2004-2010 Andalusian Environment Plan
CHAPTER II: ANALYSIS OF THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN ANDALUSIA
Regional Ministry of the Environment of Andalusia 2004-2010
JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA
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CHAPTER II: ANALYSIS OF THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN ANDALUSIA
The 2004-2010 Andalusian Environment Plan seeks to take forward a sustainable development model capable of rising above existing environmental deficits whilst adding value to the strengths of the environment in Andalusia. Moreover, the new Plan seeks to respond to emerging challenges, avoiding future imbalances whilst taking advantage of existing opportunities in Andalusia.
The 2004-2010 AEP is inspired by the new environmental and sustainable development guidelines set forth at the international level, particularly by the EU and the OECD. However, it must also consider the current situation in Andalusia, assessing those areas in which progress has been made, as well as those in which the deficits have not been redressed.
From this perspective, it is necessary to perform an analysis of the current situation of the environment in Andalusia, assessing its evolution and potential trends.
In short, it is a question of reflecting the environmental situation in Andalusia, with a view to establishing objectives conducive to achieving sustainability.
Moreover, it is necessary to determine the impact of the previous Plan on the Andalusian environment, assessing the positive and negative effects of the programmes.
For this reason, the second part of this chapter tackles with the assessment of the 1997-2002 Environment Plan, from a quantitative and qualitative perspective, as a benchmark for environmental planning. This section details the progress made in achieving the objectives established in the Plan, as well as the projects and actions implemented in each policy area.
This dual approach reveals the environmental evolution and current environmental trends in Andalusia, identifying emerging or existing environmental deficits that have not been redressed by the previous AEP, and proposing the orientation of the new guidelines for the 2004-2010 Andalusian Environment Plan.
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2.1. State of the environment in Andalusia
A far-reaching environmental assessment approach is used to address different policy areas related to key environmental fields of interest in Andalusia.
POLICY AREAS Population and territory Natural resources Livestock trails and ecological corridors Protected natural reserves Coastal areas Urban environment Environment and contingencies Environment and economics Research, technology development and innovation Environment and society International co-operation
In view of the progress achieved over the last years, this analysis focuses on the description of the current situation, identifying current trends: the aim is to identify the most relevant aspects that will clearly explain temporal evolution and current trends, rather than to provide a detailed description of each parameter. The annual Environmental Report, drafted by the Regional Ministry of the Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia, provides information that is more detailed.
2.1.1. Population and territory
POPULATION GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION
Andalusia, with a surface area of 87,597 km2, is one of the largest regions in the European Union, comparable to Portugal or the Benelux countries (Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg). Spain has a total surface area of 505,988 km2, with a population of 41,800,000 inhabitants. The total surface area of the European Union is 3,191,120 km2, with a population of approximately 376,550,000 inhabitants. Moreover, Andalusia is the most populated region in Spain, with 7,478,432 inhabitants6, and, although the population density (85.4 inhab/km2) is lower than the European average (118 inhab/km2), it is higher than the Spanish average (82.7 inhab/km2).
Andalusia is at the head of the Spanish Autonomous Communities by population, with an increase in birth rates that until recently accounted for one of the highest vegetative growths in the country; however, this rate has declined at the regional and national level. Therefore, the population is relatively young, with stable age segments. In years past, the region was an emigrant exporting region; however, currently it is an immigrant
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recipient region.
From the territorial distribution perspective, the province of Seville has the largest population, 23.5% of the total population of Andalusia, followed by Malaga and Cadiz with 17.8% and 15.2%, respectively. Granada accounts for approximately 10% (10.9%), and Cordova 10.3%, whereas Jaen, Almeria and Huelva are the provinces with less population with 8.6%, 7.3% and 6.2%, respectively.
Although there was an absolute population increase in the 1960s, the demographic boom took place in the 1970s, with a total population growth of approximately 1.5 million inhabitants over the last thirty years.
The population growth analysis by municipality size evidences a higher growth rate, over the last thirty years, in settlements with more than 100,000 inhabitants in relation to other municipalities. The highest growth rate for this group and the municipalities with 50,000–100,000 inhabitants occurred in the 1970s to the mid-1980s, whereas the smaller settlements experienced zero population growth or a downturn.
The Requirements and Strategies of the Andalusian Land Management Plan divide the population distribution trends by municipalities into four groups:
- The large cities (more than 100,000 inhabitants), have shown a positive increase over the past century, with an absolute growth of more than 2.5 million inhabitants. The figure has grown from 8% of the total population in 1900 to more than 37% in the 1990s. The current figure represents more than 38.5% of population. The trend throughout this period has been characterized by a strong growth until the 1980s, subsequently declining until our days.
- The medium-size cities (20,000-100,000 inhabitants), like the previous group, have shown a positive trend, with a total population growth of more than 1.25 million inhabitants. The growth rate has been consistent throughout the period. In 1900, 18% of the population lived in medium-size cities, whereas in the 1990s the figure rose to more than 25%.
- Although the small cities (5,000-20,000 inhabitants) have shown a moderate growth in absolute terms – in excess of 0.5 million inhabitants -, the trend is regressive in relative terms. The total population declined from 39% at the beginning of the 20th century to 23% in the 1990s. Currently, the percentage is in line with the latter value.
- Rural communities (fewer than 5,000 inhabitants) are the only settlements in which the overall population has declined over the last century. The most negative development has taken place in smaller settlements; however, this trend has slowed down in recent years, with signs of stagnation or slight demographic recovery.
If the population distribution trends are analyzed by geo-economic areas, the mountain areas are the most negatively affected. The decrease in the number of medium-size and small cities that normally make up the rural sphere of influence evinces this process.
6 Population in Andalusia, 2001 Population census 30
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Conversely, the coastal areas and the Guadalquivir valley are the areas in which the settlements have developed positively since the middle of the last century. The number of medium-size cities in these areas has increased, especially in the main urban areas.
STRUCTURE OF POPULATION
According to the 2003 Municipal Population Census, the population structure by gender in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia consists of 3,849,478 women and 3,757,370 men; consequently, there are 1.21% more women than men. The situation by provinces is similar except in Almeria, where the trend is reverse.
With respect to the population by age, nearly 54% belong to the age group 15–49 years, according to the abovementioned sources. Moreover, 23% of the population is under 20 years, whereas approximately 15% of Andalusians is 65 years and over. The child population has experienced a significant decline over the past 15 years; however, the trend for the next 5 years is expected to change significantly, with a substantial increase in the number of children, owing mainly to the high birth rate among migrants.
When the estimated figures provided by the Andalusian Statistics Institute in their 1998-2051 Andalusian population forecast are compared with the actual figures of the 2003 Municipal Population Census, the under 15 years old age group has increased by 32,000 inhabitants, and the total population of Andalusia has increased by more than 142.000 inhabitants.
This population growth is common to all Andalusian provinces; however, the largest increase has taken place in Malaga and Seville, followed by Cadiz and Almeria. The population growth in Cordova and Jaen has been less significant than in the other provinces.
Figure 2. Population forecast of Andalusia by provinces. Years - 2004, 2010 & 2016. Source: Andalusian Statistics Institute. SIMA, Database.
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NATURAL MOVEMENT AND MIGRATIONS
The crude birth rate in Andalusia for 2002 (11.14) is higher than the Spanish average (10.11), however, the crude death rate in Andalusia for this same year (8.40) is lower than the national rate (8.90). This situation reveals a positive, natural growth of the Andalusian population, with a vegetative growth of 20,162 inhabitants in 2002.
Although the birth rate is higher than the mortality rate, the former has declined substantially over the last 15 years due, on the one hand, to the decrease in the average number of children per woman of childbearing age - from 1.82 children per woman in 1987 to 1.36 children per woman in 2002 -, and, on the other hand, to the increase in the average childbearing age, which was over 30 years in 2002.
The other population dynamics indicator, migratory balance, was positive in Andalusia in 2002, due mainly to the large influx of migrants and the drop in emigration over the last decades. The region has gone from being a territory with high emigration rates to a migrant-receiving region.
URBAN SYSTEM
Andalusia has a comprehensive and balanced urban system, due to the range of existing settlements and its distribution throughout the territory. The 137 settlements considered as urban, that is, with more than 10,000 inhabitants according to the 2003 Municipal Population Census, are distributed fairly uniformly throughout Andalusia, therefore, it is one of the most important land planning assets of our Region, as no other physical means of communication (road infrastructure, railway infrastructure, public transport, etc.) is so well implemented and distributed in the region. According to the Requirements and Strategies of the Andalusian Land Management Plan, the city system in Andalusia consists of regional hubs, a network of medium-size cities and rural settlements.
The 10 regional hubs with more than 100,000 inhabitants, that is, the eight provincial capitals as well as Algeciras and Jerez, are at the very top of the urban hierarchy. If the population size alone were to determine the designation of an urban settlement, then, according to the 2003 Municipal Population Census, the region would have 12 regional hubs, as Dos Hermanas and Marbella also have over 100,000 inhabitants. Cordova and Jerez do not have municipal agglomerations as these cities are located in the centre of very large municipalities; however, both cities play an important role as the main regional node for terrestrial communications, and as articulators of the north-eastern area of the province of Cadiz, and the southern part of Seville, respectively. The other cities can be considered as urban agglomerations, albeit with various degrees of importance as regards the complexity and level of urban, economic and population processes.
The regional hubs are essential nodes for the structuring of the Andalusian territory and its city systems; however, none of these functions is developed exclusively at this system level. Our region has medium-sized cities that act as an important link to the regional hubs and the rural settlements. The medium–sized cities are an important element for the spatial organization of the coastal areas and agricultural hinterland at the regional level.
Moreover, the rural settlements in Andalusia, distributed throughout most of the region, are linked to the large and medium-sized city systems and networks, and to the more remote and outlying agricultural and mountain
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areas. Another characteristic of the Andalusian territory is the persistence of this dense network of rural settlements, compared to the more relentless, and in many cases permanent, neglect and decline suffered by other areas in the Peninsula.
On the other hand, the high diversity within the Autonomous Community of Andalusia has led, over the last decades, to an unequal implementation of development, economic modernization and territorial transformation processes in different areas of the region.
The industrial and service sector activities in Andalusia have been centred mainly in large cities and urban agglomerations, with a view to taking advantage of the benefits derived from the so-called agglomeration and urbanization economy, even as large extents remained devoid of activities. Andalusia can be divided into three major areas, based mainly on economic and population dynamics, key productive utilizations and natural and physical characteristics of the territory:
• The urban production areas are made up of the large urban agglomerations and the coastal areas. These are the most dynamic areas in the region, with the highest population volume in absolute terms and a higher population density. • The mixed economy areas (urban and rural). These areas have a long-standing agricultural tradition, with an agriculture-based economy that is gradually being replaced by or supplemented with service sector activities and the development of complementary agri-food business. The population dynamics is characterized by low growth rates, or stagnation. • Rural areas. These are scarcely populated areas with a tendency towards depopulation and gradual population ageing. These areas are usually located in mountain or middle mountain areas, with extensive and, in many cases, marginal farming activities. However, they are now being appreciated for their unquestionable environmental and landscape value, and most of the natural parks of great beauty in our region are located in these areas.
LABOUR MARKET
The activity rate in Andalusia is equal to 52.93%, representing an economically active population of 3,174,480 persons, that is, 16.86% of the working population at the national level. The highest occupation rate corresponds to the urban areas; nevertheless, these areas are incapable of absorbing the migrant population generated by the increasing unemployment in the rural areas.
Although the high unemployment rate in Andalusia is one of the main imbalances in its economy, one must not forget that current labour market problems and dysfunctions are neither new nor exclusive to our Autonomous Community. The cause of existent labour market tensions is the economic crisis from previous periods and other chronic structural problems, which are part of our regional economy.
One of the positive characteristics of Andalusia is a youth population higher than the Spanish average, which translates into good future opportunities. The potentially economically active population in Andalusia is growing at a higher rate than the Spanish average, and this dynamism can be attributed to the following reasons:
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- The increasing incorporation of women into the labour market because of the far-reaching changes in Andalusian social patterns.
- The population structure in our region reflects the increasing growth of the base of the pyramid over the next years, demanding the incorporation of more persons into the labour market.
- The gradual reversal of the migratory balance, making Andalusia a focal point for attracting the migrant population.
2.1.2. Natural resources
Andalusia is located in a privileged geographical position, with a typically Mediterranean climate and varied geomorphology. These factors account for the unique characteristics of the region: warm, sunny summers, high biodiversity and geodiversity, ecosystems in which water is, in many cases, a limiting factor, or land with a high potential erosion. These characteristics, amongst others, distinguish Andalusia from the rest of Spain.
Humankind has shaped the landscape over the centuries to our days, with different results. The relatively recent and substantial industrial development of the region, which has not affected significantly the rural areas, has not interfered with the cultural and ethnological heritage built over the years. Natural resources have been developed, in most cases, in a sustainable manner; however, whenever this has not been the case, it has resulted in undue pressure on the environment, giving rise to water imbalances, water or soil contamination, and/or increased erosion.
CLIMATE
The climate is one of the factors shaping our region. It affects diverse aspects such as water availability, life cycle of vegetation, land formation, distribution of animal species or tourism pressure on the territory.
Andalusia enjoys a Mediterranean climate characterized by mild-warm temperatures (16.8º C mean annual temperature), and relatively low rainfall (mean annual precipitation is 605 millimetres). However, the uniqueness of the Mediterranean climate lies in the peculiar distribution of its temperatures and precipitation throughout the year: very warm summers and no rainfall.
The climate differences, in turn, are a reflection of the geographical differences, giving rise to multiple and exceptional enclaves that enrich the existing biogeographic diversity facilitating the coexistence of typical Mediterranean species with subdesert species, or enclaves with alpine or subtropical vegetation.
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Mediterranean Mediterranean Betica GEOGRAPHICAL Guadalquivir coast Intrabetico Atlantic coast Sierra Morena & Southeast mountain AREAS valley (Gibraltar- furrow coast range Adra) TYPE OF Oceanic Continental Semi-arid Subtropical Subdesert Continental Mediterranean CLIMATE Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean Mediterranean or mountain Mean annual 17-15 17-18 16-17 17-19 17-21 13-15 12-15 temperature (ºC) Mean annual precipitation 500-700 500-700 600-800 400-900 <300 300-600 400-1000 (mm) Annual rainy 75-85 75-100 75-100 50-75 <50 60-80 80-100 days Number of dry 4-5 4-5 3-4 4-5 6-8 4-5 3-4 period months Annual temperature 10-16 18-20 18-20 13-15 13-16 17-20 16-20 range (ºC) Annual frost days None 2-20 20-40 None 0-10 30-60 30-90
Figure 3. Climate Characterization of Andalusia.
However, climate is not a static factor but variable in time, and human activity has proven its influence, in the medium term, on the natural trends thereof. Hence, Andalusia, like the rest of the planet, is affected by climate change.
Climate change
Climate change is potentially the most important global environmental problem humankind must face. The intensification of the so-called greenhouse effect, due to higher concentrations of the gases contributing to this problem, is resulting in the additional warming of the lower atmosphere and the oceans, and the meltdown of the polar glaciers and icecaps, which is a very slow, yet irreversible process in our timescale.
In Andalusia, this process is evidenced mainly by the gradual increase of temperatures and erratic precipitation patterns, which modify the ecosystems and increase the environmental risks (drought, flooding) and the water imbalances.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published in 2001 the Third Assessment Report on Climate Change over the last 140 years, revealing that the downward trend of the average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere over the last thousand years was reversed at the end of the 19th century, in parallel with the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations due to the increased consumption of fossil fuels.
The Kyoto Protocol undertook the commitment to reduce emissions of six gases responsible for global warming, in particular CO2. The Gothenburg European Council of June 2001 resolved that combating Climate Change was a key priority of the sustainable development strategy of the European Union.
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The Regional Government of Andalusia, with the purpose of expressing its unwavering commitment to contributing to the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol commitments aimed at reducing emissions, considered indispensable the adoption of the Regional Strategy on Climate Change, approved by the Regional Council of Ministers on 3 September 2002.
The initiative laid down the concrete objectives for curbing greenhouse gas emissions, which are the cause of global warming. The estimated budget for 2002-2006 is in excess of 945 million euros.
The following aspects of the agreement should be noted:
- The fostering of renewable energy sources in order to increase the use of this type of sources in our Community to 15% of total primary energy supply by 2010, as stated in the 2002-2006 Andalusian Energy Plan. For this purpose, the construction of a 100 MW high-temperature, thermal solar power plant is under consideration for the aforementioned period, and a 230 MW plant for the year 2010. Solar power plants or hybrid power plants using other renewable energy sources shall generate the electrical output.
- With regard to energy savings and efficiency, the strategy foresees the use of cogeneration or natural gas facilities powered by fuels and processes that are more efficient, in order to save 1,549.6 ktep by 2010, and the implementation of various actions in the transport, industrial, residential and services sectors. The Andalusian Government intends to approve several regulations aimed at fostering renewable energies. The paper also includes measures to upgrade the electricity transmission and distribution infrastructure, and the construction of high-performance, low environmental impact power plants, as well as to upgrade the gas pipeline network, with a view to building new combined-cycle power plants for industrial, residential and commercial uses.
- The metropolitan public transport efficiency and effectiveness policies will be intensified with the aim of increasing its share with respect to the private vehicle, which is one of the main sources of pollutant emissions due to the combustion of fossil fuels.
An Andalusian Strategy on Climate Change Monitoring Panel and a Technical Secretariat have been set up to monitor these initiatives. The purpose is to scientifically analyse and assess the evolution of greenhouse gas emission levels in Andalusia, and adapt these levels to global objectives and policies laid down in the Kyoto Protocol. The Regional Government also plans to approve an environmental quality regulation, updating the Andalusian Law 7/1994 on Environmental Protection. The approved document also includes the elaboration of an Andalusian Emission and Sink Inventory.
As part of this strategy, the Regional Ministry of the Environment has launched an Environmental Climate Information Subsystem (S.I.C.A.), which is set to become an essential instrument of the Andalusian Environmental Information Network for managing and developing the data collected from the various Andalusian weather observation networks.
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Evolution of the ozone layer
The ozone layer is a thin gas layer located in the stratosphere, scattered between 19 and 23 kilometres, which surrounds the Earth. The ozone layer, a fragile gaseous membrane, filters the sunlight and prevents the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface, contributing to the conservation of life on the planet.
Since 1974, the scientists have been warning about a potential global crisis caused by the progressive depletion of the ozone layer, due mainly to man-made chemical products, such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
The Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting substances was signed on 17 September 1987. On 19 December 1994, the UN resolution 49/114 proclaimed 16 September the “International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer”, inviting the Montreal Protocol signatory countries to dedicate this day to the promotion of actions conducive to implementing the objectives and amendments of the Protocol.
Since 1979, Andalusia has monitored the thickness of the stratospheric ozone layer that lies above our Autonomous Community.
The critical thickness limit of the ozone layer has been set at less than 200 Dobson units. The following graph shows that the average thickness of the stratospheric ozone layer above Andalusia has always been greater than the established risk limit, although, starting from 1995, the levels declined significantly after a ten year recovery period. Current values lie between 315 and 350 Dobson units.
Figure 4. Evolution of the stratospheric ozone layer above Andalusia. 1979-2002 (Dobson units).
HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
The 1985 Water Law establishes five water-planning areas in our Community: Guadalquivir, Sur de España, Guadiana I, Guadiana II and Segura. The Sur, Guadiana II, Guadalete and Barbate are intracommunity basins, and, in accordance with the Water Law, the Autonomous Community is responsible for its management, although 37
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the effective transfer of these competences did not take place until mid-2004.
The hydrological planning sets forth three clearly defined timeframes: the first two correspond to 1992 and 2002; the last one is for 2012. The following table summarizes the surface areas of the basins located in Andalusia.
Surface area in % Surface area in Water Basin Total area (km2) Andalusia Andalusia (km2) Guadalquivir 57,527 51,183 88.97 Guadalete-Barbate 6,445 6,445 100 Sur de España 18,330 18,330 100 Guadiana I 53,180 3,380 6.3 Guadiana II 7,030 6,871 97.7 Segura 19,120 1,411 7.4
Figure 5. Distribution of water basins in Andalusia. Source: López Martos, J. “Water problems and its Management in Andalusia". Andalusian Water Institute, 2003.
From both a political-territorial and a strictly hydrological perspective, Andalusia has a very complex water system. The policy areas of the Guadalquivir Hydrographic Confederation comprise the water basins of the Guadalquivir, Guadalete and Barbate Rivers, which in its entirety is the most extensive and populated water basin in Andalusia. Although there is only one Hydrological Plan, it is made up of one separate plan for each basin. The Guadalquivir River, which flows along the namesake valley, is the main watercourse of the drainage basin. This is a depressed area of Alpine Orogeny, filled in by marine Tertiary sediments, wherein the alluvial deposits have formed a large aquifer between Lora del Rio and Seville.
On the other hand, the Guadalete-Barbate basin, with floodplains, terraces, open country and marshes between the two rivers, is characterized by the continuous presence of medium and low mountain ranges, which practically disappear in the northwestern area of Cadiz.
The Sur de España basin is formed by a set of separate basins perpendicular to the coast, which occupy a coastal strip approximately 350 km. long, with an average width of 50 km. The steep slopes of these rivers make controlling surface runoff difficult, due mainly to torrentiality and geotechnical problems. The major aquifers of the coastal watersheds and plains (Dalías and Nijar) are suffering from overexploitation and degradation of water quality.
The Guadiana basin is articulated by the Guadiana I and Guadiana II Hydrological Plans. The extension of the former is smaller than the surface area of Andalusia, with a single river of significance, the Zujar River, which is the border between Autonomous Communities of Andalusia and Extremadura. Almost 98% of the Guadiana II Plan is located within Andalusia, and the main watercourses are the Guadiana, Chanzas, Piedras, Tinto and Odiel Rivers.
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The Segura basin occupies 7.4% of the total surface area of Andalusia. The Segura River rises in the Segura Mountain Range, which is part of the Cazorla, Segura and Las Villas Natural Park. The watercourses in this basin are of scarce importance in general, save for the Segura River that flows through our Community during 40 km.
The fraction of mean rainfall that drains off as surface or underground runoff makes up the natural water resources of a territory, delimiting the maximum amount of water that humans can use. Table 6 shows the mean precipitation, the volume of rainfall, and the total water resources available, on the surface and underground, within the scope of the Andalusia Water Basin Hydrological Plans.
Mean Available Surface area Volume of rain Hydrological Plan precipitation resources (km2) (Hm3) (mm) (Hm3) Guadalquivir 51,183 596 30,505 6,450 Guadalete-Barbate 6,445 720 4,640 842 Sur de España 18,330 547 10,027 2,483 Guadiana I 3,380 667 2,259 464 Guadiana II 6,871 700 4,810 1,293 Segura 1,411 552 779 172 Total 87,620 605 53,020 11,704
Figure 6. Natural resources in Andalusia by water basins. Source: López Martos, J. “Water problems and its Management in Andalusia". Andalusian Water Institute, 2003.
The mean precipitations do not accurately reflect the enormous rainfall differences between the different basins, with radically different values that decrease from west to east. This is a primordial factor affecting the hydrological characteristics of the region, contributing further to its complexity, if that is possible.
The available water resources per inhabitant in the Guadalquivir, Guadiana II and Guadalete-Barbate basins have increased over the last years. The total increase in Andalusia has been 21%, whereas the population increase has not been comparatively so high. The best results translate into higher availability per inhabitant, which is the case of the Guadalete-Barbate basin, whereas the Sur basin represents the opposite case, with an increase in population and urban pressure, and decrease in water resources, resulting in a drastic reduction of the resources available per inhabitant.
The Water Basin Plans estimate a negative water balance in the four major basins. In comparison with the estimates for 2002 provided for in the Plans, the situation in the Guadalquivir and Sur de España basin has improved, as the deficit decreased. The surplus in the Guadiana II basin has increased. From a hydroeconomic viewpoint, Guadiana II and Guadalquivir make the most efficient use of their basins.
The Andalusian public opinion considers the scarcity of water resources as the third most important environmental problem in Andalusia, after the wildfires and the pollution of beaches, seas and rivers, which confirms that the Andalusian society is well aware of the relevance of this problem. However, this awareness does not translate into effective reduction in water consumption; hence, the shortage is currently growing.
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SITUATION IN 2002 SITUATION ANTICIPATED IN 2012
CURRENT CURRENT BALANCE ANTICIPATED BALANCE AVAILABLE RESOURCE PROVINCES BASIN % available RESOURCE % available S (Hm3/year) (Hm3/year) resources S resources (Hm3/year) General 2,235 -759 -34 2,439 -702 -29 JAEN Regulation GRANADA Other CORDOVA exploitation 1,306 -232 -18 1,254 -347 -28 SEVILLE systems Guadalquivir 3,541 -992 -28 3,690 -1,049 -28 Guadalete- CADIZ 561 4 583 3 Barbate HUELVA Guadiana II 440 -60 -14 826 258 31 Malaga- Costa del MALAGA 641 -84 -13 749 -164 -22 Sol- Campo de Gibraltar Coast of GRANADA 163 -21 -13 242 -18 -7 Granada ALMERIA Almeria 253 -319 -126 489 -76 -15 Sur 1,057 -425 -40 1,480 -257 -17 TOTAL ANDALUSIA 5,599 -1,473 -26 6,579 -1,045 -16
Figure 7. Estimation of the water balance in Andalusia. Source: Regional Government of Andalusia
The annual net demand of water in Andalusia is estimated at around 6,407 Hm3, whereas the total available resources amount to approximately 5,599 Hm3/year. Therefore, our Community currently has an annual water deficit of 1,473 Hm3, which is not distributed evenly throughout the territory: The basin with the highest deficit is the Guadalquivir, whereas the Guadalete-Barbate basin has zero deficit.
Of all the basins, the Guadalete-Barbate basin is the best balanced. It has been estimated that, owing to better resource management, the shortage in available resources will decrease from 34% of available resources in 2002 to 29% around the year 2012.
The water usage analysis reveals that the watercourses in every basin are most frequently used for agricultural activities, with a relative total value of 74.3%. The Guadalquivir, Segura and Sur basins, in this order, are the ones in which the water resources are most frequently used in agricultural activities, although the demand for irrigational use has declined over the last ten years. It has been estimated that the water demand for irrigation will increase throughout the region by the year 2012, despite the scarcity of resources and the decrease in endowment for irrigated farmlands in the main basins.
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The Andalusian Water Council considers the National Irrigation Plan (PNR) an inadequate instrument to meet the needs of the Andalusian irrigated farmlands, as it has squandered excellent opportunities to foster the modernization and consolidation of irrigated lands as a primordial element of competitiveness in the agri-food system, to address environmental concerns, and to adapt the national water policies to the European policies.
The Council considers that in order to resolve these issues it is necessary to guarantee the supply of water to undermanned irrigated farmlands and to put into operation new farms, provided that the necessary resources are available. Moreover, the competences of the Regional Government of Andalusia on irrigation must be respected.
Furthermore, the Council considers that there is a need to explain the economic and financial model of the PNR H2008 and the funding systems used in its implementation, and to pay a greater attention to the detected imbalances and faults.
The 1997-2002 Andalusian Environment Plan focused its actions on reducing water loss in the urban water supply network, reducing water consumption in agricultural irrigation, fostering efficient irrigation systems and optimizing water supply sources.
Major irrigation modernization and optimization works have been carried out in keeping with the actions provided for in the 2000-2006 Andalusian Agriculture Modernization Plan (PMAA), one of whose objectives is "to foster the rational use of irrigation based on technical criteria", with a view to reducing the level of water consumed by the farmers.
In this sense, the research on rice farms located in the Guadalquivir estuary, the analysis of ecological watercourses and the studies on the reuse of treated urban wastewater within the Protected Natural Reserves in Andalusia deserve special mention.
The local authorities have also received funding for the construction of hydraulic works. To this effect, the commitment to desalination, such as the emblematic desalination facility built in Almeria, with an estimated initial output of 50,000 m3/year, is worthy of notice.
GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES
Geological heritage is a natural resource that is an indivisible part of our natural and cultural heritage, and it is a potential asset for the socioeconomic development of the region. The destruction of this non-renewable, public asset would imply an irretrievable loss.
Andalusia’s geological heritage is apparent in the variety of its elements and extensive geological history, which dates back more than 1 billion years. This heritage is comprised, inter alia, of rock formations, geological structures, sediment build-up, forms, landscapes, mineral deposits, paleonthological sites and geological collections.
The valuation of this heritage has not been optimal largely due to the ignorance of the existence of such resources and of the profits to be made if it were to be used as another environmental asset of the many rich 41
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resources available in a particular area.
Hence, many depressed districts in Andalusia are extremely rich in geo-resources. In general, these resources are underused by not only the information, interpretation and tourism projects developed in rural areas, but even in the spaces declared a protected area.
It is therefore evident that there is a need to develop this asset within the existing political and regulatory framework, with a view to ensuring its protection and survival, and to generate wealth for the people living in the area.
The purpose of the Andalusian Geodiversity Strategy Proposal is to integrate definitely the conservation and the valuation of geo-resources in the nature conservation policy. This involves the continuation of previous, isolated initiatives, which in this occasion are developed within the Andalusian context.
LAND
Andalusia’s pedological wealth is immeasurable due to the many determinants involved in land formation in the Mediterranean region. Given the high diversity of geological substrates and altitudinal gradients in the region, and the large climate variability and a long-standing history of human settlements, Andalusia has very old, evolved strata as well as young strata in formation.
Land is a resource with multiple ecological and socioeconomic functions. The productive sectors compete for its use: food production, industrial production, inhabitable space (urbanization) and infrastructures compete amongst themselves, resulting, in many cases, in the establishment of inappropriate activities with the consequential environmental degradation, since all soils are not suitable for every type of activity.
Land uses in Andalusia
The environmental aspects related to land use are varied, and depend strongly on the physiographic, climatic and anthropic characteristics of the territory. There is a significant difference between the North and Central European countries and the Mediterranean countries. Soil contamination is the most widespread problem in the North and Central European countries, caused mainly by urbanization, industrialization and intensive agriculture.
In the Mediterranean basin, soil degradation caused by erosion, salinization and urban pressure are the most disturbing issues in the conservation of this resource. The pollution problems are localized in the mining area, and only recently has it attained any importance in agriculture, due to the intensive use of agro-chemical products.
The comparative table on the distribution of land uses between 1995 and 1999 reveals a reduction in forest area versus the other uses. This reduction is due to the increase in wetlands, attributable to good weather conditions in 1999. On the other hand, one should also take account of the expansion of agricultural areas into previously unproductive areas, currently producing crops under plastic, and the increase in built-up area.
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The increase in built-up area is especially significant when it is located near large urban agglomerations and in the coastal areas. The value of urbanisable land versus the potential profits from agriculture or forestry use can distort the vocational use of land, as shown in the figure 9. For example, in the province of Malaga, 31% of the built-up area is located on land that is evidently for agricultural use. The urbanised land is causing water supply, effluent contamination and land sealing problems.
1995 (ha) 1999 (ha) Difference Variation % Agricultural Area 12,343,222 12,402,564 59,339 0.48% Built-up and modified area 483,680 498,908 15,228 3.05% Forest and natural area 13,071,173 12,901,252 -169,924 -1.32% Wetlands and water surface area 381,021 476,377 95,355 20.02%
Figure 8. Evolution of land uses 1995-1999.
Arable land on marginal soils Arable land on marginal and Excellent land taken up by moderate soils buildings Scope 1991 1999 1991 1999 1991 1999 Almeria 39% 38'% 8'4% 8'4% 16% 16% Cadiz 17% 17% 53% 54% 5% 6% Cordova 32% 27% 52% 61% 5% 5% Granada 32% 32% 81% 81% 7% 8% Huelva 18% 23% 58% 75% 14% 15% Jaen 28% 31% 62% 64% 3% 3% Malaga 46% 46% 70% 69% 24% 31 Seville 8% 12% 22% 30% 10% 12% Andalusia 25% 26% 56% 61% 6% 7%
Figure 9. Soil productivity versus current uses.
Figure 10. Surface area in Andalusia sealed by urbanisation and infrastructures.
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Figure 11. Land use and vegetation cover. 1999.
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Erosion and soil loss
The risk of erosion in the Iberian Peninsula is higher than in the other Mediterranean zones of the EU, and Andalusia in particular is a high-risk area. The EU Corine Land Cover Project has used two parameters to analyse the risk of erosion of the Mediterranean countries of the EU: potential soil erosion, which represents the inherent risk of erosion without taking account of land uses or the vegetation cover that protects it, and the actual soil erosion.
EUROPE (EU) SPAIN ANDALUSIA SOUTHERN POTENTIAL ACTUAL
Figure 12. Surface area with moderate or high risk of erosion.
The data provided by the Andalusian Environmental Information Network reveals that approximately 65.3% of the surface area of Andalusia has a low erosion rate (<12 t/ha/year), whereas 13.6% of the territory has a high or very high erosion rate (> 50 t/ha/year). The rest of the land (21.1%) has moderate erosion rates (12-50 t/ha /year). The province of Cadiz has the highest erosion rate, 24%, followed by Jaen and Malaga with 23.6% each. The province of Huelva is in the opposite side of the spectrum with 80.2% of the territory with a low erosion rate, followed by Seville with 77.8% of its surface area.
Geographically, the woody crops situated on hillsides, with scarce vegetation cover due to tilling and runoff, have the highest erosion rates due to higher slope erosivity.
Erosion rate Andalusia Cordova Jaen Huelva Seville Cadiz Malaga Granada Almeria % % % % % % % % % Low 65.3 73.8 63.2 80.2 77.8 53.1 48.2 58.8 52.1 Moderate 21.1 18.8 23.2 14.3 15.5 22.9 28.2 24.2 26.6 High 6.9 4.5 17.1 3.1 3.9 10.2 11.9 8.3 10.3 Very high 6.7 2.9 6.5 2.4 2.8 13.8 11.7 8.7 11.0
Figure 13. Estimate of soil loss by provinces.
The temporal evolution of the percentage of territory subject to high or very high soil loss reveals the extent to which the land depends on the amount and intensity of rainfall (erosivity). The period 1991-1995, characterized by droughts, shows barely 10% of the territory was affected by high or very high soil loss levels.
The high erosivity produced by the particularly heavy rainy season, which started in 1995, with the highest rainfall in 1996, resulted in high and very high soil losses that affected 23.1% of the Autonomous Community. The high rainfall continued until 1997, whereas 1998 and 1999 were dry years, with significantly lower levels of soil loss.
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However, these values cannot be regarded as soil protection indicators, since the indicators should be based on potential erosion.
Very high High Moderate Low
Figure 14. Evolution of the surface area based on soil loss versus optimum vegetation cover.
In addition to rainfall, another determining factor is the low level of protection provided by low rainfall woody crops, particularly the olive tree in Jaen and the olive tree and almond tree in Malaga. The differences in terms of soil loss between the olive farming areas and the forest areas in Jaen are worth mentioning, as it confirms the protective role of the natural vegetation. This role is reflected in the following figure, in which the risk of erosion of forest areas is compared against risk of erosion of agricultural lands in Andalusia. Moreover, it musts be borne in mind that the agricultural lands, located in the plains, are less erosionable, hence, the difference would be even higher if similar types of land were compared.
There are currently several initiatives at the regional and national level to combat soil erosion. The most important projects are the LUCDEME (Combating Desertification in the Mediterranean) project, implemented in 1981 by the Ministry of Agriculture; the Erosion and Desertification Assessment and Monitoring Network (RESEL), launched by the Ministry of the Environment in 1995; or at the strategic level, the National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, fostered currently by the Ministry of the Environment, with a view to comply with the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (signed in 1994).
Low Moderate High Very High Risk of erosion Natural vegetation area Agricultural area
Figure 15. Annual average soil loss in Andalusia expressed in regional surface area, excluding wetlands and urbanized lands.
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From the perspective of the Autonomous Community, the elaboration of the Andalusian Desertification Monitoring Plan, which is already being implemented, deserves special mention. For example, the Regional Ministry of the Environment is already preparing the soil maps of the Protected Natural Reserves. The works on the Natural Reserves of Montes de Malaga, Cabo de Gata Níjar, Sierra Mágina, Sierra de Andujar and Sierra de Hornachuelos, Sierra Norte in Seville, Los Alcornocales, and Sierra de Aracena and Picos de Aroche have been completed, whereas the works on Sierra de las Nieves, Despeñaperros and Sierra de Cárdena-Montoro are in progress.
Several hydrological corrective actions were carried out in Andalusia during the previous Environment Plan’s implementation period with the dual purpose of reducing erosion rates and curbing the risk of flooding.
The works completed by the Hydrological Transformation and Correction Plan for Forest Areas in several basins of the province of Malaga, the works in progress in Almeria and Granada, the agri-hydrological restoration of catchment areas and the hydrological correction works in natural parks are also worth mentioning.
Remediation of contaminated soils
Although soil contamination is not as widespread as in other Spanish and European regions, it is significant at the local level, for example, in region known as the “pyrite strip”, where the soil is severely degraded due to opencast mining.
The definition of contaminated soil in the current regulatory framework is inadequate. However, significant progress has been made in assigning responsibilities to owners and users, particularly, after the adoption of the Law 10/1998 on Residues, of 21 April. In this regard, the high cost of disposing, treating and storing contaminated materials should be noted. The Regional Government of Andalusia considers prevention a key priority; hence, it has published a paper on the prevention of soil contamination. Furthermore, it has made a great effort to define the applicable criteria and standards, encouraging and supporting the works carried out by the Ministry of the Environment in this respect.
The inventory of potentially contaminated soils has been completed, and the projects and actions for the remediation of certain enclaves have been prepared.
The remediation criteria have been gradually modified during the term of the AEP, prioritizing the remediation and restoration of natural spaces of high ecological value. The aim is to elaborate a list of sites, based on the information collected in the contaminated soils catalogue, where potentially contaminating activities are being developed, with a view to monitoring the activities more closely. Although there are still sites that need to be remediated, the current situation of soil contamination in Andalusia is acceptable. Nearly 385,000 inhabitants7 have benefited from the closure in 1999 of numerous urban landfill sites, representing a total restored area in excess of 343,000 m2. The initiative has paid special attention to the adaptation of the centres of population in rural areas or in protected areas, where residues are frequently located in the access roads.
Another important achievement of the AEP is the projects for landfill reclamation and regeneration of degraded
7 The assessment on these actions is detailed in the section on Urban Environment waste. 47
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areas due to industrial activities, particularly in natural parks and natural sites.
With regard to the remediation of contaminated soils, the actions developed in the Guadiamar Basin during the term of the AEP are worth noting. In order to tackle the aftermath of the Aznalcollar mining accident in 1998 that affected more than 4,000 ha, the Regional Ministry of the Environment used the Guadiamar Green Corridor project to channel its actions, which included emergency measures as well as medium and long-term actions that had to be necessarily implemented. The restoration stage, which lasted 4 years, was completed in 2002. The environmental restoration actions included, amongst others: reforestation with indigenous species; revegetation of plots; construction of artificial shelters for fauna recolonization; restoration of former gravel pits; and permeabilization and restoration of the watercourse. The Guadiamar Green Corridor Research Programme (PICOVER) was set up in view of the seriousness of the problem, despite the actions already carried out. Following the disposal of the sludge and the completion of the initial stage, PICOVER took responsibility for establishing the most suitable, medium and long-term lines of action for the Corridor Action Plan. This Programme monitors the designated priorities, such as spillage impact assessment; contamination of the soil, water and fauna; a study on the possible effects on the estuary; and establishing remediation criteria for the affected lands. The findings of this survey shall be a key element for future actions, with a view to achieving the complete environmental recovery of the affected areas.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
The comparative study on biodiversity of different European regions has confirmed the extraordinary quality and wealth of biodiversity in Andalusia at the national and international level. Spain has the highest biodiversity amongst all the countries of the European Community. It has been estimated that there are approximately 80,000 fauna and flora species, which confirms the enormous wealth of our ecosystems and habitats. The wealth of species and habitats in Andalusia is the result of its strategic position between the African and Eurasian continents, and between two water bodies, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, and its significant geomorphologic and climatic variety.
The importance of Andalusia’s biodiversity at the national level is apparent in that more than 400 vertebrate species of the 636 species living in Spain inhabit Andalusia. As to the flora, Andalusia is home to 4,000 species or taxons of the 7,000 that exist in Spain, representing 60% of the Spanish flora, and approximately 15% of its surface.
As to the qualitative aspects of Andalusian biodiversity, it should be noted that approximately 600 exclusive endemic species and 96 Community interest species, of which 24 are priority, exist in our region. However, certain species are endangered, as revealed in the Red Book of Threatened Vertebrates of Andalusia and the Red Book of Threatened Flora of Andalusia, including 55 vertebrate species and 70 flora species, respectively.
The wealth and the variety of habitats in Andalusia is a well-known fact, given that there are nearly 500,000 hectares of “priority habitats”, of which many are “exclusive habitats”. Andalusia is home to nearly 1,810,000 hectares of Community interest habitats, which represents slightly less than 7% of the total classified area in Spain.
As to the wetlands, Andalusia has the largest natural inland and coastal wetland heritage in Spain. Although only 48
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17% of the Spanish wetlands, by number, are located in Andalusia, the extension of these areas is equal to 56% of the total area of Spanish flood plains.
There are certain anthropic actions, which in some cases are irreversible, that have been detrimental to the biodiversity of this natural heritage. For example, the extension of the lake, marsh and wetland ecosystems have shrunk approximately 60%, according to the Spanish Wetland Inventory. The decrease in riparian vegetation has been significant over the last 100 years, with a loss of nearly 95% of the original surface.
Some of the causes of biodiversity loss are: forest areas occupied by agricultural activities and uncontrolled urbanisation, wildfires, diffuse pollution by agricultural activities and, occasionally, industrial activities or centres of population, inappropriate hunting and fishing practices, fragmentation of the habitat due to certain infrastructures, etc.
The biodiversity conservation actions are aimed mainly at two complementary measures: in-situ conservation and ex situ conservation. In-situ conservation stresses the importance of the protected areas as the means for the conservation of the ecosystems, as well as communities and species living therein. Andalusia currently hosts 144 Protected Natural Reserves, with a total surface area of 1,650,000 hectares. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to prevent the isolation of stocks and natural ecosystems, creating ecological corridors to encourage connectivity between natural reserves. The most outstanding examples of these efforts are the Andalusian Livestock Trail Recovery and Management Plan, the Guadiamar Green Corridor, the Andalusian Rivers Master Plan, the Agricultural Landscape Diversification Programme, and the Forest Island Inventory.
With regard to ex situ conservation, the following actions should be noted: the creation and consolidation of the Network of Centres for the Recovery of Threatened Species (CREA), the Centre for the Recovery of Threatened Marine Species (CREMA), the network of feeding-stations for carrion-eating birds, the Andalusian Vegetation Germoplasma Bank, and the network of nurseries. These actions have made possible the conservation of an important genetic heritage and the recovery of certain stocks that were in a regressive stage.
Lastly, the high biodiversity and endemicity of this heritage, together with the complexity of its management, require the Administrations to adopt a coordinated approach in its conservation, with a view to taking advantage of the efforts made thus far.
Figure 16. Flora and fauna species of special interest in Andalusia.
In critical risk Vulnerable Deficient data Cites Convention 47 Endangered Less risk Extinct
6 7 20 4 10 1 Bern Convention 39 Mammals 48 12 14 22 21 21 2 IUCN 187 Birds 92 1 6 4 2 1 Reptiles 14 Habitats Directive 46 2 3 2 Amphibia 7 National Catalogue 26 4 5 7 2 1 Fishes 19 Andalusian Catalogue 190
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Figure 17. Flora and fauna protection networks and facilities - 2002.