DESIGN Principles & Practices: an International Journal

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DESIGN Principles & Practices: An International Journal

Volume 3, Number 6

Evolutionary Performance: Passive Design for a Hotel in Central India

James Kraus

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Typeset in Common Ground Markup Language using CGCreator multichannel typesetting system http://www.commongroundpublishing.com/software/ Evolutionary Performance: Passive Design for a Hotel in Central India James Kraus, New York, USA

Abstract: Merging sustainable design and energy usage in developing economies is one of the most significant architectural design challenges. This paper outlines the process of an architectural design project at Skidmore Owings and Merrill from 2006-2007. The project is a 250 room hotel in Hyderabad, India bolstered by a government economic incentive which encourages tourism and informed by environmental sensitivity and parametric computer models. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that thorough understanding of both the external environment and the internal environment combined with clear understanding of client goals, computer simulation, and knowledge of fabrication techniques can result in a successful passive designed architecture which can significantly reduce energy demand and increase indoor quality. This paper focuses on thee primary design concepts to reach the final solution. First, an examination of the electromagnetic spectrum as it pertains to visual comfort. This paper explains how basic science can provide a high performance elegant design. Secondly, the paper validates a process for identifying specific environmental parameters (in this a case, a mild tropical climate with solar insulation and lux levels) and is supported by empirical analysis. Finally, the process of optimization of a pattern for views and daylight combines three types of parameters: of design, fabrication and performance into a building information model to create a final design solution that lowers the energy use of the hotel and creates a beautiful prototype. The resulting design had a 20% reduction in energy load in mechanical systems and provided a further optimized design through multidisciplinary collaboration, environmental sensitivity and building information modelling.

Keywords: Passive Design, Sustainable Design, Optimisation

Introduction USTAINABLE DESIGN IN the next century will involve multidisciplinary collaboration that enables building performance to evolve through informed and deliberate design. Sustainable design processes will change not because of a radically different Sapproach but rather out of a desire for conserving vital natural resources while maintaining economic growth. This paper will use a case study of a hotel designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill from 2006-2007, to demonstrate how a collaborative process and an emphasis on environmental factors have allowed the design to evolve to a more sophisticated solution. It will begin by describing the context in which this design process was developed followed by the results of a climate data analysis. Synthesis of the data informs the mass and orientation of the building which is the foundation for further optimization. Once the form is “optimized” the formal aspirations of the client and the design team is ex- plored and tested relative to set of goals established early in the design process. Three different types of goals inform the final design of the exterior enclosure: design, performance, and fabrication. This study shows how important environmental parameters and sophisticated digital tools are to creating sustainable and evolutionary design.

Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal Volume 3, Number 6, 2009, http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874 © Common Ground, James Kraus, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: [email protected] DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

The case study is a building and exterior envelope design of a 250-room boutique hotel for the Appejay Surrundra Park Hotel Group in Hyderabad, India. The building will be the client’s first newly constructed project and serves as its flagship Hotel. The Park Hotel Group wanted the hotel to reflect the highly optimistic and sustainable culture in a growing India through a forward-thinking architecture. Once completed, it will be the first LEED Gold Hotel in India. To further encourage development and tourism, the national government has developed new economic incentives that eliminate any tax duty on products imported for the hotel and tourism industry. The design team included engineers, computer specialists, energy simulators, and university researchers, all embracing the opportunity to contribute to design decisions throughout the process. Many decisions have been informed by environmental research including building program, orientation, massing, and façade optimization. The energy-and resource-intensiveness of the hotel typology has underscored the importance of these results. The process sought to redefine the typical role of master architect and de- signer to address a specific challenge of sustainable design in emerging economies through an in-depth understanding of climate and culture.

Climate Analysis Hyderabad lies at 17°20’N 78°30’E in the Andrah Pradesh state in central India. It is in the “Tropical Monsoon” (Am) region as defined by the Koppen classification for international climate. Summer months between March and May experience a large diurnal temperature swing between 25°C to 42°C. The Monsoon season stretches from mid-June to September and brings heavy rains and prevailing wind from the northeast. The fall season or “post- monsoon” is characterized by high humidity with minimal rainfall.2 The winter months carry much cooler temperatures and pleasant breezes that create opportunities for passive cooling and natural ventilation. The temperatures range from 20°C to 32°C (humans are most comfortable in a range between 18 and 25 degrees, depending on wind speed and humidity). The hourly temperature chart below highlights the maximum and minimum diurnal temperature throughout the year overlayed on the human comfort zone. Of significance in this climate data is the high solar radiation, particularly in the winter season from December to April. The direct solar radiation drops significantly in the summer from June to August, as the monsoon season mitigates the direct solar gain through the building envelope. (Fig 1.) Wind analysis reveals that the prevailing wind during the monsoon is from the west/south- west. Building outdoor spaces should be positioned to protect them from the higher winds and wind-driven rain in the summer months. (Fig 2.)

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Fig 1: Hourly Climate Data for Hyderabad Fig 2: Seasonal Windrose for Summer (Source: Meteonorm) Months Showing Frequency and Speed (Source: Meteonorm)

Environmental Types The analysis of the local climate and application of this analysis to the design process recalls the words of James Marsden Finch in his book American Building, The environmental forces that shape it: “Our physical environment must be thought of as being of composite structure, formed of many distinct, coextensive and coexistent yet interacting elements which may actually be viewed as complete subenvironments”1 He describes seven types of “environments” that are only concerned with those factors that which act directly upon the human body and which can be immediately and directly modified by buildings. For the purpose of the climate analysis, five of the seven environmental parameters are used: thermal, aqueous, sonic, atmospheric, and luminous. The thermal environment in Hyderabad consists of low diurnal swings and consistently high temperatures all year. The aqueous environment is characterized by the high relative humidity and high levels of rainfall through the year. It presents an opportunity for water collection during the monsoon months. The sonic environment relates to acoustics and ambient noise that impact the building user. It manifests itself in the building through internal-borne sound such as vibration from equipment or from external sound such as train horns and car traffic. The luminous environment pertains to the spectrum between 380 and 700nm that allows for visual light to be perceived. Arguably, a balance between the luminous and thermal environments is the most important aspect of design in this climate. Thus, the design prioritized strategies that struck a balance between these two parameters. The next step was to focus on leveraging the impact of ‘passive’ strategies before designing the mechanical or ‘active’ systems. The design team needed to reconcile the client’s many preconceptions about the design of a modern and progressive building. The first bias was the idea that a modern building should be a completely glass and transparent enclosure. This preconception combined with a hotel typology presented a challenge for the team in terms of developing a low energy prototype, but also provided an opportunity to educate the client about the process of collaboration and high performance buildings.

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Design Process The process of sustainable design is not the same for every project, nor is it a strictly linear process. Differences between projects emerge during the design process to provide richness and individuality. Each client has different goals and aspirations and each climate is different, but one thing remains constant: the multidisciplinary input and collaboration needed to design an environmentally sensitive building. The process diagram for this project involved many groups at different phases of design and illustrates the sequence of setting goals and analysing data for the building information model based on parametric input and feedback loops. (Fig 3.)

Fig 3: Design Flow Chart

The process chart is a vital tool, not only for the design team to make decisions but also for the client to visualize how parameters from the environment influence the design. In this case, the chart was developed in the middle of the project and completed once it was finished. By documenting this particular path to sustainable design, the architecture team can learn more about how to improve the process on future projects when different collaborators, clients and consultants are involved.

Building Massing and Orientation Studies Building massing and space planning are the first steps in the design of the building form. The initial decisions about room location relative to solar orientation and site planning have the largest passive environmental impact on the building. Once the sun position is documented, the mass and overall form were established based on the team’s intuition about solar stress. Experience indicated that the service areas and corridors could be located on the west side of the building to mitigate the direct solar gain during the peak temperature. The chairperson of the Park Hotels often spoke about having high tea on the veranda in her youth when the weather was pleasant. Therefore, the courtyard space was developed around the idea of a common area for guests that was elevated from the street and protected

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from the prevailing wind. The program space was organized around the courtyard, with a double loaded corridor and guest rooms positioned to provide maximum view of a large lake. Heat gain through radiative transfer (direct solar gain) has a direct impact on cooling load and energy balance. Therefore, it was essential to focus on reducing these loads before they entered the enclosure. This condition was particularly important for a hotel typology, with multiple individual rooms on each floor which may or may not be occupied during the day. The remainder of the heat gains come from equipment, lighting, occupants and roof enclosure. Intuitive design moves based on climatic understanding were diagrammed to present to the client in early design presentations (Fig 4.)

Fig 4: Site Photo and Solar Stress Diagrams

The remainder of the program spaces evolved in several iterations. The hotel rooms were then elevated above a podium of shops, galleries, and banquet halls to provide better access to view. The swimming pool was positioned at the edge of the courtyard and a night club was placed between it and the main gallery space. Since the majority of solar insolation falls on the east and west facades in this latitude, the building mass was dematerialized on the east facade and the service corridors placed on the west. (Fig 5.)

Fig 5: Building Space Allocation and Circulation Diagram

Once the massing was in place, some basic fluid dynamic simulations were conducted to determine if the prevailing monsoon wind could be enhanced or redirected by the sculptural roof. The Venturi effect was found to have a small impact on airflow, and the building mass blocked significant wind and wind driven rain. A range of triangular roof shapes were tested to determine how they impacted wind speed in the courtyard. A low angled roof was shown to reduce air flow in the courtyard to comfortable levels of 1-2 m/s. (Fig 6.)

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Fig. 7: Solar Insolation Calculation Fig. 6: Computation Fluid Dynamics Model

The client also wanted the building to capture impressive views to the east. The east-facing glazed sections of the building had significant exposure to sun, therefore, the “solar stress” on the façade was measured with Ecotect (a solar simulation analysis software). (Fig. 7.) These solar stress or insolation values were then used to estimate heat gain and resultant cooling load inside the building. They also provided a baseline for further façade development. The results were shared and compared with an energy simulation model developed by the mechanical engineering team to determine the final equipment configuration.

Materiality and Visual Comfort Studies The client wanted the glass to be as clear as possible. The primary impact of clear glass on the users is brightness and glare. Therefore, the levels of light were analysed to determine the best material selections for visual comfort. The term “visual comfort” in building design can be defined by two parameters: glare and visual light transmittance. Because the building is located in a tropical climate, the sun is very bright even when it is cloudy which made glare a concern. The visible light spectrum refers to a range of light wavelengths that do not transfer heat but allow colors to be seen. To paraphrase Climate Design, The human eye uses electromagnetic radiation from the sun in the wavelength range from 380 to 780nm. The Earth’s atmosphere is transparent to these wavelengths and this gives humans a reliable means of perceiving their surroundings. Higher visual comfort at work promotes a feeling of well being and can therefore contribute to productivity”3 Users inside a building will feel more comfortable when indoor light is closer to the true rendering provided by sunlight. A lower amount of visual light is like being outdoors wearing sunglasses and not getting a true color rendering of the objects around you. A daylighting sensitivity analysis was performed to ascertain the sensitivity of the rooms to glare and visual light. This would allow the design team to determine the optimum level and dimension of the shading device to mitigate glare and solar gain. The analysis was performed first on a two-dimensional or flat curved shading surface, then as three-dimensional surface with 600mm deep shelves and curves at varying points around the building as test cells. The test cells indicated the level of illumination required to diffuse the strong glare. Radiance, an advanced ray-tracing lighting simulation tool developed by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, provided the team with advanced photometric data, photorealistic renderings, and quantifiable levels of light in a computer simulation (Fig 8.) Since heat generated from lighting can contribute to an increase cooling loads, daylighting can reduce cooling loads in the building by eliminating artificial lighting. The passive strategy in this

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case was to minimize and diffuse the harsh tropical sun to prevent radiant heat transfer, and to supply usable light to offset heat generated from the buildings lighting during the day.

Fig 8: Parametric Daylighting Studies and Visible Light Spectrum

Glass Selection The client wanted a glass that had minimal sound transmittance and best rendering of visual light and solar control. A range of industry glass types were simulated in Radiance models. Glass selection was determined by three main parameters: the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient or SHGC, visual light transmittance as determined by the solar stress, and visual sensitivity studies of the external acoustic environment. The visual sensitivity studies were used to simulate a range of glass types. The glass types were cycled through the simulation to find a manufacturer with a relatively high SHGC and high visual light transmittance in the range of 50-70%. An understanding of the acoustic environment was facilitated by an acoustical consultant who pinpointed the peak sound load generated from passing trains in a series of field tests. The tests registered passing express train horns with 90-100 Decibels when they passed the hotel. The distance from the sound source and the background noise from equipment led to the selection of laminated glass outboard light, 24mm air space and 5mm inboard light. The greater mass of the assembly prevented the outdoor noise level from exceeding the “threshold of waking,” a ratio between ambient indoor noise such as HVAC units and noise sources outside such as trains or emergency sirens. The hotel’s design standard specified that the Noise Coefficient of the rooms needed to be below this threshold despite the proximity to the local train station and express train traffic. The final selection consisted of a 35mm insu- lated glazed unit by China Southern Glass, thicker than the industry standard IGU of 24mm. The unit make up was a 6mm laminated outer light, at 24mm air gap, and a 5mm inner light with a double low-e coating on the #4 and #5 surfaces.

Intuitive Design Response + Design Development The intuitive design response to all these parameters and analysis was a perforated metal screen fulfilling a desire to mask guest room areas without reducing views. The initial geometry of these perforations was inspired by regional vernacular and craft-making traditions embodied in the crown jewels of Nizam. The Nizam were the ruling class in the region who, at one point, had the most valuable jewel collection in the world. The large leaf-shaped

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geometry was a perforated in flat metal and combined into a repeating pattern across the façade. (Fig 9.)

Fig 9: Rendering and Elevation of Perforated Screen

The three primary environmental factors which informed the design included solar orientation, access to view, and use of diffuse daylight. The screen provides both privacy and shading during the day and a rich diurnal shift at night, when the rooms become illuminated and the privacy curtains are displayed. Before an empirical analysis of solar gain and view could be determined, a “fitness score” was developed for each room or program type. The fitness score indicated the level of response the screen pattern would have to the four parameters of view, sun shading, daylight and program. (Fig 10, 11) In initial meetings, the client wanted to develop a design that responded to the environment while maintaining a “timeless quality” that reflected local craft traditions. The initial concept had some of these qualities, but the client thought the scale of the pattern was too large, so the design team embarked on a series of investigations of the scale and constructability of the micro perforations in the screen wall. (Fig 12.) After a series of visualisations of the proposed design, the decision was made to proceed with a smaller scale embossed pattern. This decision eventually led to number of unanticipated benefits including self shading of the perforations and increased structural stability of each panel.

Fig 10: Solar Orientation Parameter Diagram Fig 11: Program Parameter Diagram

At this point in the design, a building energy simulation was conducted and the screen was found to yield a 20% reduction in a baseline energy building model as defined by ASHRAE 90.1-2004.

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Fig 12: Façade Screen Design and Material Studies

Material Prototyping – Material Goals and Construction Once the design evolved past the initial screen pattern studies, the team began to work with various manufacturers to understand the limitations of the design in material properties and constructability. The team engaged in a pre-bid prototyping phase with a multinational envelope fabricator to test some of the material and construction research in a built mock-up. The mock-up was both a visual understanding of the design for the client as well as a process of vetting material decisions for the design and construction team. First, a flow chart was developed to outline the process of collaborating during this phase of the project. (Fig 13.) Second, the scope of the mock-up was determined by considering the minimum size needed to test two material ideas for visualization and a suitable size and section of the final building to represent the maximum number of conditions. Third, a series of prototypes and details were developed through back-and-forth collaboration with the design team and fabricator. Finally, a complete prototype assembly was constructed and reviewed with the client before a design-build contract was awarded. The flow chart was developed by the multinational fabricator at the start of the process to highlight the schedule and process for completing the prototype. In an initial concept phase, the team sent physical models and computer models to develop a visual prototype. (Fig 14.) The mock-up process was used to study and install stainless steel and aluminium panels, and an alternative material that could be more flexible. After further material research, only stainless steel and aluminium were installed. The process of cross collaboration started with stainless steel. Stainless steel was initially preferred by the team for its visual quality and low maintenance, but was found to be inap- propriate for three reasons. First, the dyes created to do the double punch emboss process were not strong enough to conduct multiple repetitive operations without breaking. Second, once the panels were constructed, they were heavier and harder to handle than aluminium causing problems in shipping and installation. Third, the air in Hyderabad is very dusty and was found to have a high degree of suspended iron fragments. These fragments had the po- tential to become embedded in the stainless steel and rust. The only way to prevent this was a continuous coat of oil which would have been very time intensive and expensive to apply.

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Fig 14: Rendering of Mock-up

Fig 13: Fabricator Flow Chart

Another concern of the design team was oil-canning of the metal panels due to a release of internal stresses once the panels were deformed for the pattern. Oil-canning is the deformation of a flat sheet of metal during fabrication caused by stresses induced in the manufacturing process. The oil-canning was more apparent on the stainless steel panels because of the stresses generated from deforming the panel. The shape and depth of the perforation created structural stability. The punched and embossed aluminium assumed a symmetrical shape with a depth of 6mm proud of the surface, increasing the section modulus of the panel and providing greater stiffness in the whole system, much as a corrugated roof supports a heavy load with light gauge material. (Fig 15) The prototypes ultimately used on the project were fabricated out of aluminium. They were malleable and durable enough for repetitive punching. A multiple powder coat finish then provided the final layer of protection. The high recycled material content of aluminium also made it an ideal material selection for the sustainable goals of the project. Once the final prototypes were completed, they were installed at the testing facility and reviewed with the client (Fig 15, 16, 21.)

Fig 15: Aluminium Prototype Fig 16: Stainless Steel Prototype

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Building System Design The exploration of the aqueous and atmospheric environment from the initial climate analysis led to a secondary priority of water utilization. The limited amount of water and energy infrastructure in emerging countries such as India is a significant restriction to sustainable economic growth. While the building envelope impacts energy infrastructure, the building systems impact the water infrastructure. The environmental constraints established limitations on the system design which made it all the more significant to identify external variables early in the design process. The government of India has also instituted mandatory water conservation measures for all new buildings. The Park Hotel adhered to these guidelines by installing an on-site water treatment facility. The on-site equipment treats sewage and grey water generated in the building and uses it for irrigation on site. Additionally, water storage tanks in the building collect and distribute rain water for non-potable use inside the hotel. (Fig 17.) A baseline energy simulation model was developed (EDS 2007) to compare to the design case. Once a baseline envelope design was complete, the HVAC system design could reflect the advanced design of the envelope system. The cooling loads generated from solar heat gain were approximately 20% lower than the baseline model. Further detailed optimization of the prototype only improved the designated performance of the energy and HVAC systems.

Fig 17: Water Conservation Strategies

Performance Optimization with Data The final stage of envelope and screen design involved optimization based on aesthetics, environmental performance, and fabrication criteria. A custom automation tool was used to combine a multiplicity of seemingly contradictory options into a curtain wall design pattern balancing a broad range of parameters and priorities. The computer generated envelope design was assessed by the design team and revised as needed to ensure conformance with design intent and project feasibility. Environmental performance data was generated over the course of several months in collaboration with the Product Architecture Lab at Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. The general logic used by the Stevens students was first to calculate the amount of solar radiation that falls on a given surface of the curtain wall without perforation. Second, the optimum shape and size of the openings was calculated based upon solar analysis of the same surface with maximum perforation. The minimum opacity (percentage of surface area that is perforated) of the pattern needed to obtain target lighting levels was then determined through a series of solar lighting studies of the interior spaces. The minimum

49 DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

depth of the “shelf or “return” was determined by the initial shading and solar stress studies to be 200mm. (Fig 18)

Fig 18: Solar Insolation Test Cells in Ecotect

Design decisions were made by experience and aesthetics. However, prototyping was neces- sary to determine if the metal would in fact perform as designed. Once the prototyping process was finished, the results of the physical testing could be compiled as data to further inform the design. The design generated in this case results from an intuitive but informed approach by the design team combined with the aesthetic goals of the client. The solution materializes in the form of ‘rules’ which the design team can then quantify within the building information model. The aesthetic design approach called for a gradient to be formed by varying the level of perforation across the surface. Before applying the rules that generated the optimized pattern, the screen was audited for the required level of sun shading, daylight, view, and program. The initial design then served as the starting point for generation of the optimized surface pattern, which was constrained and guided by an additional series of predefined rules for fabrication and environmental performance. Optimization rules included: a gradient or transition of open to closed perforation types, a closed embossed pattern where there is no view such as the spandrel zones between windows, and maintaining a view zone of 1.5 meters in the prime hotel rooms and 1 meter in the service areas, while providing a curvilinear transition for each gradient following the window opening edge lines.

The fabrication data was a summary of lessons learned from the prototyping process such as joint and panel connections and material thresholds. These data sets were used to control the size and extent of the shape defined in the parametric computer model. The primary pattern component or “trillium” perforation was modelled as a series of interlocking nested hexagonal shapes in Digital Project (parametric design software developed by Gehry Tech- nologies) (GT) (Fig 19.). GT consultants provided help with developing a full building geometry model using existing elevations. A custom script was developed to populate the nested shapes across all building facades based on an optimal opacity. The custom tailored pattern responds to varying lighting needs and program types around the hotel. This digital

50 JAMES KRAUS

project software output generated 6000 custom panels. The panels were then surveyed to determine similar shapes or patterns within a “performance family” that could be calculated and sent back to the fabricator for pricing and construction. The final count consisted of approximately 300 custom perforation patterns or performance families.

Fig 19: “Trillium” Pattern used to Create Overall Screen Pattern and Opacity

Final Solution for the Envelope While experience and aesthetic goals guided the development of the initial form, the solution evolved through the input of multiple collaborators. Ultimately, the client has the final say, but it is the responsibility of the design team to foster communication that allows for feedback loops to develop. The color diagrams above represent the various manufactured pattern components determined by the fabrication prototyping process. The final design solution is a computer-derived pattern composed of custom panels that could be fabricated through a programmed laser punch machine that the fabricator had purchased. (Fig 20.) The pattern creates a range of gradients that change from open or "perforated" to closed or "embossed" shapes. For example, the south façade has more open perforations while the west has more closed embossed shapes due to increased solar exposure.

Fig 20: Final Pattern Solutions – South Façade Fig 21: Visual Mock-up

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Conclusions The final solution for the Park Hotel evolved from an intuitive response to a detailed environmental analysis and collaboration with fabricators and consultants. The design performance and ecological impact of the building developed through a collaborative process in which all groups had input and impact on the final design. This process resulted in 20% reduction in energy loads from a baseline design. The optimized design would not have been possible without the use of building information parametric modelling and environmental analysis to inform and produce the metal screen. The final design combined sustainable, energy-effi- cient, and performance-based design results with regional, environmental, and cultural sensitivity to allow for design and performance evolution through multiple inputs.

Acknowledgements Key design team members include: SOM New York design team – Roger Duffy, Peter Magill, Mark Igou, Peter Lefkovits, Thomas Behr, Katherine Wong, Paul Cha, Michael Kirchmann, Kwong Yu, Eric Van Epps, Herb Lynn, Victor Keto, Keith Besserud, Josh Cotton, Neil Katz, Ajmal Aqtash

Environmental Consultants – Environmental Design Solutions, New Dehli (India) HVAC Consultants – Spectral Services Consultants, Noida (India) Acoustical Consultants – Cerami Associates, New York Curtain Wall Contractor – Permasteelisa India Ltd, Bangalore, India Client – Apeejay Surrendra Park Hotels

References

1. Fitch, James Marston. 2: The Environmental Forces That Shape It 2nd Ed. (New York: Schocken, 1972), p.6-7 2. Kohli, Varun, “Form Follows the Sun: SEZ Office Complex” 25th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture (October 2008) 3. Hausladen, G., Saldanha, M. de, Liedl, P., Sager, C. Climate Design: Solutions for Buildings that Can Do More with Less Technology (Basel: Birkhauser, 2005), p. 20

About the Author James Kraus James Kraus has been leading SOM's efforts in Sustainable design, helping to integrate and guide the development of peformative, environmental, simulation tools in generating advanced geometry(and vice-versa) Utilizing scripting, and working with performance tools (such as Ecotect, IES, and advanced 3D modeling tools) on all SOM projects. James is activly engaged in all scales of the design practice including urban design, hospitality and commercial office buildings. Prior to Joining SOM he completed a Masters degree at the Architectural Associ-

52 JAMES KRAUS

ation in London in Environment and Energy. He also holds a Bachelor of Architecture from Virginia Tech.

EDITORS Bill Cope , University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA. Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Genevieve Bell , Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, USA. Michael Biggs , University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK. Thomas Binder , Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, Denmark. Jeanette Blomberg, IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, USA. Eva Brandt , Danmark Designskole, Copenhagen, Denmark. Peter Burrows , RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. Monika Büscher, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK. Patrick Dillon, Exeter University, Exeter, UK. Kees Dorst , TUe, The Netherlands; UTS, Australia. Ken Friedman , Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia; Denmark’s Design School, Copenhagen, Denmark. Michael Gibson , University of North Texas, Denton, USA. Judith Gregory, IIT Institute of Design, Chicago, USA; University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway. Clive Holtham, City of London University, London, UK. Hiroshi Ishii, MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, USA. Gianni Jacucci, University of Trento, Trento, Italy. Klaus Krippendorff , University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA. Terence Love, Curtin University, Perth, Australia. Bill Lucas , MAYA Fellow, MAYA Design, Inc., Pittsburgh, USA. Ezio Manzini, Politecnico of Milano, Milan, Italy. Julian Orr, Work Practice & Technology Associates, Pescadero, USA. Mahendra Patel, Leaf Design, Mumbai, India. Toni Robertson, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia. Terry Rosenberg, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK. Keith Russell, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. Liz Sanders, Make Tools, USA. Maria Cecilia Loschiavo dos Santos, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. Lucy Suchman, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK. Ina Wagner , Technical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.

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