recorded ground-water samples of the Kultuk polygon when the same action was applied to the target ranged from 0.0087 to 5 mcg/l. The basic made of an ordinary (H 2O) ice. scenario of 234 U 238 U AR variations in groundwater, recorded in the Kultuk polygon Assume that when a fissure is formed, a fraction during the monitoring session, was examined in of uranium atoms leaves the fissure surface connection with the seismogenic activation of the layer of the uranium ore and is dissolved in the western end of the Obruchev fault. aqueous phase, with each isotope dissolved according to its abundance in the ore. Additionally, assume that a very small fraction ξ It is commonly believed that 234 U enters ξ solutions preferentially as a result of several ( << 1) of N238 nuclei of the main uranium-238 mechanisms related to its origin by radioactive isotope that pass to the aqueous medium is − decay of 238 U [30]. These mechanisms include activated in the fissure formation by the e - damage of crystal-lattice sites containing 234 U catalytic mechanism and converted to isu -state and the preferential release of 234 U not bound β-protactinium nuclei. Without this activation, the to the crystal lattice from the defects of minerals, activity level of N238 nuclei of the atoms of as well as direct ejection of the recoil nucleus uranium-238 isotope in the aqueous medium, η = into the water near the boundaries of mineral 238 k238 N238 , was equal to the activity level grains. η = k N for the N nuclei of uranium- 234 234 234 234 At the same time, the results of [29-31] suggest 234 isotope that passed to the aqueous medium. that the mechanochemical processes in Section 2 implies that in the initiated radioactive decay, the effective decay rate constant of 238 U relatively small volumes of uranium ore in ore ~ deposits located in the geologically active, ξ nuclei, k238 , for a relatively small number of including seismically and volcanically active, N nuclei in the aqueous medium can zones of the Earth's crust are the important 238 dramatically change. It is wise to use the above factor that can account for the significant in considering the simplified decay of uranium- 234 238 changes of U U AR under study [31]. 238 and uranium-234 isotopes. In this case, the These zones can be characterized by the decay of “intermediate” thorium-234 and

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protactinium-234 m isotopes with short lifetimes, possible increase by 9 orders of magnitude of which are also involved in the radioactive the decay rate constant for the 238 U nuclei in uranium/radium series, is taken out of the laser ablation, implies that for the ratios consideration. The balance equations for the 234 U 238 U AR ~ 5-10, characteristic for the numbers of N238 and N234 nuclei at a steady-state concentration of uranium-234 isotope in the system studied in [30], to take place the fraction aqueous medium can be written as ξ 238 238 of activated 91 Pa isu nuclei relative to U

nuclei in the aqueous media must be ~ (0.5-1) ~ dN 238 = − ()−ξ −ξ = − eff , (37) −8 k238 1 N238 k238 N238 k238 N238 ⋅ . dt 10

~ Subsequent experiments can show how, based dN 234 = − + ()−ξ + ξ = . (38) k234 N234 k238 1 N238 k238 N238 0 on the mechanically activated decay processes dt of uranium-238, new energy technologies can be Here, created with a controlled supply of nuclear “fuel” 238 in the 91 Pa isu form to a reactor system. ~   k  eff = + ξ 238 −  6. NON-BARYONIC STATES OF k238 k238 1  1 (39)   k238  NUCLEAR MATTER AND “HEAVY” QUARKS is the effective rate constant for the decay of the uranium-238 isotope when the radioactive decay It is well known that quarks as subunits of of the fraction ξ of uranium-238 nuclei is hadrons manifest themselves as free point objects in the energy and momentum transfer in initiated by external factors and characterized by ~ the proton collisions occurring in the colliding the decay rate constant k238 . Equations (37)- beams with characteristic energies of more than (38) yield the desired formula for the ratio of 1 TeV for each pair of the colliding nucleons activity levels of uranium-234 and uranium-238 [35,36]. As a result, the quarks can be isotopes in open systems in which the initiated associated with the independent degrees of accelerated decay of uranium-238 is effectuated: freedom of nuclear matter. When the decays of excited hadrons that were formed in these high- k N energy collisions of particles are considered, the η η = 234 234 = quarks are traditionally regarded as elementary 234 238 k238 N 238 particles with “point” electric charges of –1/3 e or ~ +2/3 e, where e is the absolute value of the  k  234 U 238 U AR = 1+ ξ 238 −1 . (40) electron charge. It is as such particles that the   quarks are involved in the Standard Model of  k238  Elementary Particles [36].

In this case, the apparent higher activity level of In this section, the concept stating that non- the uranium-234 isotope cannot be attributed to nucleonic isu -states may occur in the nuclear the fact that the groundwater is directly enriched matter will be used in considering a set of with 234 U nuclides because its release to the problems arising in the study of decays of the aquatic medium is easier due to the decay of the excited baryons and mesons that were formed in main 238 U isotope, as is usually assumed [30], the high-energy collisions of protons and 234 characterized by highly excited states of “decay”. [31]. The increased content of U nuclei in the Their characteristic half-lives are quite long, ~10 – aqueous medium is a result of the decay of 238 U 13 -10 –8 s, which implies the dominant role of nuclei initiated by the formation of cracks and weak nuclear interactions in these decays. fissures, which produces β-protactinium nuclei These times are higher than the characteristic − by the e -catalytic mechanism; their release to nuclear times by 10 or more orders of the aqueous medium, and their subsequent magnitude. According to the Standard Model decay along the chain of the radioactive [36,37], in addition to u- and d-quarks, which are uranium/radium series. The reference value of characterized by the so-called current quark masses of 2.3 and 4.8 MeV /c2, respectively, the ~ 9 k238 k238 ~ 10 estimated in [4], showing a excited hadrons contain heavier s-, c-, and b-

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quarks with current quark masses of 95, 1275, an isu -state of decay. The subsequent relaxation and 4180 MeV /c2, respectively [37]. When there of the isu -state of such excited hadrons and the is, at least, one heavy quark among the three formation of decay products, such as nucleons, quarks of a baryon, the baryon is called heavy. pions, and leptons, are initiated by the weak The mesons formed by a quark-antiquark pair nuclear interaction between the quarks found in are called heavy when the quark is heavy. the hadrons using the formation and absorption of gauge vector bosons. When the decay of heavy hadrons is discussed, an accent is usually made on purely formal Let us consider a working hypothesis, assuming aspects related to the classification of quarks in that highly excited heavy baryons and mesons the Standard Model of Elementary Particles [36], are particles with local soliton-like excited states which is based on the requirements of symmetry of nuclear matter that can be based only on u- for the wave functions of baryons as fermions ~ and d-quarks, the corresponding u~ - and d - and mesons as bosons with regard for the antiquarks, and virtual pions and vector bosons. quantum numbers additively introduced for We will try to understand whether it is possible to heavy quarks. This allows one to predict possible hypothetically identify the degrees of freedom, decay paths for the heavy hadrons to be formed, which can be defined as heavy quarks, in the using a given set of their quantum numbers. excited system. Here, it is implied that the However, the nature of the introduced new polarization of the nuclear medium in the vicinity quantum numbers, defined as s (strange), c of its quarks could effectively cause an increase (charmed), and b (beauty or bottom), remains in the current masses of the u- and d-quarks, unclear. It is not clear what kind of physically converting them to heavy quarks. interpreted parameters can account for the above differences in the masses of heavy To date, the researchers have discovered many quarks. In addition, it is unclear how each of the types of decays of excited baryons, including heavy quarks is converted to light u- or d-quarks those producing both neutral and charged in the decay of heavy hadrons, because the particles at intermediate stages, which leads to a hadron-products formed in the high-energy wide variety of final neutral and charged collisions of protons or nuclei contain only light u- particles, such as nucleons, pions, and leptons or d-quarks. There is no discussion yet about the [36,37]. Consider several examples of the decay nature of the confinement of quarks, defined as * * the impossibility of separating quarks from the of excited nucleons n and p , parenthesizing nuclear matter and studying them in a free state. the hyperon (heavy baryon) that decayed to form Instead, an assumption is made that the force of the products of interest. Let it be hyperons + mutual attraction of quarks rises as the distance Λ(uds ) , Λ (udc ) , Σ0 (ddc ) and Λ0 (udb ) , between them increases, without any discussion c c b about the nature of this force. containing s-, c-, и b-quarks. These quarks are symbolically shown in the parenthesized quark It is suggested in this study that the above composition of the hyperons. The processes problems can be studied in terms of the below show the intermediate and final decay phenomenological approach (qualitatively rather products for these hyperons, with two possible than quantitatively) if it is assumed that quarks decay paths for the hyperon Λ : are not elementary particles but kinetic markers, − three for baryons and two for mesons, for the n*(Λ) → p + π , (41) large fragments of the nuclear matter, which are bound to each other by the strong nuclear * 0 interaction effectuated by the exchange of pions. n (Λ)→n+π , (42) It is these interactions that account for the confinement of quarks as quasi-particles. In * Λ+ → + − +π+ → +µ− +ν~ +π+ addition, assume that the highly excited hadrons, p ( c) p K p µ , (43) such as charged baryons p* , neutral baryons n* , + − − + − * * Σ0 →Λ +π → +µ +ν~ +π +π and mesons m , which are formed in the n( c) c p µ (44) collisions of high-energy particles, lose their stability, which is provided by the exchange of + + − − n* (Λ0 ) → Λ + π + π + π → p + pions, because of the relative high-energy b c . (45) − ~ + + − − movements of the current quarks, and come to µ +ν µ + π + π + π + π

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Feynman diagrams re presenting the above or muon to be formed in the final state (Fig. 2 a, processes, which present the complicated b, c), one could expec t that the processes in dynamics of u- and d-quark conversions in the which the number of formed pions and muons in formation and decay of charged and neutral the final state increases would be strongly virtual vector bosons, are plotted in Fig. 2. suppressed because the dimensionless constant of weak nuclear interaction is low. Note, It is obvious that the number of pions and muons however, that when the processes in Fig. 2 are formed a long with a nucleon in the decay of an analy zed quantitatively, it should be taken into excited baryon depends on the total excitation account that the weak nuclear interactions are energy of the baryon. As the birth of, at least, not as weak as it is often assumed. The one virtual vector boson is needed for one pion value of the corresponding dimensionless

a b

c d

e

Fig. 2. Feynman diagrams for the decay of hyperons that contain (a, b) s-quark, ( c, d) c-quark, and (e) b-quark

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α * * constant F is almost an order of magnitude excited baryons p and n . The latter follows greater than the value of fine-structure constant from the comparison of Figs. 2 c and Figs. 2 d α [18,38]. Indeed, if the dimensionless constant Λ+ Σ0 e showing the decays of c (udc ) and c (ddc ) of strong nuclear interaction is taken to be αs = hyperons, respectively, which contain, as 2 [18] and the value of squared elementary supposed, the same heavy c-quark, but are charge of weak nuclear interaction is estimated accomplished by different mechanisms with 2 1 and 3 virtual vector bosons formed, respectively. 2 ≡ 2 = 2 h ≈ by qF GF aZ [38], where aZ 2 / mZ c 3.3 10 –16 cm is the characteristic radius related The number of examples of this kind that to the mass of the intermediate Z0 vector boson illustrate different decay mechanisms for 2 –22 hadrons, which according to the modern theory mZ = 91.2 GeV/ c = 1.62 10 g and − [35,36] contain light quarks together with one of = ⋅ 5 (h )3 ( )2 is the Fermi GF 17.1 10 c GeV the heavy quarks (s, с or b), could be larger if we constant of four-fermion interaction, we obtain consider the decays of heavy baryons and q2 mesons. It will be wise, however, to use the α = F ≈ 4.9 10 –2 and, hence, α α ≈ 3.45 F h F s general phenomenological approach when only c u- и d-quarks are considered as the current –2 α = ≈ – 2 10 . In this case, e /1 137 0.73·10 and, degrees of freedom, which are related to certain –3 fragments of nuclear matter and change their hence, α α ≈ 5.2 10 and α α = 7.6 . e s F e electric charge in the absorption and emission of charged vector bosons. Unfortunately, the proton mass is often used in the literature [35] as the normalizing mass in Concluding this section, it should be noted that, estimating the dimensionless constant of weak proton-proton collisions with an energy of 7-8 nuclear interaction, though it is almost 100 times 0 TeV produce particles with a four-quark [40] and smaller than the mass of a Z vector boson [36]. five-quark arrangement of nuclear matter [41]. α −24 −23 As a result, the value of constant F is The lifetimes of these particles are ~ 10 -10 underestimated by almost 4 orders of magnitude. s, which is typical for the resonances. This According to our above estimates, the correct means that the nuclear exchange forces in the value of this constant is only 35 times, rather excited systems of 4 and 5 quarks are too weak than 5 orders of magnitude, less than the value to keep these systems so long as it is necessary for the dimensionless constant of strong nuclear for their relaxation to be accounted for by the interaction. It is this correct value that accounts weak nuclear interaction, which is true for the for the existence of reliable experimental data on systems of 2 and 3 quarks. Experiments of this the decays of highly excited heavy baryons that kind could not record the formation of a weakly produce five or more pions and a muon [39]. decaying strange heavy dibaryon [42], in contrast to the low-energy experiments, which produce a As noted above, u- and d-quarks can be β-dineutron. regarded as kinetic markers for the subunits of nuclear matter. The diagrams plotted in Fig. 2 7. METASTABLE NON-NUCLEONIC imply that every decay process given above is a STATES OF NUCLEAR MATTER IN complicated process with respect to the u and d DOUBLE BETA-DECAYS dynamic variables, in which the nonlinear interrelations with respect to these variables β represent the processes of energy redistribution The double -decays of some even-even nuclei in the transfer of charged and neutral vector [43-46] could be a future candidate for one of the bosons and account for the emergence of pions manifestations of the initiation of metastable as decay products. states in the nuclear matter, in which the mass of the nucleus is insufficient (or the nuclear forces The diagrams demonstrate both the variety of are not strong enough) to bind a part of the possible baryon decays for the same excited quarks into stable nucleons and the nucleonic state (Fig. 2a, b) and the fact that it is impossible structure in the nucleus is locally shaken up. All to introduce , in addition to u and d, new types of cases in which this type of decay is reliably degrees of freedom − heavy quarks as effective recorded are characterized by half-lives longer 18 dynamical variables for describing the entire than 10 years, which is several orders of diversity of complicated decay dynamics of magnitude greater than the existence time of the

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Universe. The main difficulties to overcome in 82 + − → 82 + ν→ 82 + − + 34 Se ehe 33 As isu 36 Kr 3e studying the double β -decay are represented by (48) ν~ + ν + ∆ = − its low probability and the long-run experiments 2 Q 01.3( MeV ), Q 27.7 MeV , needed to minimize background events as possible, as well as by close and thorough − − 80 Se + e → 80 As + ν→ 80 Kr + 3e + analysis of experimental results. So far, these 34 he 33 isu 36 (49) decays are experimentally recorded in 10 out of 2ν~ + ν + Q .0( 136 MeV ), ∆Q = − 64.5 MeV , more than 30 pairs of even-even isotopes that − can be bound by the double β -decay. At the 116 Cd + e− →116 Ag + ν→116 Sn + 3e− + same time, in about the same number of pairs of 48 he 47 isu 50 (50) even-even isotopes that can be bound by the ν~ + ν + ∆ = − + 2 Q 81.2( MeV ), Q 15.6 MeV , double β -decay, no decays of this type have not been recorded yet. The latter can be a result 114 + − →114 + ν→114 + − + of a noticeable difference in the probabilities of 48 Cd ehe 47 Ag isu 50 Sn 3e − + − , (51) β - and β -decay. The double e -capture 2ν~ + ν + Q 54.0( MeV ), ∆Q = − 08.5 MeV was recorded for only one nucleus: 130 Ba isotope. 186 + − →186 + ν→186 + − + 74 W ehe 73 Ta isu 76 Os 3e . (52) The above phenomenological concept of the ν~ + ν + ∆ = − radioactive decay of nuclei initiated by the е-- 2 Q 49.0( MeV ), Q 9.3 MeV catalysis mechanism [5,7] allows us not only to understand the possible reason for the difference The value of released energy Q accounts for the − + in the probabilities β - and β -decay, but also phase volume of the reaction products to be β − formed because the process probability is open new opportunities in studying double - proportional to this factor, whereas the value of + and β -decays because their rates dramatically deficit ∆Q for the structural energy of the isu - rise when the processes are initiated using low- state nucleus accounts for the extent to which energy excitations. The latter is implied not only the stability of the nucleus is lost. by the general result of [5,7] regarding the loss of stability of isu -state nuclei in the nuclear matter, but also by the experimental data recorded in a Comparison of the values of ∆Q and Q for the group of studies, for example, [9,10], dealing with − experimentally studied processes of double β - the α-decay of all so-called stable tungsten isotopes (half-lives ~ 10 17 -10 19 years) initiated in decay of calcium-48, selenium-82, and cadmium- the glow discharge. 116 isotopes with those for the processes not studied yet due to, as we can suggest, their As a future experiment idea, it is of interest to much lower probability gives us a reason to compare the characteristic parameters Q and consider the released energy Q as the main β − ∆Q for already and not yet recorded double parameter accounting for the double -decay − – the processes with lower energy releases. This β -decays of different isotopes, including those suggestion is supported by the data in Table 2 of the same element: (was compiled on the basis of [43,44]) which lists the values of Q in the other 7 processes for − 48 + − →48 + ν→48 + − + ν~ + which the β -decay was experimentally 20 Ca ehe 19 Kisu 22 Ti 3e 2 (46) recorded. Note that the smallest value of ν + Q 27.4( MeV ), ∆Q = −12 09. MeV , − parameter Q refers to the double β -decay of uranium-238 nuclei, and this value, as we can 46 + − →46 + ν→46 + − + suggest, may account for the highest value of its 20 Ca ehe 19 Kisu 22 Ti 3e (47) half-life, which is 3-4 orders of magnitude higher 2ν~ + ν + Q 98.0( MeV ), ∆Q = − 72.7 MeV , the values for the other 9 nuclei.

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− Table 2. Isotopes with experimentally recorded double β -decay

Isotope Q, MeV ∆Q , MeV T1 2 , years 48 19 20 Сa 4.27 12.09 (4.3 ± 2.3)×10 76 21 32 Ge 2.04 7.01 (1.3 ± 0.4)×10 82 19 34 Se 3.01 7.27 (9.2 ± 0.8)×10 96 19 40 Zr 3.35 7.1 (2.0 ± 0.4)×10 100 18 42 Mo 3.03 6.24 (7.0 ± 0.4)×10 116 19 48 Cd 2.81 6.15 (3.0 ± 0.3)×10 128 24 52 Te 0.87 4.38 (3.5 ± 2.0)×10 130 20 52 Te 2.53 4.96 (6.1 ± 4.8)×10 150 18 60 Nd 3.37 5.69 (7.9 ± 0.7)×10 238 21 92 U 1.11 3.46 (2.0 ± 0.6)×10

+ Below we list several double β -decays of even-even isotopes among which there may be processes − with the values of Q commensurate with those at which the double β -decay is effectuated:

106 + − →106 + ν→106 + + + − + ν + ∆ = − , (53) 48 Cd ehe 47 Ag isu 46 Sn 2e e 3 Q 78.2( MeV ), Q .0 094 MeV

108 + − →108 + ν→108 + + + − + ν + ∆ = − 48 Cd ehe 47 Ag isu 46 Sn 2e e 3 Q 27.0( MeV ), Q 65.1 MeV , (54)

112 + − →112 + ν→112 + + + − + ν + ∆ = − 50 Sn ehe 49 In isu 48 Cd 2e e 3 Q 92.1( MeV ), Q 66.0 MeV , (55)

152 + − →152 + ν→152 + + + − + ν + ∆ = − 64 Gd ehe 63 Eu isu 62 Sm 2e e 3 Q .0( 058 MeV ), Q 82.1 MeV . (56)

+ In the above processes, the possible candidate recording 2 β -decays may be higher for the isotopes are cadmium-106 and tin-112. At the + isotopes characterized by the highest values of same time, the comparison between the 2 β - ∆ and Q. Probable candidate nuclei for these − Q and 2 β -decays shows that their values of + decays among all 2 β -active nuclei are listed in ∆ Q are much different from each other (see the Table 2, where the barium-132, xenon-126, and Table 3 compiled on the basis of [43,45]). It is the tellurium-120 isotopes may be expected to low values of ∆Q that may account for the low become the most promising candidates for experimental studies of 2 β+-decay. + probabilities of 2 β -decays, because any radioactive decay of nuclei begins with the The above difference in the values of ∆Q for initiated (either due to fluctuation or by the action − + of external factors) interaction of an electron in the 2 β - and 2 β -decays is reasonable to the inner shells of the radioactive atom with its attribute to the initiating role of the electron factor A in the radioactive decays of nuclei [5] occurring in nucleus Z N , which produces an intermediate our asymmetric Universe, which is characterized isu -state nucleus AM [5,7]. As the rates at Z −1 isu by the recorded existence of the matter with A atoms composed of elementary particles and the the stage where the − M nucleus is formed Z 1 isu absence of the antimatter with atoms composed are much higher when the process is initiated in of antiparticles. This difference in probability of a low-temperature plasma, the possibility of − + the 2 β - and 2 β -decays can be considered

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as one of the arguments in favor of the can expect that the characteristic times of 2 - hypothesis of the activating role of electrons in decays initiated by low-energy actions will be radioactive decays. Indeed, the nature of these many orders of magnitude less than the values differences for radioactive decays cannot be usually recorded in experiments, there is a hope understood in terms of generally accepted to see in the future not only new experimental approaches. data on double -decays, but also the first data on -decays, as well as to get some idea about the We suggest that the above double β -decays extension to which the lepton number must be accompanied by the coupled conversion conservation law in the 2 -decays is violated. − of quarks of two neutrons in the β -decays or + Table 3. Possible double β -decay β + two protons for the -decays in the emission candidates for even-even isotopes and absorption of vector bosons. In these processes, the initiating role is played by the Isotope Q, MeV ∆Q , MeV quasi-free (within the nucleus) quarks emerged 96 in the formation of the isu -state of nuclear matter. 44 Ru 2.72 0.254 106 The corresponding Feynman diagrams, which 48Cd 2.78 0.194 schematically represent the dynamics of the 11 2 50 Sn 1.92 0.664 interactions effectuated in double β -decays, are 120 52 Te 1.70 0.982 124 plotted in Fig. 3. 54 Xe 3.07 0.295 126 54 Xe 0.90 1.258 Note that when double β -decay diagrams are 130 56 Ba 2.58 0.368 132 discussed, the dynamics of coupled conversions 56 Ba 0.833 1.28 are taken into account only when the decays 138 64 Ce 2.01 0.433 without neutrinos, which are possible when the 156 58 Dy 0.708 1.045 neutrino and antineutrino are the same particle 162 (Majorana neutrino), are considered [46]. As we 68 Er 1.85 0.296

a

b c

− + Fig. 3. Feynman diagrams for initiated ( a) 2 β - and ( b, c) 2 β -decays

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8. NATURE OF THE ANOMALY 8 3 Li nucleus approximates the excited state of RECORDED IN THE BERYLLIUM-8 the 8 nucleus [47]. DECAY 4 Be

Here we must take into account that the Let us discuss the anomalies in the angular probability of emitting γ quanta by excited nuclei, correlations between the positrons and electrons which depends on the width of the corresponding emitted in the radioactive decays of excited excited state, and the probability of emitting 8 * 4 Be nuclei [3]. As in [5], we assume that the photons in the transition of a single atom from decay of a 8Be * nucleus is preceded by its the excited state to the ground state are initiated 4 by the zero-point oscillations of the EM vacuum interaction with one of the electrons in the inner [48]. Virtually, the main factor is the average of electron shells of the atom, which emits a squared fluctuating values of the electric field neutrino ν and produces an excited metastable intensity for the EM vacuum. As noted above, 8 * isu -state 3 Li isu nucleus: when a metastable isu -state with a local shake- up in the nucleonic structure is initiated in the nuclear matter, the irreversible loss of the 7 + → 8 * 8 * + − → 3 Li p 4 Be , 4 Be ehe nucleus stability is likewise accounted for by the (57) EM vacuum as a result of changes in the 8 * +ν → 4 + − + + +ν +ν~ 3 Li isu 22 He 2e e boundary conditions at the nucleus surface [5], [18]. However, these two emissions are Based on the above decay diagram for the independent of each other. excited 8Be * nucleus, we can suggest a new 4 8 + − As the ground-state energy for the Li nucleus formation mechanism for a correlated e e pair 3 8 7 8 is 16.005 MeV higher than that for the in the reaction Li ( p,γ ) Be when two states of 4 Be nucleus [47], the excited states of 1.635 and the 8Be * nucleus, 17.64 MeV and 18.15 MeV, 4 2.145 MeV for the 8Li nucleus could formally are excited, as in the experiment [3], which is 3 alternative to the one proposed in [1-3]. correspond to the excited states of 17.64 and 8 8 18.15 MeV for the 4 Be nucleus. For the 3 Li As noted above, the nature of the excitation of nucleus, the excited states closest to the ground 8 4 Be nuclei initiated by the collisions with one are 0.891 MeV, which is not high enough for − + nucleons, when the entire nucleonic subsystem producing an e e pair, and 2.255 MeV, which of the nucleus is excited, is substantially different is 0.11 MeV higher than the above value of 2.145 from the nature of the local metastable isu - MeV. If the anomaly in angular correlations excitation caused by a shake-up in the nucleonic between positrons and electrons recorded in [3] 8 is effectuated by the above excited states of structure of 3 Li isu nucleus and the loss of the 8 8 overall stability of these β -nuclei. The latter 4 Be and 3 Li isu nuclei, it implies that in this case depends on the absolute value of structural 8 the width of the 2.255 MeV state for the 3 Li isu ∆ = − 2 energy deficit Q (m 8 m 8 )c and the 4 Be 3 Li nucleus is larger than 0.11 MeV, and we can 8 8 speak about a direct correspondence between difference in the masses of 4 Be and 3 Li nuclei the 18.15 MeV excited state for the 8 nucleus in the ground state. Therefore, we can assume 4 Be 8 that the excitation energy of the nucleonic and the 2.255 MeV excited state for the 3 Li isu 8 * subsystem of the 4 Be nucleus can be almost nucleus. Obviously, this correspondence needed completely kept in the nucleonic subsystem of for the anomaly recorded in [3] to take place may 8 * be achieved by adjusting the kinetic energy E of the Li nucleus if the latter has the p 3 isu the bombarding protons, though not always. corresponding excited state. In this case, it becomes obvious that the efficiency of the decay Assume that the anomaly recorded in [3], which of the excited 8 * nucleus that emits two alpha − + 3 Li isu is the formation of correlated e e pairs at their + − 0 particles and a correlated e e pair will depend opening angles Θ ~ 130-140 , is mostly due to on how close one of the excited states of the the exchange of d- and u-quarks localized in the

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region of non-nucleonic metastability of the isu - restrictions on the sets of quantum numbers for state nucleus, which can migrate over the the excited states of the nuclei; specifically, nucleus, and d- and u-quarks of the 8Be * and 8Li * . For this reason, the results of ~ ~ 4 3 isu superpositions dd and uu among the quark- [3] were discussed above without referring to the antiquarks pairs produced in the decay of vector quantum numbers for the excited states of these 0 Z -mesons in the same isu -region of the nuclear nuclei. matter. Virtually, this exchange is effectuated in the annihilation of these quarks and antiquarks of The developed concept stating the existence of ~ − + dd and uu~ pairs producing a correlated e e the metastable states of the nuclear matter with a pair, which is in good agreement with the decay local shake-up of its nucleonic structure makes it of a neutral boson studied in [1-3]. possible to qualitatively interpret the formation of correlated pairs in the experiment under − + Possible diagrams for the formation of e e pairs discussion [3] without involving the hypothesis of − + accompanied by the production of e ν~ and e ν a fifth fundamental interaction into the physical pairs are plotted in Fig. 4. In contrast to the science. Admittedly, it is possible so far to speak decays of bosons as particles with a certain set only about a qualitative understanding of the of quantum characteristics analyzed in [1-3], the correlation of pairs in the above process because quark pairs to be annihilated in these diagrams the exchanges of quarks in the region of nucleus can have different relative orbital moments, as in non-nucleonic metastability have not been [49], which does not impose any substantial studied yet.

a

b

c

− + − + Fig. 4. Feynman diagrams for the formation of correlated e e , e ν~ и e ν pairs initiated by ~ the interaction between a π 0 -meson (quark-antiquark superposition dd and uu~ ) and the nucleons of the excited 8Be* nucleus

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An additional clarity in discussing the above of excited 10 Bе* nuclei. The excited state of 17.79 alternative could be brought by the new MeV for the beryllium-10 nucleus cannot even experiments proposed in [2] to record the formally be in correspondence with the ground anomalies in the angular correlations between state for the lithium-10 nucleus because the positrons and electrons, like those in [3], that are energy difference between the ground states for emitted in the radioactive decay of other excited the lithium-10 nucleus and beryllium-10 nucleus nuclei. The study [2] deals with the reactions is higher than the above excited-state energy for 7 Li (3He ,γ )10 B* 19( 3. MeV ) [50] and the beryllium-10 nucleus. Therefore, the desired 7 10 * 7 10 * correlations in the Li t,( γ ) Be reaction should Li t,( γ ) Be 17( 79. MeV ) [51] and assumes be sought at kinetic energies E of the tritium that the decay of these excited states of the t + − nuclei higher than those suggested in [2]. For daughter nuclei can produce e e -pairs with the example, the excited states of 1.4, 2.35, and 2.85 same type of opening-angle anomaly as in [3]. MeV for the lithium nucleus, whose decay into 7Li and 3H may be accompanied by the anomaly in The developed concept of the radioactive decays + − of the excited nuclei producing the the angular correlations of the recorded e e - pair can be achieved using the tritium nucleus 10 B * 19( 3. MeV ) nucleus implies that, in the first energies of 21.8, 22.8, and 23.3 MeV, 10 * of the above reactions, the 4 Be isu nucleus rather respectively. This experiment can become an experimentum crucis in selecting between the than the 10 * nucleus would decay, producing 5 B discussed nature alternatives for the correlated 7 3 + − + − the final products Li , He , and an e e -pair. In opening angle of the e e -pair, as well as in 7 3 the second reaction, the final products Li , H, deciding whether it is possible to initiate + − and an e e -pair are formed in the decay of the metastable states with a shaken-up nucleonic structure in the nuclear matter and, hence, 10 * nucleus rather than the 10 * nucleus. 3 Li isu 4 Be validate the new concept of radioactive decays of The above differences are significant due to the nuclei. high difference in the ground-state energies of the nuclei to be decayed when these energies 9. CONCLUSION are referred to the unified energy scale. It is this kind of analysis that will enable us to make an This study may be the first attempt to discuss the unambiguous choice in conducting appropriate existence of metastable states in the nuclear experimental studies in favor of the hypothesis of matter in which the mass of the nucleus is the existence of a fifth fundamental interaction or insufficient (or the nuclear forces are not strong developed concept of nuclear radioactive enough) to bind a part of the quarks into stable decays. The most significant differences are nucleons, which results in a local nucleonic 10 * 10 * seen for the energy levels of 3 Li isu and 4 Be structure shake-up in the nucleus. With this nuclei: the ground state for the lithium-10 nucleus anomalous excited state of the nuclear matter, is 20.444 MeV higher than the one for the called inner shake-up or isu -state, the relaxation beryllium-10 nucleus. The corresponding of the nuclei is initiated by the weak nuclear 10 * 10 * interaction. Apparently, the most unexpected difference between the 4 Be isu nucleus and 5 B result of this study is represented by the fact that nucleus is 0.556 MeV [47]. we discovered the unified physical nature of decays in the nuclear matter under the action of In view of the above differences, the excited weak nuclear forces. These decays can be state of 19.3 MeV for the boron-10 nucleus initiated by both a low-temperature plasma and should formally be in correspondence with the the collision of countermoving proton beams with excited state of 18.74 MeV for the beryllium-10 characteristic energies higher than 1 TeV per nucleus, in which the excited-state energy colliding proton pair. In either way of initiation, closest to the latter value is 18.55 MeV. When the necessary condition for this type of decay – the width of this state is greater than 0.2 MeV, large enough drop in the strong nuclear the above correspondence can be true and the interaction, is met. In the first way, this is anomaly in the angular correlations between achieved by the “soft force”: by initiating an positrons and electrons emitted in the radioactive inelastic interaction between the hot (on chemical 10 decays of excited B* nuclei can, in principle, be scales) electron and the nucleus denying the K- recorded. The situation is substantially different trapping, which produces a certain mass deficit in when we look for these anomalies in the decays the resulting nucleus. In the second way, it is

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