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WSN 56 (2016) 82-96 EISSN 2392-2192

Weed flora of tea plantations of Ri-Bhoi District of Meghalaya, with a glimpse on its ethnobiological value

Souvik Sen1,*, Sunil Kumar Pathak2 & Maqbool Lyngdoh Suiam3 1 Tea Research Association, Meghalaya Advisory Centre, Lumnongrim, Dewlieh, Umsning, Pin - 793105, Meghalaya, India 2 Tea Research Association, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Jorhat, Pin - 785008, , India 3 Department of Horticulture, Directorate of Agriculture, Govt. of Meghalaya, Tea Development Centre, Lumnongrim, Dewlieh, Umsning, Pin - 793105, Meghalaya, India *E-mail address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Recent survey on the weed flora of tea ecosystem of Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya has recorded 66 weed species belonging to 51 genera under 31 families. This was the first attempt to explore the weed flora of tea plantations of Meghalaya. Two species namely Bidens pilosa L. and Clerodendrum paniculatum L. are reported for the first time from the tea plantation of North East India. Regarding family-wise contribution contributing highest number (14) of species followed by Asteraceae (10), Cyperaceae (5), Lamiaceae (4), Amaranthaceae (2), Caesalpiniaceae (2), Malvaceae (2), Polygonaceae (2), Solanaceae (2) & Schizaeaceae (2). Other families are having single representative. 23 weed species have been identified as ethno-biologically important. Local Khasi tribal peoples use these weeds as folk medicine against various diseases and other purposes.

Keywords: Weed; Tea gardens; Ri-Bhoi district; Khasi tribal people; Meghalaya; India

1. INTRODUCTION

Tea, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze is a perennial monoculture crop and covers around 2000 ha area (Khasi & Garo hills) under tea plantation (Anonymous, 2012-13) of World Scientific News 56 (2016) 82-96

Meghalaya. The economy of Meghalaya is mainly focused on agriculture where 70% of its population depending on agriculture and nearly 2/3rd of the total work force engaged in agriculture (Rymbai et. al., 2012). Suitable climate and soil have prompted many farmers in Meghalaya, known as the ‘Scotland of the East’, to take up developing tea gardens. It was a visit in 1974 by Tea Board of India scientists that marked the beginnings of organized tea cultivation in the state (Dept. of Agriculture, Govt. of Meghalaya, 2016). Like other agricultural and horticultural crops, tea also needs an adequate agronomic care for a high and sustained yield. Uncontrolled weed growth in tea cultivation can cause a loss of production to the extent of 10-50% (Rajkhowa et. al., 2005; Deka & Barua, 2015). The weeds are not only affect the tea by competing with them for necessary requirements but also act as alternate host for various pathogens and pests. It also restricts branching system and frame development in tea as well as responsible for contamination of plucked shoots. For effective control measures of this unwanted plant, knowledge on their floristic composition and seasonal behavior are essential. It is more so in the tea growing areas of Meghalaya where the agricultural practices are quite different due to hilly terrain. Though there are numerous reviews available on the weed flora of tea ecosystem of North East India, but focus have been given more on traditional tea growing areas like Assam & West Bengal. Meghalaya, a non-traditional tea growing area of India has been overlooked (Basu, 1972; Dutta, 1983; Mustafee, 1988 & 1998; Anonymous 1992-93, 1994-95, 1996-97, 1998-99, 1999-2000, 2000-2002; Rajkhowa et. al., 2005; Ghosh & Das, 2009; Gogoi & Sarma, 2009; Ghosh & Das, 2011; Deka & Barua, 2015). Considering such sparse information available on the tea weeds of Meghalaya, in our first attempt we have carried out the survey on tea weeds of Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya. 63% of the total tea areas of Meghalaya (Anonymous, 2012-13) are situated in Ri-Bhoi, lies between 90°55’ to 91°16’ latitude and 25°40’ to 25°21’ longitude and there is an altitudinal variation of 200m to 850m amsl. The region experiences a tropical monsoon climate. The area is dominated by the Khasi tribal people, who are dependent on the tea gardens for their day to day life. They are very poor and most of them are living in remote areas and are much dependent on natural resources for their survival. Due to poor transportation and medical facilities in the rural areas, the rural folks in Meghalaya to a great extent still hold on to their traditional faith upon local wild herbal plants. Traditional health-care system is an age-old practice performed since ancient time by the people in the state of Meghalaya. During the survey we were also able to identify some ethno-biologically important tea garden weeds. Though some ethno-biological studies in Meghalaya have been undertaken by Joseph and Kharkongor (1981), Rao (1981), Neogi et. al. (1989), Ahmed and Borthakur (2005), Laloo et. al. (2006); Chhetri (2010); Hynniewta (2010); Laloo & Hemalatha (2011); Sheikh et. al.(2013); Mir et. al.(2014). But crop specific surveys were lacking. Therefore, the attempt was made to link up such traditional khasi wisdom with the tea cultivation as well as popularize the uses of these weeds and to provide additional information for enrichment of the available ethnobotany database of Meghalaya.

2. MATERIALS & METHODS

Survey on weed species was carried by visiting different tea gardens of Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya. The weeds were surveyed in all the seasons to get a clear picture of the weed

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flora. For overall methodologies (viz. collection, preservation, identification and confirmation of the weed species) Jain & Rao (1977), Dutta (1983), Rajkhowa et. al. (2005) & Naidu (2012) were followed. In this regard necessary assistance has also been taken from India Biodiversity Portal (IBP) & (2013). During the present survey, all the ethnobotanical information related to tea weed was recorded from the local resourceful persons in different tea garden areas. At the same time, all available literature on ethnobiology of Meghalaya was also consulted.

3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Sixty six (66) weed species under 31 families have been recorded during the survey of weed flora in tea gardens of Ri-Bhoi district of Meghalaya (Table 1). These weeds are either growing inside the tea sections or in open leftover spaces within the garden territory. Weed flora was represented by 6 monocotyledonous, 22 dicotyledonous and 3 pteridophytic families. Survey revealed that 23 species (35%) were monocotyledonous, 39 dicotyledonous (59%) and 4 pteridophytic species (6%) (Fig. 1). 7 (10%) species occurred during the winter season, 13 (20%) during summer and 25 (38%) species during both winter and summer seasons. Furthermore, 21 (32%) species were considered as perennial which were found throughout the year in tea plantation. Among , Poaceae and Cyperaceae top the list with 14 and 5 species respectively (Fig. 2). Similarly Asteraceae in dicotyledons with 10 species form the dominant family (Fig. 3). It is worth to mention that two dicotyledonous species namely Bidens pilosa L. (Asteraceae) and Clerodendrum paniculatum L. (family Lamiaceae) are recorded for the first time from the tea plantation of North East India (Fig.5 ). Dicotyledonous species were outnumbered the monocotyledonous one but the density of monocotyledonous weeds was greater. Monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous weed species were found to grow in wide range of habitat, while pteridophytic species were growing under the shady or moist areas of the tea fields. Distribution pattern of different weed species showed more number of occurrences during the summer season than winter. It was observed that the number of weed species increase with the rise in temperature from February onwards. January being the coldest month of the year supports very few weed species. The critical period of weed competition starts from April to September, the period concur with high temperature and rainfall which provides a very favourable condition for weed growth and hence utmost care is needed to be taken to control the weed during this period so that the productivity should not be affected. Young tea sections are found to be dominated by Axonopus compressus, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Imperata cylindrica, conjugatum, P. longifolium, Setaria glauca (Monocotyledons); Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa, Borreria articularis and Mimosa pudica (Dicotyledons). Mature tea sections are mostly dominated by Axonopus compressus, Cynodon dactylon, Saccharum spontaneum (Monocotyledons); Acmella paniculata, Borreria articularis, Chromolaena odorata, Drymaria cordata, Lantana camara, Oxalis corniculata, Melastoma malabathricum, Mikania micrantha and Sida acuta (Dicotyledons) (Fig. 5).

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Table 1. List of weed species recorded from the tea plantations of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya.

Life Severity of Sl. No. Botanical name Family span infestation Monocotyledons: 1 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Araceae P L Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) Rao A 2 Commelinaceae M & Kam. (S & W) 3 Cyperus pilosus Vahl Cyperaceae A (S) H 4 Cyperus rotundus L. -Do- P H A 5 Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl -Do- M (S & W) Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) A 6 -Do- M Kunth (S & W) A 7 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. -Do- M (S & W) A 8 Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Dioscoreaceae L (S & W) Arundinella benghalensis (Spreng.) 9 Poaceae A (S) H Druce Axonopus compressus (Sw.) 10 -Do- P H P.Beauv. Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) 11 -Do- P H Trin. 12 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. -Do- P H Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) 13 -Do- A (S) M Willd. A 14 Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. -Do- H (S & W) A 15 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link -Do- M (S & W) A 16 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. -Do- H (S & W) 17 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. -Do- P H 18 Lophatherum gracile Brongn. -Do- P L A 19 Paspalum conjugatum P.J.Berginus -Do- H (S & W) 20 Paspalum longifolium Roxb. -Do- P H

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21 Saccharum spontaneum L. -Do- P M A 22 Setaria glauca (L.) P.Beauv. -Do- H (S & W) 23 Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Zingiberaceae P L Dicotyledons: A 24 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae M (S & W) 25 Achyranthes aspera L. -Do- A (W) M A 26 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae M (S & W) Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) 27 Asteraceae P H R.K.Jansen A 28 Ageratum conyzoides L. -Do- H (S & W) A 29 Bidens pilosa L. -Do- H (S & W) Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. A 30 -Do- H King & H. Rob. (S & W) Crassocephalum crepidioides A 31 -Do- M (Benth.) S. Moore (S & W) Dicrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) 32 -Do- A (W) L Kuntze. A 33 Elephantopus scaber L. -Do- M (S & W) 34 Mikania micrantha Kunth -Do- P H 35 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. -Do- A (W) L 36 Xanthium strumarium L. -Do- A (W) L A 37 Impatiens balsamina L. Balsaminaceae M (S & W) 38 Lepidium didymum L. Brassicaceae A (W) L 39 Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae A (S) M 40 Cassia occidentalis L. -Do- A (S) M Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex 41 Caryophyllaceae A (S) H Schult. 42 Ipomoea digitata L. Convolvulaceae P H 43 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae A (W) M 44 Heliotropium indicum L. Heliotropaceae A (S) L

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45 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae P M 46 Clerodendrum paniculatum L. -Do- P M 47 Ocimum gratissimum L. -Do- A (W) L A 48 Leucas indica (L.) R. Br. ex Vatke -Do- L (S & W) 49 Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae A (S) H 50 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. -Do- A (S) L 51 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomaceae P H 52 Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae P H A 53 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae H (S & W) 54 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Papilionaceae A (S) L A 55 Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre Polygonaceae L (S & W) A 56 Polygonum perfoliatum L. -Do- L (S & W) 57 Piper sylvaticum Roxb. P L Borreria articularis (L. f.) F. N. A 58 Rubiaceae H Will. (S & W) A 59 Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae M (S & W) 60 Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae P M A 61 Solanum myriacanthum Dunal -Do- L (S & W) 62 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae A (S) H Pteridophytes: 63 Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Dennstaedtiaceae P H 64 Pteris longipes D. Don Pteridaceae P H Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) 65 Schizaeaceae A (S) M R.Br. A 66 Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. -Do- M (S & W) P = Perennial, A = Annual, S = Summer species, W = Winter species; H = High, M = Moderate, L = Low

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6% 35% Monocotyledons

59% Dicotyledons Pteridophytes

Figure 1. Percentage (%) of different types of weed flora recorded from the tea gardens of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya

14 14

12

10

8

6 5

4

2 1 1 1 1

0

Figure 2. Species level distribution of different monocotyledonous families of weed recorded from the tea gardens of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya.

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10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Figure 3. Species level distribution of different dicotyledonous families of weed recorded from the tea gardens of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya.

Out of 66 weed species, 23 species (35%) have been found as ethno biologically important (Table.2). Of the recorded families, Asteraceae is represented by highest number of 8 species (Fig.4) and most of the species (87%) are found to be dicotyledons. Such useful weeds are either utilized by the tribal people as medicinal purpose to treat various ailments or as edible food and fodder. The khasi tribal people traditionally use such medicinally important weeds for curing a number of diseases, while hospitals are used only in case of emergency. This knowledge is being transferred from generation to generation among the tribal people. Medicinal plants have played an immense role in supporting the primary healthcare system of the state. About 95% of traditional medicine preparations are mentioned to be of plant origin, and 90% of the rural people depend on this system (Mir et. al., 2014).

Table 2. List of ethno-biologically important weed species recorded during from the tea plantations of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya.

Parts Weed species Local name Method of utilization References used Paste made from the leaf buds is used to treat wound Leaf & Achyranthes aspera L. ‘Shobyrthit’ and injuries. The roots are (A), (F) root also used as toothbrushes and also for dental problems.

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The leaves are used in Acmella paniculata (Wall. ‘Jasat’/ ‘Kynbat- Leaf & preparation of dry fish. (C), (F) ex DC.) R.K.Jansen Niang-Ming’ flower Inflorescence provides relief from toothache. Leaves having antiseptic property and are made into paste with lime and applied locally on injuries to stop bleeding. Leaves are also ‘Kynbatblu myngai’/ Whole used to treat typhoid. Whole (A), (C), Ageratum conyzoides L. ‘Bat nongrim’ plant plant together with fruits of (F) Piper peepuloides and rhizome of Acorus calamus, are crushed and the content is taken orally for treatment of ulcer. Leaves juice is taken against Bidens pilosa L. ‘Soh byrthit’ Leaf (C) (F) gastric disorders. ‘Batsohlah’/ The squeezed out juice of ‘Mansiar’ Whole whole plant is used to get (C), (D), Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. ‘Khliang syiar’/ plant relief from both diarrhea and (E), (F) ‘Ibong syiar’/ dysentery. ‘Jamynsyiar’ Leaf juice is used to stop Chromolaena odorata (L.) ‘Krah-lynroh’ Leaf bleeding from injuries and to (A), (D) R. M. King & H. Rob. treat dysentery. The leaves are mainly used Crassocephalum ‘Sla-aeroplane’/ as pig fodder. Leaf juice is (A), (C), crepidioides (Benth.) S. Leaf ‘Jathymmai’ taken for constipation and (F) Moore stomach disorders. Young leaves are taken raw Clerodendrum to cure anemia and for ‘Jaiong-Jarem’ Leaf (F) paniculatum L. purification of blood. It is also used in liver complaints. ‘Syntiew doh mahi’/ Root astringent, decoction is Clerodendrum ‘Dieng jarem Root used as a demulcent in (B) infortunatum L. synrang’/’Dieng gonorrhea. kylia sla’ A young clean leaf is taken and covered over the head to Colocasia esculenta (L.) reduce high fever and bring ‘Wang’ Leaf (C), (F) Schott. down the temperature. Leaves are also used as vegetables. Whole plant is chewed for Cynodon dactylon (L.) Whole ‘Semtyrpai’ dental cavities and (C) Pers. plant toothaches.

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Whole Whole plant is taken for Cyperus rotundus L. ‘Phlang’ (F) plant dysentery and jaundice. The whole plant is used in diarrhea, vomiting and Drymaria cordata (L.) Whole ‘Thei phelwang’ urinary troubles. It is a (A) Willd. ex Schult. plant popular antidote for snake bite. Decoction of crushed leaves & roots is used against dysentery and urinary problems. Paste made from ‘Kymbut-skur’/ Leaf & (A), (D), Elephantopus scaber L. the root is applied for ‘Sniang’ root (F) pimple. The leaves with boiled rice are said to be an antidote to stings of poisonous insects. The cooked leaves are used Heliotropium indicum L. ‘Mationg-blang’ Leaf (A) for stomachache. Crushed leaves are used to intoxicate fish. Leaves are also used to cure skin (A), (C), Lantana camara L. ‘Sohpang khlieh’ Leaf diseases. Leaves are also (F) used in pest control of horticulture crops. The leaf juice is used in ‘Kaitkai’/’Soh- chronic cough and Whole (A), (C), Oxalis corniculata L. dkhiew’/ ‘Sohkhia dysentery. The whole plant plant (D), (F) khnai’ is mixed with ginger and applied for snakebites. Melastoma malabathricum The leaf juice is used to stop ‘Dieng-sohkhling’ Leaf (A), (F) L. bleeding from injuries. Leaves are chewed and used to get relief from diarrhea (C), (D), Mikania micrantha Kunth ‘Jyrmi ba pur’ Leaf and other stomach problems. (F) It is also used for treatment of . The leaves are boiled in water and the resultant juice Leaf & (A), (C), Mimosa pudica L. ‘Tiewkhapbrip’ is taken for cure of diabetes. root (E), (F) Roots are also used as snake repellent. The leaves are used as fish poison. Paste prepared from Persicaria hydropiper (L.) leaves is applied as a balm ‘Kynbat sat’ Leaf (A), (E) Delarbre for skin diseases. It is also used in the treatment of pneumonia.

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Fruits are used for toothache. Fruits along with ginger are Solanum torvum Swartz ‘Soh pdok’ Fruits crushed together and taken (C) with warm water for giddiness and dizziness. Young leaves are used as Leaf & Xanthium strumarium L. ‘Lokra’ vegetables. Fruits are mildly (A), (F) fruit narcotic. (A) Neogi et. al. 1989; (B) Laloo et. al., 2006; (C) Hynniewta, 2010; (D) Laloo & Hemalatha, 2011; (E) Mir et. al., 2014; (F) Information collected during the survey

8 8

7

6

5

4

3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0

Figure 4. Species level distribution of different ethno-biologically important families of weed recorded from the tea gardens of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya.

Some of the recorded weed species (viz. Clerodendrum infortunatum, Lantana camara, Persicaria hydropiper, Xanthium strumarium) are also having the pesticide property and reported to be exhibit varied degree of control against two major tea pest, Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora) & Red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae) (Barthakur 2011, Radhakrishnan and Prabhakaran 2014; Roy et. al. 2016). Therefore, crude aqueous extract of such weeds can be utilized in tea pest management of Meghalaya. Weeds like Mikania micrantha, Ageratum conyzoides, Melastoma malabathricum, Mimosa invisa, Ipomea digitata, Lantana camara etc. having high ‘K’ and ‘N’ content may also be used to prepare quality compost or vermicompost within the garden territory (Phukan et. al. 2011; Anonymous 2012).

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Figure 5. A. Weed menace in young tea plantation; B. Weed competition in mature tea section; C. Flowering stage of Bidens pilosa L. in a tea field; D. Clerodendrum paniculatum L. in a young tea plantation; E. Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R. K. Jansen – an ethnobotanically important weed.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of the present study is to focus on the weed spectrum of the tea plantations of Ri-Bhoi district, Meghalaya and at the same time providing a glimpse on their ethnobotanical importance. The study infers that diversity of dicotyledonous weeds in the tea growing areas of Ri-Bhoi district is more than monocotyledonous weeds. Around 1/3rd of the recorded species are found to acquire traditional importance among the Khasi tribal people. The present study will facilitate popularization of the use of these plants in other tea growing areas of Meghalaya. But the question comes in our mind whether such traditional uses are either supported by actual pharmacological effects or simply based on folklore. Therefore,

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periodic surveillance on such ethno botanical knowledge is needed and such traditional knowledge must be conserved for further research. The recorded weed species can also be utilized in Integrated Pest Management practices and preparation of high grade organic manures. The present study will be helpful for the workers involved in exploring the weeds of different agro-ecosystems as well as ethnobiology of different region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are gratefully acknowledged for the assistance extended by different Tea Gardens authorities during the weed survey. They are also thankful to all the resource persons of the tribal communities for all sorts of help and assistance. They are grateful to the workers of this group in India. They are also thankful to the Director of Horticulture, Govt. of Meghalaya, Shillong for providing facilities. The first and second authors are grateful to the Director, Tea Research Association, TTRI, Jorhat, Assam for his support and encouragement. The first author is also indebted to Prof. D. Raychaudhuri, Honorary Professor, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, IRDM Faculty Centre, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Kolkata for his continuous mental support and encouragements.

References

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( Received 24 September 2016; accepted 11 October 2016 )

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