Masaryk University Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
English-language Translation
Barbora Šidlová
Compiling a Bilingual Glossary of Terminology Related to Singing
Master’s Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová 2017
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
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Author’s signature
Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová for her enormous dedication, patience, support and her kind words. I would also like to thank my friends and family for their words of encouragement. Table of contents
List of abbreviations ...... 5 Introduction ...... 6 1. Specialized languages ...... 8 1.1 LGP versus LSP ...... 8 1.1.1 LSP users ...... 10 1.1.2 Levels of LSP communication ...... 11 2. Terms ...... 12 2.1 Terms versus words ...... 13 2.2 Features and aspects of terms ...... 15 2.3 Concepts ...... 16 3. Terminology ...... 18 3.1 Defining terminology ...... 19 3.2 History of terminology as a discipline ...... 20 3.3 Terminology versus lexicology ...... 22 3.4 Terminography versus lexicography...... 23 4. Terminology management ...... 25 4.1 Terminology standardization ...... 28 5. Terminology related to singing ...... 30 5.1 Describing the subject field ...... 30 5.2 Specifics of terminology related to singing ...... 34 5.3 Singing environment in the English-speaking world ...... 35 5.4 Singing environment in the Czech Republic...... 37 6. Compiling the glossary ...... 39 6.1 Sources for the glossary ...... 40 6.1.1 Sources in English ...... 40 6.1.2 Sources in Czech ...... 45 6.2 Criteria for inclusion ...... 47 6.3 Organization of the glossary ...... 49 7. Translation of terminology related to singing ...... 51 Conclusion ...... 54 References ...... 57 Primary sources ...... 57 Secondary sources ...... 60 Abstract ...... 63 Anotace ...... 64 Appendix: Glossary
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List of abbreviations
CAT Computer-assisted translation
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
GDT Le Grand Dictionnaire Terminologique
IATE InterActive Terminology for Europe
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IMC International Music Council
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISO/TC 37 Technical committee 37 of the International Organization for Standardization
JAMU Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts
LGP Language for general purposes
LSP Language for specific purposes
PC Personal computer
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNTerm United Nations’ Multilingual Terminology Database
WWW World Wide Web
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Introduction
Even though music pervades many fields of human activity, it has not generated much interest in linguistics. The reason for this fact might perhaps be that not only is the terminology related to music for the most part highly specialized, but it also often builds upon old practices. While new terminology emerges every now and then, it still does not leave much room for the fast development which would be interesting to observe. Whatever the reasons may be, this tendency has motivated the author of this thesis to make a (albeit small) contribution towards the treatment of music in linguistics.
This contribution should, more specifically, be a bilingual glossary of terminology related to singing. It is however necessary to point out that the glossary is merely an output of this thesis and not its ultimate aim, which is actually to explain the process behind compiling a glossary of this kind. As singing refers to a very broad range of concepts, the thesis has narrowed down its area of interest to terminology that would introduce basic singing techniques and other necessary terms to aspiring uninitiated singers. Glossaries in music seem to be a rare endeavour, especially when it comes to the bilingual ones. This is true especially of the English-Czech language pair, where a few dictionaries do exist, but they usually refer to music in general and very rarely do they focus on its subfields. Even though the terminology of specific subfields of music might not be very common, the author still believes glossaries of any kind serve as a very helpful tool for two types of people. First, it is those who simply want to learn about a given field in terms of its terminology and concepts in hopes of one day becoming experts, which reflects the decision behind the included terms in the output of this thesis. The second group, which is of main interest to the thesis itself, are translators who are often faced with unfamiliar terminology in their work and lack the resources which would properly explain specialized terminology. The author however hopes this thesis will help one way or the other.
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The first part of the thesis aims to introduce the process of working with terminology in theoretical terms. Its first chapter called Specialized languages explains the differences between general and specialized languages, their users and the levels of communication which might employ the use of a specialized language. The next chapter entitled Terms attempts to offer the most precise definition of a term and explain why distinguishing it from a word is so crucial to terminological work. The importance of the relation between a term and a concept is also presented. Chapter 3, Terminology, presents this discipline by attempting to define it on its own and then by comparing it to other related disciplines such as lexicology, or by comparing its applied side terminography with lexicography. A brief history of the discipline is described as well. The final chapter of the first part entitled Terminology management introduces the basic aspects of working with terminology and then points out the importance of terminology standardization, as the process and a few notable organizations behind it are introduced.
The second part of the thesis then aims to explain the specific process behind compiling this glossary. Chapter 5, Terminology related to singing, provides the reader with a basic overview of the history of singing as a field and how certain aspects of singing terminology relate to the historical development. This chapter also outlines the scope of terminology included in the glossary. The next chapter, Compiling the glossary, then discusses all aspects in the preparation of the glossary. First it introduces the sources from which the terms were obtained and explains what criteria the included terms had to meet. Later, the practical aspects of the glossary are described. The final chapter entitled Translation of terminology related to singing introduces common translation strategies formulated by the most notable translation studies scholars and presents in which way, if at all, they were used in the translation of the given terminology. This chapter closes by discussing any complications that might have arisen in the process of translating these terms.
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1. Specialized languages
Before the process of compiling the glossary can be described, a theoretical background
behind it needs to be explained first. As the act of compiling a glossary falls under
terminological work, the following chapter will attempt to explain where terminology stands
on the spectrum of linguistics, particularly what variety of language it relates to.
1.1 LGP versus LSP
The first step towards understanding the background of terminology is to differentiate between various uses of language. Even though these uses bear similar characteristics and overlap to a certain extent, there are crucial aspects that render it necessary to divide them into these two following types.
The first type of language use is referred to as language for general purposes (hereinafter
LGP) or simply general language. It is the most common type of communication as it is used among speakers that are fluent in a given language when talking about regular situations and ordinary matters that can be found in everyday life. As Bowker and Pearson (2002) put it,
LGP “allows one to function in a language by doing things such as asking for directions, ordering a meal in a restaurant or chatting with a friend” (p. 25). Cabré (1999) defines LGP as
“a set of rules, units and restrictions that form part of the knowledge of most speakers of a language that are used in situations we call unmarked” (p. 59). Kocourek (qtd. in Cabré, 1999) adds that general language “contains both marked and unmarked varieties and can be imagined as a set of intertwined sets” (p. 59). It follows that these sets are in a category different to LGP, which is exactly the other variety this chapter will mention.
This second type of language is known as language for specific (or special) purposes
(hereinafter LSP) or specialized language. There is no single definition for this concept, as
Cabré’s work alone offers a few definitions formulated by her and other experts. Cabré (1999) herself sees LSP as a “set of subcodes that partially overlap with the subcodes of the general
8 language, each of which can be specifically characterised by certain particulars such as subject field, type of interlocutors, situation, speakers’ intentions, the context in which a communicative exchange occurs or the type of exchange in situations that we call marked” (p.
59). Kocourek’s (qtd. in Cabré, 1999) idea is that specialized languages “are linguistic subsets differing from the general language” (p. 59) and Sager believes that they are “pragmatic subsets of language as a whole” (p. 62). Even though these definitions vary slightly, they capture the important aspect of LSP, which is the fact that it is a subset of general language, meaning that it can be used in specific situations only. This explains why, as Bowker and
Pearson (2002) point out, speaking about LSP in plural is more precise, because while there is only one LGP, as it refers to all matters of everyday communication, there are plenty of LSP subsets that pertain to many subject fields. It follows that the criteria and restrictions both of these varieties have for vocabulary and syntax vary significantly (Pearson, 1998).
However, as mentioned above, these two types of language use do overlap. For one thing, communication in LSP would be virtually impossible without the use of LGP, as the users of
LSP would be left to communicate using no function or LGP words and such communication allows for hardly any ideas to be expressed. Another way in which the lines between LSP and
LGP are slightly blurred is the fact that as languages develop over time, many specialized terms enter LGP. This usually happens when a specialized concept is introduced to the wider public. The public then adopts a term as a part of their usual lexicon, although in many cases their understanding of the concept is not as thorough as that of the subject field experts.
Mayer and Mackintosh (qtd. in Bowker and Pearson, 2002) refer to this process as
“determinologisation” (p. 26).
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1.1.1 LSP users
The level of LSP communication depends mostly on the degree to which its users are familiar with a given subject field. Broadly speaking, users of LSP could be classified as experts, semi-experts or non-experts. However, Pearson thought it necessary to make the division more accurate and proposed the following categories of LSP users. The first type are the experts, which are individuals who are trained or possess knowledge in a specific subject field. It is important to point out that it is the knowledge of a subject field that matters primarily and in many cases no formal training is required to be considered an expert as many fields do not even offer such training and yet have a vast terminology. As Bowker and
Pearson (2002) point out, “any language that is used to discuss a specialized subject can be considered LSP” (p. 28). This can even include leisure activities such as cooking, rock climbing or gardening. A person can therefore become an expert in such terminology, simply by immersing themselves in these activities. The expectation is that only an expert of the same subject field will understand another expert’s LSP.
The next type of LSP users are semi-experts, who possess partial knowledge of a subject field. Pearson further subdivides this category into initiates, pupils and teachers. Initiates might be people working in or studying a specific subject field who originally come from a different training background. In most cases they have only just begun the process of familiarizing themselves with the field (Pearson, 1998). Pupils are being trained in the given subject field and might or might not eventually become experts, but they too are still in the process of familiarizing themselves with the field. It is generally expected that through training, they will attain at least the position of a semi-expert (Pearson, 1998). Teachers might fall under the category of experts or semi-experts and their role is to transfer their own knowledge of LSP onto their students.
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Non-experts might use LSP even though they have little to no understanding of the given subject field. (Bowker and Pearson, 2002). This is often the case of translators who are often faced with a lot of terminology in their work that they are not familiar with. However, to make sure the translation is of high quality, the translator must first understand the concepts and terminology in the given subject. This is why it is highly recommended for translators to specialize in texts of one particular field only. The final group, the uninitiated, are actually not
LSP users per se, as they are not involved with LSP in any way whatsoever, whether through special education or a leisure interest.
1.1.2 Levels of LSP communication
Since there are various users of LSP based on the level of their knowledge thereof, it is only natural that LSP communication has different levels based on what type of users are involved in it. A common feature that all of these levels share is that LSP is used in each of them, albeit with varying densities. As various types of LSP users do not share the same amount of knowledge, they have to determine a certain level that enables their communication.
The first level of communication occurs between two experts. Being both deeply familiar with their field, they tend to use highly specialized language with each other. As Pearson
(1998) points out, this is the level of LSP that has the highest density of terms. It is the type of language that might be seen for instance in academic books, science reports or legal documents.
The next level is the communication between experts and semi-experts. Even though LSP terms are still used in this level, their density is lower when compared to the communication between experts only and LGP tends to be included more often. As this level of language is
11 usually used to give semi-experts or pupils a deeper understanding of a field, it can often be found in textbooks. (Pearson, 1998)
In communication between experts and non-experts, the density of LSP is very low
(Pearson, 1998) and when it is used, it is in order to explain terminology and concepts of the field to the non-expert. A similar type of communication occurs between semi-experts and the uninitiated, as its purpose is the same, however in this case both parties involved do not possess perfect knowledge of the field (Pearson, 1998). Pearson then adds one final level of communication – the one between teachers and pupils, where the hope is that some knowledge of LSP will be transferred too, albeit with the understanding that the pupil is not expected to eventually reach the level of an expert.
In addition to these general levels of LSP communication, Pearson proposed the inclusion of two others. She mentions the communication between a semi-expert and an uninitiated that can often be found in popular science journals or magazines. She adds that in this variety it is not necessary for both parties to make sense of the included LSP in the same way as long as the idea of the message in communication remains the same. Pearson also distinguishes a teacher to pupil communication, claiming that the difference to the expert to semi-expert communication lies in the fact that pupils are not actually expected to gain the same level of knowledge as semi-experts. Therefore this level of LSP can primarily be found in textbooks or manuals (Pearson, 1998).
2. Terms
The basic lexical unit of terminology is a term. To some, “term” might be used interchangeably with “word”, but that would be misleading and false. The following chapter will attempt to explain the difference between these two concepts and offer several definitions
12 of “term” through the eyes of various scholars in hopes this will make the definition clear.
Later on, a few inseparable aspects of a term such as concepts or monosemy are introduced.
2.1 Terms versus words
The next important step in explaining terminological work is describing the division between a word and a term. As with many other concepts, scholars do not share a unified view on what exactly the difference between these concepts is, especially since the scope of terms and words also, much like LSP and LGP, tend to overlap (Pearson, 1998).
Bowker and Pearson (2002) provide a basic definition by saying that “terms are the vocabulary of specialized subject fields” (p. 26). While this definition might be sufficient for the practical purposes of this thesis, we should also consider definitions of a term by various scholars and how they contrast this with a word to offer a better understanding of this issue.
Definitions of a term can generally be classified into two ideas. The first idea is the traditional approach which prevails among scholars. It is represented by scholars like Mona Baker,
Helmut Felber, Juan Sager or Maria Teresa Cabré. Sager (qtd. in Pearson, 1998) suggests that
“the items which are characterized by special reference within a discipline are the “terms” of that discipline and collectively they form its “terminology” (p. 13). On the other hand, he says,
“words are items that function in general reference over a variety of sublanguages and their totality are the “vocabulary” (p. 13). Mona Baker (2005) claims that terms are “entities each of which have a particular concept behind them that is connected to another and in this way they constitute the knowledge space of a particular subject” (p. 261). She adds that words refer to general subject fields only. Cabré’s (1999) definition of a term has to do with meanings assigned to it, as she claims that terms “are unambiguous, meaning that the relationship between form and concept is unique as well as mono-referential, meaning that one term only names one object or concept” (p. 107). She points out that, on the other hand,
13 most words in LGP are polysemous, meaning they have more than one definition in a dictionary (Cabré, 1999). Felber (qtd. in Pearson, 1998) places focus on whether the meaning of a lexical item is defined. To him, terms are “linguistic symbols that are assigned to one or more concepts and have defined meanings”, while words “have a multiplicity of non-defined meanings, as the specific meaning of a word depends on the context” (p. 14). One aspect that all of these ideas share is the fact that terms are lexical items with special reference in a restricted subject field. The recurring issue with the traditional approach is the fact that in the attempt to distinguish terms and words, these scholars sometimes tend to look for an exclusive relation between a term and a concept. While such equivalency would de facto be an ideal state as it would eliminate all ambiguity, it overlooks the undisputable overlap between LSP and LGP. We must consider that terms are not isolated units and without the contextual reference, we cannot hope to determine precisely whether a lexical unit is a word or a term.
This desire for term-concept equivalency renders this approach rather prescriptive. Felber might be a slight exception to this tendency as he admits that terms might have more concepts behind them, although it remains questionable whether his definition could be too broad and applicable to words as well.
The second approach towards terms is pragmatic and its proponents include A. Godman,
E.M.F. Payne, R.M.T. Trimble and L. Trimble. As the name of this approach suggests, it is rather focused on describing the actual use of terms. Godman and Payne (qtd. in Pearson,
1998) proposed a division of terms to technical and non-technical. They describe technical terms as being “lexical units that are unfamiliar in general vocabulary and are fixed in their meaning” while lexical units that “are familiar in general vocabulary but were borrowed and took on a different meaning in a specialized area of knowledge” are non-technical (p. 19). The issue with their definition is, however, that their criteria of familiarity face the risk of being very subjective. Trimble and Trimble’s idea is rather similar, although they have divided
14 terms into three categories. The first are the highly technical terms, which correspond to
Godman and Payne’s technical terms by being only discipline-specific. The second category is the bank of technical terms, which are terms relevant to more than one field and subtechnical terms, much like non-technical terms, acquired a new meaning in a specific subject field. (Pearson, 1998). Grygová (2010) also operates with subtechnical terms, although she calls them semi-terms. She points out that these terms are not monosemous and have different meanings in various fields. Based on the aforementioned types of terms, a large part of singing terminology falls under the category of technical terms or highly technical terms, although several subtechnical or non-technical terms can be found as well.
2.2 Features and aspects of terms
Another important aspect of a term is monosemy. Along with polysemy, they are features of lexical units that are important for terminology as far as meanings assigned to a term go.
Polysemic words are those which can refer to multiple meanings. Monosemic words, on the other hand, “consist of a single meaning only and no other object or concept can be assigned to such words” (Crystal, qtd. in Béjoint, 1988, p. 13). Monosemy relates to the exclusivity of the relation between a term and a concept and is therefore an ideally desired feature of a term.
In other words we could say that it is ideal for a term to carry one denotation only. The concept of denotation implies the “precise, literal definition of a word that might be found in a dictionary”. Its opposite, the connotations “refer to a wide array of positive and negative associations that most words naturally carry with them”. It is undesirable how terms to imply any connotations, hence the requirement for one denotation only. However, it is also possible that simply by being immersed in a specific subject field, people familiar with it subconsciously overlook any connotations or other meanings that might exist simply because they expect the term to be the one that they know is generally used in the field. For instance,
15 when a musicologist comes across the aforementioned term “scale” in a music-related text, they will not think twice and automatically assume the term refers to a musical scale, even though other types exist. The output of this thesis aims to include only terms that truly fulfil these requirements.
2.3 Concepts
As concepts are often used in the rhetoric related to terminology and are directly connected with words and terms, it is crucial that their significance and meaning be explained too. For instance as mentioned above, the traditional approach towards the definition of a term is looking for exclusivity between terms and concepts. As Pearson (1998) puts it, “the traditional approach to terminology is concerned primarily with fixing the relationships between terms and concepts in order to facilitate communication” (p. 4). With this in mind, we might now look closer at the meaning of a concept.
The definition of a concept leaves little room for disputes and therefore scholars have a rather unified view on this matter. Pearson (1998) defines concepts as “mental constructs to which we assign labels” (p. 11). It is an abstract idea for an object or a group of objects that share similar characteristics. Each concept can be expressed either through its unique set of semantic features or the designation that has been assigned to it. Usually, “the creation of a new concept coincides with the appearance of a new designation” (Cabré, 1999, p. 203), as there is always a tendency to label and name new concepts.
A concept tends to be the same all over the world and independent of a language, but each language has a different designation for it. For example, everyone would understand the concept of “an animal that is kept as a pet or for catching mice”, but the various designations might be “kočka”, “cat” or “猫” in Czech, English and Chinese respectively. The idea of transferring concepts from one language to another is exactly what makes the process of
16 translation possible. Naturally, there are cases where no designation for a concept exists in a language. This is referred to as zero equivalence and sometimes it is not dealt with at all, as the concept is virtually unfamiliar or not even introduced to a certain culture and therefore there is no need to designate it.
However, it is more common that a language makes use of direct borrowing from a different language (most often the one in which the concept was designated first) or it has to make do with its own elements. The process of dealing with such cases, which tend to be exceptionally problematic for translators, is described in Chapter 7.
Conceptual relations serve as the links that create the inner structure of a special subject field. As Maia (2002) puts it, they are “the building blocks used to map out the terminology of a domain” (p. 3). Concepts within a subject field are related in a way that displays a logical semantic structure. It follows that a language copies this system, as lexical units are tools that capture the reality and structure of a field. It is therefore necessary that terminologists understand not only the language or other codifications of the field, they must also be familiar with the conceptual relations.
The relations between individual items in a subject field can be of a hierarchical or non- hierarchical nature.
Hierarchical relationships can be further divided into generic-specific and part-whole relationships. In generic-specific relations, which are the most common documented relation, we deal with superordinate, subordinate and coordinate concepts. In this paradigm, subordinate concepts inherit characteristics of the superordinate concepts. Budin and Wright
(1997) explain this as concepts that “can be categorized by the statement x is a kind of y” (p.
337). For instance, the concept of “scale” in music can be subdivided into an octatonic scale, heptatonic scale, pentatonic scale, etc. These scales then have coordinate relations among each other. Budin and Wright (1997) also add that for terms that are not directly superordinate,
17 but a few levels above a certain concept, the term “broader concept” might be used (p. 337).
In the linguistic tradition, these conceptual relations correspond to what linguists would call hyperonyms (for superordinate terms) and hyponyms (for subordinate terms).
Another type of conceptual relations are the part-whole relations. Budin and Wright (1997) say that this describes a condition where “the object x is a part of the object y” (p. 338). In the linguistic sense, this relation corresponds to meronymy. Budin and Wright (1997) say that while certain authors apply the same division of relations to part-whole relations as they do to generic-specific, other authors opt to label “the whole” as the comprising concept and the part as the partitive concept (p. 338).
Non-hierarchical relationships also encompass a few types of conceptual relations.
Associative relationships, Budin and Wright (1997) find, are quite complex and not easy to describe. They can be divided into many different categories “depending on the requirements of a given conceptual environment” (p. 338). They are mostly based on one concept being associated with another – for instance we “might associate certain tools with specific professions” (a baton with a conductor) or “certain professions with characteristic places”
(opera singers with theatres) (Budin and Wright, 1997, p. 338).
While not a common type, Budin and Wright (1997) mention the sequential relationship which describes concepts that occur one after another. They offer the example of the seasons of the year which represent a temporal sequential relationship or the arrangement of keys on a piano which represent the spatial sequential relationship. They point out, though, that certain sequences might fall under hierarchical relations.
3. Terminology
Since the important concepts that terminology operates with have been introduced, the aim of this chapter is to introduce the field. A definition of the discipline will be offered first,
18 along with a brief overview of its history. Terminology will then be further explained by presenting its relation to other, similar disciplines.
3.1 Defining terminology
“Terminology” is actually a polysemous word itself as it has multiple meanings. In the first sense, we speak of “the set of all terms that are used in a given specialised domain” (Palumbo,
2009, p. 114) or as Sager (qtd. in Cabré, 1999) puts it, “a vocabulary of a special subject field” (p. 62). The final output of this thesis, the glossary, is mostly related to this definition of terminology.
However, in the second sense, terminology is a discipline that deals with all aspects of working with specialized terms. Palumbo (2009) claims that terminology “studies the relationships between concepts and terms, the patterns of term formation and the methodology which forms the basis of terminology management” (p. 114). Pearson (1998) adds that the function of the discipline is to “describe vocabulary of a specialised subject field which is a collection of words which one would normally associate with a particular discipline” (p. 10).
Other matters the field deals with are the “methods of collecting, disseminating and standardizing terms” (Pearson, 1998, p. 10).
As a discipline, terminology is by no means independent, but highly interdisciplinary as its concepts come from a variety of fields. It combines principles from linguistics, logic, ontology and information science (Cabré, 1999). Despite this, it still has its own theory, which is something that Pearson (1998) mentions by saying that terminology may also function as a theory, which could de facto be considered as the third meaning of the word. Sager (qtd. in
Kockaert & Steurs, 2015) confirms this by saying that terminology is also “a theory, i.e. the set of premises, arguments and conclusions required for explaining the relationships between
19 concepts and terms” (p. 45). Cabré (1999) explains the theoretical side to terminology as “the principles and conceptual bases that govern the study of terms” (p. 32).
Terminology is by no means a static field, because as languages change over time, it has to adapt to various novelties, especially when new designations are created. As Grygová (2010) puts it, “terminology is not a closed and unchangeable system. It changes and reflects the development of new fields” (p. 163).
3.2 History of terminology as a discipline
Terminology is a relatively modern discipline. Although its beginnings are unclear and therefore impossible to pinpoint to a specific time, it is estimated that first attempts at dealing with terminology come from the 18th century. Naturally, the first dictionaries or vocabulary lists were developed long before that, but as it is explained later, they do not relate to terminology. In the 18th century it was mostly scientists who were interested in devoting their time to terminology in attempts to map their particular fields. Some of the notable figures who took a clear interest in terminology include the chemists Antoine Lavoisier or Claude Louis
Berthollet or the botanist Carl Linnaeus (Cabré, 1999).
However, the actual formation of terminology as a discipline began only in the 1930s
(Cabré, 1999) and it was for very similar reasons that sparked interest in it back in the 18th century, which was the rapid development of science and technological fields. With this progress arose the need to designate all the new concepts. This was often done by borrowing
LGP terms and reassigning them a new meaning. A second key factor behind the development of terminology as a discipline was the progressive globalization which caused a need for the standardization of terminology used by experts all around the world.
Eugen Wüster is considered by many to be the founder of modern terminology. A devout linguist, Wüster soon developed an interest in terminology and recognized the need for its
20 standardization in order to avoid confusion. Therefore his work included creating the basics of international standardization upon which the Technical Committee for Terminology
Standardization of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO/TC37) was later founded.
The first association that was concerned with standardization was the International
Electrotechnical Commission. Despite being an organization that deals with all electrotechnical matters, they expressed their interest in terminology standardization by publishing a multilingual international vocabulary to unify terminology in 1938.
Cabré (1999) cites Auger’s divison of the history of modern terminology into four periods.
The first era were the “origins” (1930-1960), where the first methods for the systematization, formation and standardization of terminology were established. Most of the seminal works in this period come from Wüster or Lotte. The second period is the “structuring of the field”
(1960-1975). The most significant developments in this era was the development of mainframe computers and documentation technique. It is also when “international coordination of principles of terminology processing was initiated” (Cabré, 1999, p. 5). For instance, ISO released their first recommendations for terminology (Pearson, 1998). This was followed by the “boom” of the field (1975-1985) where the focus was mostly on language planning and terminology projects. The progress in this area was also the fact that PCs became available, which significantly shifted the course and procedures in the field, as data could now be processed in a much different and more efficient manner. The final and still ongoing period is the “expansion” that began in 1985. This era has been dominated by the use of computer technologies which have given terminologists a whole new range of possibilities and tools for terminology management. International cooperation on terminology is being strengthened and terminology is building interdisciplinary bridges towards other disciplines.
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3.3 Terminology versus lexicology
In order to further explain what terminology is, it will now be compared to other similar fields to emphasize their differences in hopes to make the aspects of terminology more prominent.
Lexicology is an area of language study that deals with the lexicon of a language, i.e. all words and their use, meaning or history. There are a few goals lexicology aims to achieve.
They include realizing what knowledge and awareness speakers have of and how competently they operate their own language, and its words and being able to, based on these facts,
“construct a model of the lexical component of a language which includes speakers’ implicit knowledge of words and their use as well as systematic and appropriate mechanisms to connect the lexical component with the other grammatical components” (Cabré, 1999, p. 35)
Terminology, on the other hand, only deals with special language words and its main focus is the concept. It operates with the understanding that a concept can “be conceived of independently from the name or term that represents it” (Cabré, 1999, p. 33). Unlike lexicology, terminology does not explain the speakers’ behaviour and instead it looks to “find terms to fill in a previously established conceptual grid” (Cabré, 1999, p. 37), which means that it allows for the use of a prescriptive approach. The objectives of terminology also vary from those of lexicology, they are for instance the standardization of terms through establishing international principles for terminology, understanding conceptual relations of a specific subject field and establishing references to various concepts. The starting point of these two fields also varies as terminology starts its work from the concept while lexicology starts with the word (Cabré, 1999). A detailed explanation follows in the next chapter on lexicography and terminography. Another difference between these two is the fact that the basic units of lexicology is a word, whereas with terminology it is a term. The linguistic units
22 both also differ on a grammatical level as terms tend to be mostly nouns while words are all of grammatical categories.
Even though these two disciplines differ in many ways, they cannot be viewed as opponents, but rather as each other’s constituent as they do share a few features. For one thing, they “both deal with lexical units, dictionaries and both have an applied and a theoretical side to them and therefore they can be treated as related disciplines” (Cabré, 1999, p. 35).
3.4 Terminography versus lexicography
As the heading suggests, this subchapter will not be dedicated to terminology per se, but its applied side, terminography, when compared to the applied side of lexicology, lexicography.
The relationship of lexicology to lexicography is analogous with that of terminology to terminography (Budin and Wright, 1997). They are, however, so closely intertwined that it is necessary that they be mentioned.
Since lexicography is the applied side of lexicology, it follows that it also operates with words and terminography therefore deals with terms (Budin and Wright, 1997).
The aims of both lexicography and terminography are rather similar as they are primarily concerned with the writing compilations of linguistic units. However, while the output of lexicography are primarily dictionaries, thesauruses or other compilations that encompass mostly LGP units and the principles of writing them, terminography produces glossaries, terminologies, specialized vocabularies or other compilations of LSP terms exclusively. This makes the output of this thesis, the glossary, a terminographic piece. In these compilations, terminographic definitions mainly aim to describe concepts that belong to a pre-existing system (Budin and Wright, 1997)
23
Now that we have established what the output of these fields are, we might consider the differences between these outputs. One entry in a dictionary can provide polysemes of a word within one entry, while homonyms are presented as separate head words and synonyms do not tend to be mentioned at all. Terminologies, or other collections of terminographic nature base their entries on concepts primarily. Polysemes and homonyms are presented as separate entries, even if they were to belong to the same subject field. What matters is that one entry relates to one concept only, which is why synonyms can be found under one entry.
These two disciplines also vary in their methodologies. As foreshadowed in the previous chapter, lexicography represents the semasiological approach, which means the discipline starts with a word and then proceeds towards looking for all possible meanings of the given word. The approach of terminography is rather the opposite, as it proceeds from the concept, which is analysed first, and then they look for terms to assign or that are already assigned to that concept.
The working practices of experts in both fields also vary. The work of terminographers is rather prescriptive as they write definitions for the concepts they deal with, propose term formations and suggest standardization principles. It is also systematic, meaning “that they represent entries according to a theme or some previously developed classification” (Antia,
2005, p. 1). This process is, however, not of a linguistic nature in contrast to lexicographers where “the definiendum is a word that is defined by other words” (Budin and Wright, 1997, p.
63) and the working process is of a descriptive nature as it reflects the real usage of language.
Different expectations are also placed on professionals in these fields. While a lexicographer should above all be a good linguist, a terminographer should primarily have a deep understanding of the knowledge that relates to the field he analyses.
24
4. Terminology management
One of the important decisions in terminology is to establish the way one will process, store and administer their collection. Such work with terminology is often referred to as terminology management. Budin and Wright (1997) define it as “any deliberate manipulation of terminological information” (p. 327).
Terminology management covers a whole range of activities from descriptive terminology in certain sciences all the way to prescriptive methodologies used in standardization of terminology and government regulations (Budin and Wright, 1997). It is concerned with finding the most efficient ways of storing, documenting and working with specialized terminology. This has been a much easier task since computer technologies became available to the general public and terminology management work is now practically conducted on computers only. A lot of software that assists terminographers in their work has emerged especially over the last few years.
As a part of their work, terminologists often put together and maintain their own resources and terminology databases that will later help them in the creation of glossaries or specialized vocabularies. This usually means systematic work in which the first step would be “collecting representative works in a given subject field, compiling the appropriate term lists, developing concept systems and establishing equivalent relations for two or more languages based on coherent research” (Budin and Wright, 1997, p. 18). They must pay strict attention to which terms they wish to document in their compilations based on certain objectives and requirements defined for their subject field (Budin and Wright, 1997). Budin and Wright
(1997) say that it is a common false assumption that only single-word or compound terms can be documented in terminological compilations, in fact, it could be all sorts of terms.
Naturally, the process of managing terminology is never entirely smooth as terminographers often have to face certain problems regarding terminology. These may include the
25 problematic translation of certain terms, assuming we are working with multilingual terminology or dealing with concepts that lack designations in a certain language. In order to avoid all of these issues in the future, terminologists and terminographers are working towards a consistent, standard terminology in all areas of human activity. We could label this as the main goal of terminology.
Apart from terminology management specialists, terminology management is nowadays probably of the biggest concern to two groups. First it is the translators who benefit largely from the existence of terminology databases, especially if they are multilingual (multilingual databases are often used as translation memories in CAT tools), as this offers designations in both languages for a concept that a translator might be looking up. However, sometimes even a monolingual database might help with understanding the concept of an unfamiliar designation in a foreign language. The beneficial aspect of terminological works such as glossaries is also one of the main motivations behind the writing of this thesis. Translators might also help with terminology management by playing a significant role in computer- assisted human translation. The other group to which terminology management is of interest are large international businesses, because having an inconsistent terminology can lead to confusion and complicates all procedures related to running a large international company.
All systems that help terminographers or other users of LSP manage their terminology are referred to as terminology management systems or tools. The first significant tool among those are terminology databases, which can come in the form of term bases or glossaries.
These are probably the tools that translators can make the most use of. The process can, however, be simplified by storing data in text processors or spreadsheets.
Budin and Wright (1997) distinguish between two types of terminology management. The first type is descriptive, which is “practiced by translators, technical writers, social scientists who document terminology for translation and writing, however they do not generally
26 determined the usage in a domain. This approach helps translators and writers make informed choices but it in no way dictates them” (p. 329). Sometimes even the work of standardizers, whose practice is usually prescriptive, leans a little towards the descriptive approach. This usually happens when they “collect information on usage and multiple definitions prior to preparing standardized definitions”. Prescriptive terminology management is then practiced by “standardizers, government regulators, nomenclature specialists and language planners”
(Budin and Wright, 1997, p. 329). The typical feature of this approach is that terminology experts make use of the services and knowledge of experts in a given subject field, or better yet, they possess such knowledge themselves.
As foreshadowed above, two most common types of terminology compilations are term banks and termbases. These two concepts are often used interchangeably and do indeed bear little difference, to the point where most people would just label a term bank as being a large termbase only. However, as Allard (qtd. in Mohammadi, 2013) points out, a term bank is an
“enormous termbase addressing a wide range of heterogeneous audience encompassing companies, language learners or even the general public. It is usually administered by major companies and governmental agencies” (p. 2). Examples of public terms banks include
TERMIUM, InterActive Terminology for Europe (IATE), Le Grand Dictionnaire
Terminologique (GDT) or the United Nations’ Multilingual Terminology Database
(UNTerm). A termbase is then an “electronic collection of structured term entries in the form of individual or client-server databases of a relatively smaller size and with a more limited audience than a term bank” (Allard, qtd. in Mohammadi, 2013, p. 2). Term banks or termbases are tend to be high-quality terminological sources as they can be constantly updated and enable easy retrieval of information.
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4.1 Terminology standardization
Terminology standardization is an important process that enables subject field experts to communicate better. The ISO (qtd. in Cabré, 1999) defines standardization as “the process of formulating and applying rules for an orderly approach to a specific activity for the benefit and with the co-operation of all concerned and in particular for the promotion of optimum overall economy taking due account of functional conditions and safety requirements” (p.
195). As Cabré (1999) points out, there is also a second focus on terminological standardization which has to do with “the principles of terminology as a discipline and the methods of terminography as a practical endeavour” (p. 201). This approach is precisely the task of ISO Technical Committee 37 (Cabré, 1999). This chapter however focuses on the first meaning exclusively.
While plenty of terms are already standardized, many are still not and new ones appear at a rather fast rate nowadays. The reason for this might be that there exists a standardized term, but a speaker chooses to use a non-standardized version that is more colloquial. Alternatively, it is also possible that there is no standardized term for a concept at all, which is highly undesirable in terminology, as it can lead to a lot of confusion, not only in terminology management but also in communication.
Cabré (1999) describes the process of standardization as being complex and entailing multiple steps. First of all, “the concepts must be unified and understood within given concept systems. Then follows the definition of terms, the reduction of homonymy, the elimination of synonymy, the fixing of designations, including abbreviations and symbols, and finally, the creation of new terms” (Cabré, 1999, p. 200). It follows that the process of terminological standardization only entails specialized language and does not apply to LGP. Nevertheless, it considers all specialized fields. In the process of standardization, the presence of a subject field expert is absolutely necessary (Cabré, 1999). The cooperation of a terminologist and a
28 subject field expert is necessary as the terminologist can provide the expert with the rules of terminology, while the expert provides knowledge of the subject field and its conceptual relations. It is necessary to uphold both of these aspects and place concepts or their designations within the given rules of a system.
Since standardization might be a slightly complicated process, as various experts might not agree on some designations for terms, there are a few standard-setting bodies that are concerned with standardization, assure its quality and issue standards which are highly respected on an international level. Pearson (1998) adds that these organizations, apart from standardization, also often focus on the documentation and collection of terminology. The first of those is the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which made history by being the first international organization concerned with terminology standardization as it was founded in 1904. By today it has published over 1500 international standards. The second organization is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It was founded in
1946 as a replacement for its predecessor, the ISA which fell apart because of World War II
(Cabré, 1999). The two organizations have different fields of activity as the IEC deals with electrical engineering and electronics technology while ISO is responsible for all other specializations (Cabré, 1999). Some of the notable European organizations include the
CENELEC or the European Committee on Standardization.
These organizations have a set process that has been developed over the years which defines what forms of standardization are valid and what criteria should be adhered to (Cabré,
1999). Ultimately, the goal of all such bodies is to reach a consensus decision by issuing a standard which presents “what has been agreed upon and the contexts in which it is to be applied” (Cabré, 1999, p. 195). The reason behind this and the ultimate goal of terminology standardization is the desire to “eliminate all differences in order to facilitate exchange” (p.
195). Budin and Wright (1997) also warn that in young subject fields, designations should not
29 be rushed as they are still in the process of development and change. The issue of a standard can be considered successful if it visibly changed a language situation for the better (Cabré,
1999).
5. Terminology related to singing
As the output of this thesis is a bilingual glossary of terminology related to singing, this chapter introduces certain aspects of the field that a reader of this thesis should be aware of before using the glossary. This includes a description of the field and the history and the specifics of singing terminology. It is worth noting that the author of thesis does not consider herself to be an expert by any means and that the motivation behind writing this thesis is simply the author’s interest in the given subject field. Therefore, based on the aforementioned levels of LSP usage, we could classify the goal of this thesis as being communication between a semi-expert and the uninitiated. First, the development of the subject field is introduced and thereby the specific area of interest for the thesis is delimited.
5.1 Describing the subject field
Singing is a “fundamental mode of musical expression. It is especially suited to the expression of specific ideas, since it is almost always linked to a text; even without words, the voice is capable of personal and identifiable utterances. It is arguably the most subtle and flexible of musical instruments and therein lies much of the fascination of the art of singing”.1
Naturally, “singing” is a broad field, impossible to be encompassed in the glossary. “Singing” could, in fact, be thought of as a hypernym or the connecting concept to a whole set of music genres, activities, theories and concepts. Miller even claims that “of all the performance arts,
1 http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/25869?q=singing&search=quick&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit
30 the art of singing is the most complex” (xiii). Therefore this subchapter attempts to delineate the area of interest for this thesis but to do so, it needs to introduce the broader context first.
It is first necessary to point out that all terminology used in this thesis is based on the
Western tradition of music, which varies significantly from the Eastern tradition. The Eastern tradition encompasses Asian regions, predominantly the Arab world, China or India whose cultures have developed with a vastly different understanding of certain concepts. This also includes music which as a field has been constructed on entirely different ideas, instruments, history and genres (Guan, 2014). So while there are plenty of terms that relate to singing coming from the Eastern tradition of music, they are not included in the glossary, as they are hardly ever used in the Anglophone or Czech cultural contexts.
To be able to further pinpoint the area of interest for the thesis, the history of singing and aspects of Western singing will now be briefly described. It is necessary to point out that it is impossible to discuss this outside of the terms of music as singing is its subfield that evolved in relation to other aspects of music.
Being a natural part of human nature, some forms of singing have existed since the dawn of humanity. There are many records of singing in ancient cultures, whether it was for entertainment, religious or military purposes. Later, with the rise of the Catholic Church, secular musical activity was supressed and, as a result, not too many records of secular singing exist from this era, which lasted up to 13 centuries. Therefore, as Koopman (1999) points out2, the Catholic Church had immense influence on the early Western tradition of music, especially as it attempted to place restrictions on the forms of singing. In this era, a few types of specific chants were developed.
However, Koopman (1999) claims that the origins of the Western music tradition only began to take shape in the 16th century. 3 With the royalty being rather wealthy and the
2 http://www2.lawrence.edu/fast/KOOPMAJO/antiquity.html 3 http://www2.lawrence.edu/fast/KOOPMAJO/develop.html
31 creation of the middle class, there was a much bigger demand for entertainment. Thus, the first foundations of opera, which is the first significant and traceable step towards the modern system and comprehension of music, were laid. As there had been no previous tradition for composition or singing outside of religious music, this era was a time of experimentation.
What followed then, was the creation of many new concepts, plenty of which are still in use until today and therefore this era can truly be marked as the proper beginning of the Western musical tradition. Perhaps the most important concept was the bel canto, a style of singing associated with the polyphonic music of the time, which required a large range of vocal expressions and gave singers the freedom to sing as powerfully as they wanted.4 As with bel canto, most of these developments and concepts were created in Italy, a lot of musical terminology therefore remains Italian. Soon thereafter, opera was introduced to other parts of
Europe, which then added new elements and forms to it, especially in Germany, France and
England.
In the 18th century, new approaches to music began to emerge as well. Opera still remained the most important genre, but the way it was composed and performed changed in some ways by the classicist and romanticist composers of this era. The prominent features of music in this period include an inclination towards a more natural sounding music and a more significant use of the orchestra, therefore giving the singer fewer opportunities for their own interpretation of the composed pieces. This again, just like with any other new trends that followed, allowed for the creation of new concepts and techniques in singing, which marked a departure from the bel canto style and instead, singing that made use of resonance or techniques that combined speech and singing were employed.5 As many of these trends were proposed by German composers of this era, many of these concepts were given German designations. Even though this was a common trend of this era, it is not true for all of Europe,
4 https://www.britannica.com/art/singing 5 https://www.britannica.com/art/singing
32 as various countries built upon their previous tradition. This is why while in Germany, singers were of lesser importance in a performed piece, Italy placed the main focus on the voice and
France incorporated plenty of choral scenes.6
After many years of development within the range of classical music only, the post-war period at the beginning of the 20th century brought about a drastic change in music. This was related to the abrupt social changes and the introduction of new technologies, such as the radio. Even though classical music persisted and new approaches still developed occasionally, it became a rather specialized field and its position as the main style of music was slowly being replaced in the general consciousness by what came to be known as popular music. As the new style of popular singing drew its inspiration not only from its classical predecessors, but also from the then newly emerging genres of pop, rock, soul and jazz, a whole range of new singing terminology emerged in the 20th century. Since the popular culture phenomena of this century were dictated by the USA mostly, the most recent terminology in singing and music in general is English.7
Apart from the history of singing, it is also necessary to mention a few concepts that are important to the Western tradition of singing. As the art of singing developed, it was especially the features of a voice and techniques that are based on making use of these various features that came to be the primary concepts that describe singing. When trained singers are instructed to employ a certain technique in their performance, they will know exactly how to use their voice, how to perform the given piece and which features of their voice should be prominent or supressed in the given situation. It follows that it is crucial for trained singers to be familiar with the terminology of their field, especially when communicating with other members of a musical body. Only that way can they achieve efficient communication and a proper performance of a musical piece the way it was intended. Most of the important features
6 http://www2.lawrence.edu/fast/KOOPMAJO/express.html 7 http://www2.lawrence.edu/fast/KOOPMAJO/modern.html
33 of a voice in the Western understanding relate to the sound a voice can produce. This generally includes its volume, colour, timbre, sound, tone quality, or range.
It is now obvious that there are indeed plenty of aspects to singing. As was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, the glossary aims to be a sort of communication between a semi-expert and the uninitiated. Therefore the selected terminology aims to be a collection of all basic terms that an aspiring uninitiated singer should be aware of in their training. These include terms related to the features of one’s voice as described above, various techniques of singing from both classical and popular styles and also a few terms that describe the vocal tract. Being familiar with the terms included in the glossary, the reader could efficiently go through vocal training already possessing knowledge that is crucial for it. The author bases this assumption on having gone through years of basic vocal training herself and consulting sources on vocal pedagogy. Other criteria for the selection of terms are described in Chapter
6.2.
5.2 Specifics of terminology related to singing
As the previous subchapter mentioned, singing and music in general are very much a confirmation of the tendency of certain concepts being given a designation in the language of the country in which the concept was created (Cabré, 1999). As a result, the majority of terms related to singing come from Italian and occasionally from German, English or French. This is not to say other languages are never the first designation for a new concept or that musical terms in major languages are never translated into them, in fact it happens rather often too.
However, in comparison to many other specialized fields, music and singing do indeed keep a high number of terms that originate from the major languages, many times even to the extent where they maintain the same linguistic form and do not take on any features of the language that borrows the term. Cabré (1999) points out that terms maintaining their original form is
34 actually standard practice in the process of terms becoming a part of another language. In music, it is perhaps due to the international and standardized nature of the field that terms remain untranslated. After the terms were coined in Italy (or other European countries), they then spread to other countries. This might have been due to the interest of local musicians in the work of their foreign counterparts, musicians occasionally performing in other countries or simply musicians of different nationalities collaborating within one musical body. It was therefore in their interest to in a certain sense, “standardize” their terminology, which was done by simply using the original forms. This was mostly needed for the purposes of sheet music, which is used by all members of a musical body and which actually contains written words that advise the performers on how to play or sing the given piece of music. Out of this arose the need for a unified terminology and therefore it could be claimed that music is among the first fields whose terminology was standardized to a certain extent.
5.3 Singing environment in the English-speaking world
Even though the previous subchapter discussed the leading role that Italian, German and
French play in singing terminology, the output of this thesis is a compilation of terms in
English and Czech. Therefore the thesis will now present the individual environments of singing in both cultures and explain the development and role of singing terminology in each of them.
Even though English does not play a leading role in musical terminology, it has become the lingua franca in the 20th century despite being only the third most spoken language in terms of native speakers. 8 This means that it does not just govern most of LGP communication, but also most of specialized communication among experts in various subject fields. It is therefore safe to assume that much of the communication that might occur between musical experts or organizations on an international scale will also occur in English,
8 https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size
35 with the exception of any foreign-language musical terminology that might be included.
English is listed as one of the two official languages (besides French) of one of the largest music organizations in the world, the International Music Council (IMC), which is an advisory body to the UNESCO on all matters of music.9
However, both on the international and English-speaking level, there are no organizations that seem to be focused on the standardization of musical or singing terminology. While certain organizations might have proposed terminology standards for their own use, none of them have yet attempted to bring these suggestions on an international level. As musical theory as we know it today has been developing since the 16th century and consistently building upon the previous trends, the terminology has been rather unified and standardized.
We can therefore assume that any inconsistencies in terminology have not been so severe to create the need for a special standardization body. Organizations and experts have then likely been relying on the long-standing terminology developed by musicians and musical theorists, who actually play the crucial role in the shaping of musical terminology.
Perhaps the most prominent organization related to singing in the English-speaking world is the National Association of Teachers of Singing, which has a long tradition dating back to its foundation in 1944. In spite of being based in the USA, the association claims to have almost 7,000 members from 30 countries all over the world. As its mission statement, they define their aim as wanting “to encourage the highest standards of the vocal art and of ethical principles in the teaching of singing; and to promote vocal education and research at all levels, both for the enrichment of the general public and for the professional advancement of the talented”.10 The association has also published the Journal of Singing since its foundation, which presents the recent research on the history and science of voice, voice pedagogy,
9 http://www.imc-cim.org/about-imc-separator/who-we-are.html 10 http://www.nats.org/who-is-nats.html
36 diction and medicine. Other organizations that deal with singing are usually focused on a specific type of singing and are rather small-scale.
However, the telling factor in the importance of a given field in a specific region is education. The English-speaking world provides aspiring singers with great education options as 8 out of 10 top-rated universities for performing arts are located either in the USA or the
UK. Some examples include the Juilliard School in New York City, the Royal College of
Music in London or the University of Oxford.11 In the English-speaking world, primarily the
USA and UK, it is not just universities and conservatories that offer the possibility to study singing, as there is a vast selection of specialized high schools, training programmes or classes at music schools. They offer training not just in classical singing, but also in popular, jazz or other modern forms of singing. As the USA and UK were the leading forces in popular culture of the 20th century, many modern genres of singing developed there and they came to be treated as skills that need to be included in education. This had several impacts on the singing culture in the English-speaking world. First of all, with the emergence of new genres the need for designations of the newly created concepts rose again, and English was used as the language of origin. Second of all, with such a strong educational background, the English- speaking world has produced many of the best singers of the 20th century. Considering all facts presented in this chapter, it is safe to say that the English-speaking world has a strong, albeit rather recent, tradition of singing and provides aspiring singers with great conditions.
5.4 Singing environment in the Czech Republic
In comparison to English, Czech is a rather minor language with approximately 10.5 million speakers only.12 Considering what small percentage of LGP communication in Czech
11 http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2016/performing-arts 12 https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ces
37 takes place worldwide, it is only natural that there is even less use for the language in science or specialized subject fields.
The situation is not much different in terminology related to singing. However, in order for a specific field to function in a given culture, its language has to be employed in the field at least to a certain extent. This is certainly true for the Czech language. Many attempts have been made to translate musical terminology and many of these translated terms were indeed adopted as the standardized designations. This was however not always possible, as sometimes there was simply no functional equivalent for a term, or the suggested Czech term carried connotations that differed from those of the original language and occasionally, the same designation in Czech and another language referred to two entirely different concepts.
To this day, there are visible gaps in Czech musical terminology. This lack of standardized designations in Czech has resulted in plenty of mistranslations and leaves many Czech music theorists and scholars wishing for a more standardized terminology13. This is especially true of modern terminology, which makes it rather difficult for contemporary Czech musicologists to conduct research in these recently developed subfields of singing (Březinová 2015).
The educational background for singing in the Czech Republic has quite a long-standing tradition. However, in comparison to the English-speaking world, its scope is very limited, as only classical singing is taught at Czech schools. It is possible that the lack of modern genres in Czech musical education is partially a result of the country being rather politically distant from the developments in the West, therefore also from its music during the 20th century. It might take some time before this delay is made up for and newer genres are introduced into
Czech education as well. To receive official training, one might choose to attend lessons at a primary art school, conservatory or study singing at a university. However, universities do not offer too many opportunities to do so, as there are only three that offer a major focused purely on singing without any pedagogical nature. These majors can be found at the Janáček
13 http://www.svetovka.cz/archiv/2009/11-2009-aktualita.htm
38
Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno, Academy of Performing Arts in Prague and the University of Ostrava and are not easily accessible as for instance JAMU admitted 6 students only for the school year 2016/2017.14 As a result, the trainees receive high quality education, but their numbers are very low. Moreover, as mentioned above, there are very few opportunities to study any genres other than classical singing on a formal level. Therefore even though the education is of a high quality, its position rather weakened by not being diverse enough in terms of musical styles and by not admitting more applicants and thereby creating a stronger platform for music in the Czech Republic. It is however necessary to point out that singing plays a more significant role outside of formal education, as the Czech cultural scene is thriving.
Much like in the English-speaking world, there is no official nation-wide institution on the standardization of terms in singing. However, on a small-scale, there are certain endeavours to compile musical terminology, for instance by the Centre for Music Lexicography at the
Institute of Musicology at Masaryk University in Brno.
Outside the realm of terminology, the Czech Republic has multiple music organizations, many of which belong under the Czech Academy of Sciences, but as they do not particularly focus on singing, they are not relevant for the purposes of this thesis.
6. Compiling the glossary
The process of compiling a glossary can be set in the context of disciplines mentioned in the chapter on terminology. In theory, the process is purely terminographical. However, when we consider the steps that apply to the work behind compiling the glossary that is the result of this thesis, the work falls under more categories. The work can be considered terminographical as it works with specialized language only. It also employs the technique that Budin and Wright call “term mining”. This is the process of the “systematic search for
14 http://www.jamu.cz/img/cz/prijimaci-zkousky/zprava-o-prijim-rizeni-bakalarske-16-17-hf.pdf
39 monolingual or multilingual terminology resources on the WWW as well as their evaluation in terms of relevance to one’s own information needs, quality, consistency and reliability”
(Budin and Wright, 2001, p. 845). However, the basic methodology of the work cannot be considered terminographical as it is not onomasiological, which means that the author did not choose concepts as the starting point for the work, but proceeded to search directly for already existing terms. The reason why it could be considered lexicographical is also the way that the glossary is organized, as it follows the lexicographical way of listing terms alphabetically and not the terminographical method of listing them systematically based on concept structures.
The following subchapters discuss the organization of the glossary, as well as its use and explain what sources were used in the process of term mining.
6.1 Sources for the glossary
As mentioned previously in Chapter 5.3, musical terminology, let alone singing terminology, is governed by no official standardization bodies. Therefore when conducting research in musical terminology, one must turn their attention to specialized publications and nowadays even more commonly, to the internet. Both of these resources were used in the compilation of this glossary. This chapter will now present which sources in particular were used for term extraction in both languages.
6.1.1 Sources in English
As the aim of the glossary is to include terms that would serve as an introduction to the art of singing for aspiring singers, most of the included terms relate to the technique of singing.
This is why the most suitable sources for the extraction of terms are, in the author’s opinion, works on vocal pedagogy. These usually explain singing techniques with regards to proper
40 vocal execution, focus on skill improvement and prevention against voice damage and provide tips for singer training for both singers and teachers.
The main printed source for this thesis are Richard Miller’s On the Art of Singing and
Solutions for Singers: Tools for Performers and Teachers, published in 1996 and 2004 respectively. Miller was an American singer and also a professor of singing at the oldest continually operating conservatory in the United States, the Oberlin Conservatory of Music.
He is also the author of multiple vocal pedagogy books, which are among the most highly regarded works in their field. Additionally, all professionally trained singers that the author of this thesis consulted recommended Miller’s work as the starting point for research. As Miller
(1999) himself states in the introduction to On the Art of Singing, “information on all topics related to vocal pedagogy are scattered throughout a wide range of interdisciplinary writing and they presuppose familiarity with terminology not readily accessible to every singer” (p. xiii). This means that not only did Miller attempt to create a summary of all concepts that a singer in training should be familiar with, but he was also concerned with the trainees’ knowledge of the necessary terminology, making On the Art of Singing truly an ideal source for this thesis. In Solutions for Singers, he addresses common problems related to singing techniques and performance in a rather unusual, yet interesting “frequently asked questions” format. This means that Solutions for Singers is addressed to individuals that have already achieved a certain, even if low, level of proficiency, potentially to semi-experts. Nevertheless, the book serves as a very suitable source for term extraction. Both books are written in an easily understandable language and yet they cover all theory and concepts in a very precise manner.
To some extent, the term extraction process also made use of Janice Chapman’s Singing and Teaching Singing. The aim of the book is very similar, if not the same, to that of On the
Art of Singing. It is also a guide for singers in training and their teachers with the aim to
41 familiarize them with a wide range of singing techniques and concepts. Chapman is an opera singer and a voice coach. As she writes (2012) in the book herself, she attempted to write a book that was “different to others in vocal pedagogy, as her knowledge of the multidisciplinary approach to voice had given her a different perspective to many of her teacher colleagues” (p. xv). However, in the range of terms that fit the criteria for inclusion into this glossary, it soon transpired that Miller and Chapman’s included terms are very similar, which is why many terms in the glossary were originally found in Miller’s book.
Even though both mentioned works are excellent sources for the extraction of terms, they do not contain precise definitions of the terms and the concepts are usually explained in long commentaries. This is why the thesis had to rely on other sources to find concise definitions.
The Oxford Music Online database proved to be the most valuable as well as the most trusted source in this regard. It encompasses three of the largest reference works on Western music. First of all, it is The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, which has over 29 volumes and additional volumes on opera, jazz and musical instruments exclusively. As of today, it belongs to the Oxford University Press and is updated frequently. The second collection included is the Oxford Dictionary of Music which has over 10,000 entries and has been updated regularly since 1985. Finally, the collection includes the 2002 edition of The
Oxford Companion to Music, a music reference book. Taking into considerations all the facts on Oxford Music Online, there is no question about the reliability of this source.
Other resources that were used are monolingual glossaries that are listed in the References part of this thesis and that are available on the internet. They served as a great source for the preliminary search of modern singing terminology primarily, their use, however, is slightly problematic, as they possess few to zero academic credentials. Most of them appear to be professional websites of individuals or institutions that offer a range of services or take part in activities related to music, and some are completely anonymous. In cases where the reliability
42 of the source is questionable, Budin and Wright (1997) recommend “evaluating resources for accuracy, credibility and relevance” (p. 2). The credibility factor is evaluated by verifying the
“author’s or site’s credentials”. As this is precisely what could not be applied to the aforementioned monolingual glossaries, other criteria had to be used. The next criterion is accuracy, which suggests “validation among several websites” (Budin and Wright, 1997, p.
2). The final criterion, relevance proposes that the terminologists use their own judgment in evaluating whether the use of a term is appropriate or not, based on their own knowledge of the field or based on how well the provided information on a term fits in within the system of related terminology. These two strategies correspond precisely with the approach used in dealing with terminology found in sources of questionable credibility. Each term was cross- searched multiple times using the ezdroje.muni.cz database or scholar.google.com for usage in specialized sources.
This type of evaluation was not only applied to the extracted terms, but also to several definitions that were found in sources that do not exactly meet the credibility criterion. The aim was to include as many definitions found in the Oxford Music Online database as possible, but not all terms could be found here. In a few cases, these gaps could be filled with the use of other dictionaries or encyclopaedias such as Merriam-Webster, Oxford
Dictionaries, Collins Dictionary or Encyclopaedia Britannica, as it the case with terms like hard palate, soft palate, humming, fioritura or vowel. However, most definitions for terms which are not defined in Oxford Music Online, or at least contexts in which the term appears and is thereby explained, were extracted from various websites, many of which do not meet the standard criteria for a quality academic source, and then cross-checked using the aforementioned method. While academic sources which were used for cross-checking confirm the definition found in the given source, they themselves did not offer a well-formulated definition of the term, which is why in these cases preference was given to using the
43 definition found in the less credible source. Many of these definitions came from a glossary of singing terms on Reddit, a forum-like discussion website that includes thousands of threads that cover virtually all areas of human activity. Their glossary of singing terminology was compiled in the sub-forum called Singing. As Reddit can be easily accessed by anyone, it should by no means be considered a reliable source. However, this glossary15 was used in this instance based on two facts. First of all, the relevance criterion, as proposed by Budin and
Wright was employed and the author of the thesis, based on her own knowledge of the field, concluded that the included definitions should be taken into consideration. The second fact was that this glossary was not compiled at random, but through a “competition” in December
2015, where the users of the sub-forum were invited to submit the best definition that they could come up with for a list of singing terminology that was provided by the moderators of the sub-forum, as they felt there was a need to standardize and explain the terminology used in the sub-forum. Users then voted for what they considered to be the best definition of each term and winning entries were then compiled in the final glossary. The author of this thesis then compared the definitions by cross-checking with the aforementioned sources and as a result decided to include some of these definitions in her own glossary. This is the case with the terms belting, breathy, chest resonance, covering, diaphragm, diphthong, distortion, heavy, light, mask resonance, modal register, mouth resonance, offset and unvoiced consonant.
The terms Curbing, Edge, Neutral and Overdrive are an exception in the glossary, as unlike the other terms, they are a part of a specific vocal theory which was developed outside of classic musical terminology. They refer to four modes of singing that are used within the
Complete Vocal Technique 16 , a teaching method developed by Danish voice researcher
Cathrine Sadolin. Even though Complete Vocal Technique is widely recognized among
15 https://www.reddit.com/r/singing/wiki/dictionary 16 https://completevocal.institute/
44 musicologists and discussed in academic works, the official website of the method proved to be the best source for the definitions for these terms. The same approach was then used for the
Czech language.
The definitions for the terms head resonance and vocal warm up were extracted from the
English Wikipedia. As Wikipedia is generally an undesirable source in academic works, much thought was given to the inclusion of this source in the glossary and if a more suitable definition was found, its use was always avoided. However, after employing Budin and
Wright’s methods of evaluation and the aforementioned thorough cross-checking with academic databases, the author of the thesis decided to make use of the Wikipedia definitions.
The reason for this was either their formulation being the most suitable for the purpose of the glossary or no definition at all being available elsewhere. The latter was often the case for the
Czech part of the glossary, where Wikipedia was used even more frequently, which will be discussed in the following subchapter.
As the aforementioned sources covered the vast majority of definitions for terms in
English, other various sources on the free internet only had to be found for the terms vocal fry register, vocal weight, voice type, whistle register and growling.
6.1.2 Sources in Czech
As was mentioned in the Introduction to this thesis, the main motivation behind choosing to compile a glossary of terminology related to singing for this thesis was the lack of such materials, especially in Czech. This is why it was rather challenging to find a concise dictionary or glossary that focused on singing terminology. In fact, research into the available materials showed that there seem to be absolutely no bilingual or even monolingual compilations of singing terminology, whether printed or even as an informal online source.
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Certain singing terminology of a more classical nature overlaps with what can be found in dictionaries on music in general, which is why Hudební slovník by Jan Malát, more specifically its edition from 1945, was used. Despite not being very recent, it provides precise definitions that in spite of the old-fashioned language still do not qualify as outdated, which is in accordance with the trend of music not being a fast developing or changing field when it comes to terminology. Its definitions were used for terms such as absolutní sluch, aspirování, hlasový rozsah, tenor and many more. Another dictionary that provided a few entries was the
Slovník české hudební kultury, which is still currently being developed by the Centre for
Music Lexicography at the Institute of Musicology at Masaryk University in Brno. The definitions for a cappella and sbor were extracted from it for the glossary.
Among monographies on singing and vocal pedagogy that were consulted, Jiří Bar’s Pravý tón a pravé pěvecké umění, originally published in 1976, was a valuable source for not only confirming Czech designations of certain terms, but also for their explanations by using the given context. The option of giving definitions in the form of the context that a term was used in was a common strategy for this glossary because of the aforementioned lack of dictionaries or glossaries that include terms related to singing. Bar’s work provides the definitions for the terms hrudní rejstřík and dikce.
Naturally, the process of term extraction and searching for appropriate definitions was also conducted to a large extent on the internet. Designations and definitions that could not be located in any of the printed sources were searched for by using Google and Wikipedia in the phase of preliminary research. It is almost not necessary to point out that these two resources are also by no means reliable and one needs to again apply Budin and Wright’s criteria for terminology evaluation for individual search results. The terms were then, much like in the process of working with English, cross-checked using ezdroje.muni.cz or scholar.google.com.
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Applying this method when researching Czech terms revealed that due to the lack of sources on singing terminology, the Czech part of the glossary had to make use of a much larger variety of sources on the free internet than the English part. Most of these were the diploma theses of students at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts or students of music pedagogy at other universities. While preliminary research was usually conducted by consulting monographies on singing, the theses proved to be a great source for extraction of definitions for the glossary, as they attempt to give a clear explanation of the individual concepts. Definitions from this type of sources were extracted for terms such as falzet, hlavová rezonance, alikvotní zpěv, krytí, přechodný tón and many more.
As mentioned in the previous subchapter, the Czech Wikipedia was a source for a number of definitions for terms in Czech. Its inclusion was also carefully considered, however the need for its use was even greater than in the case of English, as many definitions could not be located elsewhere. This was often the case for terms of English origin that are as of yet not often discussed in Czech academic sources, such as growling, melisma or vokalíza. The terms and definitions were naturally also thoroughly cross-checked with academic databases.
6.2 Criteria for inclusion
As was mentioned in Chapter 5.1 on describing the subject field, the specific terminology included in the glossary aims to be a compilation of basic terms related to singing for the uninitiated who, with the knowledge of these terms, could go through singing training being already familiar with the most important concepts of this discipline.
Now, we might also consider the general criteria for inclusion into glossaries and other criteria that were set for this glossary in particular. As for the general criteria, the most important one is that only terms be included. However, as scholars themselves find it difficult to determine what the precise difference between a term and a word is, this often proves to be
47 a complicated criterion. As the terms were collected from specialized books and monolingual glossaries of singing found online, the assumption is that they are, in fact, terms. The aim is also to include the most specific words in order to avoid vagueness. As terminological theory says, one of the prominent features of a term is its monosemy. This is why the glossary only attempts to include terms that are monosemous in the context of singing. It is important to make two points related to monosemy in singing. First of all, it is the fact that some of the included items might be polysemous when considered in general language (for example attack), but it is only important to the thesis that they relate to one concept only in the field of singing. Second, singing is a rather curious discipline, as some terms within it may refer to multiple concepts and yet, they are still regarded as terms. The most common reason for this is the fact that certain terms went through a shift of meaning as music developed. However, as music theory often makes references to history and practices used then, the older meaning of a term is not replaced with a new one. It is more common that the new one is simply added as a new definition alongside the previous one. This is for example the case for the word tenor.
The Oxford Companion to Music lists one meaning of the term as being “From the mid-13th century to the 16th, ‘tenor’ denoted the fundamental voice part of a polyphonic composition, usually in the form of a pre-existing cantus firmus, the other parts were composed ‘against’ this (hence the term ‘contratenor’), and at first were named in the order in which they were composed after the tenor (duplum, triplum, etc.). ‘Tenor’ did not imply any particular range until the 15th century, when well-known singers of tenor parts were sometimes known as
‘tenoriste’ or ‘tenorista’. The meaning then later shifted to “The highest male voice using normal voice production, with a range of roughly c (known as ‘tenor C’) to b’, or in fine voices with good training, even high c” or d”. Often used for minor or comic roles in 18th- century opera, the tenor voice rose to pre-eminence in Romantic opera. According to the vocal quality, a tenor can be described as one of three broad types: light, lyric and dramatic.”
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This could seemingly cause plenty of confusion among singers and musicians, but it is usually not an issue, as it is generally clear from the context which meaning is currently being referred to. Moreover, in most cases, the most modern definition tends to be used. The glossary therefore tries to follow the same pattern by only using the most well-known, up-to- date definitions.
English was chosen to be the main language for this glossary as there are more sources available and singing terminology is significantly wider and more standardized. This is especially true of modern terminology, most of which has not been translated to Czech yet, perhaps for the lack of a deeper-rooted tradition of popular music in the Czech Republic. Such terms in the Czech part of the glossary are dealt with by offering translations that are, as of today, available in various sources. Hopefully, this situation will change over time and more attention will be paid to standardizing these terms in Czech.
6.3 Organization of the glossary
The glossary was created using a basic table in Microsoft Word and contains a hundred and ninety-eight terms, if we count the English and the Czech term for the same concept as two separate units. As per Cabré’s (1999) suggestion, the terms are all written in lower case, as they would naturally occur in a text, with the exception of terms to which other specific rules apply. This is for example the case for the term Fach, which is of German origin, where the rules of grammar dictate that all nouns be written in capital letters at all times. This also applies to the terms Curbing, Edge, Neutral and Overdrive, whose author Cathrine Sadolin capitalizes them as a rule regardless of where they stand in the sentence and her strategy was therefore preserved.
The glossary has a rather standard format of four columns. The first column shows the
English term which is then linked with a definition or a context, in which the term is used, in
49 the adjacent second column. The third and fourth columns repeat the same format, this time with Czech terms. The reason behind English being listed first is the fact that English was chosen as the main language for the glossary. The sources from which individual terms were extracted are listed in footnotes under the glossary, as recommended by Wright and Budin
(2001).
Due to the previously mentioned lack of specialized terminologies on singing and a weaker tradition of modern music approaches in the Czech Republic, it was sometimes very challenging to find definitions or even designations for certain concepts. In cases where all research proved fruitless, the Czech definition or term is entirely left out from the glossary.
This does not mean that no designation or definition for a given concept exists in Czech, as some gaps could certainly be attributed to faults in the author’s research. This is the case for the terms Fach and offset. Despite being a German word, Fach is commonly used in English works or terminologies related to singing, but research in Czech materials revealed no such use. Offset is a word that can be found in English academic sources, but appears to be most commonly used by the general public, as many instances of it can be found on various forums about singing on the internet. The research for the designation of this term in Czech proved to be fruitless, with some people actually using the English term to refer to the concept on various websites.
Certain entries in both languages also contain more than one term. This is because of the fact that during research, multiple terms for one concept with a comparable frequency of usage were found. For the lack of one single standardized term, an informed decision as to which term should be given preference over the other could not be made. If there are multiple terms listed, the one that seems to be slightly more common in usage that is listed first. This is for example the case for terms like absolute pitch/perfect pitch, melisma/vocal runs, zpívání do masky/rezonance masky or hrudní rejstřík/prsní rejstřík.
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7. Translation of terminology related to singing
Now that the thesis has discussed the process of compiling the glossary, it is also necessary to point out various translation strategies, since the glossary is bilingual and the chosen translation direction is from English to Czech. The most commonly used strategies were defined by Peter Newmark and Mona Baker, and this chapter will now attempt to discuss whether any of these strategies are at all applicable to the terminology used in the glossary. As singing terminology makes use of foreign terms from Italian and German to a large extent (Štědroň, 2010), this might be a tricky subject to discuss. However, despite the large presence of foreign languages, the thesis still considers the language pair to be English-
Czech and therefore this chapter makes use of these strategies in a rather unconventional way, as they are usually applied to longer lexical items, but in a certain sense, they can be considered within the frame of terms as well.
In fact, Newmark (1988) considers this difference by distinguishing between translation methods, which deal with whole texts and translation procedures that deal with small units.
These procedures are namely: transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, synonymy, through-translation, shifts or transpositions, modulation, recognized translation, translation label, compensation, componential analysis, reduction and expansion, paraphrase, couplets, notes, additions and glosses (Newmark, 1988).
However, not all of Newmark’s proposed procedures, of which there are seventeen, apply to singing terminology. In fact, it seems that especially three of these procedures, transference, naturalization and description, are the most applicable.
According to Newmark (1988), description or a descriptive equivalent is translating a term by using words that are perceived as “more understandable” in the target language. What makes this approach suitable in translation is the fact that when introducing an unfamiliar term to a new culture, the general public can make sense of it easily, as it is explained within
51 its designation. A potential example of this strategy in the glossary might be the term ječák, which tries to deal with the lack of a better term in Czech for the original English belting by using a term which assimilates it to an activity that is not only familiar to Czech speakers, but which also de facto describes the process of belting. However, one must consider whether this approach is suitable for translating certain terms, as their translation by description might result in a rather awkward formulation that would either be too long or would not fit stylistically into texts. This approach could also be incompatible with the goals of terminology standardization as its frequent usage might lead to individual translators inventing their own descriptive equivalent. As there is still a rather significant amount of singing terminology missing from the Czech vocabulary and the process of standardization is not a current trend, description seems to be a suitable approach towards dealing with unfamiliar terms. However, judging by the fact that singers, especially Czech, are generally used to singing terms not being available in their own language, are usually quick to adopt the foreign term without there being any equivalent for it, as seen most commonly on internet forums. This leads us to the next translation procedure, transference.
Transference is the “process of transferring a source language word to a target language text”. The word then maintains its form just as it was in the source language (Newmark, 1988, p. 81). Naturally, with respect to the grammatical rules of the target language, in this case
Czech, the word might act differently in a text than it would in the source language. For instance, there might be different endings for plural forms in the respective languages, or the word might change, as it does in Czech, due to declination.
It is by far the most used solution for the translation of singing terminology and seems to generally be a common strategy in translating LSP terms. Whereas in many fields, the aforementioned source language is usually English as the lingua franca, in singing terminology it is primarily Italian and only then, to some extent, English. In the glossary, this
52 strategy is represented by many entries, for example barbershop, bel canto, crooning, Edge, or legato. The reasons for this were outlined in Chapter 5.1. To mention the most important reason again, it is because the given concept developed in a specific culture first, whose language gave the term its first designation. Czech singers have been familiar with these terms for decades now, as Malát’s Hudební slovník, or its edition from 1945, includes all of these terms.
Naturalization, then, is a process similar to transference. A “transfer” from the source language into the target language also occurs, however, the term is then adjusted in the source language to be in accordance with its orthography and morphology (Newmark, 1988).
Although some might object against the changes in the source language features, this procedure makes it easier to work with the term in the source language, especially if the linguistic aspects of the source language and target language vary significantly. The glossary also includes a few examples of this strategy, for instance kastrát, bas or falzet.
As mentioned in Chapter 6.3, no Czech designation could be found for a few terms in the glossary. Although it cannot be fully determined whether this is because of a failure in the author’s research, for the purposes of this chapter it can be assumed that indeed there is no designation for certain concepts in Czech. This situation is usually referred to as non- equivalence or zero equivalence. Mona Baker (2005) discusses a few ways that this phenomenon can be dealt with: “translation by a superordinate term, translation by a more neutral word, translation by cultural substitution, translation by using a loan word, translation by paraphrase using a related word, translation by paraphrase using an unrelated word, translation by omission and translation by illustration” (p. 26-43). Considering these strategies, they could have certainly been applied to the glossary and a few gaps might have been filled. However, as terminology stresses the criteria of specificity, this makes it rather incompatible with Baker’s suggestions, which would only lead to vagueness in the glossary
53 and this is highly undesirable in terminological work. Therefore the author of the thesis made the conscious decision to adhere to the criteria of specificity and deemed that terms with no equivalence in Czech should be left untranslated in the glossary.
Conclusion
The main goal of this thesis was to compile a bilingual glossary of terminology related to singing. As the entire field of “singing” would be too broad, if not impossible, to encompass in one glossary, the thesis chose to structure the glossary as de facto an introduction to singing terminology for the uninitiated. This means that primarily concepts that explain singing techniques and other basic terms that are crucial for the understanding of the field were included. The final output is a glossary of a hundred terms for each language, with two designations in Czech missing.
The thesis itself first introduced the readers to the theoretical background of working with terminology. It pointed out various issues that terminology as a discipline deals with, such as the necessity of distinguishing between LGP and LSP or a term and a word. The importance of terminology standardization was also stressed and some of the most notable organizations that aim to make progress in this area were introduced. The thesis concluded the part on theoretical background by explaining what actually constitutes terminology management and introduced some of the basic strategies behind it.
Next, the thesis attempted to summarize all the specific aspects of singing terminology. It attempted to do so by placing the history of singing within a broader context of music history and by describing how this history is actually reflected in the development of musical terminology. In relation to this, it was explained how multilingualism managed to persist in both musical and singing terminology. To offer an even broader picture of the specifics of the field of singing, the discipline was introduced in the context of both the English-speaking and
54
Czech environments and it was shown how the position of singing in both cultural contexts might have even had influence in regards to how developed singing terminology is in the two respective languages.
The next chapter observed the process of the actual compilation of the glossary. The
English terms were extracted mainly from sources on vocal pedagogy and monolingual glossaries of singing terminology that were available online, whereas the Czech terms were extracted from various sources that include a book on vocal pedagogy, a general music dictionary and then, for a large part, from the internet. The thesis stresses the importance of evaluating and verifying the extracted terms. This was done carefully in the compilation of the glossary, as every information found was cross-checked for its credibility and frequency of usage by searching in academic databases primarily. The research revealed that English vocabulary of singing terminology is significantly more developed than the Czech one, which also corresponds to the availability of textual resources on the topic in both languages. In relation to this, it was pointed out that Czech lacks many standardized designations, which is reflected in the glossary, where this was the reason for the fact that multiple terms were often assigned to one concept. As a result, mistranslations and inconsistencies of the terms in Czech were shown to be a rather frequent trend.
The final chapter then discussed which translation procedures, as defined by Newmark, are applicable to the terminology included in the glossary and as a result it was determined that descriptive equivalency, transference and naturalization occur most frequently.
It was stated at the beginning of the thesis that the main motivation behind the compilation of the glossary is the lack of similar resources in Czech, both monolingual and bilingual. Yet, it was shown that singing as a field does have a rather strong tradition in the Czech Republic, be it in a formal or an informal environment. However, the areas where Czech singing terminology is less developed compared to English terminology correspond to modern
55 approaches toward singing that have yet to be stabilized in the Czech environment. It is very likely that once they are, experts in the field of singing will strive to make sure that the corresponding terminology is properly translated and standardized. With regards to the findings of the presented thesis, the author suggests that there is plenty of room for further research in terminology related to singing, particularly when it comes to suggestions for standardization of the terms, or by producing both monolingual and bilingual compilations of terminology.
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Abstract
The main aim of the thesis and its output was a compilation of a bilingual glossary of terminology related to singing. The reason behind this, which was confirmed in the research for this thesis, was a substantial lack of both monolingual and bilingual compilations of terminology in this area. To narrow down this broad discipline, the glossary is structured as a basic guide to the important concepts of the field for uninitiated singers. English was chosen as the primary language for the glossary, with the target language being Czech, as it is the less prominent language in terms of singing terminology. The English terms were extracted from various vocal pedagogy sources and monolingual glossaries. Definitions were then extracted from dictionaries, such as the Oxford Music Online or once again, monolingual glossaries.
The process of the extraction of Czech sources and definitions was similar, however, it had to rely much more heavily on cross-checking in sources throughout the internet. All terms in
English and Czech were carefully evaluated for their credibility by using various educational databases.
The thesis first offers the theoretical background of terminological work, as the most important issues of this discipline are introduced and the processes of terminology standardization and terminology management are explained. Later on, the specifics of musical and singing terminology are introduced to set the thesis into a broader context.
The following part of the thesis focuses on the process of the compilation of the glossary itself. The sources and the criteria for inclusion are introduced in more specific details.
Finally, various translation procedures that relate to the included terminology are discussed.
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Anotace
Hlavním cílem této diplomové práce a jejího výstupu je vytvoření dvojjazyčného glosáře pěvecké terminologie. Důvodem byl, což se rovněž potvrdilo v rámci výzkumu pro tuto práci, znatelný nedostatek jak jednojazyčných, tak dvojjazyčných glosářů či speciální terminologie v této oblasti. V rámci zúžení této široké disciplíny je glosář koncipován jako základní příručka, která by měla představit důležité koncepty pěvecké terminologie aspirujícím zpěvákům. Jako primární jazyk byla zvolena angličtina, čeština je cílovým jazykem, jelikož v rámci pěvecké terminologie není oproti angličtině tak výrazným jazykem. Anglické pojmy byly získány z různých děl o hlasové pedagogice a z jednojazyčných glosářů, které byly volně dostupné na internetu. Definice byly získány ze slovníků, jako je například Oxford Music
Online, či opět z jednojazyčných glosářů. Proces získávání pojmů v češtině byl podobný, avšak závisel mnohem více na vyhledávání a kontrole na internetu. U všech pojmů v angličtině i češtině byla pečlivě zvážena jejich důvěryhodnost kontrolou v různých naučných databázích.
Práce nejdříve pojednává o teoretickém kontextu terminologické práce a představuje nejdůležitější problematiku tohoto oboru. Zároveň jsou pak představeny základní postupy práce ve standardizaci a správě terminologie. Dále jsou představena i specifika hudební a pěvecké terminologie, aby bylo zvolené téma práce zasazeno do širšího kontextu.
Poté následuje část práce, která se zabývá samotným procesem vytváření glosáře. Jsou blíže vysvětleny zdroje a kritéria pro to, které pojmy byly do glosáře zahrnuty. Na závěr práce pojednává o různých překladatelských postupech, které souvisejí se zahrnutou terminologií.
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Appendix: Glossary
Term in English Definition or context Term in Czech Definition or context a cappella [1] Normally, choral music sung without instrumental a cappella [11] Od počátku 17. stol. používaný termín a cappella (též ve accompaniment. Originally (c1600) the term was used to tvaru a capella či alla capella) označuje typ hudby distinguish works composed in the older polyphonic provozované vokálními kapelami, tj. soubor či syntézu vokální style of the Renaissance from those written in the newer polyfonie, vícesborovosti i novějších projevů recitativního či concertato style of the early Baroque. During the 19th koncertantního stylu; podání se opíralo o zvuk vokálního century the Roman Catholic Church idealized 16th- sboru, hudební nástroje tu přistupovaly colla parte (tj. společně century polyphony and the works of Palestrina in s některým hlavním hlasem). Postupně začal výraz a cappella particular. Noting that no instrumental parts were fungovat jako označení pouhého nástupu plného sboru po included in the sources containing this music, and sólistických partiích, od 19. stol. se výrazem míní vokální unaware that instruments were often used during the sborový zvuk bez nástrojového doprovodu. Renaissance to double or substitute for vocal parts, musicians came to believe that a cappella referred to unaccompanied choral singing. Since that time, the term has become synonymous with ‘unaccompanied singing’, both religious and secular. absolute pitch, perfect That sense which some people possess of the actual absolutní sluch [10] Absolutní sluch je schopnost bez obtíží přesně určiti absolutní pitch [3] pitch of any note heard, as distinct from Relative Pitch, výšku slyšeného tónu, nejen samostatně, ale i v intervalech a which implies the recognition of a note as being a certain akordech. degree of the scale or as lying at a certain interval above or below another note heard. The sense of relative pitch may readily be acquired by practice, but the sense of absolute pitch much less easily. Absolute pitch is really an innate form of memory: the possessor retains in his or her mind (consciously or unconsciously) the pitch of some instr. to which he or she has been accustomed and instinctively relates to that pitch every sound heard. Many good musicians possess this faculty; as many others do not. The possession of this sense is sometimes extremely useful, but may also prove an embarrassment, as, for instance, when a singer with absolute pitch is called upon to read mus. accompanied by an instr. tuned to what is to him or her ‘the wrong pitch’, necessitating a conscious transposition of the vocal line. alto [2] A low-register female voice. alt [20] Alt je nejnižší ženský hlas. Délka hlasivek je kolem 18 mm. U žen altistek bývá nápadné nižší uložení hlasivek v hrtanu. Rozsah altu bývá po g². Altistek a mezzosopranistek je mnohem méně, než sopranistek, to se odráží i v pěvecké literatuře jednotlivých oborů, která je pro soprány mnohem obsáhlejší.
1 appoggiatura, leaning A ‘leaning-note’. As a melodic ornament, it usually příraz [20] Příraz je krátký tón, který v notách najdeme jako přeškrtnutou note [1] implies a note one step above or below the ‘main’ note. malou notu před hlavní notou. It usually creates a dissonance with the prevailing harmony, and resolves by step on the following weak beat. It may be notated as an ornament or in normal notation. In the Baroque and Classical periods, and the early Romantic period, the appoggiatura, even when not notated, was taken for granted in certain contexts, particularly in recitative. aspirate [1] When a syllable is sung to more than one note, some singers aspirování, aspirace Aspirace je chyba při zpěvu, když zpěvák při každém tónu are in the habit of inserting a light aspirate, as in ‘Cele-heste [10] jaksi vydychuje a vsouvá hlásku h. Aida’. In Italy, Spain and Latin America this appears not to be considered a major stylistic fault (if one at all), but in Britain and, on the whole, the USA and Germany the practice is generally condemned. Gramophone records suggest that in standard operatic work the habit grew during the first half of the century, and that criticism has subsequently had some effect: Domingo and Pavarotti, for instance, are not habitual aspiraters, unlike their predecessors such as Gigli and Pertile. More insidious are the means used to ‘separate’ notes in the florid music of Baroque composers, where on the one hand they are defended as ensuring greater clarity, and on the other attacked as the makeshift devices of a defective technique. arpeggio [1] The sounding of the notes of a chord in succession rather arpeggio, Arpeggio znamená, že jednotlivé tóny akordu se nehrají than simultaneously; also, especially in keyboard music, the arpedžování [10] současně, nýbrž se hrají či zpívají rychle po sobě, jako na breaking or spreading of a chord. The ability to play (or harfě. sing) arpeggio figuration fluently has traditionally been counted an important part of instrumental (or vocal) technique. articulation [2] A term denoting the degree to which each of a succession of artikulace [12] Při zpěvu se artikuluje mnohem výrazněji než při pouhé řeči, notes is separated in performance; it may lie at either of the proto je třeba pěveckou artikulaci pečlivě cvičit. Špatná extremes of staccato and legato, or anywhere between the artikulace může velmi negativně ovlivnit samotné znění tónů two. Articulation may be expressive or structural; if the nebo znepříjemnit poslech zpívaného textu. Je důležité latter, it is analogous to the use of punctuation in language. sledovat správnou artikulaci už při rozezpívání, aby se správně The shaping of phrases is largely dependent on articulation. zafixovala. Nejčastější chybou bývá například příliš tvrdé nebo Articulation in singing is produced by such techniques as měkké "i" nebo mečivé "e". Někteří zpěváci také nedostatečně portamento or the taking of breaths, and by the treatment of otevírají pusu, ve výjimečných případech zase příliš moc, a vowels and consonants. A performance venue may pak jim není rozumět nebo jejich projev zní velmi nepřirozeně. influence articulation: a church or reverberant concert hall will require extremely pointed articulation, otherwise the individual notes will merge into an indistinguishable mass, whereas a ‘drier’, less reverberant acoustic requires a more
2
subtle approach. attack, glottal attack, The prompt and decisive beginning of a note or passage by hlasový začátek, Hlasový začátek je termín, který se používá k popisu síly, se onset [2] either vocal or instrumental performers. Good ‘attack’ is a hlasové nasazení [16] kterou do sebe kmitající hlasivky pomocí vzduchu vital element in rhythm. vycházejícího z plic narazí. Začátek dává hlasu důraz, může být buď tvrdý, či měkký. Pokud zazní tvrdý hlasový začátek, je tím vyjádřena nejčastěji silná vůle, jistota, sebevědomí až povýšenost. Takový hlasový začátek použijeme, když někoho o něčem chceme přesvědčit. Může to však být i maska. V tomto případě snížení tvrdosti hlasového začátku může zvýšit pokoru. barbershop [1] A style of unaccompanied singing that originated in the barbershop [13] Pro celkové dobré pochopení základní charakteristiky USA in the late 19th century. It is characterized by four-part barbershopového zpěvu je nutné se nejdříve důkladně harmony using chords that contain tritones. Dominant and obeznámit s pojmem alikvotní tóny […] V praxi při zpěvu to diminished 7th chords, as well as half-diminished 7th and tedy znamená, že tento jev způsobuje efekt, kdy zpívají sice augmented 6th chords, are used, but major 7ths, flattened jen čtyři zpěváci, ale tónů je slyšet pět. K tomuto jevu tedy 9ths and chords of the 13th are considered stylistically dojde, když jednotlivé horní harmonické tóny v kombinaci inappropriate, as are non-chord notes. The melody is carried součtu a zároveň rozdílnosti frekvencí (v souvislosti by the ‘lead’ (second) tenor, while the first tenor harmonizes s nelineární kombinací v rámci lidského ucha) se navzájem above; the bass provides the foundation, and the baritone podporují na konkrétní frekvenci, a to tak, že stojí samostatně completes the harmony, frequently crossing above the na smíšeném zvuku. Tento efekt je slyšitelný pouze na melody. Chord progressions known as ‘swipes’ often některých konkrétních akordech a jen tehdy, jsou-li stejně compensate for the lack of instrumental accompaniment bohaté v celkové harmonii a dobře naladěny a vyváženy. baritone [2] A male voice with a range between those of the bass and the baryton [10] Mužský hlas mezi tenorem a basem (barytonista, zpěvák s barytonem) tenor: roughly A to g′, going up to a ′or even a′ in Italian and French opera. Until the early 19th century the term was little used, and there was no formal distinction between the baritone and bass voices. The quality of a baritone voice may vary from dramatic, as required for Verdi and Wagner roles, to light and almost tenor-like, sometimes called ‘baryton Martin’ after the French opera singer Jean- Blaise Martin (1767–1837). bass [2] The lowest male voice, with a range of roughly E to f′. The bas [10] Hluboký hlas mužský s objemem od E-é, f; hluboký bas mívá quality of a bass voice can vary widely, from the Bass-buffo, až kontra B, vysoký bas pak sahá od A-f, fis. or komischer Bass, of Osmin in Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail to the majestic tones of Sarastro in Die Zauberflöte. In the 19th century the bass voice was used either for villains (Caspar in Weber's Der Freischütz, Gounod's Méphistophélès) or for kings and other figures of authority. Slavonic basses are able to achieve great depth, sometimes reaching G′. The ‘bass-baritone’ has a range that extends higher, but it retains the bass quality on the lower notes; in Wagner's Ringcycle, the part of Wotan is sung by a bass-baritone (Wagner called the voice ‘hoher Bass’).
3 bel canto [3] Beautiful singing, beautiful song. A term covering the bel canto [10] Krásný zpěv, druh někdejšího způsobu zpěvu podle italského remarkable qualities of the great 18th‐cent. and early 19th‐ školení. cent. It. singers, and suggesting rather perf. in the lyrical style, in which tone is made to tell, than in the declamatory style. Beauty of tone and legato phrasing, with faultless technique, were the prin. ingredients. belt, belting [4] Belting is a technique used to add a chest-like quality to the belting, „ječák“ [14] Belting (můžeme se setkat i s dalšími názvy jako belt sound, upper ranges of one’s voice to maintain a high intensity and belt voice) je pojem, který je úzce spojen s anglickou pěveckou dynamic sound that sounds like one’s chest voice is being terminologií. Nejčastěji je tímto termínem pojmenována brought up into his or her upper ranges that normally blends konkrétní velmi specifická pěvecká technika, která je do to a more light quality. značné míry spjata s potřebami muzikálového zpěvu. Zpěváci zpívající pomocí této techniky produkují velmi hlasitý, ostrý, pronikavý tón, ve středním a vyšším hlasovém rozsahu pomocí hrudního rejstříku. Termín belting také často označuje jednu z možností hlasového zabarvení, charakter neboli kvalitu hlasu. bravura [3] Courage, or swagger. A bravura passage calls for a brilliant bravura [10] Skvělá zběhlost či dovednost ve hře nebo ve zpěvu; bravurní and extrovert display of vocal or instr. technique. skladba je skladba vyžadující vysokého stupně technické dokonalosti. breathy [4] A breathy tone quality is characterized by a prominent dyšný, dechový šelest Nazývá se také jako dechový šelest, kdy při výdechu uchází audible exhaling-like sound in the singing voice. This is [15] spousta výdechového proudu. Postupně se pak mění v hlas. commonly attributed to poor vocal production in beginner Tento začátek velmi unavuje hlasivky. singers however is also used artistically in certain genres of music. brumendo, humming The act of singing with closed lips. brumendo [10] Zpěv zavřenými ústy. [23] cantata [1] The cantata is a vocal form consisting of solos, ensembles, kantáta, cantata [10] Kantáta znamená „skladbu pro pouhý zpěv“. Kantáta jest větší and choruses accompanied by orchestra, piano, or other lyrická skladba obsahu duchovního nebo světského buď pro combinations of instruments. A cantata may have sacred or pouhý zpěv (bez průvodu, nebo s průvodem instrumentálním a secular texts and can be narrative or dramatic. Defining the pak má recitativy, árie, sbory, dueta apod.). Rozeznáváme cantata in contrast to its relative the oratorio is difficult. The kantátu duchovní a světskou. Kantáta se vyvinula z monodie a most reliable distinctions between the two genres are length vyskytuje se v prvé polovice 17. století. and subject. Typically, oratorios tend to be religious, dramatic, and long, lasting for one or more hours, while cantatas are generally shorter and feature secular themes. Most cantatas are written for mixed chorus, some are for male chorus, and even fewer are for female chorus castrato [2] A male singer who kept the soprano or alto range of his kastrát [10] Pěvci, zbavení v chlapeckých letech mužství, aby si zachovali voice into adulthood as a result of having been castrated vysoké hlasy. before puberty, usually between the ages of six and eight. The practice of preserving boys' voices by this means originated in Italy and Spain in the 16th century. Castratos
4
were present in the Sistine Chapel choir by 1565, and continued to sing in the choir, in the face of growing moral opposition, until the late 19th century. The last surviving castrato from the Sistine choir was Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922). Castratos reached the summit of their popularity in 18th-century opera seria, when such singers as Senesino (for whom Handel wrote many leading roles), Nicolini, and Farinelliwere feted like present-day pop stars. The operatic castrato survived into the age of Meyerbeer, whose Il crociato in Egitto (1824) was the last major opera to contain a castrato role. Castratos were famed for their brilliant, penetrating timbre and their extraordinary breath control, facilitated by the combination of the small larynx and the larger than normal chest. chest resonance [4] Chest resonance is the sensation that the sound that is being hrudní rezonance [14] Při použití hrudní rezonance dochází k tmavšímu dynamicky produced is resonating in the chest cavity and is prominently silnému hlasovému zabarvení. Tato rezonance je používána seen when someone produces notes in one’s chest voice. více u mužů než u žen. Její využití je především v nižších However it is important to note that the sensation that is felt hlasových polohách. in the chest are merely sympathetic vibrations and most actual resonance of the voice happens at and above the vocal tract. chest voice [2] A term used to denote the lower part of the male and female hrudní rejstřík, Rozsah od největší hloubky až po zhruba e1 (znějící), společný voice, in contradistinction to the head voice. Female singers prsní rejstřík [19] pro mužské i ženské hlasy, -masivní dechový impuls, - tend to make use of the chest voice below d′ or e′. From the typickou dynamikou je forte, -typické nasazení je tvrdé, - mid-19th century onwards tenors began to use the full chest rezonance prsní, hrudní, -typické vokály otevřené, -barva a voice, rather than the head voice, to produce powerful, zvukový charakter tmavý, otevřený a jadrný, -psychická ringing high notes. osobitost prsního rejstříku v sobě zahrnuje všechny nuance patosu vážnost, monumentalitu, velikost, temnou dramatičnost, důstojnost, slavnostnost. choir [1] A group of singers who perform together either in unison or, sbor [11] Slovo fungující v hudebním názvosloví zejména jako označení much more usually, in parts. The term is derived from the větších pěveckých kolektivů, které zajišťují provádění architectural name of the part of a church building where the vokálních děl typu tzv. sborové tvorby, jakož i zpěv sborových singers traditionally perform. partií v dílech vokálně instrumentálního a hudebně dramatického charakteru. coloratura [2] A term applied to elaborate decoration, either extemporized koloratura [10] Koloratura je zpěv ozdobený trylky, pasážemi a jinými or notated, of a vocal melody (by figuration, ornamentation, melodickými okrasami. Vznikl v Itálii a žádá na zpěvácích etc.). A coloratura soprano is one with a high, light, agile velikou zpěvní dokonalost. voice capable of singing such virtuoso arias as the two written by Mozart for the Queen of Night in Die Zauberflöte. contralto [2] i.e. contrasting with the high voice; Ger.: Alt). The lowest kontraalt [17] Kontraalt je nízko položený ženský hlas, jehož rozsah je podle female voice, with a range of roughly g to g″. It is některých definic položen níže, než je tomu u altu. Přibližný characterized by a dark, rich tone-quality. In the 19th and rozsah altu odpovídá g - f2.[1] Existuje určitý rozpor mezi tím,
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early 20th centuries most female singers were described as jak je termín kontraalt definován v populární a v klasické either soprano or contralto, but from the mid-20th century hudbě. V populární je obvykle chápán jako hlas dosahující ‘mezzo-soprano’ was increasingly used for lower female nižších tónů než alt. V klasické hudbě (opeře) jsou jako voices as the true, deep contralto became ever rarer. kontraalty označované hlasy s velkým rozsahem, který v hlubší poloze zhruba odpovídá altu, ale zvládá i vyšší tóny typické pro mezzosoprán nebo soprán. countertenor [2] The adult male voice with a range corresponding roughly to kontratenor [17] Kontratenor je odborné označení pro mužský hlas zpívající that of the female mezzo-soprano or contralto. It is usually technikou, která je často i samotnými kontratenory pokládána produced by developing the falsetto register, though za falzet. Mohou zpívat výšky, které běžně spadají occasionally it is a naturally very high, light tenor. do ženského rozsahu. Ve skutečnosti však zpívání falzeta Sometimes the term ‘male alto’ is used for the latter technice kontratenorů škodí. Kontratenoři dnes nahrazují (see alto voice), but the terms are usually interchangeable. (především v opeře) kastráty. coup de glotte, glottal Blow of the glottis. In v. prod., a method, thought by many hlasivkový ráz [33] Hlasivkový ráz vzniká násilným rozražením hlasivek, prudkým stop [3] to be harmful, of attacking a note by closing the false vocal dechovým nárazem. Je velmi neekonomický, protože cords (2 membranes above the true vocal cords) and quickly spotřebuje zbytečně mnoho dechu. opening them to release the tone. If the release is too abrupt, a cough will be the result. covering [4] Covering refers to a muscular and acoustic (vowel) switch krytí, krytí tónu [20] Krytí je způsob tvorby výšek a zpívání vůbec v oblasti invoked by classical tenors, baritones, and basses beginning klasického zpěvu, kde se vyžaduje široký a tmavý tón, na at the second passaggio. This switch is necessary to keep rozdíl od populární hudby, kde se uplatňuje přirozený, jasný, chest voice fully engaged while keeping the larynx low, netemněný tón. Tmavý tón vzniká „přišpulením“ rtů a allowing a dark, rich, but brilliant sound through the top of rozšířením pohyblivých hltanových dutin, podobně jako při the voice. zívání. Když při tvorbě výšek spojíme tuto činnost s pohybem měkkého patra, dosáhneme tzv. krytí. V populární hudbě se však výšky tvoří bez krytí a pohyb měkkého patra směrem dolů jen zvětšuje rezonanční prostor a podporuje výsledek správné funkce hlasivek. croon, crooning [3] To sing softly to a baby, but the wider usage since 1930s crooning [18] Na druhou stranu intimní, nasládlý zpěv je označován jako means to sing softly, and often sentimentally, with a dance crooning. Hlavním band. Practitioners are known as ‘crooners’, the most představitelem byl Bing Crosby a poté Frank Sinatra a eminent being Bing Crosby, though he was preceded by z nynějších představitelů L. Kerndl. ‘Whispering’ Jack Smith and Ruby Vallee. Curbing [24] According to the “Complete Vocal Technique”, Curbing is Curbing [25] Podle tzv. „Kompletní pěvecké techniky“, Curbing je the only half-metallic mode. There is a slight ‘metal’ on the polokovový modus. Tóny jsou o něco ostřejší a hranatější. Je notes. Curbing is the mildest of the metallic modes. It nejjemnější z metalických (kovových) modů. Zní trochu jako sounds slightly plaintive or restrained, like when you moan když si člověk na něco stěžuje nebo jako když ho bolí břicho. because of a stomach ache. Curbing can be found by Curbing se navozuje pomocí tzv. "Hold“, neboli "zadržení“. establishing a ‘hold’. Curbing is used in popular music Využívá se v popu, pokud je hlasitost zhruba střední a když when the volume is around medium and when a certain potřebujeme, aby zvuk byl ostřejší či kovovější. Často modus amount of metal is wanted on the notes such as in soft soul uslyšíme v jemnějším soulu nebo v R‘N’B. Klasicky školení or R ‘n B. Curbing is used in classical music by men when zpěváci ho využívají, když zpívají středně silně (mf) a singing medium volume (mf) in their entire range and when zpěvačky, když zpívají silně (f) ve střední a někdy také v nižší women singing loud (f) in the middle part of the voice and hlasové poloze (hrudní rejstřík). Curbing zaslechnete v běžném
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sometimes in the low part of the voice. Curbing is used in životě, když si člověk stěžuje, fňuká nebo sténá. Muži i ženy everyday life when you wail, moan, or whine. Men and mohou modus využívat v celém rozsahu hlasu, ačkoli ve women use Curbing through all the various parts of the vysokých polohách se snadno přejde do modu Edge nebo do voice. The sound colour can be altered quite a lot. All modu Neutral v jeho komprimované podobě. Barvu tónu lze vowels can be used. However, in the high part of the voice, do značné míry ovlivnit. Využít jdou všechny vokály, ačkoli the vowels have to be directed towards ‘O’ (as in ‘woman’), ve vyšších polohách je třeba samohlásky směrovat směrem k i, ‘UH’ (as in ‘hungry’), and ‘I’ (as in ‘sit’) to stay in the jak ho známe z anglického slova "sit". Hlasitost je převážně mode. The volume in Curbing stays more or less in medium střední, od středně slabé (mp) do středně silné (mf). Velmi compared to the other modes, ranging from medium quiet tichá hlasitost je nemožná a velmi hlasitě lze modus používat (mp) to medium loud (mf). It is not possible to sing very pouze ve střední poloze klasicky školeného ženského hlasu. quietly and very loudly in this mode. darkened voice, voix A technique of voice production. It was made famous by the tmavý tón [20] Tmavý tón vzniká „přišpulením“ rtů a rozšířením pohyblivých sombrée [1] singing of Gilbert Duprez during the 1830s. He is said to hltanových dutin, podobně jako při zívání. Když při tvorbě have carried the chest register up to c′′. Duprez (1845) výšek spojíme tuto činnost s pohybem měkkého patra, called this technique voix sombre or voix couverte (covered dosáhneme tzv. krytí. voice). ‘Covering’ involves the darkening of the vowels, for example, from ‘ah’ to ‘uh’, resulting in a physiological change in mechanism first described by the physicians H. Diday and J.-E. Pétrequin in their ‘Mémoire sur une nouvelle espèce de voix chantée’ (Gazette médicale de Paris, viii, 1840, pp. 305, 455) as a lowering of the larynx. Covered tone is used as an expedient to admit more of the head tone into the area of the break between the head and chest voice, allowing these to be better united. When used in the highest register, as by Duprez, the technique produces a sound of great volume and intensity but can be vocally damaging. diaphragm [4] A dome-shaped muscle in one’s abdomen. It assists with bránice [33] Sval oddělující dutinu hrudní od dutiny břišní. breathing by drawing one’s abdominal guts down and out, giving lungs room to expand with air as one inhales. diction [3] Properly, verbal phrasing, or skill in the choice of words, dikce [19] Dikce je přírodou daný zdvih nebo klesání intonace slov. but used in context of singing to denote clear and correct Každý jazyk má svůj specifický akcent a dikci, právě díky enunciation. tomuto faktu dokážeme napodobit zvukově jazyk, který ani neovládáte. Ve většině případů se přirozená dikce ve zpěvu zcela ztrácí, ale existují hudební skladatelé, kteří se velmi snaží vycházet z přirozené lidské mluvy. Takovým příkladem je „Nápěvková metoda“ Leoše Janáčka, která je ukázkou dokonalé práce s hudebním a slovním akcentem a dikcí. diphthong [4] A type of vowel sound where two vowels elide together in dvojhláska, diftong je typ hlásek s tónovou strukturou, kde dochází k plynulému one syllable, such as in “lie” (a -> i) or “cow” (a -> u). [17] spojení dvou vokalických pozic do jednoho slabičného jádra. When singing a diphthong, you must decide which vowel Dvojhlásky jsou obvykle tvořeny jedním vokálem sound to sustain on the note. (samohláskou) a jedním polovokálem (polosamohláskou -
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vyznačuje se nižší mírou sonority než samohláska), přičemž polovokál může být buď na první (např. slovenské /ô/ [u̯ o]), nebo na druhé pozici (např. české /ou/ [oʊ̯ ]). distortion, grit [4] A vocal effect added into the voice produced usually by the chrapot [14] Chrapot vzniká nepravidelným narušením vibrace hlasivek adduction of the ‘false cords’ located above the vocal cords nejčastěji zapříčiněným hlasovou poruchou. Jeho nezáměrné and the cavity above the vocal cords. It can usually be heard produkování je u zpěváků většinou způsobeno vlivem nemoci, and used as a stylistic option in heavy metal and rock. únavy či vrozeného hlasového poškození. Jiným případem jsou samozřejmě zpěváci, kteří využívají chrapot záměrně z estetických důvodů a jsou schopni ho ovládat (Louis Armstrong, George Hearn, Janis Joplin aj.). dramatic [3] Applied to sop., ten., etc., a singer with a powerful vocal dramatický hlas [10] Dramatický hlas je mohutný, intensivní hlas, veliké nosnosti, style suitable for forceful operatic roles. mající veliké možnosti výrazové. dynamics [2] The aspect of musical expression concerned with the dynamika [18] Dynamika znamená v hudbě sílu tónu a její odstíny; je značena variation in the volume of sound. znaménky od ppp (piano pianissimo) až k fff (forte fortissimo), vyplývá z melodické stavby skladby. Při stoupání melodie zpravidla přednes zesiluje a naopak. Základní dynamikou ve zpěvu má být dobře znějící mf, tj. nejpřirozenější síla hlasu. Velice působivým výrazovým prostředkem je náhlá změna dynamiky např. z ff do pp.
Edge [24] According to the “Complete Vocal Technique”, Edge Edge [25] Podle tzv. „Kompletní pěvecké techniky“, Edge je také (formerly ‘Belting’) is the other full-metallic mode. There is metalický (kovový) modus. Tóny mají velmi ostrý charakter. a great amount of metal in the notes. The character of Edge Edge zní světle, agresivně, ostře a ječivě, asi jako když se is light, aggressive, sharp, and screaming, like when you snažíte napodobit startující letadlo. Modus je navozen imitate a diving airplane. Edge can be found by twanging sklopením hrtanové příklopky (vzniká tzv. "Twang"). Edge se the epiglottic funnel (e.g. sounding like a duck). Edge is používá v některých žánrech populární hudby, převážně ve used in popular music in some styles, and mostly in the high výškách, když je potřeba hlasitého projevu a ostrého tónu, jako part of the voice when the volume needs to be very loud and třeba v heavy metalu nebo v gospelu. Ve vážné hudbě Edge with a great amount of metal on the notes, such as in heavy využijí muži, kteří potřebují zazpívat ve fortissimu notu vyšší rock and gospel music. Edge is used in classical music when men sing very loudly (ff) often in the high part of the voice než c2 (znějící). Operní zpěvačky tento modus vůbec such as the high C of a tenor. Women do not use Edge in nepoužívají. Edge uslyšíte v běžném životě, když na vás někdo classical music. Edge is used in everyday life when you ječí. Edge se dá vytvořit ve všech polohách a jsou toho schopní scream. Men can use Edge in all parts of the voice. Women jak muži, tak i ženy. Použít však jdou pouze takové can use Edge to the high C. It’s not possible to for a woman samohlásky, u kterých je možné dosáhnout sklopení hrtanové to sing above in Edge. Only twanged vowels can be used as příklopky a vytvořit tak tzv. "Twang". Jde o přední the twanged epiglottic funnel is a condition of Edge. This samohlásky jako je "e" nebo anglické "æ", jaké uslyšíte třeba means that in the high part of the voice you can only use ‘I’ ve slově "hat“ nebo "and“. Zadní samohlásky musíte (as in ‘sit’), ‘A’ (as in ‘and’), ‘EH’ (as in ‘stay’), and ‘OE’ modifikovat, třeba "o" změníte na "ö". Barvu zvuku jde (as in ‘herb’). The sound colour can only be altered a little. měnit jen velice málo a ve výškách prakticky vůbec. Hlasitost In the high part of the voice you must not alter the light and je vysoká, a čím vyšší poloha, tím ječivější charakter tóny
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sharp sound colour. The volume in Edge stays mostly loud. nabývají. The higher the notes, the more distinct the screaming character becomes. exercise [2] A passage specifically designed for the practice of vocal or cvičení [26] Hudební kompozice určena výhradně pro trénink určitých instrumental technique and with no aesthetic intent, as for hudebních technik, bez estetického účelu. example in C. -L. Hanon's Le Piano virtuose (1873) Fach [1] Term for ‘voice-category’. Rather more than others, the Germans have systematically distinguished between the various types of singing voice and have stipulated which operatic roles are suitable for each of them. The main categories (soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, bass) each have their own subdivisions, so that the more dramatic type of soprano, for example, may be said to lie within any one of three Fächer: the jugendliche dramatische Sopran, the Zwischenfachsängerin (or ‘in-between type’) and the hochdramatische Sopran (the ‘high’ or ‘serious’ dramatic soprano, as opposed to the first type, the ‘youthful’ and therefore lighter type). Roles appropriate to each in turn might be Elisabeth in Tannhäuser, Aida and Isolde. Once placed within their Fach, German singers have traditionally found it relatively difficult to perform outside it, though this has become less so in recent years. falsetto [1] The alto or higher range available to most adult male singers falzet [14] Falzet se používá ve velmi vysoké hlasové poloze zpěvákova through a technique whereby the vocal folds rozsahu a je spojen s mužským hlasem. Tento rejstřík je vibrate/undulate in a length shorter than usual, known as the nejčastěji pozorován u mužů v pubertě, kdy dochází second mode of phonation. Falsetto is usually associated k nekontrolovatelnému „přeskakování“ mezi hrudním a exclusively with the male voice, though it is available to and falzetovým rejstříkem. Často je používán také termín fistule, employed in that of the female. This phonatory mode has který označuje falzet horší kvality, se kterým se můžeme setkat been equated with ‘unnatural’ as opposed to ‘natural’ (partly u neškolených zpěváků. V některých případech dochází k through misleading philological usage) even though falsetto nesprávnému ztotožňování obou termínů. can be achieved and employed by almost everyone at will. Therefore, the correct term, second-mode phonation (or pure ‘head’-register) is preferred here to ‘falsetto’, except in the interests of convenient brevity. fioritura, florid [9] An embellishment of a melody, especially as improvised by fioritura, fioretta [10] Ozdoba. an operatic singer. flat [3] Flat singing or playing is that which departs from correct zpěv pod tónem [27] Obecně lze říci, že převaha hlavové rezonance ve spojení intonation on the downward side. s úzkými vokály „i“, „u“ a s vysokým, tlačeným, v bránici „nezapuštěným“ dechem vedou k distonování, nedostatek hlavové rezonance (a tím získaná převaha prsní rezonance) spolu s otevřenou, širokou vokalizací a zvýšeným tlakem dechu vedou ke zpívání pod tónem. growl, growling [8] The lowest register of vocals, similar to gargling. growling [17] Growling je velmi specifická technika zpěvu, užívaná
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především v death metalu a jiných podobných žánrech. Výška tónů je velmi hluboká a barva hlasu je hrubá a chraplavá. hard palate [6] The hard palate, which composes two-thirds of the total tvrdé patro [22] Tvrdé patro je kostěné a zezadu na něj navazuje patro měkké. palate area, is a plate of bone covered by a moist, durable Celé patro odděluje nosní a ústní dutinu. Palatum durum se layer of mucous-membrane tissue, which secretes small skládá: z proc. palatini maxillarum, laminae horizontales kostí amounts of mucus. This layer forms several ridges that help patrových a premaxilla. Je pomocné k utvoření hlásek, při grip food while the tongue agitates it during chewing. The kterých se jazyk opírá o tvrdé patro. hard palate provides space for the tongue to move freely and supplies a rigid floor to the nasal cavity so that pressures within the mouth do not close off the nasal passage. harmonics [1] Sets of musical notes whose frequencies are related by harmonický tón [14] Harmonický tón zní vždy společně se základním tónem simple whole number ratios. A harmonic series is a set of (základní frekvencí). Právě intenzita jednotlivých frequencies which are successive integer multiples of the harmonických tónů určuje charakteristickou barvu hlasu. První fundamental (or first harmonic). For example, the set of harmonický tón je dvojnásobné frekvence než základní tón, frequencies 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 Hz … is a harmonic tedy vždy o oktávu vyšší. Jak vyplývá z již napsaného: když series whose fundamental is 100 Hz and whose fifth základní tón, tedy tón, který chci zazpívat, bude a¹ (jehož harmonic is 500 Hz. In general, the nth harmonic of a series frekvence vlnění je 440 Hz), tak první harmonický tón bude o has a frequency which is n times the fundamental frequency. hodnotě 880 Hz, což odpovídá tónu a². U každého tónu se nevyskytuje pouze jeden harmonický tón, ale nekonečný počet možných harmonických tónů (většina z nich je ovšem nad nebo pod prahem slyšitelnosti). Je to způsobeno tím, že tón nikdy nekmitá pouze na své základní frekvenci, ale ještě v celočíselných násobcích základního tónu a tyto násobky jsou frekvenční hodnoty harmonických tónů. head resonance [28] Head resonance should not be confused with head register hlavová rezonance Často je termín hlavové rezonance ztotožňován s termínem or falsetto. It is used primarily for softer singing in either [14] hlavový rejstřík, což je ovšem nesprávné. Hlavová rezonance register throughout the range. je užívána především u jemnějšího, lyričtějšího hlasové zabarvení. Je používána u všech hlasových rejstříků, dominantní je tato rezonance především u rejstříku hlavového. head voice, voce di A term widely used to denote quiet (‘soft’) singing in the hlavový rejstřík [21] Hlavový rejstřík představuje naopak nejvyšší pásmo hlasového testa [1] upper range, or register, of the voice. The singer aims the rozsahu, přechod k němu si člověk většinou zřetelně sound high in the face (or ‘mask’) and may experience it as neuvědomuje. Při správném tvoření tónu se zapojuje po celém in the head itself, the opposite of the chest voice. In practice, hlasovém rozsahu, je zárukou zdravého hlasu. Zní měkce what seems like a simple piece of nomenclature can (někdy může být doprovázený i mírnou dyšnou příměsí). describe very different things, particularly in tenors and Hlasivky při něm kmitají pouze blanitými okraji. Jsou baritones, where reference to an ‘exquisite head voice’ may napínány tzv. vnějším natahovačem (svalem umístěným na mean nothing more than a pleasant falsetto. A singer trained přední straně hrtanu mezi chrupavkou štítnou a prstencovou) soundly in the Italian school will regard the voce di testa as s účastí ostatních vnějších hrtanových svalů. Proto je uvolněný a method of placement, the tone itself being as consistent as hrtan základní podmínkou pro tvoření hlavového rejstříku. Je possible with the voice at a forte. spojen s měkkými hlasovými začátky (někdy i lehce dyšnými) a s prohloubeným výdechem od bránice. Činnost hlavového rejstříku se navodí slabým zvukem a vokálem u (nejlépe v poloze nad f). Hlas tvořený hlavovým rejstříkem rezonuje
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jak v lebce, tak v měkké hrudi. heavy [4] Heavy refers to the tone quality produced, which sounds těžký, dramatický [26] Je jednou z vlastností, na základě kterých můžeme popsat hlas. pressed and brassy. The louder one is, the more pressure Odkazuje především na sílu hlasu a kvalitu vytvořeného tónu, will be applied on the vocal folds, and the heavier the který zní dyšně, mohutně a vzniká především tlačením na quality will be. hlasivky. Čím více tedy vyvíjíme tlak na hlasivky, tím těžší hlas bude. Přehnaný tlak na hlasivky se ve zpěvu považuje za chybu a často se popisuje jako „zatěžkaný hlas“. interpretation [2] The process by which a performer translates a work from interpretace [29] Pojem interpretace vychází z latinského „interpretari“, což notation into artistically valid sound. Because of the znamená vykládat, tlumočit, překládat. V hudbě tím rozumíme ambiguity inherent in musical notation, a performer must provedení hudebního díla interpretem. Výkonný umělec make important decisions about the meaning and realization realizuje svůj individuální výklad myšlenky díla jako poselství of aspects of a work which the composer cannot clearly skladatele k posluchači. Každý interpret má své originální prescribe. These may include discrete choices about pojetí hudebního díla, které je ovlivněno mnoha faktory. Čerpá dynamics, tempo, phrasing, and the like, or large-scale z osobního „vidění“, temperamentu, hudebních zkušeností a judgments concerning the articulation of formal divisions, technických možností. Tím vnáší do přednesu vždy něco pacing of musical climaxes, and so on. These neopakovatelného, jedinečného. determinations reflect the performer's understanding of the work, as conditioned by musical knowledge and personality, and result in an interpretation Whereas every performance of a work is a unique event, since the exact reproduction of all elements of a performance is impossible except through a recording, an interpretation can be repeated. Furthermore, musical works generally allow a variety of interpretations, including some that differ radically, which may nonetheless be equally valid. intonation [3] The act of singing or playing in tune. Thus we speak of a intonace [10] Při lidském hlase znamená intonace správné udávání tónu co singer or instrumentalist's ‘intonation’ as being good or bad. do jeho výšky. legato [1] Of successive notes in performance, connected without any legato [14] Legato znamená vázaně, jednotlivé tóny od sebe nejsou skoro intervening silence of articulation. In practice, the odděleny. connection or separation of notes is relative, and achieved through the presence or absence of emphasis, accent and attack, as much as silences of articulation; degrees of connection and separation vary from legatissimo (representing the closest degree of connection), tenuto, portamento, legato, portato, non legato, mezzo-staccato, staccato (the natural antonym of legato), to staccatissimo, and some of these terms have connotations going beyond simple degrees of connection or separation. light [4] Light refers to the tone quality produced, which sounds lehký, lyrický [26] Je jednou z vlastností, na základě kterých můžeme popsat hlas. more gentle and flutier. It is directly related to how intense Odkazuje především na sílu hlasu a kvalitu vytvořeného tónu, one is. The quieter one is, the less pressure will be applied který zní jemně a nadneseně. Čím méně vyvíjíme tlak na on the vocal folds, and the lighter the quality will be. hlasivky, tím lehčí hlas bude.
11 lyric [3] Vocal description, e.g. lyric tenor, lyric soprano, somewhere lyrický hlas [10] Jde o pojmenování hlasu, jehož zabarvení je měkké a který between ‘light’ and ‘heavy’ vocal weight. lehce stoupá do vysokých poloh. mask resonance [4] Mask resonance refers to the focusing of the sound and the zpívání do masky, Rezonance masky, která probíhá v přední části hlavy, sympathetic vibrations in the mask of the face (usually the rezonance masky [29] umožnuje nosnost a lesk hlasu, a rezonanci kopule probíhající upper half of the face), and produces a nice easy tone with a v lebečních prostorách a nosohltanu, která zajišťuje tónu healthy brightness and makes the sound focused and měkkost a kulatost. Tak zvané rozezvučení si může žák forward. It is important to note that the sensations in the uvědomit přiložením ruky na kořen nosu a čelo. mask of the face are merely sympathetic vibrations and that very little of actual sound resonates in the mask as there are little to no acoustic chambers in this area. melisma, vocal runs [1] A group of more than five or six notes sung to a single melisma [17] Melisma označuje způsob zpěvu, kdy je řada tónů syllable. The term may be applied universally, but has been nebo melodie zpívána na jedné slabice. most used in reference to medieval European music, particularly chant. ‘Melismatic’ indicates one end of a spectrum; the other is ‘syllabic’, or one note to each syllable. An intermediate category, with several notes to a syllable, is sometimes termed ‘neumatic’. messa di voce [1] The singing or playing of a long note so that it begins messa di voce [14] Zesílení a následné zeslabení tónu, které začíná pianissimem, quietly, swells to full volume, and then diminishes to the pokračuje přes jednotlivé dynamické stupně až k fortissimu a original quiet tone. The messa di voce is one of the most poté se ve stejném modelu vrací opět k pianissimu important techniques of 17th- and 18th-century Italian singing style, first as an ornament and then as a pedagogic tool. mezza voce [2] A direction to sing at half the vocal power. mezza voce, Zpěv na půl hlasu, polohlasně. polohlasně [29] mezzo-soprano [1] A voice, intermediate in pitch between contralto and mezzosoprán [20] je středně vysoký ženský hlas. Hlasivky mají délku kolem 17 soprano. It is usually written for in the range a to f#″ and mm a rozsah hlasu je cca do b². Velmi časté role pro may be extended at either end, particularly in solo writing. mezzosopranistky bývají tzv. role kalhotkové, což znamená, že Non-vocal uses of the term derive from a similar use of žena hraje muže nebo častěji chlapce. Takovým příkladem je range; for example, the C-clef identified as mezzo-soprano, role Cherubina v opeře Figarova svatba with c′ on the second line up, defines a staff whose range is a to b′. In regard to voices, the term may apply historically both to women and men (castratos or countertenors), although more commonly it refers only to women. The distinction between soprano and mezzo- soprano (or ‘mezzo’) became common only towards the end of the 18th century. mixed voice, voix mixte A vocal technique involving the blending of the chest and smíšený hlas, střední je ideálem zdravého, zvukově vyrovnaného hlasu, který se [1] head registers in the middle range, especially in male rejstřík [21] může v různé dynamické intenzitě volně pohybovat do výšky i singers. Manuel García (Traité complet de l’art du chant, do hloubky bez hlasových zlomů a nápadné změny hlasové Paris 1840–47/R) was the first to define the term, although barvy. Uplatňují se při něm ve vyvážené součinnosti všechny the practice is described much earlier. Tosi (1723) urged the tři rejstříky. Poměr hlavového a hrudního rejstříku ve
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male singer ‘to leave no Means untried’ to unite the two smíšeném hlase se mění podle výšky tónu, síly tónu a registers, ‘for if they do not perfectly unite, the voice will be zpívaného vokálu (samohlásky). Ve vyšší poloze při lehkém, of divers Registers, and must consequently lose its Beauty’. slabém zpěvu (hlavně na u) převáží hlavový rejstřík, v nižších Although García defines this term as a mixture of the two tónech, nebo když zesílíme, se nápadněji prosadí rejstřík basic registral mechanisms, he also considers the term hrudní. Střední rejstřík spolupracuje při posazení tónu vpředu ‘improper’ as the actual mixing of mechanisms is v masce. Zapojení rejstříků ve smíšeném hlase závisí též na physiologically impossible. He argues that the effect was prožitku, při dramatickém projevu převládne v hlase hrudní created by the use of a mezzo voce (half voice) in the chest rejstřík, při citově laděné výpovědi naopak hlavový. Proto register. velkou roli v uplatnění rejstříků sehrává představa kvality hlasu a obsah jeho sdělení – lehkost, vzdušnost a měkký začátek tónu na sebe vážou hlavový rejstřík, síla, vášeň naopak rejstřík hrudní, jas a světlost hlasu rejstřík střední. modal register [4] The main vocal register that encompasses chest, mix, and hrudní rejstřík [14] Hrudní rejstřík je nejpoužívanějším hlasovým rejstříkem, který head voice (as well as speech). It is important to notice that se objevuje v sólovém zpěvu. Je jím také označován druh modal register is a coordination, a mechanism of producing hlasu, který používáme při našem mluvním projevu – řeči. Při sound, and not a voice quality. zaměření na mluvní hlas není ovšem používán termín hrudní rejstřík, ale modální rejstřík. 74 A z toho důvodu je také nejčastěji používán v nižší a střední hlasové poloze zpěvákova rozsahu. Výsledné kmitání hlasivek, které se u tohoto rejstříku objevuje, je nejvíce ovlivněno dvěma svaly v hrtanu, které si navzájem konkurují. Podle toho, který sval je zrovna dominantní, rozdělujeme hrudní rejstřík ještě na hrudní a hlavový. mordent [1] A type of ornament which, in its standard form, consists in náraz [20] Náraz je vystřídání hlavní noty se spodní sekundou. the rapid alternation of the main note with a subsidiary note a step below. mouth resonance [4] Mouth resonance refers to the focusing of the sound and rezonanční prostor v Tento druh rezonance je nejčastěji používán v mluvním hlase. sympathetic vibration in the mouth, and produces a more oblasti úst [14] Ve zpěvu dochází k jejímu použití spolu s nosní rezonancí, prominent in heavier or darker sounding tones which např. v šansonu. produces a “mouthy” type of sound. It is important to note that the sound produced by this resonance does in fact partially resonate in the mouth cavity, however most of the resonance still happens in the pharynx and the vocal tract. Neutral [24] According to the “Complete Vocal Technique”, Neutral is Neutral [25] Podle tzv. „Kompletní pěvecké techniky“, Neutral je modus the only non-metallic mode. There is no ‘metal’ in the nekovový. Je to zvuk jaksi „bez hrany“ nebo "kovu", není sound. The character is usually soft, like singing a lullaby. ostrý. Charakter je jemný, jako když člověk zpívá ukolébavku. Neutral is the only mode where you can sing using a breathy Je to jediný modus, kde je možné zpívat s příměsí vzduchu, quality voice without causing damage. The two extremes of aniž by si tím člověk ubližoval. To jestli je tón dyšný nebo ne, Neutral are called ‘Neutral’ and ‘Neutral with air’. určuje sevření hlasivek. Extrémním podobám se říká "Neutral s jemným závěrem" a "komprimovaný Neutral (Neutral s pevným závěrem)". Z důvodů přehlednosti se někdy tyto varianty vyučují zvlášť. Tento modus se dá navodit uvolněním spodní čelisti (brady). V popu se Neutral s jemným závěrem
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užívá v tichých pasážích a když je potřeba dyšný tón. V klasickém zpěvu se tato podoba prakticky nepoužívá. V každodenním životě se s ní setkáte při šeptání nebo při užití tzv. dyšného hlasu. offset [4] The very end of the singing tone. It can sometimes be characterized as harsh, breathy, resonant, etc. ornament [1] Those more or less brief and conventional formulae of ozdoba [20] Ozdoby patří k vrcholům pěveckého umění a vyžadují embellishment which have always been liable to occur dokonalou dechovou, hlasovou a v některých případech i within traditions of free ornamentation, and which artikulační techniku. Hlas musí být dokonale ovládán a po proliferated in European music of the Baroque period. They pěvci se také vyžaduje pečlivost, vkus a znalost stylu, ve have often been indicated by symbols, although composers, kterém ozdoby uplatňuje. Zdobení tónu v klasickém a performers, music copyists and editors, and scholars have muzikálovém zpěvu je velmi odlišné. Jedním z prvních rozdílů by no means always shown consistency or agreement in the je, že v operním žánru jsou ozdoby velmi často určeny autorem use of specific symbols. Moreover, the general a můžeme je vyčíst z notového zápisu, ale v populárním zpěvu understanding of signs, symbols, terms and contemporary je zdobení tónu součástí určitého stylu, většinou nejsou performing styles of ornamentation has varied greatly across předepsány autorem a interpret má tedy možnost improvizace time and place. This article deals primarily with the symbols dle svého umění. used in Western art music and their interpretation. over-blowing [32] Putting excessive air pressure on the vocal folds, or using forzírování, Všechny tyto termíny označují chybnou práci s tvořením tónu, too much muscular effort in the larynx to produce the sound. zatěžkáný tón [14] kterou doprovází kromě špatného použití dechu a dechové While these faults will cause chronic hoarseness in the short opory také násilné „tlačení“ na hlasivkové svaly, nedostatečně run, the long-range effect of such faulty vocal technique can „otevřený krk“, „ztuhlá“ čelist a obličejové svaly, křeč v těle. lead to more serious difficulties such as development of To se projeví především ve změně barvy hlasu. Produkovaný vocal nodules, polyps, chronic hoarseness or muscular tón je velmi silný, ovšem zpěvákem jakkoliv neovladatelný. fatigue. Tento způsob zpívání může při dlouhodobějším používání hlas trvale poškodit. Overdrive [24] According to the “Complete Vocal Technique”, Overdrive Overdrive [25] Podle tzv. „Kompletní pěvecké techniky“, Overdrive je is one of two full-metallic modes. There is a great amount of metalický neboli kovový modus. Tóny jsou hranaté a ostré. metal in the notes. The character of Overdrive is often direct Tón je hlasitý, jako když na někoho zavoláte "HEJ!!!“. Modus and loud, like when you shout ‘hey’ at somebody in the se navodí tzv. "Bite", neboli "zakousnutím". Modus se často street. Overdrive can be found in the beginning by využívá právě při hlasitém mluvení nebo zpívání v nižších establishing a ‘bite’. It is usually used when speaking or polohách. V populární hudbě se modus využívá, je-li potřeba singing loudly in the low part and middle part of the voice. hlasitého projevu s kovovým charakterem, například v rocku. Overdrive is used in popular music when the volume is loud Klasicky školení zpěváci využijí modus při hlasitém projevu and when a great amount of metal is wanted on the notes, (f-ff). Klasicky školené ženské hlasy modus such as in rock music. In classical music it is used by men prakticky nevyužívají, a pokud ano, pak pouze v nízkých when they sing medium loud to very loud (f-ff), and women polohách. Modu Overdrive se využívá při křiku. Pokud jde o use Overdrive in classical singing only in the low part of the omezení do výšek, pak je třeba říci, že je ze všech čtyř voice if at all. Overdrive is used in everyday life, for nejomezenější, zvláště pak pro ženy. Hranice rozsahu je pro example when shouting. Overdrive is the most limited mode ženy d2-es2. Muži mohou modus využívat až po c2 (znějící). in terms of pitch, especially for women. The upper limit for Spodní hranici modus nemá. Ve spodních polohách hlasu je women is D5/Eb5 and for men is C5. There is no lower možné využít všechny samohlásky, ve vysoké poloze je možné limit. All vowels can be used in the low part of the voice, užívat pouze "e" nebo "o", jako když člověk křičí "HEJ!“ nebo
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but in the high part of the voice you can only use ‘EH’ (as in "GÓL!“ (anglicky třeba "HEY!" nebo "SO"). Barvu tónu je ‘stay’) and ‘OH’ (as in ‘so’). The sound colour can, možné do jisté míry měnit. Overdrive je modus hlasitý, ačkoli however, be altered to some extent. Although the volume in střední hlasitost je možná ve střední a nižší poloze. Čím vyšší Overdrive is mostly loud, relatively quiet volumes can be poloha, tím více připomíná zvuk svým charakterem křik. obtained in the lower part of the voice. The higher the notes, the more distinct the loud, shouting character becomes. overtone [1] One of the frequency components of a sound other than that alikvotní tón [17] Alikvotní tón, nebo též vyšší harmonický tón, částkový of lowest frequency. Usually overtones are numbered tón je tón, který zní společně s tónem základním. Většinou se u consecutively in ascending order of frequency; they need každého tónu (zvuku) vyskytuje množství alikvotních tónů. not be harmonic. Intenzita jednotlivých alikvotních tónů je to, co určuje charakteristickou barvu zvuku. Právě díky alikvótním tónům jsme schopni např. poslechem rozpoznat, o jaký se to jedná hudební nástroj. Například nástroje s ostřejším zvukem (trubka, pozoun) mají silnější liché alikvotní tóny (první, třetí etc), sudé alikvotní tóny dávají zvuku spíš teplo a měkkost. overtone singing [1] A vocal style in which a single performer produces more alikvotní zpěv [14] technice alikvotního zpěvu, tzv. dvojhlasého zpěvu, která je than one clearly audible note simultaneously. In melodic typická především pro mimoevropskou hudební kulturu, v níž overtone singing styles, a drone is produced on the first se také vyvinula. Počátky alikvotního zpěvu můžeme najít v harmonic or fundamental and a flute-like melody created Tibetu, kde je alikvotní zpěv dodnes součástí meditace from a series of upper harmonics or overtones. In non- mnichů. Technika je založena na vědomém zesilování různých melodic styles, overtones may occur because of the pitch of alikvotních tónů se současně znějícím základním tónem the fundamental drone combined with the vocal sounds pomocí specifické práce s rezonančním prostorem v oblasti úst being enunciated, for instance when Mongols sing the bass a natvarováním jazyka. overtone singing style harhiraa höömii or Tibetan dge lugs pa monks in Gyume and Gyütö monasteries chant using a profound bass in the chest register. Overtone singing may also comprise a rich tapestry of harmonics without the presence of a drone. parlando [2] In singing, a speech-like style, with one syllable for each parlando [10] Mluveně, zpěvák má slova spíše mluviti než zpívati. note, often used in dialogues in certain kinds of comic opera. In instrumental music, an instruction for expressive, ‘eloquent’ playing. passaggio, break [3] The point at which two of the three vocal registers (high, přechodný tón [20] Přechodné tóny jsou tóny, na kterých přechází jeden rejstřík do middle and low) meet. druhého. phrasing [2] The term phrasing refers to the way in which a performer frázování [18] Frázování vyjadřuje logické spojení hudebních a větných interprets both individual phrases and their combination in celků, nesmí být narušeno nevhodným nádechem (např. the piece as a whole. Such a technique is often instinctive v půlce slova); ovšem jako výrazový prostředek může být and is one of the features by which a supreme artist may be nádech použit i v místě normálně nepřijatelném, to záleží opět distinguished from others. na interpretovi a jeho schopnostech. Do frázování patří i hudební přízvuk - ten vyplývá z hudební řeči, větný je určen smyslem zpívané věty (stejně jako v mluvené řeči). Hudební přízvuky se mají krýt se slovními a větnými přízvuky. Frázování umožňuje plastický přednes vokálního díla.
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pitch [1] The particular quality of a sound (e.g. an individual musical výška tónu [14] Jestliže frekvence je počet vibrací za sekundu, tak výška tónu note) that fixes its position in the scale. Certain sounds used je subjektivní vnímání tónu, které je ovlivněno dalšími faktory in music that occupy no particular scale position, such as jako např. vibratem, barvou hlasu, dynamikou, atd. Z již those produced by cymbals or the side drum, can be said to napsaného víme, že výška tónu vzniká díky vibraci hlasivek, be of indefinite pitch. Pitch is determined by what the ear výsledná barva je ovšem výsledkem nastavení rezonančních judges to be the most fundamental wave-frequency of the prostor našeho těla. sound (even when, as for example with difference tones, this is an aural illusion, not actually present in the physical sound wave). Experimental studies, in which listeners have been tested for their perception and memory of pitch differences among sounds with wave-frequencies known to the experimenter, have shown that marked differences of timbre, loudness and musical context affect pitch, albeit in relatively small degree. portamento [1] In vocal terminology, the connection of two notes by portamento [15] Spojení tónů různé výšky. passing audibly through the intervening pitches. range, vocal range [1] The extent of an instrument or voice, from the lowest to the hlasový rozsah [10] U nástrojů nebo hlasů vzdálenost nejvyššího a nejnižšího tónu. highest note; the interval between those notes. ‘Range’ is used particularly of the human voice, and in this context may be defined in several different ways: according to common practice (‘the range of the soprano part in choral writing is usually from c′ to a″’); in terms of a particular composition or repertory (‘the range of the Schubert lied seldom exceeds a 10th’); or according to ability (‘her voice had an unusually large range, extending from a to d‴’). ‘Compass’ is used particularly of an instrument, or of a vocal or instrumental part. recitative [1] A type of vocal writing, normally for a single voice, with recitativ [17] Recitativ je styl zpěvu, používaný především the intent of mimicking dramatic speech in song. In practice v operách, oratoriích a kantátách, při němž pěvec napodobuje its nature has varied widely by era, nationality, origin and rytmus běžné řeči. context. register [1] A part of the range of an instrument, singing voice or rejstřík [14] V pěvecké teorii tento termín označuje řadu po sobě jdoucích composition. No interval can prescribe the size of tónů podobné kvality. a register, though the construction or playing of an instrument and the manner of singing can help to determine whether two notes are in the same or a different register, for example the strings of a violin (a 5th apart), the register key of a clarinet (12th), overblowing on a flute (octave), lip tension on a brass instrument, and singing with a ‘head’ or ‘chest’ voice, or in falsetto. resonance [3] Sympathetic vibration of bodies capable of producing rezonance [14] Proces, díky kterému 72 je zpívaný tón zesílen ve své barvě a
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sounds as soon as a pitch similar to that of the body or one intenzitě pomocí dutin, přes které pokračuje směrem do of its overtones is heard. prostoru. scat singing, scat [1] A technique of jazz singing in which onomatopoeic or scat [20] Scat je pěvecká technika, kterou můžeme vnímat jako obdobu nonsense syllables are sung to improvised melodies. Some instrumentální improvizace v jazzu s použitím lidského hlasu. writers have traced scat singing back to the practice, Při scatování se používají slova bez smyslu, samostatné common in West African music, of translating percussion slabiky nebo se zpívá zcela bez artikulace. Tento způsob zpěvu patterns into vocal lines by assigning syllables to vyžaduje nejen schopnost improvizace, dobrou pěveckou characteristic rhythms. However, since this practice allows techniku, ale také znalost správných jazzových postupů. little scope for melodic improvisation, and since the earliest recorded examples of jazz scat singing involved the free invention of rhythm, melody and syllables, it is more likely that the technique of scat singing originated in the USA as singers imitated the sounds of jazz instrumentalists. soft palate [6] The soft palate is composed of muscle and connective měkké patro [22] Měkké patro je vazivová přepážka aponeurosis palatina, na tissue, which give it both mobility and support. This palate kterou se upínají patrové svaly. Na jeho konci uprostřed se is very flexible. When elevated for swallowing and sucking, nachází uvula palatina, čípek. Palatum molle svými svaly mění it completely blocks and separates the nasal cavity and nasal tvar a velikost hltanové úžiny, která se nachází v přechodu portion of the pharynx from the mouth and the oral part of z ústní dutiny do hltanu. Měkké patro pomáhá ke tvorbě the pharynx. While elevated, the soft palate creates a patrových hlásek (h, ch, k, g). vacuum in the oral cavity, which keeps food out of the respiratory tract. soprano [2] The highest female (or artificial male) voice, with a range of soprán [10] Nejvyšší dětský a ženský hlas, jehož normální rozsah jest od roughly b to c‴ (in high sopranos often to f‴). The word c1 do a2, vzácnější je výška do c3, ale byly zpěvačky I derives from the Latin superius, the usual term for the s vyššími tóny (až g3, ba c). Prsní rejstřík sahá asi do f1, fis1, highest voice in 15th-century polyphonic music. There are odtud nahoru jsou tóny hrdelní. Dokud zpěvačky nebyly several types of soprano, of which the commonest in general připouštěny ku zpěvu chrámovému, zpívali sopránové partie use are the ‘coloratura soprano’, a light, high voice of great chlapci a kastráti, nebo nižší partie falsetisté. Noty pro soprán agility (e.g. the Queen of Night in Mozart's Die psány dříve v klíči C, nyní se píší obyčejně v klíči G. Podle Zauberflöte); ‘lyric soprano’, the most common, with a založení rozeznáváme s. dramatický, koloraturní, apod. warmer tone-quality and a slightly lower range (e.g. Pamina in Die Zauberflöte and Donna Elvira in Don Giovanni); ‘dramatic soprano’, with a heavier production throughout the range (e.g. Tosca and many Wagner roles); and ‘soprano spinto’, or ‘sopranolirico spinto’, basically a lyric voice that is capable of more dramatic quality and a cutting edge at climaxes (e.g. Leonore in Beethoven's Fidelio and Desdemona in Verdi's Otello). sotto voce [3] Below the voice. In an undertone or barely audible (as in an sotto voce [10] Tlumeným hlasem. aside). Applied to vocal and instr. perf. Sprechgesang, Terms denoting a vocal technique that combines elements of Sprechgesang [30] Technika, která se nachází přibližně napůl cesty mezi řečí a Sprechstimme [2] speaking and singing. zpěvem (využíváno hlavně v recitativech = je styl zpěvu, při němž pěvec napodobuje rytmus běžné řeči).
17 staccato [2] i.e. the opposite of legato. A note to be played staccato is staccato [14] Staccato je styl hudebního přednesu, kdy jsou jednotlivé tóny marked in notation in different ways: with a dot (the most hrány s co nejvýraznějším oddělením. Obvykle tón netrvá po common method), a vertical stroke, a small wedge, or a celou zapsanou délku noty, ale je zkrácen a zbytek trvání noty horizontal dash (implying an accent). The degree of nahrazen pauzou. Staccato se v notovém zápisu označuje detachment varies according to the type of instrument in tečkou nad nebo pod notou. question and the style and period of the music. Staccato dots within a slur imply a mezzo-staccato; a combination of a dot and a horizontal dash indicates accent and separation. Staccatissimo indicates extreme detachment. The term is often abbreviated stacc. tenor [2] The highest male voice using normal voice production, with tenor [10] Vysoký hlas mužský s rozsahem od c do a1 až c2. a range of roughly c (known as ‘tenor C’) to b′, or, in fine voices with good training, even high c″ or d ″. Often used for minor or comic roles in 18th-century opera, the tenor voice rose to pre-eminence in Romantic opera. According to the vocal quality, a tenor can be described as one of three broad types: light, lyric, and dramatic (‘spinto’). tessitura [1] A term used to describe the part of a vocal (or less often tessitura [20] Tessitura je tónový rozsah instrumentální nebo vokální části. instrumental) compass in which a piece of music lies – whether high or low, etc. The tessitura of a piece is not decided by the extremes of its range, but rather by which part of the range is most used. The role of Siegfried in Wagner's Ring, for example, ranges from c to c″, but its tessitura would be described as high (and very demanding) because the tenor is required to sing phrases in the range c′ to a′, with great frequency (and often at high volume). timbre, tone-colour [2] The quality of sound characteristic of a particular type of barva hlasu [21] je kvalitativní akustická vlastnost hlasu. Vycházející z definic instrument or voice, as opposed to its register or pitch. Thus barvy zvuku, je to ta vlastnost hlasu, která odlišuje dva hlasové a violin sounds distinct from a flute even when playing projevy (zvuky) se stejnou výškou, hlasitostí a časovým exactly the same note; similarly, the tone-colour produced průběhem. Výška, hlasitost, délka a barva jsou základními by a boy treble differs from that of a female soprano. Even vlastnostmi všech zvuků. První tři je možno charakterizovat within a single instrument type the tone-colour can vary absolutními hodnotami měřitelných parametrů. Všechny čtyři depending on the manner of performance: for example, an vlastnosti se navzájem ovlivňují a jejich subjektivní vjemy open string on a violin has a different quality from the same závisí na stavu sluchového aparátu posluchače a jsou navzájem note played when using the finger to stop a string; likewise, závislé, protože změna jedné z nich vyvolá změnu ostatních playing closer to the bridge also affects the instrument's timbre. This variation in tone-colour results primarily from the particular combination of harmonics produced by an instrument. tremolo, wobble [3] Shaking, trembling. In playing of str. instr., the rapid tremolo [14] Tremolo je charakterizováno jako nepravidelné vibrato, kdy reiteration of a note or chord by back‐and‐forth strokes of rozsah kolísání je většinou větší než půl tón a rychlost změny
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the bow; also, on other instr. as well as str., the very rapid výšky tónu je buď nižší, nebo vyšší, než jsou doporučované alternation between 2 notes. Note that tremolo is the rapid hodnoty. iteration or alternation of notes, whereas vibrato is fluctuation of pitch. trill [2] An ornament consisting of rapid alternation of the main trylek [14] Trylek je melodická ozdoba, která je nejčastěji zapsána (notated) pitch with a note usually a semitone or tone above v notách autorem hudby. Je charakterizován rychlým střídáním it. The device is normally slurred, and applied particularly, hlavního tónu se svrchním sousedícím tónem. Na nácvik although not uniquely, to cadences. While the effect is správného tvoření trylku je zaměřena především klasická largely to be found in instrumental music, it is also possible operní technika with the voice, and has long been regarded as part of a virtuoso vocal technique. turn [1] A type of ornament in which the main note alternates with obal [20] Obal je skupina tónů obalujících hlavní notu shora i zdola. its two auxiliaries a step above and below. unvoiced consonant [4] A consonant is a class of speech sound characterized by the neznělá souhláska, Souhláska, při jejímž vyslovení hlasivky nekmitají (lze je constriction or closure at one or more points in the breath neznělá konsonanta šeptat - p, t, ť, k, ch, f, s, š, c, č). channel. An unvoiced consonant is a consonant produced [31] without vibration of the vocal folds, e.g. f, h, k, p, s, t, x, etc. vibrato [3] Vibrated. Undulation of pitch of a note, prod. in str. instr. by vibrato [14] Vibrato je definováno jako pravidelné kolísání tónu, které by controlled vibration of player's finger stopping the str. and nemělo přesáhnout půltón. Míra použití vibrata záleží in wind instr. by breath‐control. Not the same as tremolo. In především na hudebním stylu a charakteru písně, případně na singing the greatest skill is needed in use of vibrato or it interpretačním stylu zpěváka. V období renesance a baroka becomes a tremolo (or wobble). nebylo vibrato téměř vůbec využíváno a zlom přišel až s vrcholným obdobím opery. V neklasických hudebních žánrech může být vibrato používáno, ale není to podmínkou. Existují samozřejmě také nepravidelné formy vibrata, které jsou ovšem pro zpěv nežádoucí (např. tremolo). vocal fry register [5] The vocal fry register, (also known as pulse register and pulzní rejstřík [14] Pulzní rejstřík je charakteristický kmitáním hlasivek na velmi glottal fry/rattle/scrape, amongst other names), is the lowest nízkých frekvencích, což vysvětluje jeho použití v nejnižších vocal register that can be produced by a human voice. In hlasových polohách. U tohoto rejstříku se často objevuje také contemporary styles of singing, 'vocal fry' may also refer to nepravidelné kmitání hlasivek. Pulzní rejstřík není běžně a voice quality that may be added to any part of the singer's používán v sólovém zpěvu, ale často se objevuje spontánně range for vocal effect. Vocal fry is characterized by a v segmentech mluvního projevu. rattling, crackling, creaking, croaking, or frying sound quality. It is produced through use of a loose glottal closure that permits air to bubble through slowly. During the vocal fry mode of phonation, the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx compress together in such a fashion that the vocal folds become relatively compact and slack, or 'floppy'. This process forms a large and (usually) irregularly (or non- periodically) vibrating mass within the vocal folds - the vocal folds vibrate far less often per second than in 'normal' voice production, with successive vibrations differing in duration and/or size - that produces the characteristic low
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popping or rattling sound when air passes through the slackened glottal closure. Singers typically use this mode of phonation to obtain pitches at a very low frequency that they may not otherwise be able to access in the chest register, although it can be carried up into the chest register, as well. vocal warm up [28] A vocal warm-up is a series of exercises that prepare the rozezpívání [14] O rozezpívání mluvíme jako o zaktivování a přípravě hlasu na voice for singing, acting, or other use. pozdější nácvik pěveckého repertoáru. U každého zpěváka je v jeho profesním životě délka rozezpívání odlišná. Neexistuje jednotné pravidlo, které by určovalo čas a konkrétní počet cvičení tak, aby byl zpěvák dostatečně rozezpíván a připraven na výstup. vocal weight [5] Vocal weight refers to the perceived 'lightness' or 'heaviness' síla hlasu [20] závisí na velikosti hlasivkového svalu, na umístění hlasivek of a singing voice. This quality of the voice is one of the v hrtanu, na schopnosti rozkmitaní sliznice hlasivek, ale také major determining factors in voice classification within opět na velikosti rezonančních prostor. classical singing, and constitutes a subcategorization of vocal types (or parts). Additionally, vocal weight, which is often determined by the thickness of the vocal folds, may refer to a voice's ability to handle changes in vocal dynamic, and may affect its overall vocal agility, as different voices handle changes in dynamic differently. In other words, vocal weight can affect overall vocal agility and flexibility. For example, heavier voices often have more difficulty maneuvering through florid coloratura passages than lighter voices do. Heavier voices can also sound awkward singing staccato sections because they don't tend to have as much flexibility as lighter voices do. Lighter voices tend to have greater agility and flexibility, but have less facility in filling legato lines, and cannot be heard as well over an orchestra as heavier voices can. vocalise [2] A melody sung without text but to one or more vowel vokalíza [17] Vokalíza je nonverbální hudební projev lidského hlasu, jinak sounds. The term embraces vocal technical exercises and řečeno „zpěv beze slov“, při němž zpívající užívá concert pieces. In the early 19th century it became pouze vokálů (nejčastěji A, U nebo O). V širším smyslu je za customary to provide certain types of vocal exercise with a vokalízu možné považovat i zpěv na speciální slabiky (např. piano accompaniment, so that even the most mechanical tra, la, pa, va, don) umožňující výraznější rytmizaci a hudební exercises could be performed in a more artistic manner. artikulaci vokalízy. Velmi často se ve vokalízách užívá také There was also a tradition, dating from the 18th century, of tzv. brumenda neboli zpěvu se zavřenými ústy. Vokalíza je using existing compositions that presented certain technical běžným jevem v lidové, populární, jazzové i klasické hudbě. problems as vocal exercises without words. By the 19th Nejčastěji se vyskytuje jako ozvláštňující prvek vedle zpěvu century, many singing instruction manuals included pieces verbálního, tzn. na konkrétní slova či text. without words specially composed for this purpose. voice type [5] Voice type is often confused with vocal range by hlasový obor [20] Hlasové obory se rozdělují podle barvy, rozsahu a pohyblivosti contemporary or non-classical singers (e.g. those who sing hlasu. Pro každý typ hlasu existuje určitá pěvecká literatura.
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jazz, pop, blues, soul, country, folk and rock styles). For V praxi to znamená, že operní zpěvák je ve výběru písní či árií example, if you were to ask some singers what their range omezován. Jsou zde velmi přísná pravidla, která nejsou is, they may reply by stating that they are a 'tenor' or a samoúčelná. Klasická operní technika je natolik náročná, že 'soprano'. Using the terms range and type interchangeably is pokud se zpěvák pustí tzv. „mimo obor“, může si způsobit inaccurate and can be misleading. Perceived qualities or nemalé hlasové potíže. characteristics of a voice help to identify the vocal type. Human singing voices can be described by such qualities as vocal range, weight, tessitura and timbre as well as vocal registration and vocal transition points that include ‘breaks’ in the voice, and these qualities describe their vocal types. The designation of a voice as a 'lyric soprano' would be an example of a vocal type. voiced consonant [4] A consonant is a class of speech sound characterized by the znělá souhláska, Souhláska, při jejímž vyslovení hlasivky kmitají (nelze je constriction or close at one or more points in the breath znělá konsonanta [31] šeptat - b, d, ď, g, h, v, z, ž, j, m, n, ň, j, l, r). channel. A voiced consonant is a consonant produced with vibration of the vocal folds, e.g. b, d, g, m, n, r, v, z, etc. vowel [7] One of a class of speech sounds in the articulation of which samohláska, vokál Při vyslovení samohlásek je dutina ústní volná, dechový proud the oral part of the breath channel is not blocked and is not [20] prochází plynule a pro každou samohlásku se nastaví do constricted enough to cause audible friction, určitého tvaru, pracuje měkké patro a uzavírá se vstup do nosu. whistle register [5] The whistle register, (typically occurring between C6 and flažoletový rejstřík Flažoletový rejstřík je rejstřík, který se objevuje a používá D7), is the highest register of the human voice, and refers to [14] ještě výš než falzetový rejstřík. Barva zvuku při použití tohoto the register above the head register in female voices. Unlike rejstříku je podobná pískotu či velmi vysokému jekotu. the other registers within the voice, it does not begin at the Objevuje se jen výjimečně u některých ženských nebo same absolute pitch within every female voice type, and dětských hlasů, které k němu mají fyziologické předpoklady. there is typically no discernible passaggio marking the transition into this register, which is why it is often considered to be an extension of the head register, rather than a unique or separate register. This register has a specific physiological production that is different from that of the other registers, and is so called because the timbre of the notes that are produced from this register are similar to that of a whistle. The quality of sound that is produced is somewhat different from conventional head voice, being excessively bright and edgy. However, this female register is thought to be an extension of head voice, and, ideally, should differ little from head voice in timbre in the well trained voice. Women of all voice types can learn to use the whistle register, although lower female voices, such as true contraltos, may not be able to access this register. yodel [2] A type of singing characterized by frequent alternation jódlování [20] Je pěvecká technika postavená na rychlých a velkých between low and high (including falsetto) registers, using intervalových skocích, které jsou doprovázený střídáním vowel sounds rather than words. It is associated particularly rejstříků. Nízký tón je v hrudním rejstříku a vyšší tón ve
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with the Alpine areas of Austria and Switzerland, where falzetu. Jódlování je součástí lidové kultury v alpských zemích solo and ensemble compositions are performed by převážně v Rakousku a Švýcarsku virtuosos. Yodelling is also used in some African musical traditions and by some American country music singers.
List of sources for individual definitions
[1] Grove Music Online
[2] The Oxford Companion to Music
[3] The Oxford Dictionary of Music
[4] https://www.reddit.com/r/singing/wiki/dictionary
[5] http://singwise.com/cgi-bin/main.pl?section=articles&doc=UnderstandingVocalRangeRegistersAndType
[6] https://www.britannica.com/science/palate
[7] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vowel
[8] https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/phys406/Student_Projects/Spring05/Chuck_Stelzner/Chuck_Stelzner_P498POM_Final_Report.pdf
[9] https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/fioritura
[10] Jan Malát: Hudební slovník
[11] http://www.ceskyhudebnislovnik.cz/chs
[12] http://www.muzikus.cz/pro-muzikanty-workshopy/Zlo-zvyky-a-zpev-III-rozezpivani-a-spravne-vyslovnosti-samohlasek~22~rijen~2008/
[13] https://is.muni.cz/th/362472/ff_b/Bakalarska_prace_-_barbershop.pdf
[14] https://is.jamu.cz/th/13362/difa_d/Metoda_vyuky_muz._zpevu_Karla_Hegnera.pdf
[15] https://dspace.tul.cz/bitstream/handle/15240/1765/mgr_17199.pdf?sequence=1
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[16] https://www.joomag.com/magazine/muzikoterapie-b%C5%99ezen-2016/0934438001449862181?page=45
[17] Czech Wikipedia
[18] https://is.muni.cz/th/80518/pedf_m/Diplomova_prace.txt
[19] Jiří Bar: Pravý tón a pěvecké umění
[20] https://is.jamu.cz/th/15314/difa_m/FalcovaK_DP_2014.pdf
[21] https://is.muni.cz/th/319125/pedf_m/Diplomova_prace.pdf
[22] http://theses.cz/id/ps5osw/Vyuit_posturlnho_systmu_pi_odstraovn_logopedickch_vad.pdf
[23] https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/humming
[24] https://completevocal.institute/complete-vocal-technique/
[25] http://www.cvt.czweb.org/1.pevecka_technika_1.zaklady_00.htm
[26] The author’s own definition
[27] Anna Mundilová: Rozezpívání jako součást pěvecké výchovy sborového zpěváka
[28] English Wikipedia
[29] Tereza Nováková: Výuka sólového zpěvu na základních uměleckých školách
[30] http://www.janakopidolova.estranky.cz/clanky/umeni-zpivat/
[31] https://www.diktatorek.cz/Scholasticus/Cesky-jazyk/Pravopis/Pravopis-skupin-souhlasek/Pravopis-souhlasek-uvnitr-slov-help.html
[32] Meribeth A. Dayme: Dynamics of the Singing Voice
[33] Libuše Válková: Hlasové poruchy
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