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John Pile

A History of Interior Design

SECOND EDITION

Laurence King Publishing 130 The Renaissance in Italy The Renaissance in Italy 131

6.14 Donato Bramante, domed crossing, four identical radiating arms pedimented windows fitted within each arch. Tempietto, S. Pietro in forming a Greek cross, and smaller domed chapels The third level was planned as Corinthian but, Montorio, Rome, 1502. fitted into the resulting corners. Construction before it was built, Sangallo had been replaced The Tempietto represented a highly successful effort to began in 1506 on the basis of this plan and, by Michelangelo as architect in charge, leading adapt the vocabulary of Roman despite the modifications made by a sequence of to a more complex treatment that omits arches classicism to a circular, domed successors, St. Peter’s still incorporates the basic and substitutes overlapping Corinthian pilasters structure. The building dominates the small monastic concepts of Bramante’s plan. The change in plan framing windows topped with curved pedi- courtyard in which it stands. concept to a Latin cross (cruciform) scheme ments. The pilasters rest on a podium base with seems to have been dictated by a feeling in the rectangular panels under each window. Some of Vatican that a central plan carried a suggestion of these turn out to be small windows lighting a Roman paganism and lacked both reference to service mezzanine tucked between the second 6.16 Elevation of the the Christian symbol of the cross and a dominant and third floor levels for part of the building Tempietto. The elevation of the building is orientation toward the east. As built, St. Peter’s is perimeter. made up of two overlapping largely based on Michelangelo’s plan of 1546, A monumental stair leads to the main (second) golden rectangles, one although it was in turn extended to the west and floor where a passage runs around three sides of horizontal, one vertical. The entire elevation fits into an elaborated by Carlo Maderno in the seventeenth the court, giving access to rooms of various sizes. equilateral triangle. century (see p.94). The largest room of the palace, the Salle des Gardes, is of double height, its two levels of windows continuing the external pattern of fen- Palaces estration without change so that the exterior 6.15 Engraving of the The palaces (really town houses on a palatial design gives no clue to what is within. There is an Tempietto from Paul scale) and country villas of the High Renaissance elaborate fireplace mantel, classically framed Letarouilly’s Edifices de Rome Moderne (1825–60). were built by wealthy and powerful families, doorways, a coffered ceiling, and a decorative This cross-section shows the who were patrons of the greatest artists and tiled floor. Otherwise, the room is simple and aus- domed circular space of the architects of their time. The Farnese family made tere except for small relief rondels half way up chapel and the subterranean Antonio Sangallo the Younger (1484–1546) the the walls and tapestries hung high above. Other space beneath, with its centrally located reliquary, the designer in charge of their grand Roman palace rooms vary from severe simplicity to elaboration ostensible reason for the (1513–89). He planned a large symmetrical block with tapestries and fresco paintings. The room chapel’s existence. surrounding a central court in the manner of the earlier Florentine palaces, but moved toward a 6.18 Antonio Sangallo and Michelangelo, courtyard, more perfect use of the classical Roman vocabu- Palazzo Farnese, Rome, lary than Early Renaissance architects had been 1513–89. able to manage. The entrance to the Farnese The lower two levels of the Palace (6.18) is through a broad, tunnel-like pas- choices of lines for measurement show up rela- there is a quality of organization and coherence courtyard, which are by sage, vaulted overhead and with lines of six tionships that correspond to the golden section about the Tempietto that makes it seem truly Sangallo the Younger, follow the design of the ancient Doric columns on either side (actually antique ratio of 1:1.618. The interior uses eight pilasters classical in spirit. In spite of its small size, the Roman Colosseum, while the columns of a red Egyptian marble that had been arranged in pairs separating window panels and richness and complexity of the design give the upper level, which is by Michelangelo, exhibits a much excavated in the ruins of the ancient Roman larger niches, while the drum above has eight Tempietto a visual power that explains its influ- freer interpretation of its Roman forum). Beyond this dim passage, the bright windows below the domed ceiling. There is also ence on subsequent development. antecedents and hints at a central court is visible, with an exit on axis lead- a round subterranean chapel reached by twin Bramante was asked to prepare plans for the movement toward Mannerism. ing to the garden at the rear. The court itselfis a stairs leading to a door at the rear. Although it is construction of a new St. Peter’s Cathedral for square, with colonnades in the classic orders at not based on any one ancient Roman building, Rome (6.17). His complex central plan called for a each of three levels. Unlike the earlier Florentine palaces, arches here do not rest on columns— 6.17 Donato Bramante and they bear on solid piers with engaged columns others, plans for St. Peter’s, on the faces of the piers running up to a continu- Rome, 1506–64 ous entablature. This is the system of the ancient The evolution of the plan for the great cathedral can be seen in the Roman Colosseum, which gives the court a sense designs of (left to right) Bramante, of solidity and, incidentally, solves the problem 1506; Bramante and Baldassare of corner treatment, since arches bear on corner- Peruzzi, before 1513; Giuliano da Sangallo, 1539; and Michelangelo, angled piers and two columns stand on the 1546–64. Further design adjacent surfaces without interference. At modifications, made by Carlo ground level the order is a correct Roman Doric; Maderno in the seventeenth century were incorporated in the at the second-floor level the order is Ionic, with building as completed. 130 The Renaissance in Italy The Renaissance in Italy 131

6.14 Donato Bramante, domed crossing, four identical radiating arms pedimented windows fitted within each arch. Tempietto, S. Pietro in forming a Greek cross, and smaller domed chapels The third level was planned as Corinthian but, Montorio, Rome, 1502. fitted into the resulting corners. Construction before it was built, Sangallo had been replaced The Tempietto represented a highly successful effort to began in 1506 on the basis of this plan and, by Michelangelo as architect in charge, leading adapt the vocabulary of Roman despite the modifications made by a sequence of to a more complex treatment that omits arches classicism to a circular, domed successors, St. Peter’s still incorporates the basic and substitutes overlapping Corinthian pilasters structure. The building dominates the small monastic concepts of Bramante’s plan. The change in plan framing windows topped with curved pedi- courtyard in which it stands. concept to a Latin cross (cruciform) scheme ments. The pilasters rest on a podium base with seems to have been dictated by a feeling in the rectangular panels under each window. Some of Vatican that a central plan carried a suggestion of these turn out to be small windows lighting a Roman paganism and lacked both reference to service mezzanine tucked between the second 6.16 Elevation of the the Christian symbol of the cross and a dominant and third floor levels for part of the building Tempietto. The elevation of the building is orientation toward the east. As built, St. Peter’s is perimeter. made up of two overlapping largely based on Michelangelo’s plan of 1546, A monumental stair leads to the main (second) golden rectangles, one although it was in turn extended to the west and floor where a passage runs around three sides of horizontal, one vertical. The entire elevation fits into an elaborated by Carlo Maderno in the seventeenth the court, giving access to rooms of various sizes. equilateral triangle. century (see p.94). The largest room of the palace, the Salle des Gardes, is of double height, its two levels of windows continuing the external pattern of fen- Palaces estration without change so that the exterior 6.15 Engraving of the The palaces (really town houses on a palatial design gives no clue to what is within. There is an Tempietto from Paul scale) and country villas of the High Renaissance elaborate fireplace mantel, classically framed Letarouilly’s Edifices de Rome Moderne (1825–60). were built by wealthy and powerful families, doorways, a coffered ceiling, and a decorative This cross-section shows the who were patrons of the greatest artists and tiled floor. Otherwise, the room is simple and aus- domed circular space of the architects of their time. The Farnese family made tere except for small relief rondels half way up chapel and the subterranean Antonio Sangallo the Younger (1484–1546) the the walls and tapestries hung high above. Other space beneath, with its centrally located reliquary, the designer in charge of their grand Roman palace rooms vary from severe simplicity to elaboration ostensible reason for the (1513–89). He planned a large symmetrical block with tapestries and fresco paintings. The room chapel’s existence. surrounding a central court in the manner of the earlier Florentine palaces, but moved toward a 6.18 Antonio Sangallo and Michelangelo, courtyard, more perfect use of the classical Roman vocabu- Palazzo Farnese, Rome, lary than Early Renaissance architects had been 1513–89. able to manage. The entrance to the Farnese The lower two levels of the Palace (6.18) is through a broad, tunnel-like pas- choices of lines for measurement show up rela- there is a quality of organization and coherence courtyard, which are by sage, vaulted overhead and with lines of six tionships that correspond to the golden section about the Tempietto that makes it seem truly Sangallo the Younger, follow the design of the ancient Doric columns on either side (actually antique ratio of 1:1.618. The interior uses eight pilasters classical in spirit. In spite of its small size, the Roman Colosseum, while the columns of a red Egyptian marble that had been arranged in pairs separating window panels and richness and complexity of the design give the upper level, which is by Michelangelo, exhibits a much excavated in the ruins of the ancient Roman larger niches, while the drum above has eight Tempietto a visual power that explains its influ- freer interpretation of its Roman forum). Beyond this dim passage, the bright windows below the domed ceiling. There is also ence on subsequent development. antecedents and hints at a central court is visible, with an exit on axis lead- a round subterranean chapel reached by twin Bramante was asked to prepare plans for the movement toward Mannerism. ing to the garden at the rear. The court itselfis a stairs leading to a door at the rear. Although it is construction of a new St. Peter’s Cathedral for square, with colonnades in the classic orders at not based on any one ancient Roman building, Rome (6.17). His complex central plan called for a each of three levels. Unlike the earlier Florentine palaces, arches here do not rest on columns— 6.17 Donato Bramante and they bear on solid piers with engaged columns others, plans for St. Peter’s, on the faces of the piers running up to a continu- Rome, 1506–64 ous entablature. This is the system of the ancient The evolution of the plan for the great cathedral can be seen in the Roman Colosseum, which gives the court a sense designs of (left to right) Bramante, of solidity and, incidentally, solves the problem 1506; Bramante and Baldassare of corner treatment, since arches bear on corner- Peruzzi, before 1513; Giuliano da Sangallo, 1539; and Michelangelo, angled piers and two columns stand on the 1546–64. Further design adjacent surfaces without interference. At modifications, made by Carlo ground level the order is a correct Roman Doric; Maderno in the seventeenth century were incorporated in the at the second-floor level the order is Ionic, with building as completed. 218 Colonial and Federal America Colonial and Federal America 219

unpretentious comfort. Wood furniture was often greatly admired tall secretary desks and low 10.16 Peter Harrison, King’s painted in bright colors with designs using desks of the type called Blockfront. A fluted Chapel, Boston, 1749–58. birds, flowers, and decorative scrolls in the semicircular form suggestive of a scallop shell, a The Georgian church interior suggests that Harrison was vocabulary of the peasant art of Europe. carved motif that seems to have been used only aware of English prototypes. in America, is much used in Newport furniture. Paired Corinthian columns New York and Boston were also centers of fine support sections of entablature American Georgian and Queen Anne with a partly coved ceiling furniture production. Furniture above. There is a Palladian Chair design followed English patterns— window above the altar and a In the latter part of the Georgian era, American Queen Anne designs (10.15) with simple Splat ﬁne metal candle chandelier. Placing the seating in enclosed craftsmen and cabinet makers became increas- backs, and versions of Chippendale and Hepple- “box” pews was an attempt to ingly skillful and expert in working in the styles white with Rococo and Chinese-inspired detail. minimize winter cold and drafts. fashionable in England. Queen Anne and Chip- Windsor chairs were made in many types from pendale designs were both much used, some- simple to elaborate (10.17). The fully upholstered times even intermixed. The term Philadelphia wing-back chair was also popular in America, Chippendale is often used to describe the work where cold winters probably made its enclosing of cabinet makers in that city, such as John Fol- form particularly welcome. well (active in the 1770s), who was sometimes called “the American Chippendale,” and William Late Colonial Public Buildings Savery (1721–88), best known for ﬁne highboys. Highboys and tall secretary desks often had As the American colonies prospered, the need plain tops, but pediments, particularly broken for more public buildings emerged. Churches pediments with S-curved scroll shapes, were were built in almost every town, and cities often used on the most elaborate versions. The tall had a number of churches. As the stringent clock was made in handsome designs and became beliefs of Puritanism gave way to more varied a much treasured family possession (10.14). religious practices, churches tended to take on In Newport, Rhode Island, a unique version the character of English religious buildings. The of the Queen Anne style developed in the work- Carolean and Georgian churches of Christopher shop of Goddard and Townsend, makers of Wren and James Gibbs became models for many

10.14 (above) Tall case 10.17 American Windsor American churches. Christ Church (begun 1727) similar patterns in brick or in wood, with the Chippendale clock, 1796. brace back side chair, in Philadelphia, credited variously to Robert level of elaboration adjusted to the religious 1770–1800. Smith and to an amateur architect, John Kearsley, beliefs and the wealth of their congregations. is a fine example of the Wren–Gibbs type. It is Other colonial public buildings tend to follow built in brick, with the upper part of the spire in the simple Carolean and Georgian tradition wood; inside, white-painted wooden Roman established by Wren at the Chelsea Hospital in Doric columns topped with square entablature London—red brick with white-painted wood- blocks support galleries and a graceful arrange- work, symmetry, and ornamental detail concen- ment of arches. A Palladian window forms a focal trated at doorways and, where there is one, in a point above the altar. Peter Harrison (1723–1805) spire. A building for the College of William and was the architect of King’s Chapel in Boston Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia (begun 1716), is (10.16; 1749–58) where paired Corinthian col- known as the Wren Building because of a tradi- umns with entablature blocks carry the galleries tion that the design was actually provided in and the coved forms of the plaster ceiling. drawings by Wren. Certainly, the design is a ﬁne

10.15 (left) Ashley House, St. Paul’s Chapel in New York (1764–6), by the example of the Wren style, both outside and in Deerﬁeld, Massachusetts, New York architect Thomas McBean, is of similar the great hall within, modeled on the wood- c. 1730. design, but is of special interest because recent paneled dining halls of English university build- A “highboy,” a tall drawer chest, can be seen in the far restoration efforts have discovered the original ings. The Williamsburg Capitol (1701–5) and corner. The chairs, which are of paint colors—not the conservative white, grey, Governor’s Palace (1706–20) are also handsome the style called Queen Anne, or beige usually thought to be typical of the col- examples of the Wren style, with beautifully have cabriole legs and simple backs. The walls are paneled, onial church, but strong shades of blue and pink detailed interiors; but it must be noted that and the oriental rugs were that set off the white-painted wood detail. these buildings were drastically reconstructed in imported. The candle holders Waterford crystal chandeliers imported from 1928–34 on the basis of very limited documents with metal reﬂectors would have provided modest night- Ireland add to the sense of richness. Many and remains. time lighting. American churches and meeting houses follow 218 Colonial and Federal America Colonial and Federal America 219

21.9 Norman Foster, La Carée 21.10 James Stirling, History d’Art Gallery, Nîmes, France, Faculty, Cambridge University, 1993. Cambridge, England, 1964–7. At Nîmes, across the street This building, largely devoted to from the ancient Roman Maison library functions, has several Carré (c. 12 B.C.E.), the glass- ﬂoor levels overlooking an open fronted modern structure atrium, which is enclosed in makes a dramatic contrast with glass. Projecting enclosures the Roman temple. Norman with windows allow passers-by Foster’s design was selected in to look down into the gallery 1985, but the building was not space. completed until 1993.

ideal gallery space for the display of modern art. University in England (1959, with James Gowan 21.11 James Stirling, columns make references to past architectural Other hi-tech projects by Foster include the Law as a partner) attracted wide attention with its Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, styles. The building is totally original, but still Germany, 1977–84. Faculty building at Cambridge, England (1995), glass office tower, wedge-shaped adjacent blocks suggests complex relationships to art and archi- A central courtyard—really a which uses a hi-tech truss structure of half- containing lecture halls, and ship’s funnel-like room open to the sky—forms tecture of the past. It is tempting to suggest cylindrical form as a glazed shell above multiple ventilator. There is a large, low adjacent area the core of the art gallery, that Stirling had moved toward the approach level platforms holding stacks and reading areas; devoted to shop facilities. The interiors share the which was a modern addition to now called post-modern, although the building an older museum building. a spectacularly tall skyscraper tower office mechanistic qualities of the exterior, their Statuary, an arcade of stone certainly retained some of the rigors of hi-tech building in Hong Kong for the Shanghai National exposed structure suggesting the engineering- faced in marbles, and stubby design. The exhibition gallery spaces are Bank (1986); and the Sackler Galleries, a new related role of the building. The History Faculty Tuscan columns at the restrained in form and color, while the entrance entrance point on the left hint interior inserted into a court space in the build- building (1964–7) at Cambridge University, at a movement toward post- lobby, shop, circulation spaces, and restaurant ings of the Royal Academy in London (1991), England, which is mostly devoted to a library, modernism. A winding ramp use brilliant, saturated color as do many details which makes use of subtle detail to relate the contains a large gallery atrium topped with glass leads to an upper level. of the exterior. classicism of the older buildings and of the art skylight roofing. Here again the mechanics of displayed there to the technically advanced new structure set the character of the large and INSIGHTS spaces. A contemporary art gallery and média- impressive interior space (21.10). As Stirling’s thèque, the Carré d’Art (1984–93), in Nîmes, career moved ahead, the technological emphasis James Stirling building by Palladio where the peeling columns were in France, places a glass-fronted grouping opposite of his work gradually moved toward a more fact made of bricks and not of marble or stone as I had James Stirling studied at The Liverpool School of naively assumed from the books. I believe that the the classical ancient Roman temple known as the complex range of values. At the Olivetti training Architecture in England in the post-war period and shapes of a building should indicate – perhaps display Maison Carrée (21.9). Another insert, almost a facility at Haslemere in England (1969), interior remembers the controversies surrounding new, – the usage of the way of life of its occupants, and it is building within a room, is the renovation of the spaces were more varied, so that a “multispace” modern architecture: therefore likely to be rich and varied in appearance and its expression is unlikely to be simple. Great Court of the British Museum in London could be converted to accommodate meetings of There was furious debate as to the validity of the He elaborated these views when designing the (21.1; 2001), which houses the Round Reading varying size and character. Glazed galleries with modern art movement: tempers were heated and discussion was intense. Some staff resigned and a few addition to the Staatsmuseum in Stuttgart, Room of the former British Library (itself now ramped circulation paths connect elements of students went off to other schools, at any rate I was complaining that he was left with a deep conviction of the moral rightness of relocated). Here Foster has created a spectacular the building. sick and tired of boring, meaningless, non-committed, the new architecture. public space. Stirling’s last major work, the addition to the faceless flexibility, and the open-endedness of so Staatsmuseum in Stuttgart, Germany (1979–84), Stirling later modified his views, explaining that it was much present day architecture moves away from technology and toward a more more important to reflect the needs of the building’s Stirling occupants than be limited by the rigid restrictions of 1. James Stirling, Buildings and Projects 1950–74 (London, 1974), p. 14; adventurous direction. Gallery spaces are set the building’s materials: 2. James Stirling, speech,1957, quoted in Contemporary Architects James Stirling (1924–92), a British architect, around a circular courtyard (21.11) where marble (Chicago and London, 1987), p.230; 3. Quoted in Arnell and Bickford, I ceased to believe in Frank Lloyd Wright’s philosophy James Stirling: Buildings and Projects (London, 1984), p. 252 can be thought of as belonging to the hi-tech walls, statuary (from the museum’s collection), of truth to materials when I saw for the first time a direction. The Engineering Building at Leicester and a portal using stubby versions of Tuscan 414 Contemporary Design Contemporary Design 415