Port and Harbor TANU-H-71 -OD1 c. 2 Development System

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~ ~ Port and Harbor Daveloi,'mentSystem Architecture Research Center Phase1- Design GuldeNnas College of Architecture 8 Work Repel Environmental Design Texas A&M University August 1971 TAMU- SG -71-236 College Station, Texas 77843

C<~CU~gTING CPPY Sea Grant Depository Acknowledgments

This project was partially fundedby NOAA, We wish to thank the personsand departments National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- who furnished us information: tration, Office of Sea Grants, Departmentof Mr. Leonard E. Hassil Commerce,through institutional grant GH-101 Prolect Manager made to TexasA8M University. Port and Cargo SystemsCommittee National Research Council Washington, D.C. Thework on the Portand Harbor Development Systemproject is the resultof the effortsof Mr. Paul A. Amundsen several groups: Executive Director The American Association of Port Authorities Architecture ResearchCenter, ResearchTeam: Washington, D.C, RussellL. Stogsdill, ResearchArchitect, Project Director Mr. Frank McCurry John Langston, ResearchAssistant Santa Fe Railroad Arie Schinnar, ResearchAssistant Amarillo, Texas Mike Willingham,Graduate Research Assistant Linda Escamilla, Secretary Mr. C.J. Calvin Judith Hlubucek, Secretary The Truck Trailer Manufacturers Association Linda Jarnison, Secretary Washington, D.C. Lucinda Kerley, Librarian Mr. H.J, Rome Research Advisors: Superintendentof Docks Prof. Gunter Schmitz, Director of Project Mr. Verdun Daste Development Publicity Representative Randolph Waligura, ResearchArchitect New Orleans Centroport New Orleans, Louisiana Administrative support: Sea Grant Program Office Dr. Charles C. Bates Willis H. Clark, Assistant Director Science Advisor DonaI d Walsh, ProgramAssociate U.S. Coast Guarcl RogerD. Anderson, Marine Educationand Washington, D.C. Training Coordinator Allen Martin, Administrative Assistant Mr. George W. Altvater LeathaMiloy, Headand Editor, Departmentof Deputy Director Marine Resources information Port of Houston Janet Howe, Associate Editor Houston, Texas Ka thi Jensen, Assistant Editor RosemaryE. Hoykin, ProgramAssociate Col. J.S. Newman Executive Director of Civil Works Departmentof the Army Office of the Chief of Engineers Washington, D.C.

Mr . C . S. Devoy Port Director and General Manager Port of Galveston Galveston, Texas Direct'o rs and staffs of the following ports: Port of Dublin, Ireland United States: Port of Hong Kong, China Port of Seattle, Washington SouthAfrican Railwaysand Harbors Port of New York, New York Port of Kitimat, British Columbia Port of Oakland, Cal ifornia Port of Halifax, Nova Scotia Port of Tampa, Florida Port of Antwerp, Belgium Port of Hampton Roads, Virginia Nat'ional Harbor Board, Canada Port of Long Beach, California Portof London, England Port of San Francisco, California Portof Liverpool, England Port of Los Angeles, California Port of Piraeus, Greece Port of Baltimore, Maryland Port oF Bangkok, Thialand Port of Boston, Massachusett's Port oF Bristol, England Port of Phila d elphia, Pennsy I vania Port of Lagos, Nigeria Port oF Catoosa, Okla homa Port. of Beaumont, Texas Special Credits Port of Galveston, Texas Appreciationis extendedfo the following Port of Port Arthur, Texas individualsfor supportand encouragement: Port of Corpus Christi, Texas EdwardJ. Romieniec, Dean, College of Port of New Orleans, Louisiana Architecture and EnvironmentalDesign, Foreign Dr. John C. Calhoun, Jr., Director, Sea Port of Lisbon, Portugal Grant Program Office . Port of Amsterdam, Netherlands Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands Special thanksto the Followingpersons for Port of Dover, England their time and efforts in editing fhe text: Port of Le Havre, France . Roger D. Anderson, Sea Grant Program Port of Calcutta, India Office Port of Auckland, New Zealand ' Dan Bragg, Industrial Economics Research Port of Copenhagen, Denmark Division Israel Port Authority, Israel ' John 0. Greer, Architecture Research Port of Hamburg,West Germany Center Port of Ghent, Belgium ' Gerry Maffei, College of Architecture and Port of Bremen, Germany Environmental Design Port of Helsinki, Finland ' Ahn Miloy, industrial EconomicsResearch Port of Venice, Italy Division Port of Hanko, Finland ' Don Sweeney, Architecture ResearchCenter. Port of Sydney, Au stral ia Port of Wellington, New Zealand Port of Christchurch, New Zealand Port of Bergen, Norway Port of Melbourne, Australia Port of Manchester, England Port of Stockholm, Sweden Port of Belfast, Northern ireland Part of Bombay, India Port of Osaka, Japan 1 Table of Contents

1 Table of Contents

2 introduction

3 Port 3.1 Types 3.1.1 Geographi ca I Analysis 3.1.2 Cargo

3.2 Location 3.2.1 Physical Factors 3.2.2 Socio-economic

3.3 Administration 3.3.1 Owning Organizations 12 3.3.2 Operations

3.4 Transportation 3.4,1 Land 18 3.4,2 Airborne 3.4.3 Waterborne

3.5 Cargo Handling 3.5.1 Methods 32 3.5,2 Equipment

3.6 Labor 3.6.1 Type 3.6.2 Structuref'Organization 3.6.3 Occupational Structure 3.6.4 Age 3.6.5 Mechanization 3.6.6 Safety 3.6.7 Work hours 3.6.8 Wages 3.6.9 Amenities and Welfare 3.6.10 Manpower 3.6.11 Training

3.7 Support Industry

3.8 Safety 3.8.1 Types of Fires 50 3.8.2 Firefighting Agents 3.8.3 Fire Prevention 3.8.4 Medical 3.8,5 Navigational Aids 3.8.6 Marine Safety

3,9 Finance 3,9.1 Ob jectives 3.9.2 Revenue 4 Planning 4.1 Design and 4.1.1 Decision 58 ConstrUction 4.1,2 Prel iminary 4.1,3 Site investigation 4.1.4 General Review 4.l.5 Harbor and Channel 4,1.6 Brea kwa ters 4.1.7 Terminal s 4.1.8 Offshore Structures 4.1.9 Bvil ding s 4.1,10 Dock Types 4.1. l 1 Dry Docks 4 ~1.12 Piles 4.1.13 FenderSystems 4.1.14 Mooring 4.1.15 Dolphins 4.1.16 Moles, Trestles and Catwa I ks

5 Trends 102

6 Concepts 6.1 ExistIng Port 105 6.2 interim Port 115 6.3 Trans-Port 125

7 Glossary 132

8 Bibl iography 2 Introduction Perhapsno aspect of modern times is as portsin differentstages of development.Nau- pervasiveand influential as change, This tical terms,perhaps unusual ta the uninitiated, century has been marked from its beginning are explained in the Glossary, Part 7. by far-reaching change-- scientific, tech- nical, social, political, even cultural, The synergisticeffect of changeacting on change has increased Its rate, so that the ability to cope with and plan for changehas become a central feature of modern exis- fence.

The problemsthat can result from the mobility fo respondfo changeare well illustrated by the designof manyof the world's portsand harbors. Until recently thesefacilities could be designed by looking backward for examples from the past. But rapid communication and the economicpressures of world trade have so shortened the gap between scientific break- through and technological implementation that modelsfrom antiquity no longer suffice. Con- tainerization, supersized vessels, oceangoing barges and new cargo handling techniques are but few of the most recent developments to which ports must respond. Another, spawned by necessityand massivesocial pressure,is the need for preserving environmental balance.

Clearly, ports and harbors of the future must be planned and designed to accommodate change. The purposeof this report is to aid those who are involved in and responsible for port and harbor planning and design. If is hoped that through the use of the guidelines presented herein, marine facilities may be de- veloped which are more rational, more flexible and thus more functional .

Thenext section of the report, Part 3, pre- sents an analysis of present harbor design features. Part 4 describesstep by step re- quirements in port design and construction. Importanttrends in marineand transportation technology are described in Part 5, and Part 6 suggestsplanning and design concepts for 3 Port Analysis 3.1 Types

3.1.1 Geographical

3 .1 .1 .1 Coastal Port 3.1.1.2 Inland Port CoastalPorts are thosewhich are affected by Inland portsare thosewhich have little or no tidal rangesand are readily accessibleto tidal effects. Theseports are locatedup rivers openwater. Theyprovide the following or channels, They provide the following ad- advantages: vantages: ~ deepwater for large vessels ~ protection ~ expansioncapabilities on water and land ~ water access to interior maximumaccessibility for coastaI and reduced transportation costs overseas trade ' limited tidal action. ' desirable locations for industrial develop- ment,

Reproducedby permissionoF the Port of Reproducedby permissionof the Port of Hamburg, Wellington, New Zealand Germany Disadvantagesof coastal ports: Disadvantagesof inland ports: ~ tidal action - unseasonaI rise and fall of rivers or channels sl I ting ~ accumulation of sedimentary material - unprotected. limitsan vessel size.

Coastal port development fol laws two basic Inland port developmentfollows two basic forms: forms: A . Seawardexpansion A . Restrictive

B, Inland expansion. B. Unrestrictive . 3.1.2 Cargo

3.1.2,1 Conta inerized Classification of ocean borne general cargo The container provides a sound protective suitable for containerization is listed in three covering for cargo and provides an econom- general classifications: ical systemfor transferof cargo from one A . Prime generally commoditiesof high transportationmode to another. value with relatively high shippingrates. Theseprime commoditiespossess physical Containers come in five basic types: reefer, attributes which permit them to be effi- dry, insulated,vented and special . They ciently packedin containers. Many of these are manufactured in 10 foot increments, commoditiesare highly susceptibleto damage ranging from 10 to 40 feet,and are 8 feet or pilferage. Examplesof prime cargoes are tall and 8 feet wide. l iquars, wines, pharmaceuticals and non- Advantages of containerization are: bul ky items. reduced ship turnaround time B. Suitable - generally commodities of ' less damage moderate value with shipping rates less than ' less theft those for prime commodities. This classifi" ~ transit shed not required cation has a modest susceptibility to damage ' containers can be stacked, or pilferage. Exampleof this type include wood shingles, wire products and bagged Disadvantages of containerization are: coffee. Other type cargoes that fit in this ' large amount of land area for container category are those that could be contaminated, marshaI Iing and storage required such as bagged flour or cargoes that incur ' older vesselsnot designed to handle such labor penalty chargessuch as green hidesand large units carbon black. ' expensive handling equipment required C. Marginal - generally low value cargoes paperwork involved not as advancedas that could be placed in containers. This type containers, thereforedelays occur. cargo includes pig iron, steel ingots and unmanufactured wood . 8. Wef bulk all commodities which exist in a liquid or semi-liquidstate. Thiscargo is usuallypumped. Examples: sulphur, petro- chemicals,crude, gas, slurriedminerals coal, baux ite, iron ore! .

Loadingfacilities for wet bulk usuallyinclude a loading dock which supportsthe various valvesand required hose handling equipmenf. Tankersand fank bargesgenerally are equip- ped wifh adequatepumping equipment to dis- chargefheir cargo.

Advantagesof bulk handling: Reproducedby permissionof the Port of Brisfol, . minimum labor required England ' no packingor packagingrequired 3.1.2.2 Bulk Cargo ' one bill of loading A homogeneouscargo with no form oF pack- usually one port of call aging and not capable of being handled with ' ability fo haul largevolumes over long a sling . There are two general classificafions distance . For bulk cargo: A. Dry bulk all commodities which are not DisadvantagesoF bulk handling: in a liquid or gaseoussfate. Examples:ore, ' not all ports can service bulk vessels potash, phosphate,gypsum, limestone, ce- ' limitecf variety of cargo ment, coal, grain. .' require large storage facilifies ' many bulk cargoes difficult to dis- 'Loadingfacilities for dry bulk vary from con- charge ventional drag line to seasidegalleries equip- ' require extensiveclean up of equipment ped with elevators, storagebins and convey- for differenf fype cargoesusing same or systems. dischargingequipment . 3.1.2.3 Hreak Sulk Existing problemsfacing passengerservice: Generalcargo that is largelymanufactured declinein passengervolume due to airlines itemsor componentsof varioustypes anci passengervessel routes seldom change quantitiesthat are shipped together. A great ~ speed and cost. deal of food stuffsand raw materialsfat f into this category. Theseitems generally require storageor protectionoffered by transitsheds.

Advantagesof breakbulk cargo: ~ usuallytransported by landcarriers because of value truck ar rail! ~ shippedon regularschedule ~ can be economicallystored away from dockside .

Disadvantagesof break bulk cargo: ~ require large open storage space ~ subjectto theRand pilferage ~ require transit shedsfor sortingand tem- porary holding .

3.1.2.4 Passenger Portswhich are designatedFor the movementof peopleand their personaleffects to and froma vessel . Reproducedby permission of the Portof Bristol, England Characteristics of passengerports: . provisionoF facilities for passengers:toilets, lounges,baggage check, etc. ' related to established transocean routes ' usuallyconcentrated at densely-populated Passengerand Freight time schedulesfor the areas . Port of Dover, England

Dover ~ ~ Hovercraft Roll-oniroll-off ~e ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ Zeebrugge TownsendFerries.3.75hours. $sailings dally ~ ~ ~ ~ OStend BelgianMarine.3.75hours.Osaeinee daily ~ ~ Ounkerque BritishRail Ferry.3.$0houra.e ceilings daily French Railways.3.50 hours . 2 saillnysdally C4ISII FrenchRailways .1.50hours .8 sailinSsdally BritishRaH F'erry.1.50hours,d ceilingsdally Towrreend Ferries.l.ac hours. 12 sailln0a dally Boll+PS BritishRoll Ferry.1.50 bours.12 ceilings dally SeaspeedSRH4 Hovercraft.&minutes,12fSShts daily 3.2 Location

3.2.1 Physical Factors

3.1.2.5 Specialized 3.2.1.1 Land Portswhich handle one material or product Parameters to be considered include: only. All their equipment is geared to maxi- ' established trade routes and their relation mize the handling of its particular cargo at to interior fransportafion networks the highestefficiency, Example: coal port, exist ing adjacent port installations fishery port. ' accessibility to hinterland and areasof producfion . Fisheryports are of basically two classifi- First and second day rail service cations: 4 . Commercial- port utilized as a place of dischargefor fish product. Theyrequire facilities for fil leting, packing, freezing and manufacturing fertilizer or fish meal . B. Small fishing boat operation catch sold day by day at the docks.

First and secondday truck delivery

Source: Port of New Orleans

3.2.1.2 Wafer A harbor is primarily a shelteredwater area af- fording a natural or artificial haven for ships. Harborsprovide calm water for maneuveringof and berthing shipsas well as providing anchor- ing space.

Harbors have three general classifications: A . Natural harbor an inlet or area of water protected from stormsand wave action by the natural configuration of the land itself. The entrance is so formed and located that it pro- vides safe navigation as well as protection. 10

B. Semi-natural harbor "an inlet or river D. Embayedvolcanoes where an island or shelteredon two sidesby head landsand re- coastal volcano has had its crater walls eroded quiringartificial protectionat the entrance and submergencehas taken place. The crater and the erodedgully can form a deep, well- only. C. Artificial harbor" protected from wave protectedharbor . action by meansof breakwatersor by dredging. E. Coral harbors coral reefs in the form of atolls and barrier reefs often act as immense Typesof naturaI harbors: brea kwaters . A . Ria harbors submerged estuaries in a rejuvenatedland surface provide very good lt is necessaryin the selection of a suitable shelterwith adequatedepths for vessels. harbor site to consider.. 8. Fiords great length in proportionto ~ amount of dredging that will be required breadth, steepsides, unimportanceof rivers ~ bottom conditions which drain into them, seawardthreshold, ~ shore area available for terminal develop- have great depths. ment C. Fohrden- estuariesin low country of ' size and shapeof harbor soft rocks,which havelost the riverswhich ' geographic,climatological andgeological once flowed into them. information .

Ria harborexample Fiord harbor example 11

3.2.2 Socio- economic

Location in areas with unexploited resources and an embryonicindustrial developmentre- quires an appraisalof basic positionof the port in reference to how it will bast serve tha hinterland. Factorsinfluencing thesedeci- sions include: ~ processingplants utilizing inexpensive water transportation for raw materials and finished products ~ fuel typesand accessibility ~ export and import potential,

In clevelopingcountries, ports ara developed for usually ona of the fo'Ilowingfour reasons: A . Establishmentof new national boundaries. Thisprocess may have eradicated or placeda port outsideof the new boundariesmaking it necessaryfo establisha new port if the country is to continua in trade and commerce, 8. Shiftsin nationalgrowth patterns may create the need for facilities nearer the hinter- land previouslyserviced by remotetrade centers. C . New or major industryrequiring a coastal outlet . D. If existing portsore unable to expandand have reached their economic limits, it is nec- essaryto establishnew adjacent facilities to efficiently handle the trade. 3.3 Administration 12

3.3.1 Owning Organizations

After close examination, it becomesapparent ~ the representationwhich they offer to those that no two portsare administeredthe same using the port in the courseof businessand way. No standardadministrative strucfure to organizationswhose interests are affected has been esfablished. However, most ports by its efficiency and svccess fall into the following classifications: ' their freedomfrom political considerations ' self~overning board,trust, authority, their impartialpolicy in relationto all forms commission! of transportwishing to usethe port. private industry~wned! ~ public /state 3.3.1.2 Private ~ munici pal Privatelyowned ports are thoseowned and ~ others railway-owned, customs~wned, managedfor the purposeof makinga profit, free ports!. in the samemanner as any other private enter- prise. They are normallyowned by companies 3.3.1.1 Self-Governing or private individuals operating understatutory A self~overningor trust port is onecontralled powersconferred on themby government.Within andoperated under the directionof the users, this category fall those partsof a port owned pri- the portauthorities and other interestedorgani- vately andrun for the particularpurpose of dealing zations . This includes local public authorities with the specialized cargoesof a companyor trad- and statedepartments, all of whomare re- Ing group presentedon a governingbody, usuallycalled a board. The board is almost invariably made Originally, manyporfs were run as private enter- up of appointedmembers, presided over by a prises,but the heavycost of capitalizingthem, chairman. Normally, thereis a svbsfantial, the rapidobsolescence of expensivefacilities manytimes a majority, representationof payers causedby the great advancein size of ships, and of rates and charges on vesselsand goods using the freezingof capital in anticipationof such fhe port. Thetrust ports are non-profitmaking developmentsmade fhem unsuitable subjects for with underfakingsordinarily financed by this type of undertaking.They gradually came publicsubscriptions bearing fixed ratesof in- under the control of one or the other of the more terest. However, becauseborrowing can be financially powerfultypes of organization. The madeonly with governmentalconsent, funds major characteristicsof privatelyowned ports available to trusf portsfor developmentare are their: normallylimited to fhe gainsrealized by success- relative freedom from restrictions ful management.The trust port authorities, freedomfrom political considerations independentand non-political, provide a unity impartialpolicy in relationto all farmsof of administrafion with a considerable fund of transporf . expert bvsinessexperience on which the port can depend. Thedesires of the memberswho 3,3,1 .3 Publi c/State are port usersare combinedwith the long ex- Publiclyand statemwned ports are bothgovern" perienceand know-howof fhe managementand ment~wned ports, althoughthere is a distinction executive officers. Summingvp, it may be between those that come directly under a govern- said that self~overning portsowe their growing mentdeparfment i.e. state-ownedport! andthose popularity in manyports of the world to; organizedvnder control of sometype of govern- their powerto shoulderthe heavy finan- mental agency . cial burden which the provision and main- tenanceof port and dock enfails With the state running the port, the national policy can be expectedto be evident. Theport maywell be 13

integrated with rail, road and waterway imparfial policy in relation to all forms serviceswhen they too are nationalized. of transport. Subsidies from state sources are nof un- known, parficularly where major develop- 3.3,1.5 Others ments are concerned ~ Fears of absentee Railway-ownershiphas been broughtabout direction, bureaucatic interference and in many cases by the practice often followed failure to apprecia te local conditions may by railway companiesof acquiring or build- be evident. It should be noted thaf state ing docks for the purposeof feeding their ownership in its present form is not ac- railway systemsor for use as terminals. Such companied by any reducfion in the number docksare regardedas independentprofit- of organizafions operating within the port. earning units. Theyare part of the service In facf, fhe state rarely seeks to do more offered by railway companiesto the trading than provide a port, leaving the users to or traveling communities. Railwaycompanies operate it. have been enabled by their good financial resourcesto spendlarge sumsin developing The major characteristics oF state-owned and improving docks. The major characteris- ports include: tics of railway"owned dock undertakingin- ~ ex c eI Ien t f ina nc ia I resources cludee: opporfunity for planning on a national good financial resources level ability to offset losseson docks, against impartial attitude to all methodsof profits earnedover the whole railway fransporf desirousof using the ports. sysf'em freedom from politica I considerations . 3.3.1 4 Municipal Municipal ports are usually administered by An ancient Formof port managemenfwhich a commiffeeof the local authorify. This still lingers in someparts of the world is thaf committeeis usually drawnenfirely from of control by customsadministrations of fhe members oF the town council who therefore country concerned. It is understandable that rely on re-election at municipal elections under primitive conditions the ruler oF a mari- fo continue their membershipon the com- time state shouldregard portsas meansthrough mittee. This systemcreates incentive for which much needed revenue could be channel- elected personsto take pride in a smooth ed, with the day by day runningof the port as operating port. However, there is litfle a secondaryobjective . guarantee that a newly elected committee- man will be well-informed on the problems The free port is a port area in which goods peculiar to the porf . Surplus revenuethat liable to import duties can be storedwithout shouldgo to port developmenfmay prove payrnenf of duty; this is paid when the goods too greaf a femptation fo city councilors with go ouf through the dock gate fo their destina- pet schemesfor municipal improvemenf. tion in the surroundingcountry. Theobvious advantage of fhis system is that foreign goods The major characteristics of municipal port can be dischargedfrom ships, put into ware- undertakings are: houses,processed and exporfedagain without - good financial resources having to pay duty to the national exchequer. ' ability to offset lossesagainst "invisible assets", such as employment for towns- peoplee 14

3.3.2 Operations

Theoperation of a port is a complexunder- taking. Dueto the overlappingof typesof portownership and administration, it hasbeen necessaryto establishsome sort of operational format. This has been successfully achieved in the formationof port authorities. Func- tions of port authorities vary but usually in- clude items such as: develo pmentplanning ' tra f fi c promotion ' ca pita l ra i sing independentterminal development leasing facilities operating transportationmodes ' operating harborequipment.

A majority of the port authorities of the &ited Statespossess the powerof right of eminent domo ln .

Thefollowing examples are the organizational charts of three selected ports.

Port of London, London, England

PortofNew York, New York City worldtrade

tunnels 8 bridges

Hoard of Executive Commissioners Director

termina I s rail transportation marine termina l s aviation 15

Mayor Deputy Port and Admini stra t ion generaI general affa irs Mayors Harbor Division affairs welfare Bureau departm 1st accounting 2nd accounting requisition

promotion~ promotion and research i research department management~management operations

port opera- marine tions de- wharfage partment 1st port service 2nd port service

Engineering planning 1st planning Division department 2nd planning engineering

engineering engineering works de- works partment inspection construction machinery el ectric

designde- ~ 1st designing partment L. 2nd designing

1stconstru- ~ 1st construction ction office i 2nd construction

2nd construc- 1st construction tion office 2nd construction

Rec I ama t ion construction designing Division department 1stconstruction 2nd construction

project department

Portof Osaka, Osaka, Japan 36

3.3,2.1 Cusfoms Ship related problemsor responsibilityof The primaryresponsibility of the U.S. Bureau cargo matters %II into the jurisdiction of of Cusfoms is fhe administration of the Traffic the CargoSuperintendents Department. Act of 1930, as amended. Their duties in- Usually one person either on staff of the clude: company or on contract assumesfhe duties ' assessment and collection of all duties, tax" out lined: es and fees on imported merchandise see that all booked or maniFestedcargo ' enforcement of customs and related laws is loaded or discharged administration of certain navigation laws ' note its condition on receipf and treaties. ' comply with the requirements of the master in the mafter of storage As an enforcement organization, it combats ' ensure fhot the stevedore's responsibilities smugglingand fraud and enforcesthe regula- are satisfactorily discharged. tions of numerousother federal agencies. The number of independently operated organi- Criteria for establishing a customsofFice is zations involved in executing porf and harbor basedlargely on volumeof businessin a port. functionsmay vary from suprisinglyfew fo Size of staff also is "dependent" upon many. The following list indicates several volume of business. Facility requirements typical types: are dictated by staff size, 4 . Carriers: ~ steamships 3.3.2.2 Physical barges The physical functions carried out in a port are ra i I roa ds divided into inboard and outboard functions mofor trucks with fhe transifion point being the ship's rail . airlines pi pennines. B. Storage Agencies: waterfront general storage agencies warehouses grain el evafors Free trade zones. C . Shipper and Shipper's Agents: shippers of freight receivers of freight customs brokers export agents . D . Freight Handlers: stevedores car and truck loaders and unloaders cooperage firms termina I cornpanies grain elevators ore, coal and other bulk handling, E . Vessel Agents: steamship agents steamshipbrokers. 17

F . Vessel Service Agents: G . Financial tnstitutions: towage firms banks vessel stores suppliers insurance firms, fuel suppliers H. industry: repair yards waterfront business firms dry dock firms free trade zones supplier of wafer and power. export subsidiaries of warehousing firms,

Diagram of cargo movement from vessel Source.' Port of Rotterdam

Temporary storage

Transit Customs Storage

Import IAIDO 4 3.4 Transportation 18

3.4.1 Land

The main function of the various transpor- This is the point about which all points on tation modesis the fast, efficient movement trailer «2 must rotate to misstrailer «1. of cargo. E. With the compasspoint on point X, swing 3,4,1, 'l Trucks trailer «2'snose around until pointA reaches Truck characteristics which relate to port Ai . Sketch trailer «2 into its positionas usageand planning include the weights, shown . sizesand turning radii . The following charts are an attempt to provide a reference guide F ~ Through the location of the kingpin p ex- for truck information, but detailed informa- tend a line back through point X. This line tion concerningeach state's vehicle laws then representsthe center line of the tractor must be used in the final planning of a parti- drive axle or bogie. From this drive axle cular port. center line, draw the tractor with the great- Ll est turning radius in its proper position with respect to trailer 2 in its second position.

G. With the compasspoint on the tractor front bumper oppositeside from the direction of the turn! scribe an arc equa'l to the turning radius of the tractor so that it intersects the center line of the tractor drive axle at point Y.

H, With the compassset at the turning radius of the tractor,place the point at Y and scribe CSrll&IIII ~ OI LlladlnyIIaLL loller aal~ an arc that representsthe curve through which Determining Maneuvering Equipment the bumper will travel .

A, Drawto scale trailers up againstthe load- I . Finally, measurethat distancefrom the dock ing dock at expectedminimum spacings. Use to that point on the curve just drawnwhich measurementsof longestand widest trailer ex- representsthe greatestdistance from the dock, pectedat dock with rear mostaxle or tandem Hasedon a Single Continuous Forward Move- position . ! ment, This Re resents the Absolute Minimum Distance Awa from the Dock Needed For Extend trailer «2 axle or tandem center line Maneuvering Area . in direction of turn. Minimum interference distances may be de- C . Drawchord AA1 from that point on the side creased by increasing the minimum spacing of trailer «2 where the axle or tandem center betweentrailers, by using trailers with the line intersects the side of the body, to the nose axle or tandem advance as far forward as cornerof theadjacent trailer «1!. Thisis a possible, by usingtractors with smallerturning chord of the curve through which point trailer radii and by usinga saw-toothedloading plat- «2 musttraverse to misstrailer «1. form design. Power steering can be of some help, for in a practical operationand for a D. Sisect chord AA1 and extend a perpendi- given turning radius, the less effort required cular line until it intersects the extension of to turn a tractor, the shorter the distance re- trailer «2 axle or tandemcenter line at point X. quired to maneuver the vehicle.

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3.4.1.2 Rail Anotherconcept utilized in the rail industry Rail movementof cargo representsa sizeable is the "unit train". Thisidea, not really volume. The types, sizesand numberof newto the industry,is growingin use. rail carsare many: Hasically, the concept is designedfor bulk general purpose box cars cargoes,such as coal, pelletized ore, potash, ' bulk head Flat cars phosphate,lead, corn, etc., which can be ' general and special purposeflat cars loadedaf one point then delivered uninter- ' specially equipped box cars rupted at the destinedport. ThIsowner of ' auto-veyor and saddleback flat cars the cargoleases the entiretrain for his cargo. ' gondola cars covered hopper cars Anofher concepf designedto competewith ' open-top hoppercars marine conveyanceis the "land bridge". ' refrigerafor cars ~ The land bridge is the utilization of land transportfor part of what would normally Eachrail line providestheir own sizesand be an acean voyage. Its infent is to move variations to each of the above as well as goodsby shortestdistance between two manycustom and special cars. Theonly poinfsat the fowesfelapsed fime and cost. ifem that remains constant is the wheel Containerizationis the key to bringing spacing to fit existing tracks. time and cost for land fransportto a com- petitive positionwith seatransport. Now" In 1968, the total U.S. fleet of freight cars ever, many experts in transportation believe wasapproximately 8'14,000, of which 70,000 it will be difficult for land bridgesto com- were added in fhat year, The trend has been pete with Ihe new faster confainer ships to larger cars. currently coming into service. The "piggy back" conceptrepresents 5/o of all car loading.

In 1968, there were approximately 1,337,000 railway car loadings, which carried 2,179',000 revenue producing units. This figure increases as more items are containerized.

Problemsgenerated by this increaseare pri- marily onesof congestion. Many shippers desire late afternooncoll ection and early morning delivery. To accommodate this, more trailer parking space is needed at the port . 22

Proposedroute of the "Land Bridge" Source: New Orleans, Centroport

doors Side t onl

Lowplatform High platform For all cars except refrigeratorcars

Buildingsand sheds Warehouseand Highplatforms serving Canopiesand awnings adjacent sidetracks enginehouse doors refrigeratorcars Source: Architectural Graphic Standards 23

NOTES TM5Co ARTFOR INFORJJIATIOh ONLY-NO LIAIKII ITY CAN SE ASSSISSEP ARCNTECTC,COHTRICTOIIS, E745«oujd C«ECA MTIasiciidaO 'HvdcvCD Giwzildi ~T j«owvIN lect AND INCNKl MEfol TIHIIEMTTIICH- Noel Lj«5 5tCcitr iacachstj rCI CJavl ~ aal NI~ C LC1Cv IT60 TIICI, Sir'CIL.VEISVNC'J~ CV TOPDF RAIL, ESCEPO CIHIOS ~ SASC OtRI L FOI OTHE~THIN PLATFORMS, 10IEDNTII.MEISIJRCC FloltCCNTC1 LiNEOF TRJCR. ARPLV0 Ncw COHSRHMCT!OH, SOMERECQHETaucrao» IHOlavE SRPEMZHN. SOMECr.r ~ E vARIED VPOL IafaovL. Ol IFPLICITION STSOISRNa«e MXM. AIESACCO OHVRAIVVN Caa'SISC FD1 ARIZQIJA. CII,IFORM!a. !OIHO.I NINE 90TA,NDhlfswl, INWIW. JeDITH OIHOTI, CICaoar IilDVas«INSTCN AREMPJIMHM EHCCPTCOL

LEJQALCLEARANC- R.LOUIREIJ:ENTS TI1401CI TERS Vf4TICAL .4 7011TJL 7 ' rcfiij 0 '5D 60 r<0 2-0 Ti-or0 2-02 0 210s-o s 0' e 0~ 0'8 0 0 0 e-~ MilaJN Ill I JO41il!j 1 0 40 <0 170'JDGI<01 30 rzc t Oz202hc''011111sr 60 el 7cuc-l 3 3 3 0 aiI < ' 3 IJJ'llJatjula Illa -I- -',-: IIG 80 IIQ 8.0 ~ C60 a-

3.4.2 Airborne

3.4.2.1 Air Transportation Presently, in termsof tonnage, air line cargo movementis relatively small. Air cargo con- sistsof primarily high value, low weight goods. In 1968, air cargo represented only 438, 900 tons, but its value was 6.2 billion dollars.

New high speed, high capacity air craft, such as the 747 and C-5A, together with increasing- ly fast groundhandling systems,will improve air cargo capacity and productivity and will lead fo lower ton-mile costs and probably lower freig ht rates .

It is predicted that by the year 2000air cargo could absorb 25/o to 35k of ocean borne general cargo .

3.4.2,2 Future The effect of V/STOL! Vertical/Short Take Off and LandingAircraft is yet to be Fully realized. The benefits are unlimited, pro- viding the aircraft can carry large payloads Source; economically. Thistype aircraft will permit R ional Air rt 2001 faster, more direct port-to-user delivery to inland areas.

Thereexist proposalsfor offshoreairports to eliminate problemsof noiseand air congestion. Thesesame air portscould be combinedwith deepwater portsto further intermodaltransportation.

Helicopterscan be an effectivemode for the movementof goods, due to their vertical lift capability. 25

3.4.3 Waterborne

"Insof'aras world pressures are concerned,the shipappears to becoming first. Thegrowing sizesof certaintypes of shipsare increasingly renderingmany traditional ports obsolete in termsof capabilities,and are forcingothers to adoptradically new handling,storage and distributiontechniques. In manycases, vast cargovolumes are involved which are already causingthe activities of supershipsto be con- centratedat newand often more remotely locateddeepwater, special ized harbors ."

Source:Harbor and Port Development,A Problemand an Opportunity. V.S. Army Corpsof Engineers,Ju y 1968,

1970 1980 1990 2000 Conta incr Max DWT in Ships/General World Fleet 25,500 33,500 43,500 50,000 Cargo Ships Len th feet 50 930 1 010 050 Beam f eet I 10 117 127 132 De th feet Dra f t feet! 39 40 Average DWT in World F lect 8 168 8 583 o43 Ta nke rs Max DWT in World Fleet 300,000 760,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 Length feet! 1,135 1,4 o 1, 570 1,570 Beam f eet 1 252 27 27 De th feet 9 129 142 1 2 Draf t feet 72 1 o4 10 Average DWT in World F lect 39 825 76 225 90 000 94 325 Dry Bulk Max DWT in Carriers World Fleet 105,000 185 000 317,000 400,000 Length feet 70 l,o4o 1, 230 1,325 Beam feet! 125 152 183 19 Depth feet! 71 99 10 Draft feet 57 71 Average DWT in World Fleet 14,750 18,750 23,575 27,350 Projected Vessel Characteristics 1970-2000 Source:V.S, Departmentof Transportation 26

3.4,3.1 Container5hips Roll-on/roll-off vesselsutilize cargoes that moveunder their ownpower. A majority of heavycargoes and large items that do not lend themselvesto containerizationsuch as farmmachinery and wheeled vehicles, utilize the roll~n/roll-off concept. Theadvantages of rol I -on/rolI off are: eliminatesloading by sling ' guaranteesunder deck stowage savestime and money no packing required!. Roll-on/rolloff requiresramp space to unload and load. slip wharf with wharf landing

Fullcontainer ships are being used more and more becauseas world wide generalcargo trade con- Containers tinuesto growso do vessel sizes. Container vesselsare replacing traditional break-bulk vesselsdue to theirfaster loading and unloading capabilities.Factors limiting the size of con- tainer vessels are: Oil, fuel . harbor orientation shoreside space ' existing distribution systems.

Water ballast 27

LASM Lighter Aboard Ship! and SEABEE are variations of the containership. These vessels carry bargesinstead of containers. The barges are actually floating containerswhich are dis- tributed to inland waferways,loaded at points of distribution, fhen floated in flotillas to shelter- ed water wherethey are lifted by ship cranes onto the deck of the mother vessel .

Advantages: ' goad where bargetrade is heavy from in- land areas ' could be utilized at developing portswhere little ar no facilities exist.

Disadvantages: ' loss of cargospace in mothervessel by barge proper ' barges and vesselexpensive ' barges do nof totally adapt to intermodal Loading BargesOnto LashVessel system . require calm wafer to load bargesaboard vessel

Dry bulk cargo vesselsare expected fo grad- ually increasein size but not as rapidly as container vessels.

The 080 Qil -Bulk-Ore! vessels are oriented in the samedirection as tankers;they also will confinue to grow until their draft exceeds the limits of existing harbors. It will then be necessaryto examine new methoclsof loading these vessels. 28

3.4,3,2 Tankers Incentive for vessel growth has been In May 1969,238 tankers, each in excess strongestfor crudeoil tankers. Increas- of 150,000 DW1',were under construction ing use of offshore terminals and new or on order. 50 were in service at that time deepwater harborslocated away from and 6 of the 326,000 DWTtankers had also traditional established ports have con- begunservice. In addition to tankers, a tributed to this trend ~ 146,000DWT bulk salt carrierand a '157,000 DWT ore-bulk-oil carrier were under construc- tion. Plans for a 215,000 DWT 080 were 1945 17 000 dwt under consideration .

%60 100000 dwt

1966 200 000 dwt

1NO 500000 dwt

Grawth in Tanker Size Factors influencing tanker size: . sharp and continued increasein world petrol eum demand increasedlength of haul from sources of supplyto refinery and consumption centers comparativeeconomics of tanker trans- porta t ion ' technological advancesin large vessel construction .

Operational constraintsof tankers: Tanker fleet now and proIected ' serious handling problems in restricted Source: Port and Harbor Development, A coastal and harbor waters Problem and An 0 rtunit ' threat of oil pollution causedby vessel casual it i es .

Future Concept- SubmarineTanker: Tankerloading from floating offshoreterminal Designedto bring oil from Arctic regions under the Artie ice-pack to ice free ports, these tankers could be loaded from undersea termi- nals while submerged, then unloaded at ice- fr ee portsby convent iona I methods. 29

3.4 .3 .3 8arges A barge is an unmannedvessel controlled by anothervessel and generally with no load- ing or unloading equipmenton board. Move- ~ mentof bargesis usuallydone by tug boat.

SubmarineTanker proposed!loading from underwater terminal Methods of barge movement Source: General Dynamics

Area servedby barge traffic from Portof New Orleans 30

Standard barge types

Deck Barge sizes inland offshore

Seagoing tank barge under tow

Load capacities of seagoing tank barges rangefrom 25,000 barrelsto 165,000 barrels. Tank bargeswith 240,000 barrels capacity for productssuchas liquid caustic soda, benzol, toluene, aqua ammonia, ethylene glycol as weI I as petroleum pro- ducts are in the planning stages.

The Alaska Hydro-Train, introduced in Oil Barges 1963, providesa direct rail link between a ft. b ft.! c ft. ca acit barrels Seattle and Alaska. The concept is to use 72 24 5 1, 200 marnrnothocean bargesas rollmn/roll-off 100 28 6.5 2,600 vesselscapable of handling up to 64 loaded 110 30 7 3,000 rail cars with various commodities. 120 30 7.3 3, 250 139 32 7.5 5,000 150 34 10 6,000 170 40 10 8,700 180 50 10 10,000 205 40 10 11,400 383 68 39.4 120,000 Transocean Barges: The concepf is to develop transocean trans- portation systemswith separable propulsion units tugsand barges!to competewith systems without separablepropulsion systems self-pro- peI'tedships!. Ocean barging is o relatively new mode of large-scale ocean transportafion, originating in the United States and Canada .

Transoceantug-barge systemadvantages over self-propel led vessels. ~ manning utilization ~ cargo-handling equipment ~ operational flexibr I ity .

The major disadvanfage is that it is a low speed mode of transportation.

Transoceanbarge sizes

Conta incr Bu Brea Bu CargoDWT 1,000 0,000, 0 Length ff! 450 485 252 Beam ft 85 105 55 De th ft 32 35 18 Draft ft 16 26 14

ProposedTransocean Container barge with capacity of 910 twenty foof containers Source: TransoceanTug-Barge Sysfems 3.5 Cargo Handling 32

3.5.1 Method

Cargohandling is the preparafion, placing and positioningof goodsto facilitate their movementor storage. The primaryobjective is to promoterapid ship turn around. To accomplishit severalfactors play an impor- tanf parf: ~ planningwork in cooperationwith ports and shipsbefore ship actually arrives ~ maintainingclose coordinationbetween ship and shore ~ establishingand quickly implemenf ing correcf unloading procedures ~ utilizing ships equipment to maximum ~ having required dock facilities at point of unloading securingrequired dock crews ' following customsprocedures ' ensuring that cargo is properly stowedin sheds.

Several factors which can increase the effi- ciency of materialshandling: ' increasing size of unit being handled ' maximizing equipment efficiency increasingdock area by usingair rights ' practicing safety for ship, cargo and personnel ' flexibility in equipment ' standardizing equipmentand methodsof cargo handling.

Careful planningof stowagein transit sheds eliminates duplication of efforts and improves operation efficiency: ~ minimize distance cargo has to move from transit shed to sh

eliminate traffic congestion and inferference .

Comparisonof palletized unit loadswith loose cargo in a typical shipmen t Source: Material s Handling 33

Methods of Cargo Mandling by Cargo Types: ' promotes an economical transportation A . Weavyand Large Bundles: of cargo ' handled on the wharf by forklift or other reduces pilferage, damageand labor equipment with special attachments handling costs. ' readily loadedor dischargedto vesselsby various slings ' confine stowage to machine handling capa- bil ities for optimum effi ci ency .

8. Unitized and Pre-Falletized Cargo: ' normally handledby forklifts, paperroll grabs, hydraulic clamping devicesor other attachments for liR trucks as required ' optimum speed attained by machine stowing cargo up to 8' high permitting easy tiering with stability and eliminating the need for dunnage .

C . Loose Packages: Stowage of modular units within a container ' delivered loose by land transport to transit Source: Container Services of the Atlantic shed 1970 ' hand-loaded onto pallets moved about shed for storage or to ship on same pallets ' unloaded by hand labor in the shipshold.

Routeof typical container transportsystem Source; Auckland Harbor Board, New ealand

D. Containers: ~ small items or bulk materials are packed into larger re-usable containers ' can be transported over land in samecon- tainers as shipped ' large scale container operation requires special equipment aboard ship or on wharf entry cranes, straddletrucks, etc.! 3.5.2 Equipment

E . RolI-on/Rol I off: Thistechnique requires ships which haveside or end doorsthrough which vehicles may be driven. For maximumefficiency, a port needs to be equippedwith moveableapproach ram~, suchas thoseused at ferry ships, which are capableof adjustingto tidesand ship sizes.

3.5.2.1 Ships Gear A majority of ship loading is carried out by ships gear because: ' vessel can dischargegoods when unableto dock at berths vesselcapabilities are oftengreater than port capabilities, especiallyin developing countries in caseof shoresidepower failuie, vesselcan unload without being delayed.

Typicalcargo vessels from the pastare equipped with a pair of cargobooms over each hatch. Ouringoperation, one is positionedover the offshoreedge of the hatch, the other overhanging the wharf. Cargohooks hang from a link to which both hoisting lines are attached. By joint mani- pulation of two winches, the operatorcan drop the hook into either side of the hold and maneuver the load vertically or horizontallyat high speeds, 35

a. Exampleof two swingingbooms doubling up w ith a trave 1 ingbloc k b. Exampleof two swingingbooms doubling up with an equalizing beam Source: Marine Cargo Operations

New vesselsare being constructed with ship cranesin adieuof conventionalships gear because: ~ more effective . manipulate loads over a greater area ' decks are free of rigging ' easier to operate one crane will replace two pairs of cargo booms ~ Ship crane unloading lumber 36

3 .5 .2 . 2 Port Equipment The standard two wheeled hand trucks and four wheeled platformtrucks remainan essential tool in material handling, espec- ially in areaswhere labor is inexpensive and the purchaseof mechanizedunits is not warranted. Soth are economical only on shorttrips and are frequently usedinside ship hol ds.

Wharfsidecranes are usedextensive'ly because of their large area of deposit. Thesecranes are generallymounted on tracks. Dockcranes are groupedinto three genera'lcategories. cantilever - mountedon roof of dock shed with level luffing jib ~ semi~antry- one setof legssupported by a rail alongthe faceof a pier shedwall; has revolving capabilities ~ fulI archgantry - aI Ilegs supported on wheel s with track mountedin apron; has revolving Reproducedby permissionof CascadeCorp. capa bil i ties, Fork lifts have done more than any other single device to revolutionize cargo handling on the wharf. Theycan pick up unit loadsor palletizedloads off the apron, transferthem to transit sheclsand stack them, 16 to 18 feet high. Fork lifts are consideredefficient for horizontal movementup to 150feet, They have attachments enabling them to handle a multitude of special cargoes~

Twoexamples of twowheeled hand trucks: a . Westernstyle b . Easternstyle Source: Marine Cargo 0 rations 37

Mobile cranes perform a similar function to Travel loader, or side carrier, is a combina- that of a fork lift, but they possessa boom tion fork lift and straddle carrier. It has fhe and sling fhat extends 3 to 4 Feet above the ability to carry Ionglengths and very large load which does not allow them to stack loads. It utilizes its own set of forks. material or operate close to the underside of ceiling structures . The prime advantages Overheadmanorail sysfemskeep the deck of mobile cranes are: clear of movingvehicles. Theyhave been better handling of Iong and awkward usedsuccessfully for manyyears, but pri- objects marily in specializedapplicafians where ' designed to operate in close quarters only onecommodify is continuallyhandled relatively smalland easyfo maneuver. over a short, fixed route .

Tractor trains are used where the distance Conveyorsare usedfor loading and unload- betweenshipside and storageis too great for ing shipsfrom side ports, trucks, rail cars the efficient use of fork lifts. This sysfern and for movingcargo within the wings of a consistsof tractor drawn trains and low-bed, ship. Thereare two general typesof con- small wheeled trucks which are generally veyors: loadedFrom ship by shipsgear and unloaded gravity conveyars - which are wooden or by fork lifts. steel chutes fitfed with steel rollers or wheels;generally usedfor light loads Straddlecarriers were originally developed . power conveyors - used For various types for the efficient handling of lumber. They of cargo; kinds include endless belt, end- are now used for items such as lengths of lesspocket or bucket,screw and pneu- pipe, steel rails, steel plates, multiple pal- matic elevatorsor air conveyors. let loads and containers. The load is built upon bolsfers and the carrier runs over it. The flangesof the hoistingarms are position- ed under the bolsters and the load is hoisted. The load can be picked up and releasedin 30 seconds. It can be gripped to prevent displacement while traveling up to 35 mph.

Straddlecarrier positioning above a containerPortable belt conveyars presently inuse 38

3.5.2.3 Floating Equipment

Typesof pallets Source: Marine Cargo Operations

A floating pneumaticelevator used for loadingand unloading barges and buik ships Source: Materials Handling

Pallets are double platforms separated a few inchesby batten strips to permit the insertion of fork lift forks. The top plat- form supportsthe load and the bottomone providesa flat surfacefor stacking. Gen- erallyy pal lets are of woad construction.

Pneumatic or vacuum pumpsare used in handling bulk commoditiessuch as oil and grains, Theseare incorporated in grain elevators, oil tanks and floating grain elevators. The cargo is discharged from the ship by flexible pipes inserted into the hold.

Pinwheel Brick 39

A tug boat'sprimary Iob is to meet shipsat the harbor entrance and guide them to the berth. Tugspush or pull f.heship into a cor- rect course to speed up the docking proce- dure. Themovement of bargesand many itemsof floatingequipment are providedby tug power . Generally tugs are privately owned and are contracted for service.

Floating drydockscan be usedas graving docks. By flooding tanks which form part of its hull,if can be submergedto a sufficient depth to allow shipsto be floated into it. Whenthe ship is in position the dock is pumpeddry, leaving the shipsitting on Examplesof typesof dredges; blacks. Advantagesof floating dry docks: 1. grab dredges ~ do not require space on land 2. cutter suctiondredges ~ can be relocated 3, cutler suctiondredges ~ canbe alteredto meet.increasing ship 4. trailing suctiondredges. s'Ize Source: Costain - Blankevoot Int'I . ' does not affect main stream of traffic, Dredging Co . Ltd .

Dredgesare the meansby which harbors and channelsare deepenedor maintained.

Grab dredgerat Port of New Orleans 40

Fire boats are used to combat fires aboard ships and on piers, wharfs and water- front Facilities in support of land based Fire Fighting equipment. 3.6 Labor

3.6.1 Type

The primary function of labor is to assistvessel loading and unloading. Labor is involved in the transferof cargo from fransportationmode to storage and vise versa . It is their endeavor to movecargo as fast, safeand efficient as possible fo aid vessel turnarovnd time.

3.6,1 .1 CasualEmployment In port personnel,fhere is a line betweenap- pointed staff and casual labor, fhe former gen- erally beingemployed regularly and paida fixed salaryand fhe latter hiredas neededon a per hourper day basisor on a performancebasis measuredby physical units of cargo handled.

Waterfront employmentis casual in nature because it is dependentupon the time a ship in in port. Dueto shipschedule fluctuations the following list of problemareas occur: It is difficult fo maintain a regular work force It is difficult for dock worker to anttcipate increasedue to irregular work periods Problemin esfablishingan employee/employer relationshipbecause labor is hired by multiple employers for short duration "Lod brok" largest floating crane in the Port lf is difficult for labor to plan acfivities ahead of Stockholm, hasa maximumlifting powerof due to ship schedulefluctuations and long 260 tons and maximum lifting height of 35 working hourswhen ship is in port meters. It contains ifs own propulsion ma- Dock work is generally hard, unpleasantand chinery with a speed of 5 knots . subject to changingweather conditions, Source: Port of Sfockholm, Sweden

Floating cranes have become a standard faci- lity in mostmodern ports. They have several advantages over land-based cranes: ~ self propelled or havled by tvgs easily movedto sife of lift ' can serve other functions besides ship loading . 42

3.6.2 Structure / Organization

Theport labor force is organizedin a closed shopstructure composed of registereddock workers. A laborer generally wil I not be em- tots I port ployedunless he is registeredwith a localboard registrst run by the union. Theunion serves as an agent for port labor. Theyobtain jobsfrom em- ployers stevedores!and distributethem among 70 POl't the membership.The union maintainsand quota controlsthe size of the permanentregistered dock worker supply. regulars Theunion negotiatescontracts, sti pulating baserates of pay, overtime periods and numerousworking conditions, including grievancesand disciplinary procedures. The union is chargedwith administrationof sums 20 providedby employersfor laborwelfare 10 amenitiesas well as for minimal job train- irregulars ing programs. Cl I Cl Cl I Cl C a o a a E Z Cl Cl Z o 0 o

Comparisonof 8 Australianports 965! of percentof laborforce; Alsocompares the regular vs. irregular percentof total regis- tered labor force Source: SeaGateway of Australia

demand supply of labor suppl y of equipment supply of facilities

Network used to get dock labor for a vessel 43

3.6. 3 Occupational Structure 3.6.4 Aie

Theestimated major difference in the occupa" According to a 1968 census,dock labor has tionaI structurebetween the ports,transport remained fairly constant. Recruitmenf has industry and the labor force as a whole is in compensafedfor vacancies, but an inbalance fhe percentageof unskilled labor employed. may be created if: ~ a movefrom manualskills to highly skilled 5. 6o/o 3. 6o/o Proprietors padnag and professionallytrained labor comesabout 17 Oo/ clerica I 11. 2o/o 1. 2/o whichwilt generatea retrainingproblem for 3 3o/o professional and presen t personne I techni ca I - recruitment does nof balance vacancies cargo handling methodschange. semi-ski fled and 73. P/o other manual 84o/o Thedock labor force is substantiallyolder including regis- than other industries. There is a much smaller fered dock worke proportionof young employeesand nearly double the national proportionof menover the ageof 64. It is becomingapparent that Nationa I Port fhe age structure of the industries labor force labor labor wiII presentserious replacemenf and recruit- force force mentproblems just to maintainpresent condi- tions.

Occupational strucfureof port transportin- dustrycompared with British industryas a whol e Source; British National Ports Council

According fo the above chart, it can be assum- ed that the occupationsin the upperone/third of the chartswill tend to increasein the port industry fo match fhe national labor Force. Mowever,fhe projection oF port labor over the next twentyyears indicates that the pro- porfion of labor will remainrelatively con- sfanf .

A breakdownuf percentagesof peopleper- manentlyemployed in 11major British ports indicated that 5O/o of the total labor force are regisfered dock workers and the remaining 5 P/oare made up of operational staff suchas: shunfers,Iockmen, launchmen, watchmenand maintenancepersonnel, etc .

Estimatedpercent reduction import labor force fhroughretiremenf only Source: British National Ports Council 44

3.8.5 Mechanization

ASource: comparisonBritish of Nationalage structurePortsCouncilFromtheabovecharttwoconclusionscanbe

del ermined: ' when bulk cargo is handledby labor,the dock workers are responsible for only 5 P%%dof the turn around rate of vessels in a port; the other 50%%dcan usualIy be attributed to waiting on facil ities ' when labor is engaged in handling non-bulk cargo the workers are almost solely responsi- ble for the turn around rate of vessels in port.

Estimated reduction in British dock labor force assuming no recruitment 45

3.6.6 Safety

Thefollowing figure comparesthe efficiency Dock work is a hazardousoccupation. in a loading and discharging operation over attentionhas fo be focusedon safety. It is an 8 hour shift for three different cargo types. important that labor and managementwork It becomesobvious that efficiency of cargo carefully together to eliminate conditions or handling in terms of tons per man increases practices conducive to accidents. The follow- with the Ievel of mechanizationemployed. ing are minimumsfor the reduction of accidents: establishnew injury classificationsfor statis- tical and control purposes introductionof newly developed, safe mechanical aids ' extensive training in accident prevention adequatelighting for night work first aid facilities periodic medical examinations for workers frequent inspection of winches and mechan- ical equipment properventilation of enclosedspaces to keep carbon monoxide below .019o Source: British National Ports Council ' strict observanceand application of pre- vailing rules and regulationsconcerning fire, Port development is turning more and more intoxication, hazardousareas, etc . to mechanized systemsof cargo handling which is creating a great deal of concern in port labor forces. Theyfear elimination of the demandfor port labor. But there are advantagesfor port tabor as well; systemswill: ' create the need for skilled workmen ' create speciaHzed tasks demanding higher pay scales eliminate muchof the unpleasantfactors of dock work.

1/0 Ton/ho r Cost/hour

Cost/Ton

Reportedaccidents and fatalities at the docks Source: Pacific Maritime Association of the British Port Industry

Source;British Ministry of Transport 46

3.6.7 Work Hours 3.6.8 Wages

The regularwork hoursduring which basic pay Thewages paid to the dock worker are usually is earnedare generally fixed, 8uf it is often paid upon either an hourly basisor on piece difficult to match ship dischargeand loading rate,' paid per ton, sack, bale or other unit of operationsto regular working shifts. ln order measurement.The hourly systemis usually to accomplishprompt dispatch of shipsand basedupon an agreed hour related to the work- maximizeshore efforts, work beyondnormal ing unit. Three rates apply depending on time hoursis often required. in vol ved: ~ standard time regular rate! 3.6.7.1 Overtime overtime usually 5 P!ohigher than standard This is the most common method for extending time! normalworking hours. Disadvantagesof double time double standard time rate!. overtime: ' physical exhaustionof labor force due to Piece rates are generally most useful in stimu- long and hard hours lating output when applied to a consistent ' reduced output of tired labor increases volume of standardized cargo. To achieve the cost per ton of cargo handled most effective use of the unit rate, it must be ' accident potential increases classified according to the following conditions: ~ weight Advantages: ~ stowage conditions moremoney for labor. handling procedures condition of cargo hazardous,sticky, cracked!. 3.6.7,2 Shift This is an incentive method for ports that permitshigher utilization of port facilities, reducesthe need for capital expenditures, and facilitates more rapid turnover of ships.

Disadvantagesof shift method: . requiresincrease in the numberof register- ed dock workers which creates an unecono- mical increasein pensionablestafF shifts conflict with maintenance and repair workof portequipment which is generally carried on during non-working hours. 3.6.9 Amenities and Welfare 3.6.10 Manpower

In but a few ports do adequate amenities Many schemesand plans have been initiated for dock labor exist. The facilities pro- in an attempt to solve labor problems,enhance vided should include: dockworker status and increasethe efficiency . sanitary accommodations of dock labor. Decasualization is a scheme . washing facilities and changing rooms with many favorable merits: eating Facilities reduction of fluctuation of employmentby first aid facilities . reducing the number of labor contractors ' increase security of employmentby pro- Labordoes not qualify for the Financial viding a steady income level security measuresprovided by the port increasethe efficiency of employees authorities for appointed staff, however, . provicfe a way to control the number of the labor unions have undertaken to com- employeesin a port. pensate~embers by providing Fringebene- fif' payments. In recent years, pension plans have been introduced together with planned compulsory retirement . 48

3.6.11 Training

Theobjective of a training programis to esta- ~ supervision so they can understand how to blish a permanent,qualified labor force capa- read ship stowageplans and cargo place- ble of handling multiple situations. This is ment in transit shedsand warehouses, proper achieved by: tal]ying and record keeping, as well as organi- understanding mechanization procedures zing labor gangs stimulating pride in workmanship ~ crews involved in maintenance of port ' promoting safety and teamwork equipment, structures and facilities. introducingan apprentice programwith suf- ficient salaryto recruit young!trainee Advanced training is offered for tally men and workers weighers to qualify them for certification as a establishingperformance criteria to evaluate weigher and measurer. Advanced training may workers. be offered to supervisorsand checkers. This level is primarily theoretical designedfor Existingtraining programshave two levels: the general education level of the trainees. basic and advanced. The basic training program is composedof practica'1and theoretical sessions involving familiarization with the harbor, with Some ports have attempted to introduce teenage proceduresin the arrival anddeparture of vessels,students into apprenticeship programswhere w]th ship layout, the nature of port business, they receive part-time instruction, general cargogear, machinery, safety, first aid and education, on a partly paid basis. with hygiene. Practical instructionsare given in lifting, hoisting, tallying, shedand cargo Problemsconnected with training programs: wark, stowage and dunnaging of goods in ~ recruitment of qualified instructors vessels,driving fork lifts and handling of bulk ' provision of adequatetraining faci]ities cargoes. This programis offered to selected attitude of older workers towards education staff and employeesinvolved in: process . loading and unloadingwhich requiresthe knowledge of the operation of not on] y mechanical lifts but transport equipment A suggestedpattern for manpowerplanning as well Source: 8ritish National Ports Council 3.7 Support Industry 49

Supportingindustries are natural products abrasivesplant - mineral wool insulation plant of porfs. They use fhe raw maferials accessible basicoxygen steel plant and hot rolling mill at a port and utilize the transportation modes steel pipe plant for distribution of their products. Many in- aluminumreduction plant dustries need waterfront locations because of: aluminumrolling and drawing mill availability of barge service metal cans plant, hardwareplant considerable amounts of water valvesand pipefittings plant, metal sfampings ' waste disposal plant imported raw materials marine.and traction diesel engine plant ' close proximify to primary economical tractor and farm equipmentplant transportafion for foreign markets. oilfield machineryand equipment plant bulldozer and crane plant Industry is selected For location at a port pump and compressorplant, refrigeration and basedon "desirability criteria": air conditioning plant environmental capability electrical motorand generatorplant ' employment density electrical controls planf ' demonstratedgrowth, locally and truck and bus bodiesplant nafional ly truck trailors plank potential for generating port cargo. shipyard, boat building and repair plant railroad car plant Criteria for industryfo locate at portsare: trailer coach plant, proximity to local and export markets availability of labor B. Marine Related Industry: ' availabilify of ship, rail, barge and boats, amphibiousvehicles truck transportation marineand land geophysicatsurvey proximity to production materials ' oceanic instrumentation manufacturers ' availability of low cosf utilifies water, ' tug and barge transport power and fuel! drilling rigs and associatedequipment manu- ' availability of special port services. facturer marine constr uct ion The following selected examples indicate the ship brokers and chartering wide cross section of supporting industries af electronic equipmentfabricators and manu" a typical port: facturers fishing 4 . GeneraI Industry: tourist and recreation sugar refinery developand manufactureheavy duty main- ' pulp and paper mill fenance coatings corrugated shipping container plant chemical recovery from seawafer . methanolplant pipe manufacturer butyl rubber plant ship buil ding ~ mixed fertilizer planf diving and salvage ' plastic products plant ship repair flat glass plant oyster shelI ' portland cement plant concrete manufacture clay soil pipe plant sales and service oF marine craft engineering, manufacturing, equipment and vehicles . 3.8 Safety 50

3.8.1 Types of Fires 3.8.2 Firefighting Agents

3.8.1.'i Class A 3.8.2.1 Fire Main System Firesin ordinarycombustible materials such as TheFire main system aboard a vesselis a mattresses,dunnage, piles of woodand shav- systemof permanentpiping which receives ings,canvas, etc. Thesefires are best ex- water pumpedfrom the seaand deliversit tinguishedby the quenchingand coolingeffects to fire hydrantsstrategically located through- of quantitiesof waferor waterfog . out the ship.

3,8.1.2 Class B Firesin substanceslike gasoline,oil, diesel oil, lubricatingoil, tar, grease,etc. This type of fire requiresa blanketingor smother- ing effect producedby an extinguishingagent.

3.8.1.3 Class C Firesin live electricalequipment such as switch board insulation, transformerterminalsr etc. Theextinguishing agent must be non- conductiveto eliminate the hazard of electrical shockto the fire fighter.

3.8.1 4 Class D Fires in combustiblemetals such as-magnesium, sodium,titanium, lithium, etc. Fire hydrant outsidestation

3.8.2.2 Water Water as a cooling agent is the mostcommon methodof fighting fires. Generally water is superiorto otheragents and is usuallyavail- able in ample quantitiesat low cost. Water, in the form of 6g, hasthe greatestcapacity for heatabsorption of all the extinguishing agentspresently in use. Fogalso has the capa- bility to dilute combustiblevapors as the fog turnsto steamby the heatof the fire. lt also forcesair away fromthe fire, therebyremoving the oxygenneeded to supportcombustion.

3.8.2,3 Foam Foamis an effective agent for ClassB firesand some Class A fires. Foam has a few disadvan- tages,namely: it conductselectricity, it's not alwayseffective on Rowingliquids and it's not effectiveat extremelylow temperatures under 10 F.!. 51

3.8.2.5 Steam Thesteam smothering system is oneof the oldest types oF fire-fighting methods used aboard tank vessels. Its primarypurpose is to smotherfires in enclosedor confined spaces. Steamalso coolsthe fire anddilutes vaporm ir mixturesto a pointbelow combustion. This system is not installedon vesselsconstructed today.

3.8.2.6 Dry Chemical Dry chemical extinguishersare effective on all ClassB andC fires. On ClassC fires,fhe residue, a powder, renders electrical contacts and relays inoperativewhich is a minor dis- advantage. However, there are several ad- vantagesthe dry chemical hasover CO2: ~ greater range stream provides excellent shield for the fire-fighter .

Operation of mechanical foam pickup unit

FoamFor fire-extinguishing purposes onboard tank vesselsis of two types: chemicaland mechanical. The characteristic difference is in the equipmentfor producingthe Foam. The nozzel used for mechanical Foamadds air to the chemical bearingsfream ofter the chemi- cals have been dissolvedin if, whereasthe nozzle for chemical foam does not add air.

3.8.2.4 CarbonDioxide CO2! Thisagent is an excellenf smotheringagent for exfinguishing Class 8 and C fires in lo- cationswhere it can nof be widely diffused or, if the Fire is beyondthe incipienf stage, where it is not blown away by drafts. Carbon dioxide is mosteffecfive when applied in an areawhere it will remainas a coverlang "30 pound"dry chemicalextinguisher enoughto reducethe oxygenlevel below the sectionaI view! point of combustion. Caution if oxygen is madeavailable to fires extinguishedby CO2 it is possibleto rekindle them. ! 52

3.8.3 Fire Prevention 3.8.4 Medical

Major areasof concerncontributing to the Genera'Ipractices required for safeoperation difficulties of fire fighting in marinefacili- concerningdock personnel: ~ care and maintenance of cargo handling ties are: largeundivided areas of transitsheds and equipment warehouses useof properhandling gear inaccessibilityof piersto fire fighting team ' maintaining high degreeof light without ~ the variafion in typesof quantities of glare cargoes stored. ' clear understandab!e work assignments ' constant awarenessof safe procedures. Thefollowing items are presentlyused in the preventionoF fires: 3.8.4,1 Medical Centers marine terminals constructed of incombust- Somemajor ports provide medical centers for ible materials desirablefire resistive con- maritime personnel. Generally thesecenters struction! are usedfor peopleinvolved in international ' pier andwharf substructure of incombustible shipping. They provide: material ' presign-on physical examinations dockopenings for hosenozzles to substruc- diagnosisand treatmentat clinic tures or sprinkler system ' ambulance service fire-st'opsand Fire-walls innoculat ion s ' storagestructures with sprinklersystems ship calls to administer treatment and standpipe systems inventoryof medicalstores aboard ship ' interior fire alarm boxesprovided af Standard personnelto treat victims of accidents Insurance Underwriters specified minimum on the open sea . ' spacingfor useby pier personnel . readyaccess to site by local fire department. 3.8.4.2 Quarantine Regulations Quarantine regulations are necessaryto pre- vent the spreadof an infectious diseasefrom an incomingvessel to the countryin which the port is located. Mostnational regulations are based on the International Sanitary Con- vention with reference to the following diseases: plague,yel low fever, cholera,sma1 I pox Variola major! andalastrirn Variola minor!, fyphusfever Exanthematic!and febris reccurrens relapsing fever!. If there is a patient suffering from any infectious diseaseon ship, or if a memberof fhe crew or passengerhas suffered or died in conse- quenceof an infectious disease,the masterof fhe vesselis obliged to inform fhe harbor master of the portof entry. Thevessel will be kept out of communication with shore or craft until necessarymeasures have beentaken by health official s .

View of typical warehouselocation of fire extinguishers 53

3.8.5 Navigation Alcts

Navigation aids function to warn vessels Fixed structurechannel markerspossess: of hidden dangersand to provide direction ~ lights in safe waters. The types of aids vary with . anchored to bottom the waterways ond the functions they serve. ' radar reflectors.

There are two basic types of navigational Fixed-structure beacon lights are located on aids, floating and fixed, which include.. projecting ends of breakwaters and on the salient ' floating buoys pointsof land projecting into the navigationaI ' fixed structure channel markers waters at harbor entrances. ' navigational lights on piers, wharves and dol phins Lighthousesare tower structures fixed! with ' fixed-structure light beacons on shore marine beacons lights, fog signals, sound de- and breakwaters vices and radio stations. They are located ' lighthouses on pointsalong the shoreto guide vessels light ships safely to port and require durablestructure to ' range I ight installations on framed struc- withstandheavy wave action . Lighthouses tures on shore. require long visibility to be effective.

l.ighted Buoy Spar Buoy Lighted Buoywith Light shipsserve the sameFunctions as light housesand may be mannedor unmanned. Radar Reflector Radarlight installationsare usedto guicte shi pping through hazardous, narrow or twisting port entrances and channels. The structure is generally a metal frame with a unidirectional marine range light lantern on top. Theyare poweredby shoreelectricity. Critical factors include the distance between lights, the height of the lights and the candle-I ight sensitivity of the I ight.

Nun Buoy Can Buoy SphericalBuoy

Selected buoy types Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 54

Radarreflectors reflect an echo back to the transmittingvessel to warnships of theirpresence or to marka particular location .

Propertiesof marinebeacon lightlanterns: ~ typeof lanterns ~ typeof lenses ~ sun-controlled switches ' flasher mechanisms ~ automaticlamp changes.

Locationand purposeof variousnavigational International buoyagesystem a I cls. Source: The Port Managementof Amsterdam 3.9 Finance 55

3.8.6 Marine Safety 3.9.1 Objectives

SomeoF the worst ship accidents have oc- Portsusually do not haveany direct stimulus curred in harborsor inland waterways. The other than their financial performanceand causeshave been attributed to poor vessel therefore mustestablish goals in financial design, improper maintenance, over-load- terms. Theymust take into accountstatutory ing, poor navigation, weather and bad obligations and other special circumstances judgement on the part oF the ships officers. appropriated to the individual port. The majority of these,after careful analysis, were found to have been preventable. The RochdaleCommittee oF England establish- ed severalfinancial objectives that a port The Coast Guard is concerned with merchant should attempt to achieve: marine safety, aids to navigation, search ~ depreciationat replacementcost and rescue. ' working expenses interest on loans The Merchant Marine inspection office has ' taxation the task of inspectingship constructionand a reserve to meet contingencies to assist structural alterations from the drawing board in financing minor improvements. to actual launching. They also inspectcargo handling equipment, life boats and other If financiaJobjectives are not met then pro- safety equipment aboard ship. blemsarise for portssuch as. insufFicient resources available to modern- Thecaptain oFa port's own vesselis charged ize and developas required with the responsibilityoF inspectingvessels ' cannot combattrade pattern Fluctuations and waterfront facilities for proper stowage ' cannot offset high cost ot' labor with the of dangerouscargo. His personnel provide economics of mechanization supervision of fhe loading of explosives and ' replacement costsexceed original costs radioactive materials. They then provide and differenceshave not been properly escort away from the port proper. prepa red for ' new loansat higher interest replace old loans at much lower interest rates premature obsolescenceof port facilities broughtabout by advancedship and trans- Port warehouse fire portation technology. Reproducedby permissionof U.S. Coast Guard 3.9.2 Revenue

3,9.2,1 Charges ' charges for handling Chargesare designedto insureenough revenue ~ charges for other services and facilities. to meetthe financial objectives of the port. Theyshould be basedon the needof a port Dues on vesselsconsist of harbor dues, sovereign- with respectto the particular servicesthe port ty, and stay within the port area, as well as provides. dockagecharges wharf, buoys, anchorage!, pilotage, towage, mooring, line handling, A difficult problemin determininga standard etc. Duesare charged to a ship owner on the chargestructure based on cost, arisesfrom the basis of the net registered tonnage of the ship variations of unit costs at different cost centers with respect to these variables: offering similar facilities to users. The fol- nature of voyage lowing chart indicates the percentage varia- ' reason for anchorage storm, repair, etc.!. tion in the charge level of major English ports. Dues on goods are more commonly referred to as port rates, dock rates, wharfage rates, quay rates, etc. They are levied on all goods ship- ped or received at port and are chargeable based on unit weight, volume or number. Duesare paid to the port authority.

To apportion charges between vessel and cargo is a difficult task. In practice, charges are usually basedupon one or the other, separately. Vessel charge: ~ waterway and berthing areas ~ 5 Pk of open wharFsand included land aprons ' all of land supportingaprons and 5 F/oof land supporting aprons with tracks Source: British Ministry of Transport aisle space within the shed used by vessel or its agents in receiving cargo or de! ivering it to ln assessingcharges in a new facility which a point of storage, together with a proportionate is in the building up stageof its development share of the supporting land and has not established itself, it would be pro- services covered by "Service Charge" hibitive to calculate charges based on actual office and other spaceused by vesselsclerical costs. In this case,charges are usually based Forces . on estimate'daverage cost. Thistype of charge requires a continual review in order to avoid Cargo charges: undercharging . all land not previously covered ' all trackage and its supporting structure Portoperating revenuesare generally derived ' 50% of open wharfs from: ' aisle spacenot coveredin vesselcharge ~ charges against vessels all cargo areas within sheds ~ charges against cargo all other trackage, roadway, etc. . rental of space within port limits any servicesrendered for the benefit of cargo. ~ passengerdues where applicable Chargesfor other servicesand Facilities cover a wide range of items suchas cranes, grabs, weighingrnachine, graving docks, supply of freshwafer, warehousing, electricity, fuel, etc .

There has been a good deal of talk concern- ing standardizationof port charges, but each porthas its own inherentproblems that make suchcharges difficult to ascertain.

Percentdistribution of 1965/66 Revenue

Percentdistribution of 196'/65 Expenditure

Port of LosAngeles Income Distribution 1969 Source: Portof LosAngeles, California

Source: Portof 8ombay, India Source: American Association of Port Authorities g plannin9 58 4.1 Design and Construction 59

4.1.1 Decision 4.1.2 Preliminary

Factors affecting the decision to build a port: After establishing the general requirements for a port it is necessaryto makea preliminary 4.1.1.1 Need and Economic Justification site study supplementedwith cost estimate to serve a growing inland metropolis based on assumptionsthat will require verifi- ' to serve as a shipping terminal for private cation in the final analysis. industry ' to serve as a military terminal or naval 4.1 .2.1 Preliminary Site Information base . Information Fromseveral proposedsites fo be compared will be derived from: A private port will have to show economic Marine Data: feasibility whereasa municipal or military depth of water port will tend to grow out of necessity. general character of bottom range of tides and current 4.1.! .2 Traffic Volume Met coro i ogi caI Da ta: A survey of anticipated future commerce w ind type and quantity! will be required for muni- tern pera ture cipal ports. A private port musthave a guar- ra infa I I anteed tonnage. Topographical Data: ~ shoals 4.1.1.3 Inland Communication ~ reefs The inland transportation routes require study ~ mouths of rivers to determine feasible locations for road, rail, ~ shore I ine water and airways to service the port . Geographical Information: ~ depth and presenceof rock ~ depth of overburden ~ soils.

4.1.2.2 Selection Criteria The following factors will play an important role in the final selection: ' amount of dredging minimize! ' most favorable bottom conditions ' most suitable shore area for terminal develop- ment transportation accessibility development future of area depth of water exposure of coast ' orientation.

Decision Matrix In areas where tide is 2 to 3 feet, the adjacent land area should be approximately 15 to 20 feet higher. If tides are higher or the area is subject to tidal waves, then even higher elevation is desirable. River locations where flood conditions exist may require higher elevation also. 60

4.1 .2.3 Harbor Layout Considerations Theselection of the type of breakwaterdepends A. Harbor and turning basin on: 8. Berthing and anchor area direction of maximum wave C. Breakwaters ' the eFfectivenessof quieting waves. D, Entrance and exit E. Channel and harbor depth Basic breakwater configurations: F. Installations, facilities and services. two arms plus single parallel A, Harbor and turning basin - The size and shape of harbors are determined by: ' number of ships anticipated ' size of ships type of cargo single arm where wave is mainly unidirecfional ' tonnage of cargo services fo be provided ' existing site conditions wiII tugs be utilized to assist maneuvering . converging two arms Unless the harbor is natural, fhe size of the harbor will be minimized to safe and reason- able operational dimensions. A minimum harbor area is the spacerequired for dacksplus a turn- ing basin. The larger fhe harbor the greater the overlapping twa arms opportunity for wave generation by wind.

B. Berthing and anchor area ln general, winds and currents are more of a problem when dock- ing a vessel that is empfy, than small waves generated in a harbor. For comfortable berthing, wave height should not exceed 2' feet nor wind D. Entrance and exif - The purposeof the velocity 15 mph. entrance is to provide a safe navigational access to the harbor and prevenf tides and currents. In handling bulk cargo, wave height up to 4 feet is permissable, provided there is wind In designing an entrance, careful consideration protection . shouldbe given to reduction of wave height within the port. It is preferable to locate the Theanchor area shouldprovide: entrance on the lee side of the harbor. In cases prot ection from weathe r where the entrance must be located on the wind- ' waiting area for ships ward end, the breakwafer must overlap. It is ' turn around area for ships. also desirable to have an exit to each harbor.

C. Breakwafers The location and extent of breakwaters are determined by: direction of maximum waves configurafion of shoreline minimum size of harbor required for anti- cipated traffic . 61

The Stevensonequation computesthe height 6 feetis required.In areaswhere ships ar- of a reducedwave at any poinf in the harbor rive emptyand leave loaded,twodepths of as a result of the enfrance. All dimensions channelcould be provided. are in feet. In the past,the loadeddraft of shipshas been limited to not over 40 feet so as nof to exceed qp-H b-a.m D s+ ! B B the principalharbor and channel depths of the majorworld ports. Thecurrent trend in deep draft vesselsis presenflybeing handled by: hp = height of reducedwave at any point ' use of submarine lines with offshore anchor- in the harbor age in deep water H = height of wave at the entrance ' lightening by transferringpart of the load b = breacfth of entrance to anothervessel then finishing loading in B = breadthof harborat point p deep wafer D = distancefrom entranceto point of ' construction of special deepwater terminals. observation F. Installations, Iacllities and services- ' shore facilities for marine terminals ~ docks- Thenumber of docksvary according to fhe anticipatednumber of vessels,loading time involved and cargo types. TheElements that determinedock types are: Thefype of entrancedepends upon: ' special requirements or local customsand ' depfh of water practices site conditions ' size of harbor ' ship characteristics ~ availability of materials permanency of construction . economy of construction Three basic harbor entrance sizes are: ' small harbor entrance 300 feet ' size and weight of shipsusing port ' medium harbor enhance 400-500 feet methodof construction time factor!. ' large harbor entrance - 500-800 feet. Dredgingmay not be done until docksare built. Wharfs and piers should be located in the most E. Channeland harbordepth These depths shelteredpart of the harborand along the lee should permit navigation at low tide when a side of the breakwaters. ship is fully loaded. Surgeof a ship is cal- culated af one half maximumwave height.!

Depth Iacfors: . botfom conditions the maximumwave height.

Whenwaves in a harbordo not exceed2 feet, a depth of surgeplus 4 feet is required for a soft bottom. For a hard bottom, a surge plus 62

Examplesof harborlayouts: smal I artificial harbor A small harbor with a single pier and turning basin and a long approach channel from the open sea. This harbor requiresthe minimum amount of space and can accommodate two vessels. The artificial harbor is constructed by dredginga channel throughthe shallow water protectedby natural barriers off-shore dredged reefs, islands, etc.! and enlarging the in- shoreand to provide a minimumharbor. To eliminate backing out of the harbora vessel mustwarp itself aroundthe end of a pier.

an artificial harbor restricted in area An artificial harbor restricted in area because of deepwater. The prevailing wind and waves are from one direction, and smoothwater is obtained in the harborby usinga curved break- water parallel to the shoreand connectedat one end. Due to a rapid increasein the depth of water off the shore, it is necessary to restrict the width of the harbor and use of breakwater pier or wharf type construction. Twowarping dolphinsare usedto turn a ship for exiting.

wind waves

medium size artificial harbor An artificial harbor of medium size with separ- ate openingsfor entering and leaving. Thistype of harboris lessrestrict'ed and generally long and narrowwith openingsat each end which provide the opportunity to establisha one way traffic patternfor vessels.Also providednear the break- water is a place for waiting vesselsto anchor.

waves win 63

mediumsize artificial harbor with turning basin A medium size artificial harbor with a full wavea wind turningbasin, protected by fwo breakwater arms. The radiusof the turning basin is twice the lengthof the largestanticipated vessel. this is the smallestradius a ship can comfortablyturn on, under continuous headwaywithout the assistanceof a tug.!

large artificial harbor A very large artificial harborwith anch- orage area, several berths, turning basin and several service Facilities.

bra Pre-s te Marine I nf ormat i on Metearola ica'I Topographical Geo o ica Location Layout Harbor Turnin Bas in Bert in Anchor Area Breakwate.rs Entrance/Exit Channe I Facl I it ies/Services Operations Service Dockin Turning Protection Awaitin Dred in Transs I 'In Nevi ation Site Bottom Conditions Conditions Rock Soi De th of Water Waves Winds Tides Currents Tem erature Rainfa I I Or i enta t i on Ex osure of Coast Share Conf i urat ions Ad ' scent Land O s hare Functional Terminal Structures Areas Docks Trans i t Sheds Warehouse Bu 1 k Car o Stora e Guard Houses Stevedore Warehouses Fire Houses Pawer P lants Gare es Re ir Sho Dry Docks Fishin Pier Yacht Basin Other Communication ~0t Shi Characterist ics Traff ic Trade Cargo Tu s Ty es Specia 1 Requirements Materia s Construction Hat ura I /A r t 'If I cil a I Sa et Shi Turna round ~ Direct ci Indirect Port planning matrix 65

4.1.3 Site Inveatigation

Prior to initiating the final design phase Tidal Rangesfor SelectedMa jar World Ports it is necessaryto obtain detailed site in- formation which will consist of: can pring A. Hydrographicsurvey of harborand ran e ran e channel area Anchorage, Alas a 26. 8 29. 6 8. Topographic survey of marine terminal Antwer Bel ium 15.7 17.8 area Bilbao, S in 9.0 11.8 C. Soil survey and analysis Bomba, India 8.7 11. 8 D. Tide and current observation Boston, Mass, 9.5 1.0 E . Miscellaneous meteorological, geo- Buenos Aires Ar entina 2,2 2,4 logical, etc.!. Callao, Peru 1,8 2,4 Canal Zone, Atlantic side 0,7 1,1 A . Hydrographic surveyis to determine: Canal Zone, Pacific side 12.6 16. 4 elevation of the body of water in question Capetown, Union of South ' location of shoreland during high and low Africa 3.8 5.2 water Cherbourg, France 13.0 18.0 location and size of submergedobstacles. Dakar, Africa 3,3 4,4 Galveston, Tex. 1.0 1. 4 B. Topographic survey is required where al I Genoa, Ital 0.6 0.8 proposedstructures will be. Hamburg, German 7.6 8. 1 Havana, Cuba I.O 1,2 C. Soil surveyand analysisconsists of pene- Hon Kon China 3.1 5.3 tration below water I evel to an area of rock Honolulu, Hawaii 1.2 1.9 or suitable bearing strata that will support pile La Guaira Venezuela 10. 8 or caissonfoundations. Generally penetrations Liver ool, England 21.2 27. 1 of about forty feet into firm material will in- sure adequate support for marine structures. E. Miscellaneous information concerning: Soil analysis includes: winds ' soil classification waves ' water content determination ear thquakes ' specific gravity determination availability and cost of materials ' void ratio labor unconfined compressiontest cohesiveness local ordinances and buil din codes ~ and shear! win Ve loci ty, ' triosial shear test Beaufort Description mi les ' consolidation tests settlement!. number er hour D. Tide and current observations determine: 0 Calm 0-1 ~ general direction Li ht air 1-3 ~ velocity in currents 2 S li ht breeze 4-7 average intervals between successive high 3 Gentle breeze 8-'I2 tides 4 Moderate breeze 13-18 range of tides which depend upon: 5 Fresh breeze 19-24 secondary tidal waves 6 Stron breeze 25-31 depth of water 7 Moderate a le 32-38 configuration of coast . 8 Fresh ale 39-46 9 S tron a le 47-54 10 Whole le 55-63 Storm 64-75 12 Hurri cane Above 75 66

Waves are classified as deep water waves or Prob'!emsinvolving wave action: sha I Iow water waves: . forecasting wave height and length Deepwater waves are those which occur in ' wave action on mound breakwaters waterhaving a depthwhich is largerthan half wave run-up on slopes the wavelength, a depthwhere the bottom ' wave action on vertical walls, particularly doesnot haveany significant influence upon breakwaters the molionof waterparticles. Theamplitude ' wave action on piles, cylindersand caissons. of wavesin deepwater decreases rapidly with thedepth, but the wave length remains the Wave size for a particular location depends same ~ upon: ' Shallow water wavesare thoseon which the ~ wind velocity influence of the bottomchanges the form oF . duration of wind orbital motionof the water particles from cir- ' wind direction cular to elliptical . ~ greatestcontinuous distance over which wind can act ' water aepth.

Site Hydrogra hic Survey Investigation To ogra hic Surve Soil Investi ation Tide and Currents Observation Mi sce I la neou s I n f orma t i on Channe 1 Ha rbor Te rmi na l s B rea kwa te r s Structures Foundation P i er/Wha rf Qua /Pi les Bottom Conditions Depth of Water Conf i urat ion of Coast Rock loca t ion s- size! Soil Wind Waves Ea rt ua kes Dred ing Testin Observations Pressure D i rect ion Veloc it Ran e Time interval duration D imens I ons Materials cost r ava i lab i l it Labor Codes/Ordinances

~ di rect' p indi rect 67

4.1.4 General Review 4.1.5 Harbor and Channel

Beforeinitiating the defail designphase, it is Final design of fhe harbor and channel must extremely advisable to review and reevaluate include: the preliminary phases. Areasto be consider- ' navigabilify of harborand channel depth ed are: to meetanticipated shipping development! ' information for fuming basin dimensions A, Access'. required proximity to user ' projection of immediafe and fufure charac- for all transportation modes feristics as well as directional flow of vessels amountof waterfront area requiredfo al low 8, Environment: properfunctioning of port ' impact on ecology ' provide protectionand anchorage ' impact on human requirement for a closed harbor.

C. Site: An enclosedharbor is onewhich artificially land availabilify separatesits facilities from fhe open sea, lake ' land cosf or river. The reason to enclose a harbor is to real estatevalue of surroundingarea maintain a constant water level in the harbor ' alternate uses of selected site during tide fluctuations. Determining factors: ~ wafer depth at all sfates of fides D. Location - if selecfed site is not feasible channel depfh at all statesof tides then processrepeats itself for new location. ' vessel size range af tides ' other conditions currents, type of seas!.

Comparisonbetween open and enclosedharbors

~ advantages

Enclosedharbors require: ~ ca issons gates locks ~ pumpingmachinery and equipment.

Size of entrancelocks dependson ship charac- teristics, present and future, as well as tidal depth at all sfages. 68

4.1.B Breakwaters

Breakwatersare the structures artificial! that providethe shelterfor a harbor.

Typesof breakwaters: 4.1.6. 'I Mound 4.1 .6.2 Wa I I 4.1.6.3 Pneumaticand hydraulic 4,'1.6.4 Floating.

Factors to be considered in the selection of a breakwater: ~ availability of materials ~ water depth ' sea bottom conditions ~ function or use availability of constructionequipment,

Breakwaterstability dependsupon: ' specific weightof individualcap rock ' coefficient of friction ' wave height slopeof breakwater A flat slopeis de- sirable from a stand point of stability, however, suchspecifications would increasethe volume of the core and beddingmaterial to sucha point that it would not be economically feasible to construct. A steep slope permits a narrow pro- tectionto the harborproper.}

Comparisonof breakwatertypes

~ advantages Source; Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 69

4. ].6. I Mound type breakwafer- This type is used when unfavorable foundation condi- tions exist becauseit will mostreadily adapt to the effects creafedby settling,

Natural rock arraor rock Type 1 a rock mound in which the core ma- terial extends above the water level and is

coveredby one or moreintermediate layers Irr with on envelope of armor rock. la

Type2 - a rock moundin which the core fill sfopsat a given depth below water level, then coveredby a medium-weightrock, and capped wirth heavyarmor rock.

Far maximum protection, the top of a rock mound breakwater should reach the maximum height of the wave before breaking. It also should extend above the level of the highest tides. It is importantto have the crestat an elevation which will prevent serious overtop- pirtge

The minimum width of the top of a breakwater should equal the approximate height of the The Oelaware 8reakwater maximum wave. One defermining factor for controlling the width of the top is ample pro- vision for the accommodation oF construction equipment and vehicles.

In natural rock breakwater construction,a 20 ton rock is the largest size to handle or trans- port economically. La Guaira, Venerrrela Breakwater

Source: Oesign and Construction oF Ports and Marine Strucfvres 70

B. ConcreteBlock generallycubic or Pell Mell rectangularin shape. Usedin areaswhere crown well natural rock vnavailable,

Concreteblock is placedon breakwatersin either: ~ pell melI {random! ' designed pattern.

QeelSne4 Pattern

Newel Air Station, Coco Solo, Peneme

C. Combination rock and concreteblock!

Source: Desi n and Construction of Ports and Marine trucfure D. Concretetetrapods and tribars ~ tetrapod foorlegged, truncated-cone sha pe, precastconcrete unit! ~ tribar special,3 legged,precast concrete unit!.

Tetrapodsand tribarshave design advantages over standard concrete blocks due to their shape.They have a superiorability to absorb waveenergy. Theyare producedup to 40 tons in weight.

Tetrapodsare placedtwo layersdeep in equal numbers . 71

One constructiontechnique used pell mell, Tribar combination rock and concreteblock! break- water at Rotterdam,Europort. The constructions phaseswere: dredging 2. layingsea gravel 3. laying river gravel and rubble 4. laying rubble of 1 to 6 tons elevation plan 5. laying43 ton concreteblocks 6. final Filling with rubble ~

Placingfirst layerof tetrapodson rockembank- ment for a breakwater Source: Desi n and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures

~ advantages 72

4.1.6.2 Wall type breakwater Vertical!; Thistype breakwaterdiffers from fhe sloping moundtype in the mannerit resistswave ac- tion. Vertical walls reflect fhe waves with- ouf reducingany of the destructiveenergy of the wave, producingstationary undulation, Whereas;a sloping moundtype dissipateskine- f ic energy through run-up on the topping sur- face and throughfriction causedby the ir- regularity of the surface.

Designconsiderations for vertical wall break- wa ters include: ' Stability the designFor maximum wave height mustinclude a safety factor. The heightof the breakwaterabove fhe highest tide should be no less fhan 1.5 fimes the height of the maximumwave. The depth be- low the lowest water level to the bottom of the wall should not be less than 2 times the height of the rnaximurnwave and nof exceed- ing 60 feet. Thewidth shouldbe no lessthan .75 the height Height must be sufficient fo permit com- plete obstructionof waves Foundation should extend a sufficient dis- tance below sea bottom to prevent erosionbe- neath fhe toe extensionequal .25 oFwave length!.

A. Concrete-block gravity wal I

8, Concrete caissons - reduce construction time on the water. The concrete caissons are box -like structures with closed bottoms and diaphragmwalls which divide the box into sev- eral compartmentsthe sidewalls of which may be sloping or vertical . They are often used in dry-dock construction 73

C. Rock-filled cellular sheetpiles consist oF cell construction that is stable and self- supporting when filled with rock or other suitable material

D. Rock-fil led timber crib constructed of cribs of 30 to 35 squarefeet, divided into compartmentsby transverse and horizontal walls which are filled with rock and sub- merged end to end along the line of the brea kwa ter

E . Concreteor steel sheetpilewalls con- structedof concretesheet piling and concrete batter piles driven througha soft bottom material to the underlying firm strata, These are capped above the low water level with poured-in-placewal ls, generally usedwhere height of waves do not exceed 10 feet or where the bottom is of soft material which extends to a great depth.

Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures ~ advantages Wal I Type Breakwaters 74

4.1.6.3 Pneumaticand Hydraulic type break- The result is lossof wave energythrough waters - Usesfor pneumaticand hydraulic turbulence . breakwaters,' ' quieting the water at the entranceof 4.1.6.4 Floating type breakwaters harbors Characteristics: improvingconditions inside a harbor ' unaffected by water depth use on off shore loading conditions ~ mobile ~ creating of temporarysheltered water areas. limited influence on local quality of water and on the hydro-biological environment A. Pneumatic breakwater - a method of re- ' minimal construction cost. ducing wave height by the useof compressed air. Thissystem is in the experimentalstage A. Rigid type - pontoonor barrier and has several drawbacks: ' prohibitive amountof powerrequired high degreeof inconsistencyfor volumeof air required ' can obtain 5PYoreduction in the height of steepwaves, howevernegligible reduction in flat waves.

Operation procedure:

Rising air bubbles entrain wafer upward Lossof wafer flowing off is compensated by inflows af the bottomForming vortexes B, Flexible type- pontoon, barrier, sheet, If the vortex speedis high enoughand mattress the wave deep enough, the waves running up againstthe surfaceflow of the vortex will break.

B. Hydraulic breakwater reduces wave height by water jet action.

Operation procedure: Water forced through a perforated pipe The discharged water induces a current which causes waves to break 75

4.1.l Terminals

Terminalsare the specializedareas of a port 4.1.7.2 Container Terminals: Containeriza- where points for discharging and receiving tion techniquesprovide the designerthe oppor- cargo are provided for rail, highway, pipe- tunity to design terminal facilities fhat will lines, inland waterway carriers and ocean minimize individual cargo handling thereby going vessels. The controlling factors for speeding up ship tummround time. terminal layout are: ' characteristics of cargo to be handled Control I ing design factors: handling equipment to be used ~ need for vast land area number of outlets For cargo ~ circulation and parkingarea for vehicles ' vessel types ' shoreside equipment ' cargo handling efficiency. ' vessel characteristics, LASH, Roll-on/Roll- off, etc. Terminal s aregenerally classified by cargo ty pes. 4.'I .7.1 General Cargo Terminals 4.1.7.2 Container Terminals 4.1.7.3 Bulk Cargo Terminals 4.1.7.4 PassengerTerminal s 4.1.7.5 Military Terminals 4.1.7.6 Free Port Terminals 4.1.7.7 Fishing Terminals

4.1.7.1 General Cargo Terminals'.For generat cargo a facility has to be equipped to handle many different types of cargo. In designing a general cargo terminal the fo'I- lowing must be considered: Source: Jahrbuch der Hafenbautechnischen ' type oF equipment required Gese I Ischa ft method of cargo handling 4.1.7.3 Bulk Cargo Terminal: Thesefacilities ' fype of transportationvehicles used are usually designedfor a single Function, the open and closed storage space required handling oF loose cargo such as grain, coat, vessel characteristics. cemenf, sugar, ores, etc.

Basic reqviremenl s: ~ storagefacilities which may be open or of etevafor type ~ cargo handling equipment for loading and un- loading which generally includespressure pipes, conveyors, buckefs, weighing equip- ment, etc,

Bulk cargoterminals vary according to: site lessrequirement for still water! ' characteristics of material handled dry, liquid, powdered, granulafed, etc.! ' quantity requirements ' avaitability and type of transportationmode ' type of berthing ' proximity to urban areas. 76

An essentialpart of bulk cargooperations is the existenceof adjacentindustrial users such as flour and lumbermills, refineries, iron and steel mills. Theyrequire water front access to exporttheir products,therefore the distance from the water to their plant location depends uponthe handling techniques involved: liquid- pipedcommodities may be located several miles from water front ~ bulk cargo handledby conveyors,or similar apparatusmay be locatedseveral yards from the water front.

8ulkterminals generally require deeper chan- nelsand largerturning basins than other types of terminals.

A. Liquidterminals utilize wharf, piers and offshoremooring depending on waterdepth, bottom conditions and the rate of unloading . Offshoremooring generally consistsof either a hosehandling platFormor a floating buoy, Thesefacilities do not require heavily pro- tected waters and are constructed in deep water to facilitate deep draft vessels.

Loadingapparatus for offshoreterminals: ~ submarinehose lying on bottom, usedfor hard bottom conditions ' Hartley hoister, usedwhere sea bottomis soft and a high unloadingrate is required.

Theonly requirementfor pieror wharfis a light openstructure capable of carryingthe weightof the pipesand valves and withstanding the pressureof the ships. A commonpolicy is ta construct ail terminals on the seaward side away from commercia'ldocking areas. Source: Designand ConstructionoF Ports and Marine Structures 77

Additional designconsiderations: 4.1.7.4 PassengerTerminals generally separate ~ pipelinesand pumpingequipment passengerfraffic and cargo traffic to eliminafe ~ tank storage facilities congestion . The traditional method of accom- ~fire and explosivehazards. plishingthis hasbeen to locatepassenger facil- ities on a secondlevel over a cargo area . Since B. Grain terminalsutilize wharf loading the passengerlevels of shipsare generallyat with direct delivery of grain from storagefo upperdecks, this separationworks very well . the vessel. Necessaryfacilities include: . storage bins Design considerations: pneumatic suet'ion devices ~ peak flow of passengers ' car and frack unloading facilities ' baggage requirements weighing facilities ' cusfoms requirements elevators. ~ vehicle access ' parking and storageof vehicles ' office spacefor port administratorsand service facilities waiting and recreation fa cilif ies,

Planof passengerfacility Source: Seeverkehrswassebau

C. Ore and Coal terminals Careful considerationshould be given for: ' ground. storage and stockpile areas loading and unloadingequipment tower unloaders,grabbing equipment, floating cranes, efc.! ' vehicle circulation .

4.1.7.5 Military Terminalsprovide military vesselswith berthing, maintenance,storage and supplyfacilities. ln developingcountries, it is not uncommonto find joint useof a port with the military.

4.1.7.6 Free Port Terminalsrepresent the de- signationof a port or portion of a port as a "free zone" wheregoods may be transshipped,manu- factured and packaged, duty free.

4.1.7.7 FishingTerminals are designedto pro- vide profecfion in time of stormsand a place to processand market the catch. 78

4.1.B Offshore Structures

Offshorestructures may be classified in three 4.'1.8.3 Offshore Drilling Structures are of general categories: severaltypes: 4.'1,8,1 Mobile Wharves tended, permanent drilling platforms 4.1.8.2 Radarand LighthousePlatforms mobile submersible drilling structures 4.1.8.3 Offshore Drilling Structures drilling barges or vessels mobile, elevating drilling platforms. 4,1.8.'1 Mobile Wharveswere developedto be used in areas where construction equipment and materialsare not readily available and where on-site construction time is limited. Major characteristics are: ~ prefabricated ~ temporary ~ portable.

4.8.1.2 Radarand Lighthouse Platforms are used in navigation and as early warning stations for national defense. They are permanent structures .

fixed, tended fiaed, aeli-conialned mobile, aubmoraibk ii ~ i~ moblk, ekvatlh9

Typesof drilling rigs usedin the Gulf of Mexico

elevatian

Source: Le Tourneau Offshore, Inc .

plan

Source. Desi n and Construction of Ports Mobile drilling platform in various stages and Marine Structures of erection 4.1.9 Suildlngs

Relationshipmafrix for portbuildings Wharf with transit shed Source: Port Desi n and Construcfion 4.1.9.1 Transit Shed Requirementsin shed design: Transitsheds function to providetemporary . sufficient floor area for storage storagefor goodsdischarged from vessels maximumaccess wide and tall openings! or goodswaiting to be loaded, Theyvary in minimum number of columns eachport according to: ' smooth,hard wearing floor surface type of cargohandled ' nafural and arfificial lighting ' climate loading platformswith depressedrailroad local labor practices tracks available building materiaIs ' ample heightinside facility for mechanical type of land transportationservicing the handlingand stacking facil if y . adequate dra inage ' length oF shedproportional fo berth and Operationsinvolved in a transit shed: apronwidfh ' loading ' number of stories vertical! sfacking ' available building materials. discharging ' sorting inspection ~ tfansferr ing .

Functional areas: ' storage space ' circulationspace ' lockable area for valuable cargo separatearea for "dirty" cargo ' labor facilities washroomand toilefs! laborstorage dressing rooms and lockers! ' office space.

Oesignob,jecf ives: ' efficient cargo handlingwithin shed Pier with transit sheds ' economy of construction ' maintenance low!.

83

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Recenf trends in shed construction are toward multisfory transit sheds up to 6 stories! .

Advanfages: ' provide long time storagespace ' minimize land requirements ' segregate import-export operations ' reduce roof area ' distribute work area over several floors ' facilitate customs clearance.

Disadvanfages. ~ require vertical delivery facilities ' require stronger, heavier foundations increase construction costs . require more columns ' require more circulation space.

Section and detail of multistory warehouse Source: Port of Stockholm, Sweden

Cargo flow in a fwo story transit shed 83

4.1.9.2 Warehouse The primary Functionof a warehouseis lang time storage.

Factorsto be consideredin designinga warehouse: ~ temperature ~ humidity ~ air movement ~ equipment dimensionsand clearances - distance from berth ar transit shed ~ optimal columnspacing For longer spans ~ loading platforms ~ railroa d capabil ities ~ covered loading areas ' wall cranesor travelling cranes.

Dimensional criteria: ' availability of space ~ use of warehouse ' for fire protection structure should be cornpar tmenta I ized ' provide minimum of 2 feet clearance betweentop of cargoand ceiling.

Advantages of constructing warehouse above transit sheds: cargo can be transferred from transit shed to warehouse regardless of weather conditions Mul ti storyWarehouses ' provides minimum distance for cargo move- ment ' reduces external traffic congestion.

Source: Jahrbuch der Hafenbautechnischen Typical WarehouseLayout Gesel lschaft 84

4.1 .9.3 Cold Storage 4.1.9.5 General Criteria Function:refrigeration of perishablegoods, A . Structural Framing: Requirements: steel frames: ~ closetemperature control pre-fabricated control I ed humidity rapid erection time ' location near or in transit shed. provideIong spans trusses! low maintenance ~ Meat; storage tern . critica tern ' timber frames: Chilled 30 28 10-'l5 da s used for roof and wall structures Frozen 15 10 1-10 months canget long spans laminated beams! Dair roducts; generallyan available material. Butter 15 5 1-6 months ' masonry framesand reinforced Frozen e s 5 0 1-2 ears concrete: She I I e s 31 30 6-10 months pouredin place construction Cheese 40 35 1-6 mon ths tilt up construction Fis 0 5 2-3 months prefabricated Fruit: long spans A les 36 31 1-6 mont s low maintenance 32 30 1-4 months fire proof construction. 32 3'I 1% months Ve eta es: Green 5 32 10-20 days Root 1-3 mont s Source: Designand Constructionof Ports and Marine Structures

4.1 .9.4 Administration Function: to handle necessaryoffice and clerical work Forcargo movement. Customs and immigration Iacilities may be inc'luded dependingon location and size of port. ~ adva nta ges General requirements are: ' office space toilet facilities B Wall construction types. ' waiting room ' reinforced concrete ' passengerand baggagespace if customs ' concrete block/brick included. metal siding corrugated plastic siding glass ~ aluminumor porcelain enameledsteel ' combinations of the above. 85

hAate ria I s: ' portland cement concrete asphaltic cement concrete l amina te d treated floor .

~ advantages Comparisonof floor types

Ftoor finishes should be hard smooth surfaces with anti -skid properties .

E. Door types: ~ advantages rolling steel doors Comparisonof wall types sectional vertical lift doors horizontal sliding doors .

Door selection is governed by; size and type of equipment used C. Roof construction: To achieve the de- cargo sired long spansit is necessaryto use trusses, frequency of use . prestressedor laminatedmembers. Cbor spacing: In selectionof roof typesthe following must minimum spacing would be every other bay be considered: for the length of the shed both sides! ~ site condition s initial costs maintenance costs ~ availability of materials . weight and strength properties life expectancy

Roof types. . corrugated metal maximum spacing every bay metal buil t-up composition

D . Floor construction sel fwupporting ~ on fill end doors may also be provided F . Ventilation systems

Typesof ventilators: ' gravity ' rotary continuous ridge mechanica I .

The size, location and type of ventilatars are determinedby the numberof air changes required per hour commonpractice is 1.5 air changesper hour!.

G. Offices and washrooms

Thedetermining factors for size, location and number are: ' proximity to personnelactivities size of worker population ~ local health and sanitation codes ' need.

H, Securitv enclosure

Designedfor the protectionof valuable cargoesfram theft, pilferageand damage. Size, location and number are governed by: size of cargo anticipated ' value of cargo ~ request by owner of cargo ' volume of cargo.

I, hhethodsto protectagainst physical damageto building include: highwaybeam guard rails ~ concrete curbs ' pipe handrails ' depressed areas driving ramps ' pipe guardsfor buildings ' guard framesfor utilities and services.

J. Painting decisions. Typesof transitshed doors . color coding Source: Desi n and Constructionof Ports . direcfian indicators and hharine Structures protectionfrom weather ' aesthetics improvelighting conditions. 87

lc,, Fire protection systems M, Electri caI supply ~ automatic sprinklers standard110/220 volt 3 waysystem ~ supervisory fire alarms 208/120 volt 3 phasesystem ~ fire walls 480/277 4 wire system. . auxiliary fire fighting equipment hose racks, chemical fire extinguishers, etc.!.

L. Lighting'.general requirements for a lighting systemare for it to produce diffused light without harsh shadowsor glare.

available light natural! providedby: roof lighting skylights, cleorstory, etc.! side wall lighting glazing, translucent panels, etc,! artificial light for night operations or fo supplementnatural light ..

4- 4- 4- 4 4 4

g o o 8 F8 OO Q OOO oso OOO OOO O lO 0 Typesof artificial light: Length O R EC! ~ incandescent ft. fluorescent mercury vapor minimum vertical distance 35 feet!,

The general practice has been to provide 10 foot candle illumination indoors and 1 foot candle iflumination outdoors for transit sheds and warehouses,

Comparison of type of f ixtures

~ advantages Chart to determine length or width of shed or warehouse basedon desired square footage 88

4.1.10 Dock Types

Themost' basic part of portfacilities are the 4.1.10.2 Marginal Wharf: wharvesextending dockingfacilities for the vessels. parallel with the shoreline and connectedto the shoreat morethan one point which allow berth- Typesof berthingfacilities: ing to take place on only one side. 4,1.10,1 Pier 4.1.10.2 Marginal Wharf 4.'l .10.3 SpecializedBerthing Marginal wharf Controlling factorsfor dock selectionare: . type of cargo ' vessel types and sizes life expectancyof facility Wharves generally permit: ' direction of wind and waves construction of terminal facilities on the land bottom conditions side of the bulkhead line construction costs ' high degreeof designflexibility ' ownership. provisionof loop rail and highwayconnections reduced distance for land carriers to transit 4.'l. l0.1 Pier: a structure extending outward sheds at an anglefrom the shoreinto the navigable easier in docking vessels watersof the harbor, permittingvessel berth- ' less maintenance ing on both sides. moreadaptability to changingrequirements broughtabout by newdevelopments in vessel technology, cargo handling systems,trans- portation techniques, etc .

Pier at angle to Pier 90o to channel channel

Opier L-shaped pier T-head pier ~ wharf Site conditionsdetermine pier or wharf se'lection . Piers are constructed becausethey provide more berthsper linear lengthof channelthan wharves do ~ Factorsgoverning the size and shapeof pier or wharf layout: T-headand L-shapedpiers are economicalways ~ age and development of the port to providedocking facilities in deepwater which ~ size, shapeand dollar value of availableland eliminate dredging . ~ vessel characteristics ~ trade requirements 89

amount of dredging necessaryfor maintenance General requirements for land vehicles: depth of wafer roadand rail shouldserve parallel to berth ' type of cargo - minimum tracks 2 but not more than 5 ~ cargo handling methods maximum codesand regulations berth railroad tracks should be shunted ' types of equipment used for cargo, independently fram neighboring sheds ' one rail track should be located near the Water depth required: edge of the apron . opendocks onefoot more than maximum vesseldraft! General requirementsfor piersand wharves: encloseddocks notless than entrance sill!. elevation of surface should be a minimum of 5 feet above the high water level mark Vehicle use on dock facilities dependson: at maximum tide strength of structure ' should have slipswide enoughto aIIow ships ~ equipment used to be safely navigatedto permit docking ' cargo handling method shouldbe broadsideto the prevailing wave available space front. It is desirable to have the vessel ~ volume of shipping anchored parallel to the direction of the ' number of berths. prevailing winds. If this cannot be achieved then the berth should be oriented in such o mannerthat the wind holdsthe ship away from the dock.

Evolution of an apron Source: Jahrbuch de Hafenbautechnischen Gesellschaft Recommended clearance dimensions for wharves, a area of transit shed piers and slips b "minimum of 75 feet c beam of vessel A . Wharf d - minimum of 100 feet e - minimum of 50 feet 1 I e 1 e I f minimum of vessel beam plus 150 feet I - length of vessel Factors affecting pier slip width are: length of pier ' beam of ship using pier requirementsfor tugs or lighters whichinclude vessel handling, docking and maneuvering space}.

Type of construction utilized for piersor wharves are determinedby: B. Two-berthpier and slip ' specific operationalrequirements of the pro- posedterminal ' availability, cost and anticipated life of con- struction material structural requirements ' local foundation conditions.

Construction Types: A . Open type ~ receiving platform in which the main struc- turol slab is below the finished deck or sur- face and the spacebetween is filled to pro- vide additional weight for stability

C. Four - berth pier and slip

c f c ~high level decks in which the deck super- rock-filled timbercrib: usedfor early structure systemis supported directly on construction of piers and wharves. The piles. The piles are arranged in trans- top of the timbercrib is usuallyterminated. verserows. Thedeck is generally con- at a low water level and the retaining wall crete, precast and prestressed. above is constructedof concreteor masonry on which the dock paving is placed

8, Solid fill type .' - concretecaissons used extensivety in ~ steel sheet-pile cells: usedwhere water EuropeI. UsuaI Iy of two ty pcs: depth does not exceed 50 feet and bottom ~ open well type sunk in the dredged conditions are suitable to support a gravity bottom for increased stability structure close bottom type which is set on a gravel or crushed stone bed

~ sheet-pile bulkhead: constructed oF wood, - gravity quaywal I usually construc- steel or concrete sheet piling and support- ted of 20 200 ton precast concrete ed by tie rodsattached to an anchoror by blocks!. a pile located a safe distance in the back of the face of the bulkhead or by batter piles along the rear of the piles

Source: Port Design and Construction 92

4.'I .10.3 SpecializedBerthing A . Lighterage berths B. Ihmpedcargo berths

A . Lighterage berths - for intermediate transfer of cargo between land and water conveyancewhen insufficient water depth exists for large vesselsand deep water berths are not economically feasible to construct.

8. Ihmpedcargo berths- gently sloping wharveswith adjustableramps. Theyare usedextensively for Roll-on/Jbll-offcargo.

Ihmped Cargo Herth, Kiddapore Docks- Cakutta Source: Mission Port Develo ment 93

4.1.11 Orydocks

The functionof dry docksis to provide maintenanceand repair on the underwater portionof a vessel.

TypesoF dry docks: A. Graving Docks B. FloatingSliDry Dockspways Largetankerindrydock

Source. Lisnave - Estaieiros Navais de Lisboa

~ advantages Comparisonbetween graving and Floating drydocks Slipwaysprovide a recessedbed plusmechani- cal hauling facilities to haul vesselsout of the water,

Source: Seeverkehrswasserbau 94

4.1.12 Pilee

Function: to supportthe deck and its live and dead loads.

Factors to be considered in pile selection: ' required length of life . character of structure ' availability of materials ' type of loads . factors causing deterioration maintenance, amount and ease cost estimate initial cost, maintenance cost, life expectancy! ' available funds.

Also importantin pile selection is the cross sectionof the pile. Wave forcesare smaller for pilesof cylindricalcross section; for piles with flat or irregular surfacessuch as squareand Effective length of pile for various end H shapepiles, very little is knownabout wave conditions generateddrag and internal forces. The fol- An essential step in pile design is to determine lowing drawingdemonstrates some of what is the condition of support at the top and bottom known about the relative increase in wave of the pile piles may be considered fixed if force on various cross-section types of piles the ends are securedagainst rotation!. assumea cylindrical crosssection hasa relative increase of 0%!. To be fixed at the top of the pile, the deck mustbe of heavy constructionand the pile rigidly fastenedto the deck. To be fixed at a point not too far below bottom, the soil mustbe compactand hard. The point fixed in the case is IO to 15 feet below the bottom. If the bottom is soft the fixed point 8m'+ would occur 20 - 25 feet below bottom, The pile maybe consideredsupported from buckling Considerationsin designing pile foundations: at a depthof 5 to 10 feet below the bottom. soil properties pile types and driving equipment Typesof Pifes', ' piles carrying capacity. 4.1.12.1 Hearing Piles: utilized for the trans- mission of structural loads through air, water and Principal deteriorationfactors of piles: soft surface soils to harder more stable soiIs. corrosion ~ decay 4.1.12.2 Sheet Piles: consist of specially shaped . insect attach interlocking piles usedto forma continuouswa'll marine-borer attack to resist horizontal pressurefrom earth and water. . mechanical wear . fire . chemical reaction concrete! . 95

E. Steel piles: ~ l oadca rry ing capa city endbearing 8 120 tons! frictionbearing 8 70tons } sections M or round!.

F. Composite piles - consists of one material for fhe lower part of the pile and another material for the rest. The crifical point for this type pile is the junction poinf between the two mater i aI s .

4.1.12,1 Bearingpiles may be classified ' Timberand cost-in-place concrete load by the form of bearing or type of material: carrying capacity 30 to 40 tons, length 100 A. End bearing piles piles which transmit feet! their load by point bearing lo the firm stratum u ponwhich it resfs, Concrete-filled steel pipe and concrete loadcarrying capacity 75 tons, length 100 feet! 8. Frictional piles piles which transfer the loadsto the surroundingsoil by frictian along ' SteelH-sections and concrete load carrying the piles embeddedlength . capacify 200 tons!.

C, Woodpiles make goodfricfional piles with load carrying capacify of 12 to 15 tons. Theiraverage length is 35 feet, with life span of about 10 yearsdepending upon oxygen con- tent and temperafure of the water.

D. Concrefe piles: ~ precasf: conventional shapes- square, round, octagonal length 114feet max.! load carrying capacify approximately 50 tons. . prestressed: usedwhere d'rfficult to use precast ~ advantages lengths over 140 feet 4.1.12,2 Sheet Piles load carrying capacity approximately Oesign factors for sheet piles: 80 tons. ~ use of weep holes ' Cast-in-place: ~ change in dry and wet submergedconditions load carrying capacity approximate yup to ~ type af soils 150 tons. ' moisture content yielding conditions of walls recent developments . 4.4.13 Fender Systems

Major typesof sheefpiles: The function of a dock fender systemis fo A, Steel sheet piles prevent ships or docks from being damaged . variety of shapes during mooring, by control ling ship motion - adaptablefor cellular retaining walls and and reducing or eliminating the impact of cofferdam construction ship-dock contact, Thefender also pre- ' advantagesover other typesin areasof vents damagedue to rubbing. strength, salvagevalue, simplicity, hand- ling and heavy construction.

8. Concrete sheet piles reinforced or pre- stressed,precast piles of rectangularcross section,

C. Wood Sheef Piles used to resist light lateral 'loads.

Design Factorsfor a fender sysfem: ' vessel characteristics vessel speed ~ approach direction Section thrM preceet concrete cheat plica ~ wind expected tidal current conditions rigidity and energy-absorbing characteristics of the dock initial cost and mainfenance costs vs, ship and dock repair costs with a fender system.

Materials to be used for fenders must possessthe The primaryuse for sheetpiles is in retaining Following requirements: wall constrvction. ~ high compressivestrength high fiber hardness Pilesare driven into the earth by pile driving high bending stress hammers: durability. ' drop hammer singlemcting steam hammer Classification oF fender systemsis by material dovble-acting steam hammer used or the principles of operation: A . Wood Fendersystems B . Rubberfender systems C. Flexible spring!fender systems 0. Gravify fender systems E . Floating fender systems

A, Wood fender systems Single timber "rubbing strip" Fender Used when the approachto the berth is sheltered,the water calm and when tug assistanceis available . The wood is the element absorbing the impact energy Timber fender with two or three horizon- B. Rubberfender systems - have generally tal walls togetherwith vertical timbers. Used replacedthe useof flexible - spring type of wheretidal range is relatively small. They fendersbecause they have: have a low initial costand have provento be ~ longer life economical in replacement. ' less maintenance better absorption of longitudinal forces ~Timber fender plus fender piles. Used parallel to the dock. when addltionaI energy absorptionsare desired and tidal rangesare greater than six feet

Timberfendering with cylindrical rubber units. Usedwhere greater deflection and energy absorption is required.

When using wood fenders, it is necessaryto: use only sfressgraded timber drill bolt holes to the same diameter as the bolfs ~ protect all cuts with creosofe ' use only galvanized bolts.

Source: Desi n and Construction oF Ports and Marine Sfructures, A.D. Quinn, 1961, Timber fenders on sheet pile bulkheads McGraw Hill . Used with permissionof Mc- Graw Hill Hook Company Typesof rubber fenders: Rubber-tiretruck-wheel fender Utilizes truck tires on wheels, placed in a horizontal position along the face of the dock. Suitable for calmwaters and a smalltidal range!

' Hollow-rubbercylinder fype Requiresa solid fascia wall to a depth of at least six feet because of the curvature of the fender. This type is adaptable to solid type dock constructionj ' Combination steel beamand rubber fender D. Gravity fender systems basedon the systemwith steelfender piles Utilized principle of transformationof kinetic energy where it is not practical to usedeep dock into potential energyby meansof raising fascia beamol wal I ! weights massiveblocks of concrete! utilizing: ~ systemof cablesand sheaves Raykinfender buffer Consistsof a series ~ pendulum of connected sandwichesmade of steel plates, trunno ins . cementedto layersof rubber!.

Raykin fender buffers Suspendedgravity fenders

C. Flexiblefender systems utilize steel E. Floating fender systems used generally springfenders for additionalenergy absorption to keep shipsaway froma dock or to separate or springtype wood fenders which are placed vessels which are tied up adjacent to one awayfrom the dockat a slightangle <:24! another . to absorbenergy by deflection. Types: ~ rol ling type ~ heavytimber box sectiontype ' floating fender log type.

Typical springing-type wood fender Source: Designand Construction of Ports and Marine Structures Rubbertired fender and a timber pole fender Source: Port Desi n and Construction 99

4.1.14 Mooring

Function: to anchor or tie up vesselsfor the fol low ing reasons: waiting Fora vacant berth ' working cargo overside only waiting in calm water waiting for dry dock or repairs ' to take on cargo for super-sized tankers.

Typesof mooring: ~ vessels own anchor ~ i.ie up to buoys ' combination of buoys and anchors A vessel should be moored as close to shore tying up at a berth. as possiblewith its approachto the buoy being into the wind and parallel to any currents .

Number of buoys utilized for mooring de- pends upon: I riser clNin vessel size and characteristics winds, currents and waves ' bottom conditions economic factors. QrOUIldChSi4l sinker Componentsof a mooring buoy

Multiple mooring buoy arrangements

Typical mooring accessories

Spacing of the mooring devices is basedon: ~ vessel characteristics ' convenience of cargo handling ' wind and tidal conditions.

All mooring devices with anchorage are de- Source: Design and Construction of Ports signed for worst conditions with a 50% safety and Marine Structures factor added. 300

4.1.15 Dolphins

Structural classification: A. Flexible type dolphins: usedfor mooring of smallvessels or as an outerfence for the protectionof a dock ' the flexible dolphin, thoughnot designed to take the impactof ships,may be used far berthingmedium type vessels from off- shoreloading platforms and structures.

Typesof dolphins include: ~ wood pile dolphins ~ woodpile andtimber frame dol phins steel cylinder dolphins ~ steelpipe and wood frame dolphins 3 pile 7 pile 19 pile ~ steelpipe and steel frame dolphin. cluster cluster cluster Typicalwood-pile dol phins

Dolphinsare used for mooring'anddocking of vessels.They are designed to resisthorizontal impactloads in additionto windand current forces.

Functional types: ~ Berthingdolphins for fenderingto resist vesselimpact! ' Mooringdolphins to holdthe vessel against a broad side wind blowing in a direction away from the dock!. Theseare not designedfor ship impact, Lengthaf mooringlines: 200feet to 400 feet.

B. Rigid type dolphins: a ' used for large vesselsand tankers woodplatform type sheedpile cell plusfender . heavyconcrete platform slabs supported byvertical and battered steel piles ~

Source:Design and Constructionof Ports Flexibledolphin with steel-pipepiles of and Marine tructures Miragoane, Haite 101

4.1.16 Nloles, Trestles and Catwalks

Moles, trestles and catwalks are designed C. Catwalks - used to provideaccess from for accessfrom the shore to pier or terminal . one dolphin to another. Theyare generally light weight construction, wood or steel . Cat- A. Moles - constructed of rock Fill with walks are located af a distance from the face sloped sides for protection from erosion, of the structureto preventdamage by vehicles similar to breakwater construction . The or vessels. function of the moles is to support roads, sidewalks, railroad tracks, utilities, pipe- line, conveyors, etc.

Crosssection of a typical rock mole

8, Trestle - lighter construction than piers. They are designed primarily for vertical loads. Themajority of trestlesuse precast and prestressedconcrete decks becauseof durab iI ity and economy.

Crosssection of timber trustle on wood piles

Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 5 Trends

eo '; 103

Thispublicafion demonstrates an insight Specializedports; a limifed numberof larger, into the complexproblems involved in port regional type ports wifh sophisticated equip- and harbor design and construcfion. It is mentdesigned to handlea specific type of intended to serve as a starting guide to the cargo. An example would be a regional con- various planning proceduresnecessary to tainer porf. design a port or harbor. lnfermodaltransportofion; a highly organized The following lisf presentsselected trends and scheduled, Factory-fo-user chain under a which it is believed will have the greatest single bill oF lading . This systemrequires a impacton portsof the future: great deaf of sfandardization of componentsto enable all transport modesto equally participate. Functional obsolescenceof port Facilities is becomingincreasingly apparent as ship con- Improved conditions for porf labor: struction technology advances. New innova- ~ provide and mainfain hygiene locker, dining fions include: and toilet Facilities deepdraft vessels 80 feet! that exceedall - improve recruiting programs channel and harbor depths ' improve and implement training programsto LASH and SEABEEconcepts that require facilitate highly skilled dock workers. entirely different facilities ' standardization of ship components Improve and enforce safety standardsand pro- transocean barge concepts ceduresfor personnel,facilities and harbors ' automatecl vesselsconfrolled by ship board to reduce accidenf frequency . computers .

Movementsto off-shore loading systemsin order to efficiently usedeep draFt vessels. Theonly cargoesloaded off-shore presentlyare liquid, such as oil and slurried ores.

New Facilities for oFF-shoreloading vary from submergedpipel ines to artificial island installa- tions .

Containerization is revamping cargo handling techniques .

Harbor obstacles are influencing new porf thinking: ~ expensive dredging costs . expensiverelocation costsof tunnels, pipelines, etc. ~ environmental and ecological factors.

Developmentof coastalbarge terminalsfo pro- vide secondary distribvfion centers. 6 Corcepts 104 6.1 Existing Port 105

6.1.1 introdLtction

In the pasf few decades, while trucking, Theolder port could greatly increaseifs rail and air operafionshave sharplyrisen, efficiency by gradualfy eliminating facilities the shippingindustry has declined. To which are inefficienf, unprofitable or unfit better compete,the shippingindustry has for modern operations becauseof size or loca- introduced technological advances including tion. The remaining terminals and facilities increased ship size ond containerization of couldbe upgradedand a logical expansionplan general bulk cargo. Rutwhite fhe shipping developedto forestall prematurefunctional indusfryhas made great sfridesin shipbuild- obsolescence . ing and containerization, mosf of fhe ports have not kept pace. A port can be of great economic benefit to a communityby attracting frucking, sforage and A major problem facing ports today is the distribution concerns;providing jobswithin the task of modernizingobsolete facilities, equip- portandstimulating secondarywork opportuni- ment and methods. The large marshalling ties outside;attracting port associatedindvsfries; yards required for containerization have nof and bringing an increasedflow of goodsthrough beenconstructed in manyinstances, usually the entire area. However,without properplan- becavseof lack of available land. Many ning for transportation, Facilities and increased portshave beenunable to cope with the in- traffic flow, fhe port can becomea hindrance creased truck traffic due fo limited access to community progress, especially in the face roads, and shipping lanes are often too of today's rapid change. narrow and too shallow to handle the new superships. Such obsolete facilities often Theobjective of this part of the report is fo cite force shippersto ship from portswith new improvementswhich could be implementedin facilifies, therebydiminishing the older ports' existing ports. Thisincludes aspects of port cashinflow at a time when they can least planning, facility design and handlingmethods afford if . which would allow better land usagein the port and its surrounding area; more r'egard for In these older ports, the lack of space is a the physicaland social environment oF fhe port major problem. Theyare typically located in areas;and techniquesfor effecting morerapid the oldesf part oF the city where narrow, con- turn around of ships. The aim is not to advance gested sfreets do nof permit adequafe truck port technologyso that it is morecompetitive traffic Fortransfer and delivery of cargo. The wifh trucking, rail and air transportsystems, waferfronfs are characteristically packed with but to promote better coordination of these obsolete, decaying piers and wharves which transportation modes. inhibit port efficiency. To il lustrate how modern facilities and better The lack of appropriate planning far advanced planningcan reducecongestion within a port marinetechnology has created expensive de- and increasethe efficiency of its operations, lays in fhe loadingand unloadingof ships. the Port of Galveston has been chosen as a case Valuable land is often occupiedby piersand study. The casesfvdy wilt concenfrateon new wharveswith apronstoo narrowfor eFficient concepfs of cargo handling which include multi- cargo handling, and ship turn around time is purposewarehouse - transit shed buildings and often needlesslylengthened by narrowchannels a systemof vertical container storage and re- and congestion caused by improperly located trieval . The possible svbsequentneed for re- industrial sifes. moval and relocation of exisfing Facilities wil I also be considered. 106

6.1.2 Port of Galveston-Case Study

BuiI dings: Many of the presentport buildingsin Galveston were built in the 1920's or before and are in extremelybad repair . Since 1956the Portof Galvestonhas spent approximately $25 million on repairsand renovationsof thesebuildings, The transit sheds are of concrete, tin and wood construction with foundations of concrete pilings and beams. Someaprons are still extremely narrow, however, several of them have been History: GalvestonBay, probablythe finest natural harboron the Gulf, is protectedagainst the opensea by GalvestonIsland. The harbor openingis the passbetween the island and Bolivar Point. Galveston Island has such a superiorposition on the coastfhat if became the first port in Texasand, since the middle of the nineteenthcentury, hasserved as the largestcotton exporterin the nation. The first railroads crossed the causeway to Galveston in I860 and goods exported from Texasbegan to funnel throughGalveston. Exceptfor the rapid growthof the Portof widened and have had rail lines added to them. Houstonand Galveston Island's susceptibility Thesewider aprons can be servicedby rail type to storms, the Port of Galveston could possibly or shoreside cranes. have beenthe major seaportin the Gulf of Mexico . 107

The warehousedistrict is intermingled with residentialareas of extremelypoor quality . Very little delineation is made between com- mercial and residential areas with houses and apartmentcomplexes being simplyinserted between warehousesand compresses. If the storage facilities were relocated, warehouses and land could be converted to housing and re- creational areas. Several warehouses have al- ready been sold and replaced with apartments andshoppingcenters. Cotton istransferred bytractortrains consisting of strings of eight or ten cars pulled by small tractors. This has proven to be the most efficient method of cotton transfer so the port is planning to ex pand i ts program .

Circulation: Warehousesand transit shedsare serviced by narrow congested streets, and heavy truck traffic is impeded by the maze of railways in the area. Railroad spursto several of the ware- houseshave long been clogged by rubbish and overgrownby weeds. Tracksin the area of the cotton compressesand warehousesare often un- used due to lack of repair. 108

Expansion: storage. The combination of these two Faci- Due to the age of Galveston, the port is lities could reduce the time required to move crowdedwith old buildings, streets and rail- cargo from the docks, throughthe transit sheds ways. Thislimits spacefor expansionof the and to the warehouses. The cargo For storage port 6 acreswithin the portand several in- could be unloaded directly into the ware- dustria I areas are available! . house from the ship. Within this multipurpose

Expansionon PelicanIsland is limited dueto presenttenants, and plansfor the future are alreadyin progress.Presently on Pelican Islandare Toddshipyards, the site for Texas Maritime Academy,the site for the Seabee bargeterminal, severalmarine oriented in- dustries and chemica'I and petroleum termi- nals. Futureplans for the islandare to zone it for residential, recreational and commer- cial areas. Galveston Wharves the Port of Galveston!presently owns only 48 acreson which the Seabeebarge terminal will be built

Multistory Warehousejl ransit Shed: One of Galveston'smator problemsis presently the lack of available land for new facilities. To reducethe spacenow occupied by outdated, single-purposewarehouses there is a possibility syaltlstory of combiningtransit shedsand warehousesinto Warehouse / single buildings, with the lower floors for Transn Shed transit cargo and the upper floorsfor long term 109

building could exist transit storage areas, rail and truck circulation, refrigerafed stor- age, general storage, privafe renfal spaces and office spacesFor port officials or ship- ping related industries.

To further implementthe efficiency of these mulfipurpose strucfures, covered facilities could be used for loading and unloading, en- abling cargo to be stored and handled in all types of weather. Wii'h no lossesof man hours becauseof rain or ice, the efficiency of the FaciHty would be increased and ship turn Vull CWtIIVVVIVV around time improved.

Where multistory shedsare used in conjunc- tion with slips or finger piers, if would be a Cargocould be loadedfrom the upperfloors by simplemafter fo cover the spanwith a space a gantry type crane, moving on tracks along the frame, a vault, a cable-supporfed strucfure apron. Cargocould be broughtfo fhe edgeaf or a cantilevered roof. 'ln the case of a shed fhe warehousewhere it wouldbe pickedup by alongside a marginal wharf, a cantilevered the crane. A systemof smallramps or balconies or cable-supported roof systemcould cover the could be usedto pick up cargo from fork trucks. apron and the ship. With the facilities These balconies could be lowered for the fork covered, the upper floors of the building trucksto driveonto them and raised when they could then open onto the apron withoui fear were driven off. This would allow cranes to oFweather damage, except in extremelyharsh pick up and drop cargowithout any overhead climates, This would allow cargo intended for obstructions . refrigerated sforage or long term storage to be unloaded directly onto the level desired.

Laneitudinai Section

ranaveraa Section 110

Rail and truck circulation within the building would be carried out on different levels, Railcars would enter the warehouse on a level Vertical circulation within the warehouse woul d slightly below the apron level to allow easier be accomplishedby lifts or elevators, overhead loadingand unloading. Lanes would be pro- cranesand conveyors and ramps. Vertical vided on the first level for trucks to enter be- distribution of goodsfor storagefrom shipswould tweenthe railroad tracks but the maIortruck be accomplishedby the dock cranesor overhead traffic would enter the warehouse on the conveyors . second level . 111

Phase I Phase 3 The construction of multistory warehouses During phase3, four of the old transit sheds will occur in four phases. During the first are removedand replacedwith multistory ware- phaseone existing transit shedis removedand houses,while their cargo is handledby the workis begunon the multistorywarehouse/ three previouslyconsfructed warehouses, Storage shedwhich replacesit. Theexisting rail to is transferred to the new warehousesfreeing the this shed is retained once the multistory ware- old warehouses for recreational or other commer- houseis completed. Wheneverthe warehouse cial uses. 4dd'rtionsand changesare madeto the section oF the new building is completed, railroads servicing fhe new warehouses. storageis transferredto if fromwarehouses in the immediafe area, which are then removed.

Phase 2 Three more sheds are removed and their cargo is handledby the Firstmultistory warehouse. Thethree shedsare replacedby two multisfory warehousesand then storage is moved info them Fromseveral more warehousesthroughout fhe port. Rail lines are then changed to the new routes servicing fhe three multistory warehouses with as many of the existing lines as possible kept in useuntil the project is totally complet- Phase 4 ed. The remaining three transit shedsare removed and replaced by multistory warehousesand re- maining warehousestransfer their storage to the shipside warehouses. Railways to the new warehousesare completed providing at least' one through rail fo each warehousewith numeroussidings For each warehouseor group of warehousesto prevent a bottleneck of rails 112

in the waterfront area. Various switches precedingthe entranceto the waterfrontarea and around the warehouses allow railcars to bererouted. Container Facilities Work is already underwayon Galveston'sfirst container facility. Twoexisting slips are being filled to gain 66 acresfor a containermarshall- ing yard. Storagewill be available Forapprox- imately I800 containersstacked two high. Con- tainers will be moved by trans-tainers from trucks to the stacks and from the stacks to the container crane.

Approximatelyl700 feet of berthingspace wil I be obtained by the filling in of the slips, allow- ing berthagefor two containerships. At present, one of the slips hasbeen filled and the facility will be openearly in 3972, Theremaining slip is to be filled later.

Vertical Container Storage Instead of filling in the remaining slip and con- verting the entire 66 acresinto a marshalling yard, fhe slips could be widenedand a system of vertical container storage could be utilized. Bynot filling in the slip, berthingfor four ships could be provided. 113

If the remaining slip is filled and the marshall- ing yard is used, a vertical storagesystem could still be installed at a later date to increase the capacity. The storagecapacity could be in- creasedfrom l800 to approximately2500 and much of the land from the previous marshalling yard could be returned to other usage. The shorelinealong the easternside of the yard would be filled to gain another berth.

With a vertical storagesystem, room could be providedfor up to 2500containers IO high!, plusa considerablesavings in land. Fewer peoplewould be required to operate sucha facility, therefore,part of the laborforce could be channelledinto other port operations. By creating certain zonesfor rail and truck One possible systemoF vertical container unloading, congestion will be kept to a mini- storageis a skeletonstructure of columnsand mum . slabs which would hold the containers. The slab structure would be used in conjunction with elevator type gantry cranes similar in design to those usedby the ' PidgeonHole" parking garage system

Futureexpansion could be providedby filling along the easternshoreline to gain another berth and area for another vertical storage structure . 114

6.1.3 Conclusion

With the addition of multistorywarehouse j transit sheds, Galveston could greatly in- crease the efficiency of its handling of general cargo. With coveredfacilities, dock gangscould work cargo in all typesof weather and the distance required for cargo transfer would be reduced with warehouses located on the aprons. Theaddition of wider apronswith the warehouses would permit the use of gantry cranes in loading and unloading .

TransferoF cargo to the new warehouseswould allow removal of the old warehouses and the railroad lines servicing them. Traffic conges- tion would be greatly relieved without the rail lines and the heavytruck traffic which now service the warehouses. With the old ware- housesremoved, room would be provided for expansionof the port or for housingor recrea- tional facilities.

The implementationof a vertical container Thesecranes travel horizontally on tracks storagefacility would reducethe area re- between the structure and the edge of the pier quired for the storageof containers. The while containers can be lifted to the desired smaller number of people required to operate height. The crane picks up containersby a vertical storageFacility would allow fhe meansof an extendable arm which positions port to spreadits labor force over several above the container, raises the container and other facilities, By introducingvertical returns to the crane with the container, storage either now or af a later date in- stead of a container marshalling yard, the storage capacity can be greatly increased.

Containersto be storedin this facility would be broughtby rail, truck or barge. Largelift trucks would carry containers from train cars to the crane, while containers on trucks and bargeswould be unloadeddirectly onto the crane, 6.2 Interim Port 115

6.2,f Introduction

The preceding concept which dealf wifh exisfing porfs demonstratedthe fact fhaf mosf present day ports need to update their anfi- quated facilities rind that new achievements in marinetechnology demand changes, A needarises for Funcfionallydesigned facilities which can respondefficient'ly to changes in marifime technology, buf the planning of such port facilities should nof end there. Much thoughfshould be given to phasingouf the old facilities in the interim between the presentand the projectedfufure completion date .

Theobjecfive of suchinterim planningshould be to developtransition conceptsbased on anticipated changesin port and harbor de- velopment, like the development of offshore ports, supersizedvessels and other trends in the shippingindustry. To compoundthe pro- blems of transitional development, the design- er is not only Facedwith conventional econo- mic, social and polifical pressuresbut has also to consider the maintenance of environ- menfal resources, parficularly in coastal and inland water zoneswhich are currently being a busedand destroyed. Environmental con- strainfs directly affect the development of ports and harbors throughout the world. The problemsare especiallyacute in highly in- dustrializedareas such as the HoustonShip Channel in the United States where the waters are so polluted that no mannerof life exists within Five miles of the turning basin. Such conditions exist where environmental balance is neglected in porf and harbor operation and planning .

Effecfive irnferim planning which could deal with such imbalances would include three majorareas of activity: A! introducingen- vironmental concern and thought into the transitional developmenf of ports and harbors of the future; 8! developingmore efficient use of patterns in coastal and inland porfs and their surroundings;C! modernizing transportationaldelivery and retrieval systems. 6.2.2 Concept Development

In order to approachthe transition of porfsand Man must be able to understand the natural harbors in a rational manner, it would be of processesoccuring in the nearshoreenviron- value to look first at the large scale operations mentand thus predict his own effects on the of portsand harbors, where fhey do existand why environment. He must also use the environ- they existand what Isaround them. Al'l ports ment for the benefit of all mankind by accom- and harborsare found in coastal or inland water modating,with minimum conflict, multiple uses zones, Within thesezones by definition we find and maintain and restore if necessaryto an that portsare in a transitional environment, acceptable level of public choice both now between the land and the water, whether coastal and in the future . or inland. Environmentally,socially, polifically and economically this is of importance to us'. Noting the chart on present coastal zone A! Socially, becausea majority of populationslive usage, the itemsshown are rated to their in the coastalzone or rely on someform of water- future development!those positive valued bornetrade, Thesepopulations are constantly items indicate a need for increased develop- growingand expanding. 8! Politically, because ment and the negative values indicate a governmentsrely upontheir peopleand resources. decrease in development, i.e . aqua culture Portsand harbors have always played ma jor roles +! shouldhave moreemphasis than fisheries in thedevelopment of world powers and should +!. continueto be an importantinternational frans- + 2+ t+ t- 2- 9 4- wast~ disposeI portational system, C! Economically,we find that municipalsewerage a gooddeal of industryworldwide is located near industrieI wsnte shorelinedevelopment water. Factors affecting waterfront locafion of industrieI industrial concernsare: A! Use of cheap water- housing ports bornetransportation, i .e. bulk rawmaterials. exploitationof living resources fisheries 8! Useof water in manufacturingprocess brack- aquaculture I'eereatI on ish water is satisfactory,i.e. cooling of equip- swI nunI ng ment!. C! Ability to discard waste into ocean boatingand sport fishing waterresources shore, rivers and lakes,i.e. dumpingof waste municipal andindustrie I supplies transparrot ion gases. D! Savingon productdistribution usual ly shipping being adjacent to large metropolitanareas. weterways ha*our wildlifeand estuarine preservation wildlife andestuarine management In the light of industry, availability of water exploitationof non-livingresourcm routes is of major economic importance in oper- oil gas ationa'l planningof waterfront industry. Envi- gravef mnd ronmentally, thesezones are the mostproductive oystersh e! I land areas, teeming with life and food for man.

In relation to natural and artificial changes in From this point it would appear that some any coastaland inland water zone problemssuch basic concepts are developing: We as thesedo develop: have established the fact that the coastal pol lution and inland water zones are of basic value ' shoreline erosion to man in order for him to live on the earth and shoreline damage from storms it would follow that man would be concerned loss of wildlife and nutrient areas with this zoning and establish land usage - silting and shoaling around this premise. detrophication ' proliferation of pestsand other unwanted Conceptuallyit could be conceivedthat use species of the land for urban purposescould be kept ' dredging and filling . to a minimumby creating cities of' people living in high density structure and using 117

areas not considered habitable such as deserts, Barges: Advances have been made in the steppes, mountains, ice-covered areas and employmentof barges,both oceangoing and wafer surfaces for settlements in order to de- inland water barges. Thedevetopment of the velop the mostvaluable land in cultivation LASHvessel concept and the SeabeeSystem and nearshoreand estuaries in aqua-cultiva- LykesBros. Steamship Co., Inc .! for trans- tion. porting unit bargeson overseasroutes coupled with aftendanffacilities rail, road, ware- housing, transit distribution Facilities! are among many proposalsinvolving the use of bargesas a major meansof waterborne traffic. Thebarge-tug systems appear to be a realistic approachin manyaspecfs. Some obvious advantagesare: . fhe draft of the barge in relation to other formsof waterbornetraffic tankers,cargo vessels! the amount of load which can be carried economically, outweighsother systemsof transportafion ' unif handling costs are lower flexibility of major equipmentcomponents.

We can seethat a transporfafionsysfem must be developedshowing imports and exports fraveling from coastal terminals lo fhe inland cities nof always following nafural water- ways,l .e. cifies which would exist in deserts, mountains, steppes, etc.

Thetransportation system seems to be a sound barges lend themselvesfo various operational idea and will be lookedat morecarefully types: basedon the fact that one of our aims is to stay-tugs remain attached to the flotilla establish a more modern and efficirent trans- white cargo is worked portal delivery and retrieval system. ~ swap fugs exchange an inbound barge for an outbound barge Thedifferent sysfems of transportationto be ~ drop - a tug drops a barge in a part and considered in the development will be as returns for it before proceeding on fhe fol low s: transocean journey barges flexibility al lows certain variety in facilities trains to handle fhe barges . trucks barges could maintain full time operation while ' aircraft construction of new facilities were taking place. pi pel ine . 118

Problemswhich havearisen from the growing ~eardlguralane~l eM breedof waterbornevessels are in the area of personneland management aboard these vessels: ' captainswith little or notraining in inlandor ocean going navigation too little payto attract top quality seamento these positions. Trains..Rail systems are at a differentstage of development.They have neither reached the optimumin sizeor speed. Thefunction of any transportationsystem is to movecargo and people efficiently andeconomically from place to place. TheJapanese have done considerable work in developingfaster more effective trains,i.e. New TokaidoLine, Japan,reaching speeds of 130 Comparisonbetween sizes and loadscarried milesflour . by conventionaltrains and possible super trains of the future . Trucks: In dealing with the road systemwe mustrecognize the two distinct areasof func- tion: thosebeing private and thosebeing commercial . Private vehicles: passengervehicles trucks for private use ' farm equipment. Comrnercia I vehi cl es: commercial trucks buses. Beingaware of this distinction in road systems it would be feasible to separatethe two with- in the transportline. Thisseparation would Perhapswe mightfind that our needsfrom the allow the expansionof the presentsize of presentday's trains to specialtrain units for. commercial vehicles for more efficient road use in an intercity transportation systemare systemsas well as greater carrying capacity an increase in size of wheel base resulting combinedwith accompanyingspeed, which in greater payloadsin hauling capacity . leads to economic saving. Greaterpower thus needed to pull theseloads could be developedthrough use of atomic fuels for engines, Useof air suspensionin short unit trains could also achieve maximum speed.

Crosssection of Transportation Link 119

Aircraft: V/STOLsystems could readily be applied to a morerapid and efficient system of transportafion. Helicopters could be employed for high value low weight cargo as well as provide shuttle service between port area and destination of goods. The need for more advanced aviation calls for a balanced systemof air, surface and water fransportationmodes. Th'rssystem will maxi" mize fhe fIow of passengersand cargo from point to poinf . Pipelines: A fifth area of transportation which has been little exploited is pipelines. Its use to date has been largely devoted to liquified petro productsand tiquified sulfur, natural gas and others. It seemsfeasible that other products could be transported throughpipelines from one place to an- other by useof pneumatic,hydraulic or No optimumshave been reached in this magnetic forces. area of transportation,although this con- cept doesnot deal completelywith the Coupling al I five areas of fransportation systems trucking mode. It does suggestconcept- into a packagewe might seethat an efficient uaI ly the considerationof super-trucks economicalsystem could be developedto serve basingsize on earth movingmachinery the need for a transportation link between but with adaptionof speeds,making them coastal distribufion terminals and major inland economicaI ly feasib'Ie for transportation metropolitanareas. It is conceivablethat inter uses . port linkage could be developedbetween off- Thesevehicles could carry enormouspay- shore facilifies and the coastal disfribution Ioads of cargo and passengersdoand from termina I, coastal port terminalsaf conventional speeds. Passenger-carriersalso appear At this point our conceptdevelopment is barely fea'sible at this increased scale. complete. By knowingwhat we have in present day portsand realizing what we needin future portswe havethe opportunityto takea systems approachto portand harbor development in the form of the interim port showing: facilities interface of transportation ' phasing. 120

6.2.3 Concept

In the interimport we find that distributionof Respondingto the needfor a systemsvehicle to cargois of majorimportance in the operationof utilize unified distribution, interim port com- any porfhandling any commodity.It is apparent bines major transportationalmodes into a func- that lack of coordi'nationand flexibilify in the tional facility supportinga numberof secondary presentday portscan snowball the entiresystem activities. of retrieval and delivery. Becauseof this un- organizeddisfribution in mostports the results become clear; ~ wasted time on dockfront delay in ship turnaround ~ secondaryconflict of land-side interface ~ higher cost for handling ~ indirect distribution.

Theobjective of the interimport would be to provideunified disfribution of passengersand cargothroughout the port. Theresults of this proposalwould also becomeclear; ~ direct distribution ~ savingon handling cost faster service to customer ~ faster ship turnaround Interim port facilities: ~ increasedefficiency of port operation The facilities offered by interim ports are eliminate interface conflict. brokendown into primaryand secondary eval- uation. Theprimary facilifies are asfollows: bargeterminal complex V/STOL terminal complex ' road vehicle terminal ' rail complex.

Thesecondary facilities will be intergrated within the interim port structure: ~ housing intermodal service center ' fuel storage center utili ties corn plex ' communication center . parking auto! administrative operations medical supporf commercial refail center international frgde mart ' marina operations observation control unit public viewing areas transit cargo center ' warehouse complex - transportaticefeeders service complex Schematicrepresentation of port areashaving.. waste treatmenf facility unorganizeddistribution and unified distribution . green belt reserves. interimport hinterland structure

Planview showingsurface leve'l of interim port

Exposedinterior view reveals barge and tramn facilities first level! of interim port 122

lnferim port interface: Vertical section through interim port showing The surfacetransportation network wil I consist circulation patternsand facilities of a central roadwaytraversing the above interim port at the residential level .

All inbound and outbound bargeswil I enter lnf'erface in interim port will be on two levels at specified levels info interim port. Special of importance: first is the four modesof trans- employeeparking and traffic service lanes port within the port. Second, fhe operational will be established at different levels of acti- interface servicing the firsf level of interface. vity. Transitvehicles will also servethe in- Boththese systems are inder-dependenton the terim port complexfrom near by metropolis other. areas .

Grade separationinterchanges will allow un- inferruptedinterface betweenthe major trans- portational modes. Greenbelt reservesand landscapedzones will be provided to buffer public usageareas from commerciallyun- attractive operations. Maximumusage of such areas will establish acousfical reduction and visual screening of interim porf services. Phasing: Interim Port: The stagingand adoptionof facilities at the terminal connection would need tremendous coordination between all persons, organizations and governmentsinvol ved .

Phasingcould be thought of as two different ap- proachesbut bothvery mucha partof the other: ~ instructivephasing ~ physical phasing The instructive or educational phasing should be so designed as to educate people, the real recipiants of fhe system,as well as owners and operatorsof transportationsystems peo- ple directly affected by the existenceof such a port!. 123

~ establishmentof alternate approachroutes to site area ~ raadand rail developmentnear completion establishmentof greenbeltareas ' 50k total facilities near completion, Phase 3 ' final connectionof linkage systemwith interim port full operationalservice to be established waterborne traffic using 5' barge. Thisphase is of particularimportance because all aimsof the conceptshould be becomingreality in the technological sensewhile maintainingen- vironmental integrities . Educational flow for instructive phasing Phase 4 will be a re-evaluation of the concept with the establishmentof objectives in relation to populationgrowth patterns and distribution Theeducational approach is neededfor success,with emphasisupon areas which shawthe greatest Morethon one project has been crushed for need. The conceptwill providea firm basisfor failure to adoptthis approach. Publicityis not further expansionof future transportationalneeds. enough;the peoplemust be involved, Feeling theyknow what is goingon as well aswanting Conclusions theproject to bea successwill helpthem know lt is apparentthat only the schematicdesign of the benefits af the venture will be theirs. the interimport concept has been established in ' the precedingpages, lacking dimensional character Thiseducational program should be carried of a finished designpackage. It is the aim of this throughoutthe entiredevelopment of interim conceptto offeran optionto portdevelopment;a ports, system,employable now, 10years from now and After a well designededucational plan has in future portsof 2000AD. beenconceived and structuredthe first phase of a fourphase plan couldbegin.

Thephysical phasing would begin with trans- formationof portfacilities at the coastalpoints andinland points as well as the development of thetransportation systems into a correlated 'linkagematrix between interim port and the hinterland it serves.

Phase I procurementof rightmf~ays ' phasingout of presentfacilities on a ten year program ' preparationof sitearea for newconstruction . redefinition of rail and trucking routes ' temporaryuse of landfor supportfacilities pollution contractsbegun. Phase 2 begin constructionof linkage systemsto metro- politan areas 124

aerial view interim port 6.3 Trans-Port 125

6.3.1 introduction

Technologicaladvancement is and alwayshas been a major port of fhe marifime scene. How- ever, the changesoccuring now are muchgreat- er and faster than ever before. There is a re- volution in oceanshipping operations, which effecfs equipmentas wel I as cargo handling methods,

Supersizedvessels capable of single-trip de- liveries of over a million barrels of liquid cargo are now in service, with vessels on the drawing boards that wil I dwarf these. Trem- endouseconomic benefits are madepossibJe by large scale vessel;. However, fhese vessels require deepwater mooring facilities or harbor and channeldepths substantially greater than now available. To providesuch depths creates an avalanche of problems both natural and man- made, such as: ~ physical . ecological . safety ~ economic/fina n ciaI .

Containerization of non-bulk commodities is accelerafing at an unprecedented rate. The bene fi ts are numerous: . lower freighf costs . faster deliveries ' less shipping damagefo cargo more economical handling costs.

In order to realize all of these benefits if will be necessaryto expend a large amount of funds, either in rennovating exisfing port facilities or building new ports.

The time is right for new, innovative and creative thinking for ports and harbors. This sectionwill presentan idea of a multi-func- tion facility located offshore. 126

6.3.2 Concept

Trans-Portis a facility designedto meet Basedon the requirementof deepwater the needsof an industrywifh rapid chang- to accommodatedeep draft vessels,the ing technologicaladvances. It is a point Trans-Port will be located in wafer over of interfaceof transportationmodes. Trans- 100feet deep,along the continental shelf, Portbecomes the commondenominator for Theactual site to be determinedby need each transportationmode, basedon volumeof ship traffic.

Theprime goal of eachmode is to move Sincethe Trans-Portmust serve the hinter- cargo,whether it bebananas, mail or land, it is necessaryto establisha direct people,The ferminal lac ilifies where link. Thereare severaloptions avai'lable: cargois loadedand unloaded requires above surface verysimilar equipmenf regardless of surface below surface. carrier type . Byproviding a submerged tunnel/tube con- Theprincipal behind the Trans"Portidea nectingthe Trans-Port to land, it will be is to stratifyor verticallyseparate fhe fr

Sectionthrutunnel/tube Thetunneloperation wouldbe continuous feeding from existing terminal facilities, thereby utilizing existing facilities with established trade routes.

The tunnel/tube providesthe advantage of beingoperational independentof, weather conditions that might affect air or seaoperations. If hasthe added ad- vantage of being a submergedstructure that can providethe initial impetusfor an artificial reef, desirable for ecolo- gical aspects. 128

The need for a facility is apparent, due to the liquid bulk cargo industry. By providing a multi-use facility the expensive costof constructingsuch a Facility is justifiable.

The advantages are many: unlimited expansioncapabilities facility not dependent upon one cargo type for success eliminatesnoise and air pollution pro- blems from the urban areas ' inhancesship turnaroundand travel time increasessafety in navigation by elimi- nating trea cherouschannel na vigaf ion .

A studyby PaulWeidlinger, consulting engineers,called FLAIRproposed a large floating airport constructedof large modu- lar units, floated togetherand anchored by cables. Thissystem when completedpro- vided a stationaryplatform providing two parallel runwayswith necessaryaircraft loadingand supportfacilities.

Source: Architectural 8 Engineering News, December 'I 969

Plan of FLAIR 129

Applyingthe sametechnique with a 2 level module, it will provideapproximately 50,000,000 square feet of covered space that can providea year roundworking en- vironmentfor port personneland visitors,as well as accommodations for air travelers with layovers. 130

With the use of conveyor systemsand com- puterizedcoding . Storageand retrieval of containers will be a simple automatic pro- cedure. Aircraft can be lowered to the port level to receive their cargo and returned to the flight level for rapid delivery,

levelplan, Trans-Port UP

Interior view of container section 7 Glossary 132

Source.. Port of 4msterdom f33

4 ir Rights use of a ir spacea bove. DWT dead weight tons

Apron - the portion of a pier or wharf lying FenderSystem - protective devicesto prevent between the waterfront edge and the contact between vessel and structures. transit sheds . Iribarren Equation - determines the relation- Basin, Tidal a dock or basin in which the ship betweenweight and slopeof break- water level changes. watersfor different wave heights.

Basin, Turning area of water set aside Mean LowWater the averageheight of the for vessel turnaround. low watersdetermined by averagingthe hourly levels over a period of time. Berth the water area reserved for vessels at a wharf or pier. Mean Sea Level - the averageheight of the seadetermined by averagingthe hourly Breakwater- an engineeringstructure pro- levels over a period of time . viding shelter from wave action . Male a breakwater . Cofferdam a temporary structure for the exclusion of water froima site during Overtopping crestingof wavesover the top construction . of a breakwater.

Crane, Gantry a lifting device mounted Quay - European term for wharf. on a structural frame, generally track mounted for mobility. Slip - openspace of waterbetween piers.

Crane, Luffing - the boom can be raised or StevensonFormula - developedby Thomas loweredwithout changingthe height S teven son to determinethe a pproximate of the load. wave height in a harbor.

Dock, Dry - A! floating dry dock is a buoy- Stowage- the processof placing cargo. ant structure open at both ends capable of being flooded and pumpedout fo faci- Terminal the structures,facilities, or equip- litate vesselentry . B! Graving Dry ment at the end of a transportation move- Dock - a vesselis floated in, then gates ment, for the transfer of cargo . are closedand the area pumpeddry. Generally for repair or cleaningof a Warp process of turning a vessel around a vessel . dol phin .

Dolphin an isolatedcluster of piles used Weepholes located in sheetpiling usedas for mooring or markers. a bulkhead retaining wall when the water Ievel in front of the bulkhead varies con- Dunnage filI material placed in voids in siderably. This equalizes someof the load cargoholds between cargo and ship pressurescaused by differences in dry and to prevent cargo movement. submergedconditions. 8 Bibliography 134

8,1 Books

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Bown, A.H.J,, and Dove, C.A. Port Opera- Hudson, Wiibur G. Conveyorsand Related tion and Administration. Cornell Maritime Equipment. J. Wiley 8 Sons, Ltd: New Press; Cambridge, Maryland, 1960. York, 1954.

Hrahtz, John . Ocean Engineering. Wil ey: Immer, John R. Container Services of fhe New York, 'I968. Atlantic 1970. Work Saving International: Washington, D,C, ~o* ! ' . c Maritime Press: Cambridge, Maryland, Materials Handling. McGraw-Hill Book 1958 . Company; New York, 1953.

Chancy, CharlesA. Marinas. National >hrbucher der Hafenbautechnischen Gesellschaft, Association of Engineers and Boat Manu- related to Bremerhaven!. 21/21 Vol . 1950- facturers: New York, 1961 . 51; 27/28 Vol . 1962-63; 30/31 Vol . 1966- 68; Springer-Ver lag: Berlin . Collected Reprints ESSAInstitute for Ocean- a~graph. Atlantic-Pacific Oceanographic Knauth, Arnold W. The American Law of Ocean L.aboratories, U.S . Department of Com- Bills of Lading. American Maritime Cases, rrterce, Environmental Science Services Inc: Baltimore, Maryland, 194I . Administration, 1966-67, Volumes! . Lederer, Eugene H. Port Terminal Operation. Evans, J, Harvey, and Adamchak, John C. Cornell Maritime Press: New York, 'I 945, Ocean Engineering in Structures. MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts,1969. McFarland, Capt. Myron E. Cargo Lossand Damage. Cornell Maritime Press: New Fair, Marvin L. Port Administration in the York, 1942, United States, Cornell Maritime Press: Marine Technolog 1970, Volumes 1 8, 2. 6th 135

Annual Conference 8 Exposition. Port Design and Construction. The American Washington,D.C., June29 July 1. Association of Port Authorities. Washington, D.C., 1964. Merchant Vessel Size in United States Off- shore Trades b the Year 2000. Com- Ports of the Americas. American Association mitteeon ShipChannels and Harbors,The of Port Authorities. Washington, D.C., American Association of Port Authorities. l 961, June 1969. Ports of the World. Berm Brothers. Marine Metcalfe, JamesVernon . The Principles of Publications Limited: London, 1968. Ocean Trans rtation, Simmons-Boardman PublishingCorporation: New York, 1959. The Ports of New South Wales. The Maritime Services Board of New South Wales, Aus- Morgan, F .W. Ports and Harbors . Hutchinson traliaa . The Griffin Press: Adelai de, South UniversityLibrary: London, 1958. Austra I ia, 1970.

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Newan, Capt. Q.B. Marine Electric Power. Quinn, Alonzo De F. Design and Construction 1945. of Ports and Marine Structures . Mc Graw- Hill Book Company: New York, New York, O'Loughlin, Carleen. The Economicsof Sea 1961 . Transport. PergamonPress: Oxford, New York, 1967. Radius, Walter A . U.S. Shipping in Trans- pacific Trade 1922-1938. Greenwood Oram, Col . R,B. Cargo Handling and the Press: New York, 1968. Modern Port. The Commonwea th and International Library . Pergamon Press: Sauerbier, Capt . Charles L ., USNR, Marine Oxford, New York, 1965. Cargo Operations . 1956 .

Padelford, Norman J. P bl' ol'c f Sibley, Marilyn McAdams, The Port of Seas. The MIT Press: Cambridge, Hausfon, A History. University of Texas Massachusetts,1970. Press: Austin, 1968.

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Wagret, Paul. Polder Lands. Methuen: Boatin Statistics 1969. Department of London, 1968. Transporfation, Linlted States Coast Guard. Washingfon, D.C., 1970. Wooler, R.G. TankermanHandbook. E.W, Sweetman: New York City, 1946. Ex rting to the United States. U,S. Department of Treasury, Bureauof Ramsey,C.G. andSleeper, H.R. Architectural Customs, Office of Information and AE ~l Publication . Washington, D.C. 20226 Wiley andSons, Inc: NewYork, 1956. fire Fighting Manual for Tank Vessels. De- partment of Transportation, United States Coast Guard. Washington, D.C., July 1, 1968.

Harbor and Port Develo ent, A Problem and An 0 part'unit . U.S. Army Carps of Engineers. July 1968.

Internafional Conventions and Conferences

Treasury, United States Coast Guard. Washington, D.C., June 1, 1951.

Laws Governin Marine Ins ction . Depart- ment of fhe Treasury, United Stafes Coast Guard. Washington, D.C., March 1, 1965.

A Manual for the Safe Handling of Inflammable and Com usti e Liquids. Treasury Depart- ment, Un!fed States Coast Guard. Washington, D.C., March 2, 1964.

Panel Reportsof the Commissionon Marine Science, Engineering and Resources Volumes 1-3: Science and Environment, Industr and Technolog, Marine Resourcesand Legal Po itica Arrangemenfsfor Their Development. U.S. Government Printing Office; Washington, D.C., 1969.

Port Aransas Corpus Christi Waterwa, Texas .! . District, Corpsof Engineers. Galveston, Texas. 137

Rules and Re ulations for Artificial Islands Transportation af Oil . Petroleum Administration and Fixed Structures on the Outer Con- for Defense. U,S. Government Printing tinental Shelf. Department of Trans- Office: Washington, D .C ., December I 951. portation, United States Coast Guard. Washington, D.C., November I, 1968. University Curricula in the Marine Sciencesand Related Fields. Nationa! Council an Marine Rulesand Regulationsfor Cargo and Miscel Resourcesand Engineering Development. U.S . laneous Vessels, Subchapter I . Depart- Government Printing Office: Washington, ment of Transportation, U.S. Coast D.C., Academic Years 1969-70 and 1970-71. Guard. U.S . Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C., 1969.

Rulesand Re ulations for Marine En ineering Installations Contracted for Prior to Jul 1 1 935r Treasury Department, U, S Coast Guard. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C,, 1953.

Rulesand RegulationsFor Militar Explosives and HazardousMunitions. Departmentof Transportation, United States Coast Guard. Washington, D.C., May I, 1968.

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8.3 Reports

Annual Report, Pacific Maritime Association, Maritime Researchand Development. Re- San Francisco, 1969. port of the Woods Hole Conference, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, July 7-24, 1969. Berg, Ernest Koenigs, et al, Transocean U.S. Departmentof Commerce, Maritime Tug-Barge S stems, A Concepfual Study. Administration . Vol . 1, Vol . 2, Vol . 3, Matson Research Corpo ra tion . San Franci sco,Ca I ifornia g Masterplan for Long-Range Developmentof July 1970. the Porf of New Orleans. Bechtel Cor- poration, March 1970. CargoShip Loacfing,An Analysisof General Cargo Loading in Selected U.S, Ports. Miloy, John and Copp, E. Anthony. Economic National Academy of Science . Impact Analysis of Texas Marine Resources and Industries. Industria Economics Re- Containerization in Marifime Transportation search Division, Texas Engineering Experi- of General Cargo . National Research ment Station, TexasASM University Sea Council, Maritime Cargo Transportation Grant Program. June 1970, Conference, 1957, Modular Design Applications Stud Deckhouse D/FW 2001, Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Air- and Outfit! . J,J. Henry Co., Inc., part 2001 . Stanko Hommel, Wank Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Williams and Neylan, Inc. U.S. Departmentof Commerce, Maritime Administration . Deep Sea and Coastwise Longshoreand Cotton Agreemenf. Texas Ports, and Port of Lake National Ports Council Annual Reportand Charles, Louisiana. Statement of Accounts December 31, 1969!. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. London, Feasibility Study for an Oceanographic In- England . dustria Park and Seaport. Bec te Cor- poration, September 'l 968. National Ports Council Research and Tech- nical Bulletin Number 6, 1970. National IntermodaI Transporfation . Brochure from Ports Council, May 'l970, Central Gulf Lines. Oceanborne Shipping: Demandand Technolog Marine. Brown 8, Root, Incorporated. Forecast Parts 1 and 2. Litton Systems, Houston, Texas. Incorporated. Culver City, California, June '1968 . Marine Affairs in Texas, A Report for 1968- 69. Texas A8M University Sea Grant The Portsand Waterways View, Texas Marine Program. December 1969, Publication Resources. Texas AB,M University Sea No. 103, Grant Program, College Station, Texas, 1970. Marine Resources Activities in Texas, Pre- pared for the National Science Foundation's Port ProgressReport 1969, National Ports Coun- Sea Grant Program of Texas AB,M University, cil, London, England. A. McLay and Com- Texas Engineering Experiment Station, Texas pany, Limited: Fairwater, Cardiff, England. AIM University. August 1969. 139

8.4 Articles

Port ProgressRe rt - Summar "Government Floated in Water," Ekistics. January 1968.

Gregory,Lloyd. "AlamoBarge Lines Head Beaumont,The Port Commission, Soldon Water Transport," Port of Houston Beaumont,Texas, March 1, 1967. ~triaazine. Ctctoher1970.

Re rt of the Committeeof l ui intothe Gull ion, EdmundA . "Usesof the Seas," Ma'or Portsof Great Britain. Ministry American Assembl Publication . 1968. of Transport,London . Her Majesty's StationeryOffice: 1967. "lnnerspace,"A D ArchitecturalDesign! . 7/6, Vol. XXXlX, April 1969. Re rt of Sea Grant ProjectActivities 'l968-69. TexasA8 M University Sea "investorsgo t'oSea," BusinessWeek. August GrantProgram, December 1969, Pub- 31, 1968. lication Na. 104. Lear, John. "The Pulseof the Earth; Ex- piorinttthe Air, Water, Sea," ~Saturdo R. Review. February1, 1969. Harris,inc: New York, New York, i 970, Lutz, Dr. lng. Ralph. "TheDocks af the Free HanseTown of Bremen," The Dockand Agatz,A. andLutz, R. Seeverkehrswasserbau * Springer-Verlag,Berlin. Heidelberg, 1955 . Marshall, Kenneth. "The Supplementas:Fast Comersin Air Transportation,"~Trans rta- tion and DistributionManagement. Novem- ber 1969.

"The Ocean," Scientific Amer1can. September 1969, Vol . 221, No. 3.

"The Ocean Comes to Oklahoma," Readers Digest. November1970.

"Oceanis ExpansiveOil Field," Science News. May 14, 1966.

"ProbingOcean Shallows," ScienceNews. March 23, 1968.

"Science from a Habitat," Science News. November 8, 1969.

"A Taxi for the DeepFrontier," National ~Geograhie. January1968. '140

8.5 Papers

"TransportationTelephone Tickler," The Clark, BrigadierGeneral Allen F. The Journalof Commerce. Port of Houston, t fl V IS Houston, Texas, Twin Coast Newspapers, Inc: New York; August, 1970. 1970.

"UnderSea Transit," AD Architectural Glickman, David L. Port Problemsand Design!. May 197K on Maritime Researchand Development, "UrbanExpansion Takes to the Water," xel ox ~ Fortune. September 1969, Juichi Kata. Statusof FloatingBreakwater "WasteManagement Systems," Ekistics. R h A 0 fJa November 1968. Grant Program. "Workingfor Weekson the Sea Floor," National Geogra hic . April 1966. Kneiling, JohnG. P. E. A Modern inward *' '» I~I

Veraa, Claude F. ProposedAquaculturat Program. Marine Tec no ogy, 196, reprint .