POLICY BRIEF

AFRICANCITIES INTHEURBAN INFRASTRUCTURE AND SMART TRANSITIONS

BY CAMAREN PETER, BLAKE ROBINSON & MARK SWILLING BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION

Accommodating a tripling of through increases in the population of African innovation, productivity and between 2010 and 2050 incomes1. However, piecemeal will require a roll-out of development patterns and infrastructural services at persistent sprawl hampers the a pace and scale the likes accrual of full benefits and of which the world has not works against sustainability2. yet seen. If African cities The persistence of exclusive are to prosper, urban growth strip malls, office blocks and will need to be achieved in a gated residential complexes, manner that eradicates urban greenfield satellite cities, poverty, reduces inequality, privatised precincts, tolled enables local government, freeways and mega-urban stimulates economic growth and projects3 that target the accommodates middle classes and higher criteria at the same time. income groups4, negates the Hence there is a strong global, emergence of a coherent and regional and national consensus sustainable urban form, as that Africa’s development infrastructure roll-outs challenges will necessitate and government subsidies an industrial structural follow suit without public transformation that embraces consultation5. urbanisation and priorities as When the urban spatial and central principles for infrastructural layout impairs transition. agglomeration dynamics, it can negate their advantages; African cities will no doubt leading to lower productivity, a play key role in the roll- taxes, investment and out of infrastructures as underemployment, as well as they serve as priority sites congestion, infrastructure for the agglomeration of backlogs and increased activities. These activities vulnerability of communities in turn drive growth and who are not connected to structural transformation infrastructures and service provisions. Where state importance of infrastructures delivery is inadequate, as opportunities to improve informal and private service resource productivity and providers fill the gap. These thus influence the macro-level hybrid service delivery systems structural transformation can be inefficient, more agenda. African cities have an costly and resource-intensive opportunity to avoid the “lock- ways in comparison to well- in” to high environmental, planned services6, but fill carbon, resource and cost a crucial gap. In addition, footprints associated with the they are not all and always conventional infrastructures inefficient, but may be limited and regimes of in relation to economies the 20th Century. of scale. This is typical of African cities, where a The opportunity lies in “low-income, low investment innovative people-centred equilibrium” prevails. Poor and planning, internal mobility, coupled with and embracing more resource poor external connectivity7 efficient technologies that can exacerbates this condition. help stimulate more sustainable transitions and behavioural Moreover, African cities modes within cities. While have relatively low resource there may not be sufficient productivities8 when compared local capacity to produce some with global averages. This of the more sophisticated is fuelled by low resource technologies at first, much efficiencies. Even though of this transition can be resource productivity improved achieved through sustainable by 33 per cent between 1980 design (e.g. passive building and 2008, in 2008, Africa was design), by embracing low cost the lowest by a factor of 4 technologies, and innovations when compared to European in service delivery that draw averages, and a factor of 0.5 on new technology, methods and lower compared to Latin America indigenous knowledge systems. and Asia9. This highlights the Moving from the unjust and dysfunctional status quo to African cities and towns a just transition requires a does not have to be thought ‘smart’ approach; one that of as merely a financing and works with the existing, failure. The massive local mechanisms and systems infrastructure deficits need (whether formal, informal or to be addressed creatively, hybrid), and the patterns and drawing on the diverse flows of materials, that are conditions, behaviours and administered through African dynamics of African cities in cities. order to enable new paradigms for infrastructure provision Instead of importing “plug- and service delivery, spatial and-play” high tech solutions development, and social from the cities of the inclusion, as households and developed world, African cities communities get enrolled in new will require investments or adapted forms of service in innovative approaches delivery. to service delivery that optimise resource use so that the poor can access services for less cost, and with less environmental impacts. The infrastructure deficit in Urban Metabolism, Resource Efficiency and Urban Productivity

In this brief, we argue are required to maximise that “bioregional economic local government returns on diversification”10 is the infrastructure investments. paradigm that can facilitate Understanding how resources the desired transition. This flow through a is critical vision for a sustainable to identifying intervention African urban transition points that help to improve essentially revolves around city-level resource efficiency achieving resource efficiency and productivity, and avoid at the city level, as well unnecessary wastage of local as improving access to government budgets. The volume opportunities for the poor, and direction of the various and boosting resilience and flows within a city constitute adaptive capacity. It is an ‘urban metabolism’, which important to consider the can be shaped by strategic following key features of investments in infrastructure African cities when considering (e.g. waste-to-energy power their growth from a spatial plants, , or perspective: (1) slum energy efficient street lights). urbanisation and a dire lack of Urban productivity (and decent affordable services, (2) conversely, resource efficiency) that the rapid growth of small can be radically improved by a and intermediate, secondary factor of at least ten, and up and tertiary towns presents a to 2013 through interventions unique opportunity to leapfrog in the design of cities that to new, more sustainable forms promote decoupling from of development11, (3) that resource exploitation and in order to attain optimal environmental degradation14. return on infrastructure Three key technology areas investments densities need to of intervention are required be raised strategically around for the spatial restructuring public transport nodes (i.e. of cities that promote strategic densification12), and resource productivity and (4) that commensurate land- sustainability, enhances based financing mechanisms social inclusion, and negates splintered : (1) public transportation and Transit Oriented Development (TOD)15, (2) energy efficiency and , and (3) the transformational role of ICTs with respect to sector and regional integration16. Key Infrastructures for Transition

Public transportation and TOD: the investment as possible. Public-sector led TOD leverages Many African cities suffer from private sector partnerships and chronic traffic congestion which investment in order to capture inhibits economic productivity, value from public transport mobility and accessibility17. investments, making them more This could be substantially financially viable. reduced with the implementation of good public transport Energy efficiency and systems that facilitate access renewable energy: to opportunities and reduce greenhouse gas emissions per A key aspect of African commuter. These systems need to structural transition relates to be affordable to all citizens, the demand for . and to interface successfully Yet, if this demand were to and efficiently with existing be met using fossil fuel informal and private transport technologies, global climate providers (e.g. by accommodating targets would be exceeded. feeder routes), through African cities can play a key inclusive, participatory-based role in the necessary renewable development processes. Soft energies transition that mobility provisions18 such as African countries and regions sidewalks and bicycle lanes, as are required to undergo. The well as designated motorcycle large-scale opportunities in lanes can also help to reduce wind, solar and hydro-electric the need for private cars. energy have been evaluated by Integration of different modes is the International Renewable key to successful implementation Energies Agency, and are (e.g. Bogota and Curitiba)19. significantly higher in Africa compared to other parts of the Public transport investments world. However, many services are costly, so it is important can be accessed safely using that they are designed in a energy sources other than manner that allows for as much electricity. While connection public value to be captured from to the electricity grid provides a high level of service access Information and Communications and the most abundant range of Technologies: choice to users, it is often a costly option, and may not be The lack of fixed line appropriate if the user costs telecommunications presents and environmental impacts exceed a significant opportunity those of a mix of decentralised for ICTs in Africa and its technologies like improved cities. Despite the high cost cookstoves, solar water heaters of mobile technologies, their and solar photovoltaic panels penetration is very high in for lighting and appliances20. Africa as they are essential for accessing telecommunication Cities can play a key role and other mobile services. as early adopters of small- Opportunities for catalysing and scale decentralised and semi- supporting urban transitions decentralised renewable energies to sustainability through technologies and systems, ICT include: the provision building their expertise in of banking services (e.g. new technologies, maintenance, e-wallets, payments, transfers, local financing mechanisms and etc.), microfinance and prepaid other factors that need to be options to individuals, as customised to adapt to local well as small and informal scales and contexts. It is businesses; the facilitation of important to note that cities people-driven urban management can further improve energy for real-time information on efficiencies by re-using waste urban conditions (i.e. people as heat from industry and power sensors), especially in slums generation plants to provide and informal settlements; smart piped heating and cooling logistics to reduce freight services instead of defaulting transportation; rideshare and to electricity-based space other smart transit systems that heating and cooling. have yet to emerge; as well as data for reducing traffic and parking congestion and optimising transport times. Innovative and Inclusive Transition

Yet technical solutions based policy is essential to (whether policy oriented or successful implementation, and technological) alone are the role of urban coalitions unlikely to resolve challenges in infrastructure roll-out and bring about desired is also likely to prove key. outcomes. Participation is necessary, not only to draw on leadership Cultivating niche innovations – that is distributed throughout i.e. in technologies, systems, society for implementation, policy discourse, finance and but also to ensure that the so forth – is also critical imperative of universal, to transition. Successful affordable access to basic transition will depend on how services is prioritised. well niche innovations are The capacity for employment generated in order to meet creation and spatial benefits, changing local specificities and and potential adverse impacts extra-local contextual factors also need to be assessed that impact local dynamics, through broad participation. especially where hybrid formal Participatory-based groups, such and informal systems are as coalitions, can prove to concerned. In this respect, the be key innovators and drivers technological nexus that is of a new urbanism (e.g. where enabled through overlap between TOD around dense nodes with different sectors (e.g. waste- heterogeneous functions is to-energy, transport-ICT, ICT- driven by them)21. energy, ICT-banking/microcredit/ financing) is where the potential for innovating solutions to meet context-specific local demands is highest. Corresponding with this overlap, is the need for policy and regulatory instruments to ensure efficient, transparent and accountable service delivery. Moreover, participatory- Financing Transition

In 2009, the scale of taxation and borrowing investment needed to address mechanisms that can be the infrastructure deficit in accessed25. Administrative Africa was USD 93 Billion control over land-use planning per year. This amounts to at local levels makes sense 15 per cent of annual GDP, because land constitutes an which is double the current immovable asset and can be level of spending22. Depsite a easily traced and taxed, and relatively substantial increase public investment yields in infrastructure spending benefits – through increased since then, from National land values – that are not Governments, the private attributable to landowner sector, and international donor decisions or actions. Hence, finance (Gutman, 2015), there is local government revenue little data that explicates how generation through increased these growing allocations are property taxation, development being distributed. Moreover, charges or betterment levies persistent underinvestment on land values is justifiable. in affordable and accessible It also helps prevent land urban infrastructure23, due speculation, hoarding and to an blatant refusal of necessitates the formulation many national governments to of policy and regulatory accepts the reality of rapid systems (i.e. land valuation, urbanisation exacerbates taxation structures, judicial backlogs and bottlenecks and frameworks, and local compounds haphazard, piecemeal government structures) that aid progress24. coherent governance throughout the city26. Increased local Turok (2016) makes reference to control over infrastructure the importance of considering and property development the urban “land-infrastructure- also improves the ability of finance nexus” when considering local authorities to plan the infrastructure challenges for sustainability criteria, that African cities face in and to ensure that resource the context of local property efficiencies are optimised. While leveraging land values at potential private investments local levels through planning with improved instruments and land-use change management that reduce potential risks. to finance infrastructure At local scales, however, development has proven there exists the potential to successful around the world to leverage off emerging micro- yield more liveable and better financing and credit options quality urban settlements27, that are paired with online and helped finance massive mobile banking services, and physical infrastructure and to establish local cooperative housing programmes28, full banks and common pool savings repayment of debt is unlikely that introduce financing to be obtained. This is schemes that fit the particular especially the case in African needs of low-income and slum- cities, where the revenues dwellers. Prepaid options that from land-based financing is allow for varied upgrade and very low29, due to poor formal downgrade options, for example, systems of land management and can help poor households cope traditional, informal and slum with fluctuations in household settlements do not pay taxes. budgets, while maintaining service delivery. Financing for small-scale infrastructure and technology options is at present unlikely to emerge through conventional funding channels such as the World Bank. However, there are a number of new funds emerging, such as the Sustainable Development Investment Partnership which is geared towards mobilising USD 100 billion to finance projects in developing countries over five years. It targets REFERENCES

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