Chapters 18 & 19 – The Civil War -The end of the Mexican War and the acquisition of the Southwest reopened the debate over slavery in the West. The main question was whether or not the status of slavery in the The Compromise of 1850 territories should be decided by the federal government (supported by those who wished to limit slavery and the precedent for which had been provided through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which banned slavery in the Northwest Territory), or through popular sovereignty, or the idea that the question of slavery should be left up to the people of that territory (supported by those who wished to see slavery expand). -With such massive population growth in California due to the Gold Rush of 1849, California was able to skip the territorial stage of development and apply directly for statehood. Pro- slavery politicians worried that if admitted as a free state, it would upset the balance of power between free and slave state, giving the North and anti-slavery advocates an unfair advantage in Congress. -In order to prevent a stalemate over California in Congress, Senator Henry Clay, known for his reputation as a negotiator, was able to find a compromise between the two sides of the issue with the Compromise of 1850, which had five main provisions, or features. 1) California would be admitted as a free state, 2) the status of slavery in the federal territories of New Mexico and Utah would be determined through popular sovereignty, 3) Texas would give up part of its territory to New Mexico in exchange for the federal government assuming some of its debts, 4) the slave trade, but not slavery itself, would be banned in Washington, DC, and 5) a new, stronger fugitive slave law would be passed. -The plan had many critics. Anti-slavery advocates demanded that California be admitted with no additional conditions. Pro-slavery advocates argued that the plan was inherently unfair to them, and that if their demands were not met, secession by Southern states may be the result. Moderates, or those in the middle, believed it was the best compromise possible and the most important thing was preserving the Union above all else. -Perhaps the most controversial aspect of the Compromise of 1850 was the new Fugitive Slave Act, which was highly controversial for a number of reasons. Anyone caught actively helping escaped slaves, even in free states, could be prosecuted. Anyone with knowledge of an escaped slave and did not alert the authorities could be charged with a crime as well. It required states to use state, not federal, funds and resources to assist in the capture of escaped slaves, even in free states. In addition, captured slaves would be brought in front of special courts, the judges of which would be paid more for declaring a suspected fugitive a slave rather than a free man, which made the process inherently biased and unfair. -Also at this time, anti-slavery literature began to appear, such as the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin by author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Through her characters and setting, Stowe describes the cruelties of slavery in a way that few had done before. The novel was shocking to the millions of people who had read the book, shattering illusions of Southern life. It outraged many in the South, because of its potential to harm the institution of slavery, and millions in the North because the cruelties of slavery were being exposed as never before. -Despite having purchased the land in 1803 from the French, there The Kansas-Nebraska Act were parts of the Louisiana Purchase that were still unorganized territory, and thus not legally open to settlement of any kind. Senator Stephen Douglas, of Illinois, also known as the Little Giant, wished to see the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, and have it travel through his home state in which the city of Chicago would be a major hub, or stop. He thought this would make his state wealthy, powerful, and a key stop for settlers and travelers headed west. But until the area known as Kansas and Nebraska was organized into federal territories, which must be accomplished by an act of Congress, no such railroad could be built. Douglas also hoped to one day be elected President, and being the driving force behind the railroad could help him achieve this. -Douglas knew he would need support from Southern and pro-slavery politicians to get any potential bill passed. He also knew that many Southerners wished to see the railroad go through the South. So, in order to gain their support, Douglas authored the Kansas-Nebraska Act, containing provisions attractive to Southern lawmakers. In this bill: 1) The remaining unorganized territories in the LA Purchase would be divided into Kansas and Nebraska, 2) popular sovereignty would decide the status of slavery in those territories, essentially removing the ban on slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line of 36*30’N. In exchange for this, Southern politicians agreed to support Douglas’ bill and drop demands that the railroad be built in the South. -Northerners were outraged, and many felt betrayed. Here was Douglas, a northern politician, willing to “sell out” to Southern pro- slavery lawmakers simply because he wanted to build a railroad. For many, this solidified their belief that there was a conspiracy afoot to spread slavery not just throughout the South and West, but also North and perhaps one day, slavery would be legal everywhere. -The Kansas-Nebraska Act passed Congress and was signed into law in 1854. Ironically, Douglas’ dream of having the railroad built through his home state would never be realized, and his political ambitions, including one day being elected President of the United States, were ruined. -Now that Kansas and Nebraska were open to settlement, both anti and pro slavery supporters would now “race” to the area in an effort to populate it first in efforts to create either free or slave states once the population reached high enough numbers. The effort to settle these areas would bring anti and pro slavery settlers into conflict with one another. -The Kansas-Nebraska act left the status of slavery in the Kansas-Nebraska territories open to popular sovereignty. Territorial legislative elections were Bleeding Kansas scheduled to be held in March of 1855, and so both anti and pro slavery groups “raced” to settle Kansas to form a majority and achieve victory in the upcoming election. Whoever won the election would likely decide the status of slavery in Kansas for good. -This led to a number of pro-slavery “settlers” reportedly entering Kansas from Missouri to vote in territorial elections, and then return to Missouri. These people were labelled as “border ruffians” by those in the anti-slavery group, as they were committing voter fraud, and also used threats and scare tactics to intimidate the anti-slavery settlers and prevent them from voting. Thanks to these illegitimate votes provided by these “settlers”, Kansas elected a pro-slavery legislature to be based at Lecompton, Kansas. This legislature would then pass a series of laws favorable to the practice of slavery to help ensure Kansas would be the next slave state admitted to the Union. -However, the anti-slavery settlers refused to recognize the results of the territorial elections due to voter fraud on the part of the pro-slavery groups like the Missouri border ruffians. The anti-slavery settlers formed their own territorial legislature at Topeka, Kansas. Both the Lecompton and Topeka legislatures claimed to be the rightful and legitimate government of Kansas. Many of the pro-slavery settlers came to Kansas heavily armed, and those sympathetic to the anti-slavery groups bought and sent them weapons. With both sides armed to teeth, violence soon erupted. For instance, a pro-slavery posse of 700 men raided, looted, and burned Lawrence, Kansas while looking for anti-slavery settlers. -After the “sack” or destruction of Lawrence, settler and abolitionist John Brown claimed that God ordered him to take revenge on the pro-slavery settlers. Brown was from New England and believed slavery to be a sin. Brown, his sons, and several other men killed five pro-slavery settlers in what became known as the Pottawattamie Creek Massacre. Brown then fled Kansas, but it would not be the last time Brown would figure into the debate over slavery. After the massacre, Kansas fell into a state of civil war, in which over 200 settlers were killed. The press dubbed it “Bleeding Kansas”. Many felt it was a preview of things to come, and a new breed of militant abolitionist was born. -The violence wasn’t contained to Kansas. Fights even broke out in Congress as well, between anti and pro-slavery politicians. In one such incident, Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner was attacked while giving a speech called “The Crime of Kansas” in which he outlined the crimes of the pro-slavery groups in that territory, and managed to insult a fellow Senator named Andrew Butler from South Carolina. In revenge, Preston Brooks, a member of the House of Representatives and cousin to Butler, entered the Senate chamber and beat Sumner with his cane, breaking it. Dozens of Southern supporters throughout the South sent replacement canes to Brooks as gifts. -After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the events in Kansas, a Dred Scott v. Sanford new political party was formed. Created by members of already existing or failed parties like the Whig Party, Free-Soil Party, and even Democratic Party, the Republican Party wanted to stop the spread of slavery, but not necessarily to abolish slavery altogether. However, many people, especially in the South and their representatives in the Federal government, did not see the difference. Any attempt to stop the spread of slavery was an attempt to abolish it in their view. -In 1856, the Supreme Court, by this time dominated by pro-slavery Southern justices, including Chief Justice Roger Taney, was asked to rule in a case called Dred Scott v. Sanford. Scott was owned by an Army surgeon named Dr. John Emerson, who at one point took Scott from Missouri (a slave state) to Wisconsin (a federal territory at the time where slavery was illegal according to the Missouri Compromise). Emerson married a Southern woman named Irene Sanford. Emerson died and Sanford became Scott’s owner. Scott sued Sanford in federal court, and the case made its way to the Supreme Court of the United States. Scott argued that by being taken to a free state, it made him a free man. -In a 7-2 ruling, the court ruled that Scott was not a free man. The court addressed three primary issues. 1) Was Scott a citizen? Answer: No. As a slave, he was not a citizen, nor did he “have any rights which a white man was bound to respect.” Therefore, since Scott was not a citizen, he had no right to sue for his freedom in federal court. This essentially decided the case by itself. Yet, the Court went on to answer questions that pertained to the case and the status of slavery in general. 2) Did his time living in a free territory/state make Scott a free man? Answer: No, living on free soil did not make him free. Since he was property, his status as such was entirely dependent on the laws of Missouri. 3) Could Congress decide the status of slavery in the territories? Citing the 5th Amendment, which states property cannot be taken from someone without due process and just compensation, he Court reasoned from this that Congress could not restrict slavery in the federal territories. Although the Kansas-Nebraska Act had effectively done so already, this ruling negated the Missouri Compromise line of 36*30’N, stating it was unconstitutional. The court also reasoned that allowing territorial governments and popular sovereignty to decide the status of slavery was also incorrect, and that only states had the ability to “discriminate” against slavery in this manner. -The Dred Scott decision was supported throughout the South and condemned throughout the North. It fully affirmed for some that the entire federal government was under the control of pro-slavery politicians. For Southerners, it was a major victory. -In 1858, with the debate over slavery raging across the country, the Illinois The Lincoln-Douglas Debates and legislature nominated a little known former U.S. representative and current Republican Abraham Lincoln for the US Senate (prior to 1913, Senators were chosen by state legislatures rather than through direct election). His John Brown’s Raid opponent was Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas, author of the Kansas- Nebraska Act. -The two engaged in an unprecedented series of debates known as the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. In a series of seven debates across the state of Illinois, the two candidates primarily argued over the institution of slavery, whether or not it could maintained long term, and whether the nation could survive the increasing number of disagreements over the institution. Lincoln argued the Democratic Party wanted to spread slavery across the continent, as evidenced by Douglas’ sponsorship of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Lincoln argued slavery was wrong, but emphasized that he was not necessarily in favor of abolishing it, only stopping its expansion. He also famously said “A house divided against itself cannot stand,” meaning he believed the country could not remain both free and slave, but had to become one or the other. He also argued that while he did not believe blacks and whites to be social or cultural equals, they were nonetheless people and their basic, natural rights should be recognized. Douglas eventually won the Senate seat, but the debates made Lincoln a nationally famous figure. -Recall that John Brown infamously murdered a pro-slavery family in Kansas, which instilled fear throughout the South, but in the North many regarded him as a hero. After the Pottawattamie Creek Massacre, Brown went into hiding to plan his “crusade” against slavery. Brown’s plan was to encourage a popular slave rebellion throughout the South. His plan was to take over a federal armory, where various weapons and ammunition were kept, arm local slaves, and hoped that his actions would inspire a wider rebellion. In October of 1859, Brown put his plan into action. He and his followers raided the federal armory at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia. Once in control he sent several men to spread the word to local slaves to rise up in rebellion, and to come join him at Harper’s Ferry. But his call for rebellion went largely unanswered. US Army soldiers, led by an officer named Colonel Robert E. Lee, were sent to capture or kill Brown. After a brief skirmish, Brown and his men were defeated, and Brown surrendered. He was tried, found guilty of treason and insurrection, and hanged. Reaction to the raid and Brown’s death differed in the North and South. In the North, Brown was regarded by some as a hero and as a martyr, or someone who dies for a righteous cause. In the South, Brown was condemned. Many Southerners believed that future slave rebellions were inevitable, and the only possible way to preserve their way of life and rights was secession. -In the election of 1860, the debate over slavery was the primary and, in some people’s view, the only issue. The Democratic Party, now divided between its Northern and The Election of 1860 and Southern factions, could not agree on a single candidate. The Northern Democrats nominated Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas as their candidate. Southern Democrats Secession nominated their own candidate, John C. Breckenridge. The Constitutional Union Party, a party dedicated to preserving the Union regardless of slavery, nominated John Bell as their candidate. And the Republican Party nominated rising political star Abraham Lincoln, who became well-known after the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. The Democratic Party knew that by dividing their votes between northern and southern factions, and the existence of a third party and candidate, meant that Douglas, Breckenridge, or Bell had little chance of winning the election outright. However, they hoped to prevent Lincoln from winning the necessary electoral votes, and the election would be decided in the House of Representatives, where Lincoln could potentially lose. In the end, though, Lincoln won the required electoral votes and was elected President. -There was outrage and immediate calls for secession in the South. Despite Lincoln’s campaign promise of only wanting to halt the spread of slavery, but not abolish it altogether, most Southerners believed Lincoln’s election meant the end of their way of life. -The main question for many was whether there was a legal way for states to secede. In the South, many claimed that the ratification of the Constitution was a voluntary process achieved through special state conventions, and a similar process could be used to exit the Union. In keeping with this idea, soon after the election, special conventions were called in Southern states to consider secession. South Carolina was the first to do so. -Many disagreed with the notion that a state could voluntarily leave the Union, including Lincoln. Some made last ditch attempts at avoiding secession, including Kentucky Senator John J. Crittendon, who proposed Constitutional amendments guaranteeing slavery once and for all. He proposed extending the original MO Compromise line all the way to the Pacific, and guaranteeing federal tax money would be used to compensate slave owners for escaped slaves. Most, including Lincoln, rejected this idea, saying the country had been held hostage by pro-slavery forces long enough. -South Carolina became the first state to secede in December of 1860, and soon others followed. In February of 1861, the states of the “deep south”, those along the Gulf Coast, also seceded. Not everyone in the South was in favor of secession, including Texas governor Sam Houston. He warned that the North would not simply let the South secede, and that if war came, the Union would win. Houston was removed from office. Delegates from the seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama on February 4, 1861, where they voted to form the Confederate States of America, and chose Jefferson Davis as the CSA’s President. -In the South, Confederate officials began ordering the seizure of any Union assets, especially military-related facilities such as armories, ports, The Civil War Begins and forts. One such installation, Fort Sumter, guarded the entrance to the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The government of South Carolina ordered the Union troops to surrender the fort and leave. Major Robert Anderson, commander of the fort, refused to do so. Confederate General Pierre Beauregard was ordered to begin bombarding the Fort. Ironically, Anderson was Beauregard’s artillery instructor at the US Military Academy at West Point, and they knew each other well. On April 12, 1861, Beauregard opened fire, and the Civil War began. For almost three days, the Union soldiers withstood the bombardment, but as they ran out of supplies, Anderson realized it was hopeless and surrendered, but without taking a single casualty. -The reaction to the attack on Fort Sumter was greeted with anger in the North. Lincoln stated that the Southern states were in rebellion (in other words, he did not recognize the legitimacy of the Confederate government), and called for 75,000 volunteers from the various states. At the time, the US Army was still relatively small, and many of its best officers had left to fight for the Confederacy. Still, Lincoln felt these soldiers would be adequate to put down the rebellion in a matter of months. As a result, most of them signed up for three month enlistments. -Recall that not every Southern slave state seceded upon Lincoln’s election. Many states, especially in the “Upper” South and the so-called “Border States” had not yet decided upon secession, believing the matter could be resolved peacefully. However, Lincoln’s call for 75,000 troops sent the message to some, at least, that a peaceful resolution was not possible and Lincoln meant to make war on the South. At this point North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia all joined the Confederacy. Colonel Robert E. Lee, now famous for his capture of John Brown, was offered leadership of the entire Union army by Lincoln. Lee politely declined, saying that while he loved the United States, he loved his home state of Virginia more, and he could not make war on his homeland. Later, Lee would become the Confederacy’s most beloved and successful military leader. In general, many former US Army officers (and West Point classmates) chose to leave the Union and fight for the Confederacy. -In the “Border States” of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, reaction to secession was divided. While slavery was legal in these states, there was not enough to support secession and a great deal of Union support. Lincoln also quickly moved troops into these border states to prevent rebellion there. In 1863, those northern areas of Virginia that were still largely pro-Union formed the new state of West Virginia. Comparing the North and South Point of Comparison Who Had the Advantage? Advantage: North Population With its much larger population, the North can field larger armies and more easily replace killed, wounded, or captured soldiers. Additionally, immigration from Europe throughout the war would provide large numbers of foreign born soldiers. Advantage: North Infrastructure The North had the majority of the nation’s largest ports and shipyards, allowing it to better utilize its Navy. More railroads, allowing for the faster transport of troops, supplies, and other war related materials. Advantage: North Industry The North had far more industry and factories that could produce weapons, uniforms, supplies, etc. for the war effort. The South, being largely agricultural, was forced to rely on captured materials and what it managed to import from foreign countries. The Union Navy’s blockade on Southern ports would make this difficult as well. Advantage: North Finances The North was able to raise more money to fight the war and actually saw economic growth thanks to the demand for war-related industrial goods. The South’s economy would collapse during the war as much of its means of production were destroyed by Union armies and its resources dwindled. The South would also experience massive inflation as Southern currency lost its value and the price of goods skyrockets due to scarcity of basic necessities. Advantage: South Martial (Military) Skill At the outset of the war, most of the best officers and soldiers came from the South, where men learned to fight, hunt, shoot, etc. at an early age,. Many Southern soldiers were already part of local militias when the War broke out., and military life was somewhat ingrained in Southern culture as they were fiercely independent. However, the North would slowly improve its fighting ability throughout the war as its soldiers gained experience, and the South would lose many of its best leaders in battle. In the end, the South’s superior leadership would not be enough to make up for its other deficiencies. The Strategies of the North and South North (The Anaconda Plan) South 1) Capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, 1) Since the South was outnumbered and fighting Virginia. Capturing the enemy capital would be a on their home soil, fight a defensive war in order huge blow to Southern morale. to minimize losses. Choose the time and place where battles took place. Let the enemy come to them. Invade the North when the opportunity presents itself. 2) Blockade the Southern coast and ports to 2) Wear down the North’s will to fight. The prevent the South from importing war materials South didn’t need to “win”; rather, it just needed or exporting goods such as cotton to raise money to hold out long enough until the war became too to finance the war. costly for the North to bear. 3) Take control of the Mississippi River in order to 3) Win foreign allies through “cotton diplomacy”. cut the Confederacy in two and deprive it of a The South hoped it could gain Britain as a major transportation route potential ally because of British dependence upon Southern cotton. In general, slowly “strangle” the South to death. Destroy its means to wage war in general. Later, engage in “Total War”, or the wholesale destruction of anything that could help the Southern war effort, and reduce the South’s will to fight (morale). -In the early days of the war, both sides were ill-prepared in terms of experience, leadership, and training. Many believed the war would be over The War in the East quickly and were unprepared for the long years of brutal warfare and hardship that lay ahead. -When it was learned that the Confederate Congress would meet in Richmond, VA in July 1861, Lincoln ordered General Irvin McDowell to lead 35,000 soldiers to capture the Confederate capital, which was not far from Washington, DC. Soldiers on both sides were poorly trained and most had never been in any type of combat or battle. The two armies met near a small creek known as Bull Run near the town of Manassas Junction. (Battles were often identified by nearby towns or geographical features). To illustrate the “adventurous” nature of the early war, spectators came by the hundreds to watch the battle as if it were a spectacle or sporting event. -The Battle of Bull Run, the first major land battle of the Civil War, was somewhat of a debacle. With poorly trained soldiers being led by inexperienced officers, the battle was confusing for both sides. At first, it appeared that the better equipped and larger force of Union soldiers would win the battle. But famously, as the left side of the Confederate line was about to retreat in panic, a relatively unknown Southern officer named Thomas Jackson sat calmly upon his horse, urging his men to fight on as the battle raged around him. Someone reportedly yelled “Look, there’s Jackson, standing like a stone wall!” The nickname took and he was forever known as “Stonewall” Jackson. Jackson would become one of the South’s most successful and famous generals until his death in 1863. In the end, after a Confederate counter-attack, it was the Union troops who ended up retreating in chaos back down the road towards the capital; it could have spelled destruction for the Union if the Confederate army had decided to pursue them or march on Washington itself. Ultimately, the battle showed both sides it would not be the short adventure everyone hoped for, but would likely be a long, bloody conflict. -McDowell’s failure at Bull Run highlighted a problem for the Union during the war: a lack of experienced officers to lead the Union armies. Lincoln would replace McDowell with respected Union officer and West Point graduate, George McClellan. McClellan thought little of Lincoln, as many did, and felt he knew best how to train and utilize the army. McClellan spent months training the Army of the Potomac, as the primary Union force in the East was known. Despite its size, training, and ability, McClellan was reluctant to fight. Despite Lincoln’s urging for him to attack Richmond, McClellan repeatedly said he needed more time, believing he knew better than the President. This only gave the Confederates more time to prepare. -Finally, Lincoln ordered McClellan to take his army and attack Richmond in April of 1862. Rather than attack Richmond head on, McClellan took his The War in the East army down the Potomac River, and then landed at the tip of the Yorktown Peninsula intending to attack Richmond from the south. But again, McClellan delayed his assault, believing himself outnumbered. This gave the Confederates more time to prepare their defenses, so that when McClellan does finally attack, the fighting would be even more deadly. -By this time, the Confederate Army in the East, known as the Army of Northern Virginia, was led by General Robert E. Lee. Lee was able to push McClellan’s army back down the Yorktown peninsula in a series of “running” battles called the Seven Days’ Battles. Tens of thousands of troops on both sides were killed or wounded in less than a week. While McClellan was still fighting on the Peninsula, Lincoln ordered another force under General John Pope to attack Richmond from the east. This force was met at Bull Run, the site of the first battle of the war. Lee and his second-in-command, General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, nearly surrounded and destroyed Pope’s army, leading to the Union defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862. Considering how poorly the war was going for the Union, it appeared as if the Confederacy might actually win the war. -After his success defending Richmond, and with Union armies in retreat, Lee decides to invade the North in hopes of forcing the Union to sue for peace, or at least to draw the Union soldiers out of Virginia. In September of 1862, Lee invaded Maryland with over 50,000 men. Unluckily for Lee, however, a copy of his invasion plan was mistakenly lost and later discovered by Union soldiers and allowed McClellan to counter Lee’s invasion strategy. Luckily for Lee, McClellan was a cautious general who was reluctant to act on the intelligence information, thinking it might be false or enemy subterfuge. Otherwise, McClellan could have used the information to attack and destroy Lee’s army, potentially ending the war. In any case, the two armies met at the decisive Battle of Antietam, which ended as a strategic victory for the Union. However, the single-day battle would become infamous as the single bloodiest day in American military history, with nearly 26,000 killed or wounded on both sides. Lee retreated back towards Virginia, and McClellan, being the ever-cautious general, refused to pursue him, much to Lincoln’s disappointment. After this failure to pursue Lee, Lincoln replaced McClellan. This illustrates one of the Union’s most pressing issues in the first two years of the war: Lincoln’s inability to find a commanding general that took the initiative and was willing to do what was necessary to end the war. -Although the victory at Antietam came at a great cost, it was a victory nonetheless. Lincoln had been waiting for just such a victory to introduce the Problems on the Home Front Emancipation Proclamation, which would free the slaves in states “currently in rebellion” against the Union. In other words, in the Union border states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, slavery would remain legal. He chose to do this because he was an abolitionist and saw the war as an opportunity to end slavery in the United States, and also to hurt the South politically and economically in their war effort. At the same time he did not want to anger those slave states that remained loyal to the Union. Lincoln planned to introduce a Constitutional amendment abolishing slavery completely after the war ended. The Proclamation went into effect on January 1, 1863. -News of the Proclamation was met with mixed reaction in the North. Many people felt that the war was being fought for abolition now, something that not all supported for various reasons, and some took their anger out on free blacks. When the Union instituted a draft, there were violent and deadly in New York City in which blacks were targeted. And as the war dragged on with little end in sight, social tensions were at an all time high. Many Americans also believed the war was a class struggle. For instance, a man could pay another to take his place if drafted. For this, and other reasons, the war became known as a “rich man’s war, but a poor man’s fight.” And the Union armies only had one real victory to show for their efforts. Others criticized the profits industrialists were reaping from the war. -A number of generals were placed in command of the Army of the Potomac, including General Joseph Hooker, who was soundly defeated by Lee at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December of 1862. -Lincoln replaced Hooker with General Ambrose Burnside, who was defeated in perhaps Lee’s greatest victory, the Battle of Chancellorsville, in which Lee split his forces and sent Stonewall Jackson around the Union flank under the cover of darkness, who then launched a successful surprise attack while Lee attacked from the opposite direction. -After these defeats, support for the war in the North was at an all time low. Lee sensed an opportunity and made the decision to once again launch an invasion of the North. It would draw the Union army out of Virginia and into the open for one final battle to decide the fate of the war. Lee split his army into three parts, using mountains and ridges to screen, or hide, his army’s movements. The Union army, now under the command of General George Meade, followed, unsure of where Lee’s army was or where it was going. By chance, Confederate soldiers on a foraging mission encountered Union cavalry soldiers near a small town called Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. -The Union and Confederate armies almost met by chance when a Confederate detachment went to search the town of Gettysburg for supplies including Gettysburg, Days 1 & 2 shoes. Union cavalry under the command of Brigadier General John Buford sent word that he believed he found Lee’s army and the Union army began marching to Gettysburg to reinforce him. Buford set up a line of defense to the northwest of the town in order to block the Confederate advance until Union soldiers could arrive. The Battle of Gettysburg occurred almost by accident, and it would ultimately be the deciding battle of the war. It lasted over three days and in terms of total casualties was the bloodiest battle of the war and all of American history. Day 1: Buford establishes a defensive line northwest of the town with dismounted cavalry, and attempts to hold off Confederate forces until reinforcements arrive. He successfully does so, but his cavalry division is essentially destroyed in the process. By this time both Meade and Lee commit their entire armies to the battle. By the end of the day Union reinforcements arrive and prevent the Confederates from taking the hills and ridges just to the South of the town. The Union establishes a ring of defenses, the center of which is located on Cemetery Ridge. Day 2: Lee orders simultaneous attacks on the Union flanks, or the end of the Union army’s lines. Despite repeated attacks throughout the day, the Union lines hold and both sides suffer heavy casualties. The fiercest fighting occurred on the left flank, at the southern end of the line, where Union troops defended a hill known as Little Round Top. The 20th Maine Regiment, under the command of Colonel Joshua Chamberlain, a college professor, defended the far left or southern flank of the Union army. Chamberlain was ordered by his superiors to hold the hill at all costs, and that he could not surrender or retreat. If he did, the Confederate forces would outflank the Union army and surround it, which would result in a disastrous defeat. Confederate forces under the command of Texan General John Bell Hood, who reportedly carried out the attacks under protest due to the strength of the Union positions, attacked again and again throughout the day, but still could not take Little Round Top. The 20th Maine was exhausted, nearly out of ammunition, and couldn’t hold out much longer, so Chamberlain ordered his men to fix bayonets and charge down the hill, completely catching the Confederates by surprise. For his actions and bravery, Chamberlain was awarded the nation’s highest military honor, the Congressional Medal of Honor. If not for Chamberlain’s bayonet charge and defense of Little Round Top, it may have been possible for the Union army to be outflanked and destroyed, allowing Lee to march on Washington, DC to force a surrender and guarantee Southern independence. Despite the day’s losses, however, Lee felt confident he would win on the third and final day. Day 3: Despite heavy losses, Lee believed victory was still possible. He also believed that retreating at this point would be disastrous for his army’s morale Gettysburg, Day 3 after nearly achieving victory on the second day. Lee reasoned that the Union army would reinforce its battered flanks, leaving the Union center weak, and he ordered his second-in-command, General James Longstreet, to organize an assault against the Union center that would become known as Pickett’s Charge. -Virginian General George Pickett was ordered to lead the assault. Lee felt that Pickett’s Virginians would be well-rested as they had not yet taken part in the battle. Longstreet had reservations about the attack, in that it would require the Confederate troops to march over a mile of open ground under constant artillery fire, against the fortified positions of the Union army situated on high ground on Cemetery Ridge. Lee refused to call off the assault, confident of victory despite Longstreet’s worries. Pickett led his division and parts of two others, totaling over 9,000 men, against the Union center, which was under the command of General Winfield Hancock, considered one of the best generals in the Union army. -The assault was a complete failure. Many of the Confederates were killed or wounded by artillery fire long before they reached the Union lines. Those that did were met with intense fire from the Union soldiers, who had fortified themselves behind a low stone wall. Most of the Confederate generals leading the assault were killed in the attack, and Pickett’s division was effectively destroyed. When Lee found Pickett on the battlefield and told him to tend to his division, Pickett famously replied, “General Lee, I have no division.” -After the failed charge, Lee was forced to finally accept defeat and ordered a retreat. He publicly admitted to his troops that the defeat was entirely his fault, but his soldiers refused to allow Lee to take the blame, and in fact wanted to reform and charge again. Still, Lee knew this was impossible and he ordered his army to retreat from Gettysburg. -General George Meade had an opportunity to destroy Lee’s army and perhaps end the war as Lee retreated. Like George McClellan before him, Meade was a cautious general for whom victory was enough, and he let Lee escape, much to the anger of President Lincoln. Once again, a Union general had an opportunity to deal a major blow to the Confederacy but failed to do so. This would allow Lee and his army to extend the war for nearly two more years. -President Lincoln would visit the battlefield later that year and deliver one of the most famous speeches in American history, the Gettysburg Address. In it, he reminded Americans of the principles upon which the nation was founded, that the war was about preserving the Union, but also establishing a new society based on freedom and equality, and he urged that the lives lost in the battle and the war not be in vain. -In the West, the primary goal of the campaigns there was to first secure the Upper South, including the state of Tennessee, and then move towards the The War in the West ultimate goal of taking control of the Mississippi River and important city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. The operation was placed under the command of general Ulysses S. Grant, a West Point graduate and Mexican War veteran who had become an alcoholic and failed businessman in Ohio. When the war began he raised a regiment and quickly showed success as a military leader. In November of 1861, he captured two important forts: Fort Henry, giving the Union control of the Tennessee River, and Fort Donelson, which allowed the Union to control the Cumberland River. Lincoln placed Grant in charge of operations in the West and tasked him with capturing Vicksburg. -In April of 1862, Grant clashed with Confederate forces under Albert Sidney Johnson, a Texan, at the Battle of Shiloh, a horrific affair in which thousands of soldiers on both sides were killed or wounded. Johnston launched a surprise attack on Grant as he waited for reinforcements from another Union force. Grant managed to hold off the Confederate attacks until reinforcements arrived the next day, at which time he launched a counter- attack, forcing the Confederates to retreat. Nearly 24,000 men were killed or wounded, and it was the bloodiest battle of the war thus far. Grant was criticized by the press for alleged drunkenness and the high casualties, but Lincoln reportedly said “I cannot spare this man; he fights.” -Grant now moved to take Vicksburg on the Mississippi River. Vicksburg sat upon high bluffs overlooking the Mississippi, and could fire upon any vessels up or down river for miles, and thus it needed to be taken if the Union wanted control of the Mississippi River. Grant fought a series of successful battles as he and other Union commanders eliminated opposition in the area. After unsuccessfully attacking the city’s defenses, he placed Vicksburg under siege. Grant ordered daily bombardments of the city in order to wear down the morale of the town, but the Confederate garrison refused to surrender. Soon there was widespread starvation, disease, and death. After seven weeks under siege ,Vicksburg’s commander surrendered on July 3, 1863, and the Union took control of the Mississippi. The Confederacy was dealt two massive blows on the same day: the loss at Vicksburg in the West and the loss at Gettysburg in the East. -Grant would go on to further success leading Union forces in the West as the Union slowly took control there, gradually wearing down the South’s ability to fight, and mainly limiting the remainder of the fighting to the East. But Lincoln, who had looked for so long for a leader that could finally bring victory, finally found one in Grant, promoting him to full command of all Union armies in March of 1864. -After defeat at Gettysburg and losing control of the Mississippi River after the loss at Vicksburg, the South’s chances of winning the war were slim. But The End of the War Lee refused to give up, partly due to a sense of duty and honor, and partly because he knew the longer he could extend the war, the more favorable of an outcome the South could negotiate once the war was over. -In 1864, Abraham Lincoln appointed Ulysses S. Grant as the general-in-chief of all Union armies, and Grant quickly took charge, making the capture of the Confederate capital of Richmond his primary goal. This would force Lee to defend the city, pinning Lee’s army down and ending any hopes of another Confederate invasion of the North. In the meantime, he sent armies to invade the South on multiple fronts to keep Southern forces divided and thus unable to assist Lee in Virginia. -Grant believed in the concept of total war, or the concept of making war not only against an enemy’s armies, but its economy, resources, infrastructure, and most importantly, its morale and will to fight. He ordered his generals to live off the land, and to destroy what they couldn’t take with them. Union armies destroyed railroads, bridges, farms, and plantations. In Georgia, General William Tecumseh Sherman burned Atlanta to the ground and led his army through the state in his (in)famous March to the Sea, in which he left a fifty mile wide path of destruction from Atlanta to the port city of Savannah, destroying over 20% of Georgia’s farmland in the process. -Grant quickly developed a reputation among his soldiers as a tough, hard fighting man who would not accept anything but total victory In his attempts to capture Richmond, Grant fought a series of bloody battles with Lee in which both sides suffered terrible casualties. In the past, Union generals retreated in the face of such adversity, but Grant fought on no matter the cost. He was willing to sacrifice lives in order to bring the war to a conclusion. However, Lee fought on as well, refusing to surrender and blocking Grant’s attempts to capture Richmond. Grant decided to attack the town of Petersburg, which was a vital part of Lee’s supply lines as a major rail junction. This resulted in the Siege of Petersburg, in which both sides engaged in trench warfare for nine months and fought numerous battles resulting in terrible casualties for both sides. In the end the siege resulted in Lee being completely cut off from resupply or reinforcement. Running out of men and supplies, Lee abandoned Richmond and retreated, but was eventually surrounded by Union forces. Realizing that further resistance was futile, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the war. -Historians often refer to the Civil War one of the first truly modern wars, in which early forms of technology and warfare that are still in use today were first Technology of the Civil War introduced. -The Civil War was one of the first industrial wars, or a war where weapons, ammunition, vehicles, and supplies were largely produced in factories and then rapidly deployed to soldiers in the field. The Union had a massive advantage in industrial capacity and infrastructure compared to the Confederacy. The North could provide anything their soldiers might need, whereas the South had to rely on their own meager industrial capacity, limited supplies from abroad, or what they captured. -The Civil War is one of the earliest examples of the widespread use of mechanized warfare, primarily through the use of the steam driven trains and ships. An area where the North had a major advantage, the use of railroads allowed the Union to rapidly deploy armies, reinforcements, and supplies over long distances. The South had far fewer railroads, and as the war went on, the Union destroyed most of those. -New forms of weaponry were introduced. Repeating rifles, weapons that hold ammunition internally and is reloaded through a lever-action cocking system, were used for the first time in warfare, and semi-automatic pistols known as revolvers saw wider use. The Gatling Gun, an early type of hand crank machine-gun, was used for the first time. Longer range, more accurate artillery was introduced. Infantry soldiers were armed with accurate rifled muskets, made even more so by new, more aerodynamic bullet designs. Sadly, these innovations also equated to more deaths. -At sea and on rivers, steam power allowed ships to travel faster and more reliably than wind power The North deployed hundreds of steam driven ships to blockade the Southern coast and ports and help capture targets on rivers. The Civil War also saw the first use of ironclads, or ships with metal hulls. The first battle between two metal hulled ships took place at Hampton Roads, Virginia between the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia. Neither could significantly damage the other, resulting in a draw, but it proved the effectiveness of metal armor and changed naval warfare forever. One of the first submarines ever used in warfare, the Confederate vessel CSS Hunley, reportedly sank a Union blockade ship, but sank itself in the process. -The Civil War was one of the first wars in which aircraft of any type were used. Observation balloons allowed armies to see enemy movements and positions over longer distances. -Thanks to innovations like the telegraph, communication was now faster than ever before. Orders reached armies faster. Information reached the public faster as well, and this changed the way in which the war reported by the press. Photography changed the way war was seen by the average citizen. For the first time, civilians were introduced to the horrors of the battlefield through actual pictures. -Industrialization, combined with advancements in technology, made warfare deadlier than ever. Countries on other continents observed the American Civil War with grim interest. Soon states like Great Britain, France, Germany, and Japan would adopt similar technology and tactics in warfare, and would be put to use in various late 19th and early 20th century conflicts which ultimately led to World Wars I & II. -The Civil War was a watershed moment in American history, or one of major importance that brought about massive changes. Reconstruction -It answered the question, once and for all in many people’s minds, about whether or not a state could leave the Union. It also reasserted the power of the federal government over the states. -As the war approached its end, President Lincoln began preparing to introduce the Reconstruction Amendments to the Constitution. The 13th Amendment would officially end slavery in America once and for all. Remember that the Emancipation Proclamation only freed slaves in those states in rebellion, but the 13th Amendment would ban slavery everywhere in America for all time. The 14th Amendment would guarantee equal protection and rights for all citizens, including blacks. The 15th Amendment guaranteed voting rights for all citizens (male citizens at the time). -Sadly, Lincoln was assassinated soon after the fighting ended in April of 1865. A Southern sympathizer and actor named John Wilkes Booth killed Lincoln as he watched a play at Ford’s Theater in Washington, DC. Vice-President Andrew Johnson took over the Presidency after Lincoln’s death. -Johnson’s primary responsibility was to oversee the initial stages of Reconstruction, Lincoln’s plan to help reunite and rebuild the country after the war ended, which lasted from 1865-1877. Lincoln did not want to punish the South, as he felt they had suffered enough. The Southern economy and infrastructure were nearly destroyed and had to be rebuilt. Southerners needed money to rebuild farms and plantations, as well as make a shift to new forms of business and industry. All Confederate soldiers and politicians, rather than being tried for treason, were allowed to take oaths of allegiance to the United States and were forgiven for their “crimes.” Lincoln urged the American people to welcome Southerners back into the Union as fellow citizens, and to put the violence and war behind them. -Some people hoped to take advantage of the situation in various ways. Unscrupulous businessmen known as carpetbaggers travelled to the South to sell goods and supplies to Southerners who were trying to rebuild. These men sold goods at highly inflated prices, taking advantage of limited supply and high demand for basic goods like construction materials. -Free blacks were now given the right to vote, own land and businesses, and other basic rights, but many Southerners wished to prevent this. For instance, former Confederate officers created the Ku Klux Klan, a group of Confederate war veterans who tried to intimidate blacks to prevent them from voting and taking advantage of these new opportunities in politics and business. They dressed in white robes and hoods, claiming to be the spirits of dead Confederate soldiers. Southern states would begin passing discriminatory Jim Crow laws, or laws similar to ante-bellum slave codes. These state laws were intended to limit the rights of blacks at the state and local level. Many of these laws would exist well into the 20th century until the Supreme Court ruled that states must respect and enforce the Bill of Rights. -Reconstruction would last for over a decade and officially end in 1877 when the last of the Southern states would complete the requirements for full admission back into the Union. Yet, the effects of the war would last for years, and still does to this day.