RACHEL CARSON AND ENVIRONMENTALISM

SOPHIE KERSHAW US HISTORY 29 JANUARY 2013

Publishers released ‘s Silent Spring on September 27th 1962. Within a shocking testimony, Carson attacked the irresponsible use of agricultural chemicals and protested their adverse effects on the environment. The idea of an ―environmental impact‖ proved new to most Americans of the time, and, immediately upon publication, Silent Spring evoked an explosive reaction. The book put the pesticide industry up in arms as it viciously attacked

Carson in an attempt to discredit her as a scientist. Ironically, these attacks on Carson merely provided the book with more publicity, and, in spite of its negative attention, the book spent thirty-one weeks on the top seller list and received a mass of support from the public1. Although

Silent Spring received a substantial amount of negative attention from threatened chemical companies, Carson's bestseller managed to spark the modern environmental movement in

America by provoking a unique and powerful, positive response from the nation that forever changed the American public's attitude towards its environment and resulted in changes to federal policy and effectively a new form of American society.

Following the culmination of the Great Depression and World War II, the United Sates emerged with an unquestionable pride in up-and-coming technology, the American government, and American capitalism. According to historian Thomas Dunlap, ―Americans assumed that science was good, that chemicals were necessary, that their use would be governed by experts, that these experts could be trusted, and that the side-effects of chemical use would be negligible.‖2 This forward-driven society paid little attention to the environmental impacts of its endeavors, and very little knowledge concerning the needs of the planet circulated among the public3. Carson herself, when writing the book, stated that: ―I am pressing ahead…driven by the

1Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Enviroment and Society Portal 2Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, [44] 3Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, [44] 1 knowledge that…unquestionably what [Silent Spring] has to say will come as news to 99 out of

100 people.‖4

Although she spoke against popular thought and questioned chemical experts, Carson‘s astounding literary ability effectively aroused public concern. Reporters described her as both

―literarily inciting and scientifically informative‖.5 Additionally, current events and recent health scares evoked a fear from the public that encouraged them to listen. For example, Carson took advantage of the growing concern for radioactive substances by explicitly comparing pesticides to radiation.6 As Walter Sullivan stated in The Times, ―[Carson] tries to scare the living daylights out of us and…she succeeds.‖7 Also, due to three recent bestsellers, an already established readership, fifty-five pages of references, and a complete list of expert reviewers, attempts by chemical companies to disprove her credibility failed.8 All of these factors resulted in an attentive public open to hearing Carson‘s important message.

Although Carson possessed no illusions concerning the promising potential of her work, even she failed to predict the vast impact of Silent Spring. The book was a historical turning point for American society. Carson enlightened thousands about the importance of respecting the planet, and by changing opinion on such a large scale, she singlehandedly sparked the modern environmental movement.

Carson‘s revolutionary novel, Silent Spring, changed how the American public viewed its environment; Carson elevated the earth from its position of ―just an economic resource‖ to a position of value coequal in meaning with that of humanity. Before Carson, the public viewed environmental conservation as the least of its concerns. In a letter to The New Yorker, a citizen

4H. Patricia Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring (New York: Pergamon Press, 1989), [33] 5Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 6Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 7Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 8Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 2 wrote: ―We can live without birds and animals, but, as the current market slump shows, we cannot live without business‖.9 The belief of "business before beauty " proved common during the years of Silent Spring. Some people, however, did express an urgency to conserve the planet, but, generally, they did not possess the same motives as Carson. In a statement from the 1960

National Resources Committee, government officials asked the following of the public:

Will there be electricity enough to serve our industries? Will we have sufficient fuel to power our vehicles? Will there be attractive recreation sites for our families? Are we doing all we can to ensure the wise utilization of our resources?10

The committee viewed the earth as a warehouse ―stocked‖ with natural resources. They worried about the ―attractiveness‖ of parks, electricity for industry, and fuel for engines. No one raised any concern for the preservation of ecosystems, only the preservation of resources. Don

Steffeck, the Chief of Resource Conservation in Portland, Oregon, claimed, ―The predominant view in the mid-20th century was that man was preeminent in the world and could control any problems through engineered solutions.‖11Carson found these beliefs abhorrent. The ―control of nature,‖ she wrote, ―was conceived in arrogance, born of the…age of biology and philosophy when it was supposed that nature exists for the convenience of man.‖12Carson viewed the world not as an exclusive human domain, but as a complex planet shared by many living things. Carson packed the pages of Silent Spring with numerous statements such as the one above, and as bookstores across the nation sold copy after copy, her ideas began to impact society. In 1992,

Vice President Al Gore stated the following in a reflection of the time: ―Silent Spring had a profound impact. It was one of the books we read at home at my mother‘s insistence and then discussed around the dinner table…Rachel Carson was one reason why I became so conscious of

9Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 10Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring, [138]. 11 12Carson, Silent Spring, [51] 3 the environment."13 Al Gore‘s family quickly proved to be just one of thousands that experienced this profound impact.

Evidence of changing beliefs occurred in the fall of 1969. A conference entitled ―Man and His Environment‖ took place in San Francisco, and young delegates produced the following in a Youth Report:

The youth delegates reject the premise that the salvation of mankind depends on the control of land…we find instead that the salvation of mankind depends on the control of man…and that life's pursuits can be predicted on equality, and compassion for man and nature14

This statement simply restated the ideology introduced by Carson seven years prior. It called for a respect for the planet, and refuted man‘s ―control‖ over nature--something directly addressed by Carson. This statement differs radically from the one made by the National Resources

Committee in 1960. In the eyes of the youth, the Earth was not a ―warehouse of resources‖ but an abundant planet deserving ―equality‖ and ―compassion‖. Evidently, Carson‘s revolutionary ideas infiltrated society and impacted people‘s beliefs.

Another example of the changing American opinion occurred within the establishment of several environmental interest groups. No government funding occurred; individual Americans paid for these organizations out of pocket. In 1967, Art Cooley formed The Environmental

Defense Fund. Upon formation, the immediate goal of the agency was to ban DDT, an especially powerful pesticide, and the center of Carson‘s concern.15 Cooley‘s animosity for this chemical directly resulted from the work of Rachel Carson, as she researched and publically questioned this pesticide first. Another group of activists established the National Resources Defense

Council (NRDC) in 1970.16 An article titled ―The Story of Silent Spring‖ exists on the modern-

13Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 14Joan Lee Faust, "All Out for Ecology," New York Times, April 19,1970, accessed September 23, 2012. 15Robert Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), [110]. 16Natural Resources Defense Council, accessed November 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/ 4 day NRDC website, and the website deems her as a "milestone" in environmental history.17

Clearly, Carson‘s direct links to these organizations demonstrate her impact on their development.

Carson‘s published respect for the planet impacted not only political activists, but also the majority of society and chief industrial companies. A 1970 publication of The Christian Monitor clearly explains the change of thought that occurred:

Revolutionary…concepts are emerging as a result of the new ecology awareness. For instance, it was long thought that the production of more and more material goods was the line of infinite progress for modern man…scientists are now saying there may have to be a limit put on material wants and that the producer will have to make provisions for the harmless disposal of material products18.

Within the article, the author described the new emerging ecological awareness of the time. He also discussed a possible need to place a limit on material production. Carson explicitly criticized

―pointless overproduction‖ several times within Silent Spring.19 Additionally, the article addressed the idea of companies making provisions for their "harmless disposal of material products." This 1970 statement greatly contrasts with an account of the chemical companies of

1960: ―Anyone who…watched the...sprayers...at work must have been impressed by the almost supreme carelessness with which the poisonous substances were dispensed"- Dr. WC

Heuper.20Companies no longer possessed the ability to ignore their waste without opposition.

Before 1962, society possessed a dog-like faith in chemical experts, and waste concerns were ignored, but Rachel Carson questioned this faith when she claimed, ―I do contend that we have put poisonous and biologically potent chemicals indiscriminately into the hands of persons

17Natural Resources Defense Council. 18The Christian Science Monitor, "Spring of earth awareness," The Christian Science Monitor (Boston, Mass), April 21, 1970, accessed September 23, 2012, http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/topicmain. 19Carson, Silent Spring, [70] 20Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 5 largely or wholly ignorant of their potentials for harm…‖21Following her lead, Carson‘s attentive audience also began to question the chemical industry as well as the government that permitted its actions. In 1963, The Washington Post published an article entitled What if she’s right?, and other papers published numerous similar articles possessing doubt and asking questions.22

Carson changed American opinion as she incited a newfound respect for the planet and encouraged people to question the industries that harmed it. This increased public questioning quickly led to government intervention.

Immediate government interest resulted from the public‘s reaction to Silent Spring; this interest led to congressional action, and eventually culminated in adjustments to federal policy.

Politician Bill Moyers stated ―It's impossible to do justice today to Rachel Carson's impact. I was in government at the time, and I remember all over Washington, people were talking about this book.‖23 President John F. Kennedy immediately asked the Life Sciences Panel of the

President‘s Science Advisory Committee to investigate the claims within Silent Spring.24 On

August 29th 1962, a reporter questioned Kennedy about whether he had asked ―the Department of Agriculture...to take a closer look at this.‖ He replied, ―Yes, I—and I know that they already are—I think particularly, of course, since Miss Carson‘s book but they are examining the matter.‖25Kennedy directly related the government‘s interest in the environment to the work of

Rachel Carson. Silent Spring also prompted Congressional hearings. On April 4th 1963, the day immediately following the release of a CBS documentary detailing Carson‘s admonitions to the public, Connecticut senator Abraham Ribicoff announced future congressional hearings on

21Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring, [138]. 22 Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, [61] 23Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 24Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 25Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 6 pollution and the federal regulation of pesticides.26 Before 1962, the government regulated pesticides to ensure chemical arrangements were ―effective and not fraudulent‖27. The

Insecticide Act of 1910 and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1947

(FIFRA) both failed to propose ideas concerning environmental conservation.28Congress finally amended FIFRA in 1972; the amendments placed restrictions upon agricultural pesticides and called for the protection of endangered species. Carson explicitly addressed both of these issues within her book, and can be largely credited with inspiring these amendments.

Silent Spring is also largely responsible for the establishment of the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970. Within her book, Carson criticized that "the mission to protect the environment is fragmented among many agencies...and compromised by the government."29

She believed environmental protection should be motivated by a respect for the integrity of nature, and should belong to an agency of ecologists; ―it should not be impeded by one monotonal bureaucrat after another assuring the public that pesticide excesses [were] a thing of the past.‖30 This lofty warning was the mooring from which the Environmental Protection

Agency was launched in 1970. EPA employee Jack Lewis stated that the "EPA today may be said without exaggeration to be the extended shadow of Silent Spring".31 Later, through the

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, the EPA acted to ban, or severely restrict, all of the six compounds specifically mentioned in Silent Spring including DDT32 The EPA still serves as a major component of the government today, and continues to advocate for the rights of the planet.

Silent Spring altered popular thought, changed federal policy, and so in turn transformed

American society. As its arguments continued to trickle into popular awareness, its dogmata

26Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 27Environmental Statutes Outline, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Environmental Law Institute, 2007), [88]. 28Environmental Statutes Outline, [38-40, 52-56]. 29Carson, Silent Spring, [80] 30Carson, Silent Spring, [81] 31Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 32Environmental Statutes Outline, [180]. 7 filtered into popular culture. Popular Science published an article in June 1963 titled ―How to

Poison Bugs but NOT Yourself,‖ and within the same month Popular Mechanics released an article titled ―And Was It a Silent Spring?‖33 Dozens of environmental cartoons appeared in magazines across the nation, and Carson appeared several times in the comic sections of newspapers. In 1962 and 1963 Charles Schultz mentioned her four separate times in his overwhelmingly popular ‗Peanuts‘ strip34. The book's ideas also emerged in several hit songs, the most famous being Joni Mitchell‘s 1969 ―Big Yellow Taxi.‖ The lyrics read: ―Hey, farmer, farmer / Put away that DDT now / Give me spots on my apples / But leave me the bird and the bees / Please!‖35 Carson‘s ideas were truly personified in 1970 on the first Earth Day. On April

22, twenty million Americans from all across the nation banded together to protest in defense of the planet36. Society no longer ignored the needs of the environment, but they valued it as component of popular culture.

Stances on environmentalism also became major platforms for politicians. In his 1981

State of the Union Message, President Carter stated that: ―Preserving the quality of our environment has been among the most important objectives of my Administration and of the

Congress‖.37He then continued to list his major environmental achievements. People possessed a clear respect for the environment; politicians took pride in their environmental achievements, and made a determined effort to improve them. The people wanted environmental awareness, so politicians delivered it.

The Organic Food industry was another societal impact of Silent Spring and the environmental movement. Before 1962, people mocked the organic food industry. However in

33Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 34Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 35Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal 36Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future, [89]. 37Jimmy Carter: State of the Union Message (1981), http://americangovernment.abc-clio.com. 8 the decades preceding Carson‘s introduction of environmental issues, the movement grew dramatically.38 Economists expect the revenue of the organic food industry to exceed $88 billion in 2015. Markets for organic foods, surprisingly, are not dominated by organic food stores such as Whole Foods Market; studies attribute 60% of sales to major players such as Kraft, Kellogg‘s,

General Mills, and now Wal-Mart.39 As major companies continue to see potential in the market, the organic food industry continues to expand rapidly. The increase in the production of organic foods by major chains clearly reflects a society within which environmental concerns are becoming a standard.

―A single book changes history only rarely. There was Harriet Beecher Stowe‘s Uncle

Tom’s Cabin, Upton Sinclair‘s The Jungle, and Ralph Nader‘s Unsafe at Any Speed. And then there was Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring.”40Carson‘s Silent Spring defines ―turning point‖ in regards to the American environmental movement. The book altered a pre-established mindset throughout the country, evoked tangible changes to federal policy, and sparked the development of a society that values its environment. Society today is significantly more environmentally conscious than it was in the 1960‘s, but the planet still suffers from pollution and harmful pesticides are still used in agriculture. Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring kick-started environmentalism within America and impacted the nation forever, but a long journey still precedes the American people.

38Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future, [103]. 39Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future, [108]. 40Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring, [3]. 9

Annotated Bibliography

America‘s Reaction to Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring

Primary Sources

1. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. 40th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002.

Silent Spring is a primary source book written by Rachel Carson in 1962. The book argues against harmful chemicals, provides alternatives to those chemicals, and defends natures delicate balance. Rachel Carson is a renowned and reliable environmental author. She wrote three best sellers before she published Silent Spring. She attended John Hopkins University and earned degrees in zoology and natural science. This source provided a clear demonstration of Carson‘s beliefs, and quotes about her beliefs.

2. The Christian Science Monitor. "Spring of Earth Awareness." The Christian Science Monitor (Boston, Mass), April 21, 1970, 18. Accessed September 23, 2012. http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/topicmain.

―Spring of Earth Awareness‖ is a primary source article taken from a 1970 publication of The Christian Science Monitor. The Christian Science Monitor is a renowned international news organization. The article discusses the growing environmental awareness that occurred during the time of Rachel Carson. The source provided evidence of the change of opinion that occurred within American society during the 60‘s and early 70‘s. It helpfully supported the first impact of the paper that Rachel Carson changed how Americans felt about the environment.

3. Environmental Statutes Outline. 4th ed. Washington, DC: Environmental Law Institute, 2007.

The Environmental Statutes Outline is a primary source collection of U.S. environmental laws and documents. It cites and outlines 50 of the most important U.S. environmental laws. The Environmental Law Institute published the collection. This is an internationally recognized environmental research and education center. The source provided exact government documents, and it provided an efficient way to research Carson‘s impacts on federal policy.

4. Faust, Joan Lee. "All Out for Ecology." New York Times, April 19, 1970, 1. Accessed September 23, 2012. http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/topicmain.

―All Out for Ecology‖ is a primary source article published in a 1970 edition of The New York Times. The article discusses a conference that occurred in San Francisco about the environment. Joan Lee Foust graduated from Georgetown University in 1943, and spent 12 years writing for The New York Times. This source provided more evidence about the changing American opinion of the environment. It provided evidence for the

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first impact of the paper that Rachel Carson changed how Americans felt about the environment.

5. Jimmy Carter: State of the Union Message (1981). http://americangovernment.abc- clio.com.

This is a primary source state of the union address given by President Jimmy Carter in 1981. Jimmy Carter served as the president from 1977 to 1981. Within his address, he discusses what he achieved during his term. He talks solely about the environment for a substantial amount of time. This source provides evidence of society‘s clear respect for the environment. It supports the idea that Rachel Carson changed society.

Secondary Sources

1. Hynes, H. Patricia. The Recurring Silent Spring. New York: Pergamon Press, 1989.

The Recurring Silent Spring is a secondary source book written by Patricia Hynes. Patricia Hynes worked for the Environmental Protection Agency and was Chief of Environmental Management at the Massachusetts Port Authority. Her book is about the life and legacy of Rachel Carson. It provided important primary source quotes. One was taken from the 1960 National Resources Committee, and the other was a Rachel Carson quote. The quotes helped explain how drastically American opinions changed. The book is full of information about every aspect of Carson‘s life, and was an excellent reference for the entire paper.

2. Lear, Linda J. Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature. New York: H. Holt, 1997.

Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature is a secondary source book written by Linda Lear. Linda Lear is Research Professor of Environmental History at George Washington University and a Research Collaborator at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. Her book is a detailed biography of Rachel Carson‘s life. The book provided important primary source quotes. Lear quoted Carson once and historian Thomas Dunlap once. Thomas Dunlap graduated from Harvard, and he is a respected Historian. The book was very detailed and an excellent source.

3. Natural Resources Defense Council. Accessed November 1, 2012. http://www.nrdc.org/.

This secondary source is the official National Resources Defense Council website. It is an informational website not only about the NRDC, but also about the history of environmentalism. The website explicitly mentions Rachel Carson, and describes her as monumental component of environmental history. Established in 1970, the NRDC is nationally and internationally recognized environmental charity. This source helped provide evidence for the fact that Rachel Carson changed America‘s feeling about the environment.

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4. Paehlke, Robert. Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics is a secondary source book about the history and the future of environmentalism. It provides a chapter by chapter timeline of environmental history, and was useful in its provision of specific facts. Robert Paehlke is a professor of political science and environmental and resource studies at Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario. He is an expert on environmentalism. This book provided general facts, and an organized history of the environmental movement. It placed events in a methodical order.

5. Stoll, Mark. "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING, A BOOK THAT CHANGED THE WORLD." Enviroment and Society Portal. Last modified 2012. Accessed September 10, 2012. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/exhibitions/silent- spring/legacy.

This secondary source online exhibition was written by Mark Stoll. It provides details about the background of her book, and several impacts particularly cultural impacts. Mark Stoll is a Graduate, and the website is associated with the LMU Munich and the Deutsches Museum and the Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society. It is sponsored by a grant from the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research. It was helpful in its provision of important primary source quotes. It provided a quote from EPA employee, Jack Lewis. Jack Lewis worked for the EPA for twenty years. It provided a quote from Vice President Al Gore and President Kennedy. Al Gore served as VP from 1993 to 2001, and Kennedy served as President from 1961–1963. Eye witness reports were collected from Dr. WC Heuper and politician Bill Moyers. Both these men were alive during the time of Carson. Additionally, a quote was taken from The New York Times article author Walter Sullivan. Sullivan wrote articles for The New York Times for 5 years, and graduated from the University of Michigan. All of these quotes were used as supporting evidence within the paper.

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