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CANADA National Research Council Conseil national de recherches I A.ssociate Committee on Geodesy and Geophysics Comite associe de geodesie et de geophysique Subcommittee on Hydrology Sous-comite t:le l'hydrologie I I

I ~ I. I l FLUVIAL PROCESSES I AND SED-;MENTATION I l J

Prepared and published for the Subcommittee on Hydrology by the Inland Waters Directorate Department of the Environment

PROCEEDINGS OF HYDROLOGY SYMPOSIUM HELD AT I UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA, EDMONTON MAY 8 AND 9, 1973 HARZA-EBASCO Susitna Joint Venture Document Number Susitna Hydroelectric Project Supplemental Report FERC Letter of 4/12/8i f lease Returri To Page -31_ Item _5 I ~ft'f'Htu1el1T f'ntirrnnl I ~"r~~2~_J'2e~~£L2l~L~1•••~·" ,- J. - I , II ~I I I [I t I I [,I II t I . il ~ ,:1 I lrl J r ··;' . Ui U &.,

:£1 PHYSICAL CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN INTERFERfNCE rOTH RIVERS "'.,. A. K' err1

I SYNOPSIS The age of awareness of the environment has ar':ived. The PI"'eger physical cc,ls6quences upon the envirorunent of human interference Xl. uences with rivers forms t,e overall framework of the pape:.~. This frame­ s. On y a ues tals que, work is established by dealing first with overall concepts and with specific topics SUdl as flood flows and volumes ~ minimum llirl volumes u relation flows and volumes, water quality, and water uses .r~lated to the IJ1 environment. The balance of the paper deals with fluvial processes and sedimentation. Stress is placed on local, upstr\~am and do\·m­ ides proces- stream effects of water diversions into and out of the river "'Irm , ,inm hydro,:" system, and of technical works for specific purposes, such as dams, ,ticuIH~:re est dikes and river training systems.

sl, C, ertaine 1 .que les Experience gained in Canada and in other parts of the world is described, and comments are made concerning modifications re­ quired when applying experience gained elsewhere to Canadian projects.

[ I Finally, the paper discusses the direction in which ft~ture research and basic data collection in Canada should proceed in order to improve quantitative predictions of the consequences of I interfering with natural river systems. I INTRODUCTION Human interference with rivers has becom;~ Widespread in Canada and elsewhere. Hydro, navigation and flood control works are becoming more n:'~A~~us, more interconnected and more multi­ DD purpose in nature, and the use of streams and water bodies fal' recreation, fish, Wildlife, pollution control ~ndwater supply are r now part of the world around us and are of ever-increasing I importance. The first stage of human interference involves man-made changes to the land surfaces of the drainage basins, which in turn affect sedimentation, pollution and overland flc.,W. The next I level of intervention involves the movement of human activities on­ ~B to floodplains. Interference with rivers proper begins with works ISenior Studies Engineer, Shawinigan Engineering Company Limited, I I Montreal, Canada.

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Pltection Rh er' in Manitoba, Lake Diefenbaker on the South Saskatchewan Rive:r }. ·ger scale in Saskatchewan, Brazeau and Bighorn in the North Saskatchewan irs which River basin in Alberta, the Bennett Dam on the Peace River, and tream reaches major reservoirs on the Columbia River in ihi:tish Columbia. vllume and erl}rence in­ In the U.S., navigation is more extensively developed than in her, referred Canada, irrigation is more widespread, and water supply and pol­ lution control pressures are more intense. In 1970, there were in the U.S. a total of 1,562 large reservoirs and lakes with a usable SS'hYSiCal storage of 359,360, 000 acre-·feet and a surface area of 14,831, 000 ut considerips acres, not including over 3,000 smaller reservoirs with an average il..'. ra.nSfer ~ capacity of 1,000 acre-feet (Wolman, 1970). By the late 1950's ; n:lllg ,to there were already 37 major hydro plants operating in the Tennes­ fU' ure in­ see Valley area~ an early example of a truly integrated r1.ver models, basin development scheme. Approximately 22 million Reople and a L t stre$sed. major share of the industry of the U.S. depend on the water re­ SOUTces of the DelawaI'e River, making it the first among American I ydraulic works rivers in the number of people served and the economic importance of their activities. Integrated development plans in the Ohio River basin, in the Missouri River basin, in California and in Texas are further examples of the composite character of hydraUlic \

Political and Social

Interference with rivers results in definite consequences to political and social structlJ-res. Such consequences begin long be­ fore construction, and are a result of pressures exerted for and against water resources d.evelopment schemes, and the assigning of responsibilities for the study, design, construction and operation of the projects to specific organizations. Biswas and Durie (1971) argue that decisions to develop water resources have been primarily made on the basis of engineering and economic feasibilities, but . that the success or failure of any resource development should be judged by its impact on people as well as by its techno-economic excellence. Dollar values frequent1y tend to dominate economic analyses, and many technological designs are based on the explicit or implicit assumption that they are closed systems. These con­ siderations must be taken into account by decision-makers.

fl.the gener­ The framework for comprehensive water reSOurces planning in g on, pol... Canada was set up by the Canada Water Act which was passed by the es are playing Gover11IIlent of Canada in 1970 (Forbes and HodgeS J 1971). This eWE.• recent attempts to solve the problem of divided respons1.bilities between eJJl:away, Federal and Provincial governIIlents by stressing consultation and es·and cooperation. y, sites on tht; glt.a.tio.n.. works In the U. S. ,comprehensive planning was stat"ted by means of 1, •• er Nelson an assessment of ".,ater and related land resources i.n accordance

667 with the Water Resources Planning Act (U.S. Water Resources Council, 1972).

In the European part of the Soviet Union, 80% of the popu­ lation and industrial production are situated in the southern and central regions which have only 40% of the water resources, and ever-increasing water deficiency in these regions is hindering the development of industry, agriculture and cOnnTIunities (Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1967b). Plans are being prepared for the di-­ version of northern rivers southward here, as well as in Siberia. While the consequences to the south are highly beneficial, th,ey are largely detrimental to the donor regions in the north.

In the case of the recently constructed High Aswan Dam on the Nile River in Egypt, the hydropower and irrigation benefits are enormous, but serious problems have developed downstream. Besides adverse effects on fish, salinity and fertility, an enormous in­ crease in disease due to parasites has reSUlted. Some secondary adverse effects must be expected in gigantic projects of this type, but they can often be avoided by foresight and shOUld be rapidly rectified when they occur unexpectedly. Dam Failures

Although dam failures are not unc0~on, running in the order of one per year per 1,000 dams, reports and research on th:'ffi are sparse, in spite of the numerous lessons to be learned. Biswas and Chatterjee (1971) point out that much remains to be learned of the effects of the complex new environments created by large dams and reservoirs.... Reference is made to the burden on the earth t S crust and the increased danger of earthquakes, to the probabi- listic nature of floods, to the true behavior of dams versus the assumed structural behavior and to the need for cuntinuous super... vision and maintenance of old dams.

Concern over the environment has even resulted in strong pressUre to destroy a dam (Engineering News Record, 1972). The case in question is the Rodman Dam on the Cross--Florida Barge Canal in the U.S. Construction of this project was recently stopped by President Nixon for enVironmental reasons, when some $50 million had already been spent. Another 21 projects of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers are facing similar battles. Flood Control

One of the pillars of human society has always been rational exploitation of water resources. Nowhere is this more evident, and yet more taken fo:r: granted, than in the case of flood cr·ntrol works. An example of well-planned flood control facilities is the Columbia River basin. The CoItuubia Treat)" between Canada and the

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elrces U.S. (1964) provided for the construction of three large storage projects in Canada and the Libby Project in the u.s. wi~h a total combined usable storage of more than 20 million acre-feet. By of the popu­ 1973, there will be sufficient reservoir stor"'!..ge to control floods eljmthern and of historical magnitude on tb~ main Columbia River and to reduce

soll}ces j and significantly the Standard Project Flood (Nelson and Rockwood, s hindering the 1971). $Jtc~~:m~i~f Minimum Flows a~l{n Siberia. ficial, they Human interference with rivers is often first manifested by a J tho change in minimum flows. The first dam on a stream generally in­ creases the minimum flow Thus the Brazeau Reservoir in the No~:th s.] ' Dam on the Saskatchewan River basin in Canada significantly increased the benefits are magnitudes of low flows at Edmonton, even though its main purpose trl}m. Be:ides was the generation of hydropower. On the other hand, the illinimum elU>rmous ~n- flow downstream from Lake Diefenbaker and at Saskatoon on the orne secondary South Saskatchewan Rive:L' in Canada was set at only 1,500 cfs, and water intakes, ferries, bridges and pollution control facilities [ dSI~u~i~c had to adjust to this c:ondition (Saskatchewan Water Resources Commission, 1963; Kerr, 1972a). It was found that environmental prublems along the South Saskatchewan River at Saskatoon could be solved bette:I;' by individual measures directe(l, at each problem, n I ratiler than by higher flow releases for short periods of time L g J.' the' o,de', (Saskatchewan Water Resources Commission, 1968), h on them are rnel Biswas Evaluations of changes in minimum flows should be based on an L oIJ learned of inventory of natural minimum flows (V1adimirov, 1969; State by large dams Hydrology Institute, 197J:). tl' earth's • e ' rrobabi- Water Levels " . s " ersus the tinuous super- Interference with rivers may change water levels in streams, lakes, swamps and reservoirs. A vivid example is provided by the opposing interests of agriculturalreclamatinn and wildlife in the i'Stt(l)lg Interior Delta of the Saskatchewan River near the Manitoba­ 1972). The Saskatchewan border. On the one hand, an a1:ea of 130,000 acres west of The Pas and to the south of the Carrot River has been ~Ie~~f~e c:onverted from a swampy haven for ducks and muskrats to rich s, when some farmland. On the other hand, in the area to the north and east a "j~ill~ serjes of dams, dikes and ditches has been created for wildlife of .!he' purposes. The question of whether this vast a,rea should bere..., ': II claimed for agriculture (Kuiper, 1960), for wildlife (Dirschl, t Goodman and Dennington, 1967), Or for both (Kerr, 1972a) remains unresolved. nb, In, rational ~or"eVident, Because Bennett Dam on the Peace River was designed without due regard to downstream effects and was operated strictly as a .,.! fl,O,od c,.,0,ntrol . ~ il!Jties is the hydro station, water level problems OIl Lake Athabasca and adjacent ~ marshes have been seVere. Water levels in these water bodies were J,a;da and the decidedly lower after the construction of the upstream dam. This

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created adver~e effects on vegetation, commercial and recreational fishing> trapping, transportation, wildfowl, big game, and other features forming part of the environment and the way of life of th Indian and Metis people in the aTea. The consequences of con- e structing dams on tJ1e network of channels joining Lake Athabasca t the Peace and Slave Rivers have been studied (Urliversity of Q Alberta, 1971; Government of Canada, 1971; Kerr, Jarmley and Others, 1972). Water levels in the Lake Athabasca area could also be Con­ trolled by means of a dam on the Slave River at the border between Alberta and the Northltest Territories. This is also one ofche richest potential hydro sites remaining in Canada, as vast quantities of water plunge roughly 100 feet through a sel'ies of concentrated rapids which are unique to the generally slow-flowing navigation route from northern Alberta to. the ATctic Ocean. In verbal and written discussion at a recent symposium (University of I Alberta, 1971), J. A. Randle notes that the hydro station would have an installed capacity of 1-1/2 million kilowatts and would produce an average of 8-1/2 billion kilowatt-hours of electrical energy per year. The reservoir created by the dam would extend back to Lake Athabasca and would prOVide positive control of the water levels of the Peace-Athabasca Delta region without major penalties in hydro benefits. P100ding would be confined within the banks of the river except for a local area in the vicinity of the rapids. Detailed topography has v<';rifiedthat there would be no appreciable flooding in Wood Buffalo National Park further up­ stream. The proj ect is begging for a bold sponsor, as is th(~ case with many" other large-scale resource and environment projects. ,The design of the scheme could best be handled within the framewo"rk of a water :resources authority responsible for the entire Mackenzie River basin. Ice Ice thicknesses and fOTces can be considerable in areas with seVere climates. Naturally formed icejams can have catastrophic results, as illustrated by the movement of the Town of Hay River in the Northwest Territories of Canada and the evacuation of variou~ communities situated on low river banks in Alaska. Ice­ jams can also cause seriou~ disruptions in the operation of hydro stations. Various man-made devices can be used to modify natural river processes in order to reduce damages and losses caused by moving ice (Kerr, 1960). In Alaska (Moor and Watson) 1971), early solutions to the icejam problem involved evacuation, aerial bombing, and hand-placed charges. These methods, while technical­ -/ lysuccessful> were expensive and dangerous and were often carried 04t after much of the damage had been inflicted. In 1966 the ice­ jam removal program was converted to an icejam prevention program. The main principle involved in thf.' latter was that if the ice

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d,.creational iJ1l1llediately upstream from a constriction is weakened it will break e ~ ,nd other up and pass through the constriction followed by ice from further o life of the ~tJstream. Shear lines on such ice sheets were induced by applying es of can... du£'t from planes, pumping river-bottom material onto the ice k:_.th.abasca to surf'?ce, and surface blasting. Field experience indicated that Sl.1t of the ice sheets above constrictions did indeed consistently break mley and up along the induced shi'ar lines and pass through the con­ strictions. The possibili.ty of damage to aquatic organisms when blasting would require careful analysis under Canadian conditions. Islbe con­ oJ,:'der between Physical Aspects of Water, Quality of the sst01' Human interference affects the quality of river water in . cries of various ways. Sediment itself is a form of pollutionjl in addition slow-flOWing. to having a direct effect on other forms of pollution (Task Com­ 0llan. In mittee on Sedimentation Research Needs Related to Water Quality, (UWversity of 1971). Relevant factors include absorption, adsorption and de­ tion would sorption; waste assimilation and the storage and release of bed sediments; the effect of bottom sediments on aquatic life; the i1.~~C~~~~:l role of sediment in eutrophication; the effect of sediment on dis­ ul extend solved oxygen; the mechanics of sediment transport~ dispersion, · trol of the deposition, and scour; and sources of sediment, 0lt major "11 . , wi thin Filmon (1967), in studying the feasible diversion of a mean L~cinity of annual flow of 70,000 cfs into Lake Winnipegosis and on to Lake ere would be Manitoba and points south, points out that the quality of water in Lake Manitoba is very poor, but concludes that the quality of the l slt~~~ up- water irthe lake is largely due to the local inflow, and that as ent the mean inflow is only some 3,000 cfs the dominant control of · dIed within water quality would by the 70,000 cfs imported into the basin. pllLbl for the While it is possible to divert flows of this magnitude through Lake Manitoba it is extremely unlikely that divet'sions of this magnitude would be contemplated.

Landine (1969) discusses the effects of interference on the nleas with level of dissolved oxygen in a river. He points out that open atastrophic water downstrealll from Lake Diefenbaker on the South Saskatchewan i River (due to th~ discharge of water through the dam) permits an . Y R.iver t'fl of important increa.se in the dissolved oxygen level in the winter, ,asKa. Ice­ and that a similar effect Occurs further downstream at a 10\'1 ion of hydro weir 'at Saskatoon. dl'~ natural · sed by A computer model for water quality prediction in a system ~ 1971) I early including interbasin water transfer, developed for the Texas Water ~~ ai:Yji·al Plan (White, Tischler and Austin, 1972), predicts space and time ~ 1 ;', echnical­ levels of dissolved solids) sUlphates and chlorides. The model .0 n carried indicated that inClusion of low-quality water from the Red River i 1966 the ice- basin would significantly increase the concentrations of chlorides, d;tl·:.• ·' 1?rogram. total dissolved solids and sulp1'ates in water delivered to the ~ , ,', ~ce High Plains of Texas, but wQuldnot affect the quality of water in II I L~ 671 -

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the Texas Coastal Canal System. Other studies in Texas (Texas 1f1 Water Development Board, 1971) deal with a set of interrelated Ri quality routing models. t t In spite of the ~ixing action of winds, there is a strong R tendency for reservoirs to stratify into three principal layers a (Liggett and Lee, 1971). A generalized computer model to. simulate~ 5 thermal energy transfer in deep reservoir~, in river channels and t canals, and in combinations of reservoirs and channels has been W developed in California (Dept. of Fish and Game, 1968).

Ladoga Lake, situated near Leningrad in the Soviet Union and the largest inland water body in Europe, has been described in a treatise by Kalesnik (1968). There is a plan to move the point at which the Neva River leaves Ladoga L.ake out into the lake arti... ficially in order to withdraw water at approximately six degrees G. instead of at freezing temperatures from near the sho1'e., This would extend the icefree period on the Neva River by 1-1/2 months improve ice conditions in the Port of Len:.ngrad, and eliminate J icejmTIs on the Neva.

Fish

Recent studies have analyzed the effect of hydraulic works on fish and the related biologic system (Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1967a; Saskatchewan-Nelson Basin Board, 1972). When a reservoir is created the species of fish in general tend to change in abundance but not in type. The initial effect is usually a high biological production, but this i5 usually follo'wed by a gradual decline to a ~table level lower than the initial level, in approxi.. mately ten to "fifteen years. While reservoirs create more space for fish, spawning habits are often temporarily disrupted and fish eggs may be covered with sediment eroded from the shores of the reservoir or brought in by streams.

INTERBASIN WATER TRANSFER

Nelson, Churchill and Seal River Basins

The Churchill River flows through Southern Indian Lake in northern Manitoba along its course to Hudson Bay. A dam at the constricted outlet of this lake and a shallow cut between the lake and the Nelson River basin are the only works required to divert a po.rtion of the flow of the Churchill River into the Nelson River (Kerr, 1967). These works are scheduled to be carried out in the immediate future.

The Sturgeon.. Weir River rises several hundred feet from the edge of the Churchill River proper and discharges into the

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1 I I .. ~as (Tex.as Interior Delta of the Saskatchewan River~ A. dam on the Churchill Iterrelated River down~tream from the outlet of Reindeer Lake would create a reservoir on the Churchill River at the same level as Reindeer Lake, permitting the regulation of Churchill River water in el·~ ~ \. a strong Reindeer Lake ror discharge down the Churchill River to the east J..J..pal layers and dm.,rn the Sturgeon-Weir River to the south. From a very early moel to simUlate stage, economic and environmental considerations indicated that

ver channels and this diversion should have been analyzed in depth j but difficulties nl~ls has been were experienced in integrating power and water resources planning. 1 18). The Seal River flows into Hudson Bay immediately north of the Slr~et Union. and Churchill River in Manitoba. Seal River water can be diverted into . .~c:ribed in a Southern Indian Lake on the Churchill River eltter by a dam on the m.'e the point at southern arm of the Seal River or a dam at the confluence of the the lake arti- northern and southern arms and connecting dikes. Such diversions have been investigated briefly by Pilmon (1967) and in detail by [ ~Il ~~l':~gr~~s Spafford (1968). A maximum mean annual flow of 8,500 cfs can be By 1-1/2 months , diverted at a cost of $50 million. While the project is of and eliminate marginal economic value today, it could well prove to be a valuable later addition to the Nelson... Churchill power development and a UB source of water to replace water diverted to the Saskatchewan River basin. ·Y~Ulic works on The Lake St. Joseph Diversion into the Winnipeg River basin S~;nces of USSR, in the eastern portion of the Nelsoll River basin was made in 1957 ~ ~ena:g~e~~rVoir and adds a mean flow of approximately 2,800 cfr to the flow of the . Winnipeg River. ,f·r ~ally a high l.-ie y a gradual In the western portion of th~~ Nelson Ri'ler basin, the ;level, in approx'i­ Province of Alberta has studied the north-to-s-Quth diversion of 6Fe~e more space rivers rising In th'e eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and ~iil!.1pted and fish the Sr.skatchewan-Nelson Basin Board (1.972) has studied further shores of the interbasin water transfers. However, a~l attra.ctive di1t~:rsion possibility involving the Use of Lesser Slave take as a holding reservoir for Peace River and other waters to combat multiylSa.r droughts on the Prairies has not been investigated in adequate detail. MIlCh of the land arounu the lake is of margi.nal economi~ value, and the penalties involved in high-wate;r damages would .~J.\ . ben~fits. '. appear to be small in comparison to reg1tlation Further downstream, water would be diverted from the Nortn $$skatchewan [ndian Lake in River basin to Lake Dieienbaker on the South Saskatche;w~n River, (~dam at the the latter reservoir serving as tho distribution center fur points ,~ 1IJltween the lake to the south and ea.st.• luired to divert a ;hj.d ~!'l.~.•• elson Ri.vel' After the passing of the Canada Water Act in 1970, one of the lr.l.Ued out in the £ir5tagreements to be signed between the Federa.l and Provincial governments in.volved theQu'Appelle Valley' in the sotltherl'X part of .I jf Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The valley is of special sigtdficance .• :!.. ~..'d.. ~·~..r~et from the because it is one of several alternatives for the diversion of .; J' ~o the water from Lake Diefenbaker in the Saskatchewan River basin to ~ , .; I r r 673 points south and east. The effects of such a diversion On the Saskatchewan River basin itself have been analyzed (Kerr" 1972a). This investigation indicated that as water withdrawals increase in the future Lake Diefenbaker will be unable to simultaneously SUpply the withdrawals, minimum downstream flOWS, and diversion require_ ments" even if the present pO\oler-oriented year-by-year operating plan is replaced by a plan directed towards the very long mUI ti­ year droughts which occur in the basin. The effects of the diversion on the donor basin would be largely reflected by de­ creases in electrical energy produced and in reduced water Volumes passing through the Interior Delta of the Saskatchewan River between Nipawin and Cedar Lake. Eastern Tributaries of James Bay The vast scale of modern human interference with rivers is well illustrated by the plan of the Province of Quebec to develop five t'ivers discharging into the eastern side of James Bay for hydropower purposes (Quebec Press Release, 1972). The rivers involved are the La Grande" Eastmain) Rupert, Broadback and Nottaway. Interbasin diversions are involved in a number of in­ stances. A total expenditure of up to $7 billion is envisaged, in appropriate stages. The .5,000 people living in the region are at present suppot'ted almost exclusively by hunting and fishing, and their rights are to be protected. International Interbasin Water Transfer Many imaginative schemes have been proposed around the world for transfe..-r. of water acrosS national boundaries. Examples in­ clude diversion of water from the Congo River to the Sahara Desert, from the Ganges River south, and from th~ Amazon River to arid parts of South America. I 1 Laycock (1971) discusses large-scale schemes to move waLer from Alaska and Canada to the U.S. and Mexico. The NAWAPA scheme and the Smith scheme (Smith, 1969) involve flooding rich valley­ I land in British Columbia, where less than 4% of the province is arable. an? where the effect of huge a:J;tificial reservoirs in mountainou valleys on earthquakes is not fully understood. The Magnusson scheme would involve diverting PeaCe River water to the I Missouri River basin, using Lesser Slave Lake as a holding reser­ voir. The Kuiper scheme (Filmon, 1967; Kuiper." 1968) is an extension of the Magnusson scheme in that waterS of the Churchill and Nel~on Rivers would also be diverted to the Missouri River" Il using the large lakes of southern Manitoba as holding basins. The Tinney scheme would include diversion of water from still further ncrrth in Canada and to still further south of the border. Other more recent.studie:. (Saskatchewan-Nelson Basin Boord" 1972; Kert. 19'71" 1972b) " without explicitly mentioning water export to the

674 iversion on the Lt. S. ~ have analyze~d similar schemes between the Rocky Mountains zel\ (Kerr ~ 1972a) arrd the Great Lakes. The Kierans scheme would involve the di­ dr, ~als increase ~ version of water now flowing into James Bay into the Great Lakes . 1 ...n ~~u ta~eously SUl>pl for use by both Canada and the U.s. For both economic and politi­ d~'I'rs~on requi:re~ y cal reasons it. is unlikely that any large-scale water transfer y. Jear operating from Canada to the U.S. will be made in the near future (Tinney v y long mUlti~ and Quinn~ 1969). Staged diversions on a smaller scale would be ects of the more in Canada's interest. For example~ the future southward fl;cted by de~ diversion of rivers to the north of the Saskatchewan Riv~r basin u )i water VolUIlles lvou1d be feasible economically at an earlier date if a modest cliewan River portion of the diverted water could be sold to the U.S. Texas Water Plan I One of the most complex diversion projects is the $9-billion ~exas :,h rivet's is Water Plan (Texas Wa'i:er Development Board, 1968; Fickessetl j QU. lee to develop 1970). It assumes that all water resources within the state will !J . les Bay for be utilized by the year 2020, ~.nd that so::e 12 to 13 million acr~­ The rivers feet of surplus water will be made available annually from the nal1lack and ," lower Mississippi River. The plan involves the construction of a L anUmbe~ of .tn~ total of 67 new resetvoirs and two 5Sllt water barriers, in addi­ ~s env~sagedj tion to the 157 reservoirs which al~eaqy exist or are under 'n the region are construction. Considerations include water quality, flood control, g ltd fishing~ £loodplai1 management~ soil conservation,. ~rainage control, control of water-wasting vegetation, protection ironl hurric~ne-induced tides J preservation of historic and scenic si't~s a.nd at-tifacts,t recreation" ~nd fish and wildlife maragement.

[ a:r[d the wo:rld Siberian Arctic-Flowing Rivers to Aral Sea Examples in~ ~have •.1:' t.. hU···. Sahara Des ert Various schemas been studied in Siberia to di,',,'a'l:,t U R' ,. .. irrig~,'tion I ~: r to arid Arctic..flowing rivers southward in order to improve in Central Asia and to prevent the lowering of the Aral Sea. ~;ne such scheme WOUld involve the construction of a dam at the ct.-:r., t"JEove wal;er fluence of the lrtyshand Tobal Rivers and the diversion of wcrt{>~\· e L1~WAPA scheme to a canal running southward through low--lying country between th~ g rich valley... southern Urals and the Kazakh uplands (Newsletter, 1970). r eti~irO~inc;.i.·S I s~.\... o~rs ~n Ladoga Lake to Caspian Sea and Onieper River in USSR d .·tood. The er water to the The waters of Ladoga Lake discharge into the Baltic Se~ via f1 ~ding reser'" the Neva River without being utilized (Kalesnik, 1968). One U68 ,lis an scheme involvesdivc:t;slon of part of the flow to the Dnieper River :fd Churchill via the Volkhov and Lovat Rivers. Another alternative involves sso~ri River, the diversion of part of the flow to the Volga River aItd the inl tbasins•....The Caspian Sea via. a series of rivers~ shortening the navigation tHill further :t;oute to Leningrad by 440 kilometers. The annual diversio11 would be 40 cubic kilometers representing half the flow 0.£ the Neva 1\ order•...Other l River. n.".··~.. rd.. ~.\1.~:972; l\.e.Tr" f1.r to the

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Arctic-Flowing Rivers to Caspian Sea in European Part of USSR-- The Pechora and Vychegda Rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean whereas the Kama River is a tributary of the Volga River which dis­ charges into the Caspi~~ Sea. The Kama-Vychegda-Pechora (KVP) water management scheme involves the diversion of a portion of the flows of the former two Arctic-flowing rivers to the Caspian Sea via the Kama and Volga Rivers. The physical-r:>TIsequences of this diversion to the water­ short south would be extremely beneficial, and numerous reports on this aspect f're available (Mo.f:GOW University, 1972). The conse­ quences to the northern region in which the donor basins are situated would be largely negative~ however. Early proposals were largely concerned with the dams and canals required to create the diversion. However, subsequent more sophisticated analyses with aCcess to new data introduced a new awareness of human values and the environment. After several years of investigations, the Komi Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR published a unique textbook defining the extent and the cost of the negative conse­ quences to the north (Academy of Sciences of USSR> 1967b). Further details and proposed modifications are reported by j Bratsev and Vityazeva (1969) • j.

The reservoirs, as originally proposedl would havq an &rea of 15,000 squcre kilometers. In addition, H.rge ar.eas would be I affected ty rising groundwater levels and accelerated swamp­ r formation proc.esses which would in turn adversely affect forest ~ 1 and meadow vegetation. The large-scale inundation \',fould affect climatic, conditions in from 25% to 30% of the area of the Komi L Republic."' Temperatures would be higher in the winter and lower in the summer, the latter situation adversely affecting the already marginal agriculture in the zone. From 30 to 40 cubic kilometers ,1~ ice would form on the water reservoirs each year and would melt ill }'l8.ce. ReductiOI~ of flow in the Pechora and Vychegda rivers I w~, la reduce the warming effect on the ice regime in the south­ eas·(.~r). part of the Barents Sea. (Timofeev, 1960). Due to a re­ I ~n J duct).''In spring floods and a change in the flow balance in the ! Pechor~ Rl ~!eX': adverse effects on fish would occur downstream from I the main dan" A large fishing industt'y already exists in the I s:r9a,t 50~~ (.If ..:he salmon catch in the Soviet U-Jion being harvestr.:d I in the Pechora ?iver. An awareness of the inadequate nature of I the early i.nv~stxzations of biologic factors and the fishing indu~';try led tc moJ.'~ i11tensive studies (Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1971). Th~ eff'~ctsof the water reservoirs on mammals and bil'dSQ."t\e dealt wi-th b;r 'tureva (:~69). Anot:1er serh"lus nega:civeconsequence of the creation of these Va,1t Wtlter reservQ..:rs 'h1ould be the inundation of extensive oil and gas. fields. The f'il,linc:i.a.l 10.$S to the oil and gas industry WaS

676 .. ' 1 _~., ""_l!"';';\~...._..•,....", ....., ~ .... -~,.....,., ---,...".,..... _...... ,. - " .. .,...~...,-~ . .. ..,l

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f • only fully asce-rtained very recently,. and is in the order of six "iruss~ times the cost of construction of the entire KVP complex. A . l.c Ocean River l-vhich dis- During the constX'Ltctio1\ period of from 10 to 13 years, from 8 t~ 9 million cubic mE,'ters of wood would have to be IemC'ved each ct·.a(KVP) rti?nof the year., representing fr':)m three to fou:r times the normal level of e .aspl.an Sea logging and Tequiring a sudden expansion of ths forest industry• The creation of the main water reservoirs of the KVP scheme ..~ water­ would give rise to the 10S$ of the most valuable and productive rous repoJ:'ts on agricultural lands in the Komi ASSR. This would have serious • ~e conse­ consequences to the future d\~velopment of livestock• as s are p'posalswere A proposed modification in the KVP scheme involves the to create the diversion of water from the Pechora River only as a first step, thus averting adverse effects in the more densely popUlated yses with r.•..·'S··a., values. and Vychegda River valley. Another alternative involves splitting 1,,' • 0 .s, the Komi the principal reservoir into a lower northern reservoir and a hed a unique h:'gher southern reset'voir in order to prevent the inundation of ~il).conse- oil and gas formations and to rt:)duce losses to the forest industry. ted by FLUVIAL PROCESSES AND SED1MENTATION l a.n an at'~a of QEainage Areas would be " ~amp­ The consequr.~nces of human interference occur on the land I f,d:l]" forest surfaces ct basins as well as in river valleys. For example .. land LOU.l "affect erosion may become more severe due to overgrazing or careless £ the Komi forest cutting and btl~J;ing, or less severe through better manage ... ment of grasslands and woodlands. Any integrated plan for river ~ r t[]daii:=~yin basin development shoUld consider activities on the land surfaces ic kilometers of the basin as well as hydraulic wor:"'s related to streams" lakes and reservoirs. nl:.. ··..nw.OU.ld.'.•mel t g 'J! rl,\; ~rs t '.J south... Estimates of sediment yi eld can be made on the basis of CO,ll­ e to a xe- parisons with othex areas .. field measu~ements of stream sediment q a~:l~ in the load at the point of concern., computation of sediment load, 01' i WJI Rtream f:J:'OID estimation of the gross rate of erosion and delivery rate. The l s 1h. the latter method will become of ~\er-increasing importance as ng harvested intexference with rivet' basins becomes mOre intense. A so... called f ure of universal equation for predicting erosion losses due to falling ,f ing rain was developed more than ten years ago. Practical relation­ iences of shiVs for this quantity have been developed (Kerr" 1961). Studies mammals and of differences in erosion and deposition indifferent are~s have concluded that f.cequently only certain critical zones need be U controlled to prevent erosion over larget'areas J and that pre­ ution of these ventive conservation m.ay be the 11\O$.t p:J:'actical solution to many -r~lJj~o~;/nd erosion problems.

rJu 617 LI ' The advent of the cvmputer has permitted more refined ap­ proaches in recent years. Mathematica:::' models of the rainfall­ runoff type were developed by Crawford and Linsley (1966). Perkins (1970) developed a model to generate rainfall, convert it to surface ~~lnoff, and convert this to time sequences of flows and water levels. Negev (1967) developed a model to generate sus­ pended sediment from rainfall and total flow data and from the simulated overland flow produced by a rainfall-runoff model. The sediment model deals with sediment derived from land surfaces and from the stream system proper. It was tested for two drainage basins in California, and reproduced annual, monthly and often dai:'y sediment loads quite welL The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1968) has worKed on a comprehensive model for computing sediment transport under nonunifonn channel conditions and unsteady flow, including suspended sediment, bed-load transport and sedimentation in reservoirs. Models of the above types will be required to an ever­ increasing degree in the future. As has been stressed in recent literature (Task Committee for Preparation of Sedimentation Manual, 1972L the present sediment models must be considered primitive and precarious, in spite of ~he valuable insights which the manipu­ lation and refinement of input to such models can yield. An interesting example of the consequences of interference with an entire drainage basin is represented by the Clyde River in Scotland (FlemLlg, 1970). The Clyde Estuary has long been de .. veloped to provide navigation and port facilities for the City of Glasgow. (Its history of human intervention dates back to 1566.) The character of the sediment load. has changed with time. It is now predominantly fine suspended sediment due toa reduction in availability of sediment to the stream system. This has been caused not only by the construction of reservoirs on the river and its tributaries, but also by other activities such as quarrying and coal mining, which has caused the subsidence of large areas. t The dredging of 320,000 tons of sediment per year from the upper I estuarY is said to prevent flooding at Glasgow. Floodplains Massive continuing movement of people into floodplains and the urgent need for adequate planning in this connection are well­ established facts of life. JohnSOn (1970) describes the activities of the states of the U.S. with respect to the management of flood­ plains. He finds that there is an increasing awareness on the part of the states of their vital role in this field, illustrated by both legislation and personal views of state of£icials 1 but he stresses the complexity of administration and legal problems. Comprehensive. flood.. damage prevention programs are now being stressed as opposed to flood~control structures alone.

618 -~"'~.... "'~.-' ...... " :... , .....: .. ,

eR'ned ap­ Transportation planning i~ closely related to floodplain e . 'ainfall- management (Lee, 1972). ;:'2~ing severe floods, transportation (1 "6). routes represent one of the key elements in river flow modifi­ 1, convert it cation. Many highway and railway embankments affect flood levels sllff flows. and and flow directions. When overtopped during floods they function e[~te sus- as weirs (Kerr" Parmley and Others, 1972). d irom the f~Odel. The Dikes which protect portions of floodplains from flooding ~", rf~ces arId also rob the river of natural Wi3.ter storage areas and generally o,ra:mage result in higher water levels in the river than would have other­ and often wise occurred. Kuiper (1960, 1965) describes the consequences of constructing long dikes within the floodplain, with specific refer­ ~11: ;~~~~:~~s ence to the Interior Delta of the Saskatchewan River. The Com­ slJady flow, mittee on Saskatchewan River Delta Problems (1972) has recently sedimentation ~-. re-attacked technical and environmental problems in this area. ~Ui~or:~e:~er-4'~ Channel Processes ntation Manual, r, d,rlrimitive The rivers draining the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains ;1J. the manipu- have beds of gravel and coarse sediment. Studies of fluvial r processes and sedimentation in these rivers have been prompted in recent years by the investigation, design and construction of di3.ms. nu··,.• ference Hollingshead e197l) describes a method of estimating bed load based Ie.'.• e River in on hydrophone observations and velocity measurements. Related l g'een de- authors point out large time and space variations in the grain-size r the City of composition of gravel beds, that inmost gravel beds the grain ,·.' aft.'. 'I to l56?,) population of the surface layer is different from the underlying rtjlJe. It J.S material, and that at 15 sites examined in the above area the .," eduction in elimination of most material finer than 8 millimeters from the has been surface layer was ch",racteristic. Quantitative analyses of the trb riv7.r and type described above are es;"ential to propel' evaluation of the s l).IarrYJ.ng consequences of interference with gravel-bed rivers. large areas. r. °U:.. ; he upper A study of 16 streams in Pennsylvania indicated that the type L' ••,' of bedrock underlying channels affects both channel slope and particle size. Channels underlain by sandstone had steeper slopes and larger bed material than channels underlain by shale or lime­ ~ 11 stone, and the latter channels had slightly smaller c:eoss sections , dEj. ~ins and at bankfUll stage. Slope and bed ,~aterial size were also in­ tiCfn are well­ fluenced by deposits of COarse debris. .••~ the aotivities md.'1: of f1ood- Lefeuvre" Altinbilek and Carstens (1970) express the rate of eSIJ on the part bed material removal as a function of fluid velocity, drag coef­ ustrated by ficient" particle diameter, bed slope, angle of repose and fluid lS.tU.·.•.... ' b.ut•. he density, in an attempt to better explain sediment transport and p~ • lems. local scour and fill. ow eing e. Cooper" Peterson a.nd Blench (1972) describe the scope of all expel"imental data On sediment transport made available up to 1969, ~ U and conclude that the data are limited in several ranges. They I '11 jj 679

.·J, ~l U, I , [

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report that many individual data collections &re extremely narrow in scope so that relations based on them are likely to result in incorrect predictions when applied to conditions falling outside the range studied.

Recent overall studies (Task Conunittee for Preparation of Sedimentation Manual, 1971) have summarized and commented on hydraulic relations for alluvial streams, concluding that the formulation of such relations is far from complete. There are various Soviet textbooks on fluvial processes and sedimentation. In general, they include channel flow; sediment t-ransport and river processes; specific problems such as flow I around bends and.at bifurcations; and methods of computation in ~. specific applications with examples. Grishanin (1972) includes I bed dunes and sandbars, and various methods of calculating channel deformations. Grishanin (1969) treats sediment transport, turbu­ lent flow an~ methods of utilizing theories of turbulence in design. Popov (1969) deals with a hydromorphologic theory of river-bed processes. The variables of particular relevance to fluvial processes are Q, the river flow; T, the sediment discharge; d, the effective diameter of the sediment particles; S, the slope of the river; r, the ratio of mean depth to width of river channel; and M, the ratio of river mileage to river valley mileage. Q and d are inde­ pendent variables from the point of view of channel processes, and .r and M are dependent variables for alluvial rivers. In the lower part of a river S is dependent and T is independent, but in the upper part ~f a river S is independent and T is dependent. In general, S increases for an increase in T Or d or a decrease in Q and r increases for a decrease in d (Kuiper, 1965). A river is " referred to as graded when the upper course carries its optimum T and has form.ed corresponding values of rand M for given values ()f Q, Sand d, Or when the lower course has formed equilibrium valwes of S,r and Mfor given values of Q, T and d. If the banks are composed of loose sand the channel becomes wide before erosion ceases, whereas if the banks are composed of cohesive material the channel will be narrow. Alsv, a steep slope produces high veloci­ ties and wide channels, and a large sediment transport usually causes wide channels. Interference with rivers results in changes in one or mOre of the above variables. Lane (1955) defined six classes of stream profile changes in this connection. Kuiper (1965) elabOrated on this approach and applied the reasoning to high dams, low dams, the consumptive use of water, d'redging bed material, minor and major shortening of rivers, extension of rivers, river regulation and dike construction.

680 -

Rj.V er Constrictions ;---- River constrictions are here defined as man-mad~ works which 'nterfere with the normal flow of rivers but do not provide ap­ \eciable water storage. Examples of river.constrictions are hridge abutments 1 port facilities and training walls which con­ strict a river laterally; lOW. weirs, shallow tunnels and pipeline crossings which represent obstructions on the bed of a river; and bridge piers, water intakes and flow-directing vanes which provide l~cal resistance within the flow. Neill (1964) deals with river-bed scour with reference to etOsion at bridge sites. Various low weirs to control the water level of Lake Athabasca in Alberta were studied by Kerr 1 Parmley and Others (1972) • '~'I Unique methods of harnessing the inherent energy of a flowing stream by installing bottom vanes and fixed and floating surface vanes have been developed and applied in the Soviet Union and applied in the Niger River basin in Africa (Remillieux1 1958). Latyshenkov (1960) has pUblished a textbook on channels arti­ ficially constricted by bridge crossings and cofferdams.

Znamenskaya (1967) proposed a method of computing the maximum depth of erosion in a sand bed when designing hydraulic works on rivers and canals • Examples and comparisons are given. The utilization'"of hydromorpho1ogic analysis in the design of river works is dealt with by Popov (1969)1 and examples of compu­ tations are given for Volga River hydro st~tions. Reservoir Sedimentation Reservoir sedimentation does not yet pose a serious problem in Canada. In the U. S" as early as 30 years ago the annual cost of reservoir silting was in excess of $50 million. A nt,l1nber of important reservoirs had filled in. from one to five years 1 and close to 2,000 smallel." reservoirs had been filled to the top of the dam.

The beneficial consequences of reservoir construction can be maximi~ed and the adverse consequences minimized by careful selection of sites (Kerr, 1961). The reservoir site with the minimum sediment yield should be favored, in general. This implies selecting the basin with the flattest stream gradients 1 liith lataral slopes the least susceptible to erosion, and so forth. The source and Type of the sediment load shOUld be

681 :V·"\ ," 1 If considered, and the possibility of improving existing conditions should be taken into account. For example, if a large part of the sediment yield is derived from a small percentage of the drainage area it may be that erosion control can be inaugurated in an ~co­ nomical manner. Of,f-channel reservoirs may be desirable, if sites 11 are available, particularly if the sediment control so provided improves the recreational features of the reservoir. A specific r example of how sediment can damage swimming beaches is Fanshawe , Ji Reservoir on the Thames River in Ontario (McNaughton, 1957). Jr. During a storm in May of 1956 the reservoir remained ten feet [ I above the normal reservoir level for two days, and sWimming .1':" beaches were left with a silt deposit.

'l Methods of determining sediment quantities entering reser­ , , voirs have been discussed above. The trap efficiency of a reser­ ri voir is defined as the ratio of the sediment deposited to the ~ sediment infloW, and is a function of the age of the reservoir, t the method of operation, the size and shape, the water inflow, and f:) the characteristics of the inflowing sediment. Large reservoirs ")< l' which are mainta.ined at relatively high levels trap almost 100% of {~r'r \: the sediment inflow. f~ Adverse consequences of reservoir sedimentation can be re­ >~~ ~. duced by ingenious methods of operation at times, partiCUlarly in mountainous areas and when the reservoir forms part of an inte­ grated system. In the Soviet Union (Altunin, 1958; Dzhamalov and

Akaev 1 1958), the trap efficiency of hydro reservoirs on rivers with steep slopes was reduced to close to zero. The reservoirs were first maintained at maximum water level until the dead storage spape was filled with sediment. This resulted in the de... position of coarse rna ter:tals in the backwater zone where they formed a bar and delayed the entrance of alluvial materials into the reservoir proper for a considerable period of time. The reservoirs were then maintained at a low elevation during the annual period of high sediment inflow such that velocities through the reservoir were sufficient to prevent deposition. Low-level st'diment sluicing apertures located below the turbine intakes carried away all coarse sediment because the scour hole immedi­ ately above the sluicing apertures acted as a natural settling basin. In Canada, the environmenta'l dangers of concentrated sluicing through a dam would have to be borne in mind, and many reservoirs would be either too large or not sufficiently inte­ grated within a hydroelectric system to permit such operation. The distribution of sediment in a reservoir is a function of the sediment characteristics, the geometry of the reservoir and the channel or channels entering, the method of operation, the ratio of sediment volume to reservoir volume, and the inflow­ capacity ratio. Early computational proc<=>dures (Kerr, 1961) classified reservoirs as lake-type, floodpla.in-foothill type,

682 "'-"~."~,.:,..'~." . ...

g iSM.. ".. n. tondiLions hill-type and gorge-type, and defined sediment distribution a,rge part of the quantitatively for each.type.. More recent methods deal with the ge ·f the drainage physical processes involved (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1968). gurated in an eco~ Methods of estimating the densities and compaction rates of de­ d. ell.rable, if.. si.tes posited sediment are available (Kerr, 1961). trr~ so provided vo~r. A specific The results of S~'.1dies of Lake Mead in the U.S. are reported chesis Fanshawe by Smith, Vetter, Cummings and Others (1960J. The total capacity ghf1n, 1957). of the re!.ervoir was reduced 4.5% during the first 14 years after :lit.td ten feet HoOVE! bam waS completed, but the usable capacity was reduced by nd sWimming only 3.2%. The sediment contributed by the Colorado River aver­ aged about 45% sand and 55% silt and clay. Practically all the clay and much of the silt were transported by turbidity currents .firing reser­ to the lowest parts of the reservoir. :iency of a reser~ r~o~e~e~~r~~~r, Aggradation above Reservoirs .~ water inflow, and When a dam is built in a river the reservoir proper general)y Latre reservoirs varies from a deep water body near the dam to a river somewhat ~rt almost 100% of wider and deeper than the original stream at the upstream end.

Coarse sediment is immediately deposited in the latter zone J causing a further increase in water levels. This phenomenon is Ltl'V can be re- referred to as aggradation in the backwater zone. Water levels rticul~rl)r ...... [ , ,J. in can be well above what would have occurred if no sediment depo... a . of an ~nte- sition had taken place, and the effects can extend a considerable 158; Dzhamalov and distance upstream. If such areas are prone to flood damage~ de­ .[...•. v~·Ts r~~~~~~~;~ sign procedures must include estimates of aggradation. .ilL-the dead KUiper (1960~ 1965) carried out calculations which provide an suIted in the de­ insight intoaggr~ation processes. With overbank flow, for in­ fine']·.·.. here they stance, the backwater curve is only a fraction of its normal .1 i.• terials into length, resulting in concentrated sediment deposition and the f time. The formation of a bar. A slight change in the vertical distribution , on'luring the of sediment can result in a considerable increase in sediment .···.vel cities through concentration nCar the water surface and hence in the depth of l iof~ Low-level bank deposits. rbine intakes

ilmnedi- ~ ; urrrie Variations in water level are important. Reservoir water , levels tend to be high when incoming streams are in flood and I carrying relatively large sediment loads. Coarse sediment is 1~u~~~~:;~i:~;;y deposited above the usual reservoir level at such times, and may ~c be stored in these upstream reaches or carried further into the ;)operation. reservr.dr subsequently.

eifl~e~~i:i:dof , Methods of operation to cope with problems of aggradation " above reservoirs have been discussed above under the subject of pUation, the trap efficiencies~ the inflow- f(KIll', 1961) o.

Degradation below Reservoirs

If a large portion of the sediment entering the reservoir is deposited, relatively clear outflow picks up new sE'diment load from the bed and banks of the channel downstream. This process is referred to as degradation, and is distinct from tailwater scour Which occurs immediately below a dam due to very local effects.

On the other hand, the reservoir may result in reduced water discharges in the downstream channel due to consumptive l.lsesand flow regulation, such that at confluences with other sediment... bearing strea.1flS the combined flow no longer has the capacity to transport the sediment load brought in by the tributaries. Degra­ dation tends to decrease with time due to gradual reduction in slope, uncove~'~ng of resistant material beneath the original river bed, consolidtLtion of deposited material" and the paving of the river bed with coarse particles. The proce.ss of paving or armoring of the river bed takes pla~e due to the carrying away of fine material in the bed material of the river" leaving the bed covered by a layer of relatively coarse particles too large to be moved by the new hydraulic regime. When paving of the bed has occurred, the river may pick up additional sediment load by attacking the finer matex'ial in the banks (Einstein, 1961). The flow b;gins to meander between banks and attacks them with increased intensity at critical points. In such situations the banks must be stabilized in reaches in which erosion would cause damage. In some cases very extensive Dank protection works have been required downstream from reservoirs. 'i Construction of Hoover, Parker and Imperial dams in the U.S. resulted in a decrease in the annual discharge of :suspended sedi­ ment in the Colorado River at Yuma to 10% of its former value. The flow velocity increased, and the Manning roughness coeffi~ient increased from 0.013 to 0.030 due to the coarsening of bed ma­ terial and the formation of larger undulations on the bed.

Hanunad (1972) describes degradation and natural paving processes downstream from the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River in Egypt. Slow degradation commenced after the closing of the dam in 1964, and is expected to continue until the entire river bed is covered with a layer of coarse sand and gravel. Observations made since 1964 indicate that of the 125 million tons of sediment per year carried into the reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam, 98% is deposited. The relatively clear water released downstream picks up a new sediment load, but the amount of sediment in the river at Cairo, 965 kilometerS downstream, is much less than before. This is explained firstly because the gigantic reservoir l'eduGes the flood wave and hence the high discharges which play the greatest

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role in sediment movement, and secondly because the bed of the 1'1 river is 80% coarse sand and 20% fine sand, whereas the original e reserVoir is sediment in the river was 70% clay and silt and 30% fine sand. Apart from this the sediment replenishment rate between Aswan and edl1-..ent load 1 T..." '. s process is Cairo dropped from 25.5 million tons per year "to 6.0 million tons aiiJater SCour per year during the first three years after closure. The depth of ocal effects. degradation was 6.0 centimeters in 1964 1 2.5 centimeters in 1965 1 and 1.4 centimeters in 1966. The decrease in sediment replenish­ n Oduced water ment is due to paving. Thus equilibrium is being reached not pt~ve uses and because the river is adjusting its slope,. but rather because of er sediment- paving, with practically no change of slope. It is expected that e I1pacity to a plane armored bed will give ,yay to a rippled armored bed, as utLJies. Degra- occurred in the case of the Colorado River, but computations reduction in carried out for both. conditions indicate that degradation is not a problem in either case and that no protective measures or step­ err.:..··.··.. iginal river p1}ng of the down weirs will be required, other than local protection at the [" three existing dams between Aswan and Cairo.

r rCd takes A recent Soviet textbook (All-Union Academy of Agricultural tLr bed Science, 1969) is devoted entirely to the subject of works re­ a layer of qUired in the tailwater reaches of hydraUlic structures. bX the new r;f1p.., the river In recent studies of the Peace-Athabasca Delta region in tlU finer northern Alberta, it was found that cne of the physical conse­ begins to quences of constructing a dam on the main outlet of Lake Athabasca would be higher velocities and hence degradation in the smaller r.S.l.. rlf.'intensity at Lt', .•. stabilized channels of the network (Kerr, Parmley and Others, 1972). Con­ n ~ me cases clusions in this regard can only be tentative at the present time, uired downstream however 1 because of a lack of essential basic data ~uch as contour plans and bed sediment details, on the one hand, and of continuity of analyses, on the'other. h amslJ.~n t e U.S. Saskatchewan River Be.sin r.l,.su.]sended sedi­ Ip:o .er value. l nt, s coefficient The physical consequences of existing and possible future g of bed ma- reservoirs" in-basin diversions, and major interbasin water trans­ fers from rivers to the north have been investigated for the tt,] bed. Saskatchewan River basin (Kuiper:J' 1960, 1965; Saskatchewan-Nelson ra~paving Basin Board, 1972). he Nile River in The existing situation from the pojnt of view of fluvial inU•. iO.f.' the dam in e •• ;lver bed is processes and sedimentation is as follows. Approximately 7 1 500 Observations made acre-feet of s~diment per year are discharged into Lake Diefen­ of sediment per baker by the SO'lth Saskatchewan River. Effectively all of this liil LDam, 98% is sediment is. deposited in the.reservoir, much in the dead storage owLJtream picks zone. As the capacity of Lake Diefenbaker, including dead t in the river at storagel is 7.6 million acre-feet, there is no danger of the reservoir filling with sediment as long as upstream. land use 'a.r,".. ref.aTe •...• .' This Ii • teduces the practices and other upstream conditions do not change drastically. .a ~he greatest The Soutt. Saskatchewan River picks up approXimately 2,000 aCre'"

tJ feet of sediment annually downstream from Lake Diefenbaker and . hence degrading its bed. As discussed above in general terms 1.s this degradation will likely decrease with time for a series·~£ reasons, including the classical consideration of a gradual slo . reduction, paving of the bed with coarse particles, uncovering ~; resistant material, and reduction in flow peaks and volumes due t upstream water withdrawals and additional upstream reservoirs. 0 Nevertheless, the situation along this reach of river should be ' watched closely. The North Saskatchewan River produces an annual volum.e of approximately 2,100 acre-feet of sediment, and an ad­ ditional 500 acre-feet per year are produced between the con­ fluence of the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan rivers and Tobin Reservoir on the main stem of the Saskatchewan R.iver. Thus a totql of roughly 5,000 acre-feet of sediment enters Tobin Reservoir each year, most of which is deposited. The storage capacity of Tobin Reservoir is 1.8 million acre-feet. The loss of part of this storage due to sedimentation involves a small economic penalty in power loss, but no operational difficulties are anticipated. Minor degradation will take pl~ce downstream IL",· from Tobin Reservoir, but this degradation shoulL have no adverse r effects. I If the dams and diversions which have been proposed and are not mutually exclusive l'ere constructed, a new sediment regime would result. A total sediment load of roughly 10,000 acre-feet per year would still be derived from the mountains and foothills. Part ef this sediment would be deposited in foothill reservoirs and the remainder in reservoirs in the western portion of the .i- iJrairies. Channel degradation would occur below reservoirs where sediment b,eds are to be found, but in many areas there is a great deal of gravel and bOUlders. This material would prevent or re- ~ duce degradation directly and through the process of paving. Paving would also take place whel'ever the sediment in the river contained a coarse fraction. Furth~rmore, the construction of more a:ldmore reservoirs on the one hand and the development of more irrigation works and other consumptive uses on the other would reduce the total annual volume of flow and in particular the magnitudes of high flows which carry much of the sediment. In conclusion, it can be stated that from the point of view of fluvial processes and sedimentation no major and only a few minor adverse physical consequences are expected to result from the development of hydraulic works within the Saskatchewan River basin. In general, the sediment loads of rivers in northern Canada are relatively low. Rivers which have a great deal of storage such as the Nelson and Churchill carry negligible sediment loads. Rivers which have very little storage such as the Yukon and the Peace carry small but appreciable amounts of sediment.. Kellerhals and Gill (1972) describe the physical consequences of the con­ struction of the Bennett Dam in eastern British Columbia On the

686 - J· I ~ · downstream channel of the Peace River. River flows are highly e. _'". bake,r and is ena1 terms.~ regulated and are no longer able to move the coarser fractions in bed~ ~he 0:( -a series of the largely gravel resulting in a Tapid paving of bed a gradual slope with a layer of Coarse material approximately one grain diameter S~J,'neovering of in thickness. There is a trend for the channel to become smaller n1yolumes due to in size because of the reduced magnitude of high flows .. as ex­ reservoirs. hibited by growth of vegetation and trees on formerly bare bars iU'• should be and banks, and by filling in of deep sections. At confluences o .: ces an annu.aJ downstream from the dam, local aggradation of the Peace River bed n~. and an ad­ has occurred due to the absence of flood flows to move material een the con- carried in by tributaries. tn·\wan ],"ivers t awan River. n -enters Tobin FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS AND INTEGRATED PLANNING The storage Extensive Data Banks e4l,.,',' The loss of [ s I.: small 1 difficulties Data which are of concern in analyses of the physical effects cjfownstream of interference with rivers should be placed in data banks on Jt~e no adverse computer devices and made readily available to all investigators. Data banks for sediment and the geometric characteristics of ru,;sed and are rivers are described by Bray (1971), and related inventories of d . .~nt regime streamflo~ characteristics for Alberta are reported on by Neill, 0,·' 0 a.cre-feet Bray~ Schouten ana Card (1970). Data banks for hydrologic infor­ s and foothills. mation, hydro systems and mUltireservoir systems are discussed in detail by Kerr (19A7, 1971, 1972a, 1972b). r i Jf.. '.1 reservoi,rs l, rtl.:m of the reservoirs where The importance of'dependab1e and. convenient data banks f0r the storage and retrieval of data cannot be overemphasized. t~,',e. +.,e is. a great ~" . event or re- :,jpaving. Data Gathering for Preproject Conditions t in the river rn~"'TUction of The physical effects of human interference with rivers can I d • elopme.nt of only be quantitatively evaluated if extensive data are gathered L0 ·..the other for preproject as well as postproject conditions. Examples of in particular the situations in which adequate preproject data have not been L~en,t. gathered are all around us, An example of planned preproject data jf' set. In '0£1 flew of gathering is the investigation of the Votkinsk Reservoir on the only a few minor Kama River in the USSR (Perm State University, .1968) . The in­ ult from the vestigations included hydrologic" hydrogeologic, geologic" geo­ h1ljn River basin. morphologic and hydrochemical stUdies, and an attempt was made to generalize the findings. ra~.l.no.r..?ft'.,_h•• ernstorage...ca.n.a•. ,da Use .. of Systems.Analysis '. , . Ument loads. ~.• uRon and the The use of 1atge computers and systems analysis techniques will become increasingly more important in the future, .. ..•imen,.,sl.,t,.'t the. Kellerhalscon... . ~• 01. jlbia on the ~ L 687 t~ ~~~~~_~~_~ ~_~~0~~ ~ ~ ~_'_ __ I ••i

In mountainous areas and basins in which human activity is not intense, mathematical models using streamflow~ as the main i TI put data (Kerr, 1967,. 1971, 1972a, 1972b) will continue to be Use­ ful. In areas where interference with the land surfaces, floOd_ ­ plains and rivers proper is extensive, models which deal with all phases of the hyd:rologic cycle and which simulate water and sedi­

ment movement in elaborate detail will be of ever-increasing i.. importance. " Optimization tools such as dynamic programming, linear pro­ gramming and network analysis are so general in nature that the sCOpe of their application is limited only by the ingenuity of the analyst. Adverse consequences of interference with rivers can be reduced to a minimums and beneficial effects maximized, through the use of such techniques. Comprehensive Planning Modern large-scale interference with rivers creates such a complex network of interrelated p~foblems that comprehensive planning has become not only desirable bl;rl: absolutely essential. Yet nature and the nature of man consiy-,l.. ..mtly combine to thwart efforts towards integrated planning. The best way to define what comprehensive water resources planning is, andhhat it is not, is through the use of examples, and it will be easier to be objective if they are chosen from other countries. .. In the U.S., water resources development by the Tennessee Valley Auttority took shape subsequent to the passing of the TVA Act in 1935 and represented the largest mUltipurpose project in the U.S. Dams, reservoirs, channel improvements and other works were designed and constructed to serve navigation, hydropower, flood control, low flow maintenance, water supply and malaria control. Even so, hydropower has tended to dominate the operation of the complex in pra~n.ice (Wolman, 1970). The much-heralded California Water Plan which diverts water from rivers in northern California to the water-starved southern portion of the state was thought to be based on comprehensive planning at the time of its inception, but has recently run into a solid wall of opposition from environment groups. The Muskingurn Valley reservoir complex in Ohio was originally designed for flood control, low flow maintenance and recreation.. but recreational use of the system be­ came so popUlar that it dominated all other uses. A good example of what is definitely not integrated planning is represented by hydraulic projects constructed in the Miami River basin in Ohio after severe floods in 1913. Because all construction was de­ signed to serve the :>ingle purpose of flood control.. the entire system of reservoirs has fixed openings for the release of water

688 -

and np movable gates~ and hence cannot be u.sed for other purposes. 'The Texas Water Plan, an immense $9-billion water distribution systefu on a statewide basis, appeared to represent true inte­ g:ra"ced plaJ:mingand yet in 1969 the voters of Texas failed to at:.thorize the state to finance its share of the cost. In the potomac River basin dozens of reservoirs for join .... flow control, loW flow augmentation, water supply, recreation and fish have been proposed, and were thought to rep.:esent integrated planning. How­ ever~ none of these reservoirs have been bUilt, due to intense opposition on environmental grounds and demands for mOre detailed studies of other alternatives such as groundwater development, desalination.. tidal estuary use, and re~lse of domestic sewage. In passing, it is noted that pressures for more comprehensive planning in a similar vein also developed in connection with pro­ posed developrne~ts in the Thames River basin in England, and that the Plover Cove development in Hong Kong is anexarnple of the creation of a reservoir in the vicinity of an estuary as opposed to upland storage. Further examples of unforeseen physical conse­ r~Cl; <",' tes .such a quences of human interference with rivers in the U.S. include the l:r~ensive complete degradation of the Colorado River channel below Boulder Uet..; essential. Darn, the penetration of salt water from the Gulf of Mexico into ine to thwart the Mis~issippi River following the construction of dams on tributaries for flood control, and salt penetration of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers in California following the J~esources constructiolll of upstre~rn storage works. On the whole, water re­ e of examples I sources development works in the U.S. are monuments to the ability [ cl. "sen from of man to ha,rness the resources around him. On the other hfmd, examples of attempts at true integrated planning which have not entirely sw:ceeded are .present on every horizon. he Tennessee fit' of the TVA In the Soviet Union, the integrated planning being attempted Lsjproject in in the study of the diversion of northern rivers to the south and in nd other works other projects has been described above. Another example of ';tdropower~ comprehensive investigations is an analysis of a series of reser­ a· malaria voirs on the Volga River (Butorin~ 1969). ~e effects of regu­ t l.. ·the operation lation on water levels, velocities, temperatures~ suspended sedi­ ch·-heralded ment and sediment deposits were studied for reservoirs of both the el in northern lake type and the river type. Biologic processes and changes f ',h: state.was effected in wastewater entering the reservoirs were analyzed. h -t~me of ~ts Using the Rybinsk and Gorky Reservoi~s as examples of river and of opposit;ion lake types of reservoirs, the special features of water masses etf~i£I~~mPlex with different charactej,"istics in the same reservoir and the special features of their seasonal characteristics were defined. f ~he system be- The process of river water transformation ~.C;; it passes through a ;~~~t:~'j~l series of reservoir steps along a river Was st:ressed. Water ret e moving through the Volga River reservoirs \'las transformed con­ bl~in in Ohio siderablY, and it was possible to usC:. reservoirs to regulate water tion was de- quality, river water changes ~eing accompanied by corresponding f 1~the entire changes in biologic processes. 1~"1se of water

689 Integrated planning and comprehensive investigations are not easy to define, but we must continue to struggle towards this goal.

REFERENCES

Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1967a. Behavior of fish in zone of hydraulic wor:~s (in Russian). Science Publishing House, Moscow. Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1967b. Effect of diversion of flow of northern rivers to basin of Caspian Sea on national economy of Komi ASSR. Komi Branch, Science Publishing House, Leningrad (partial translation available), Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1971. Biologic studies of northern rivers within ancient lake depressions (in Russian). Publi­ cation No. 22 of Komi Branch, Syktyvkar, Komi ASSR. All-Union Academy of Agricultural Science, 1969. Work in tail­ water reaches of hydraulic structures (in Russian). Kolos Publishing House, Moscow. Altunin, S.T., 1958. Reservoir sedimentation and channel degra­ dation below dams. Academy of Sciences of USSR, Moscow (translation available). Biswas, A.K. anrr S. Chatterjee, 1971. Dam disasters: an assess­ ment. Engineering. Journal, Montreal, Mar. 1971 • 'I Biswas, A. K. and R. W. Durie, 197L Sociological aspects of water development. Water ResOurces Bulletin, American Water Re­ SOUrces Association, Dec. 1971. Bratsev, L.A. and V.A. Vityazeva, 1969. New concepts in technical solutions of problems of diversion of flow of northern rivers. Proceedings of Komi Branch of Geographic Society of USSR. 11-2-12. Syktyvkar, Komi ASSR. (tran.;;lation available). Bray, D.I., 1971. Computer print-out far river data tables. Research Council of Alberta, Highway and River Engineering DiVision, Edmonton, July 1971. Buto!'in, N. V., 1969. Hydrologic prOcesses and dynamics of water masses in series of reservoirs on Volga River (in R.ussian). Academy of Sciences of USSR, Science Publishing House, Leningrad.

690 Integrated planning and comprehensive investigations are not easy to define, but we must continue to struggle towards this goal.

REFERENCES Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1967a. Behavior of fish in zone of hydraulic works (in russian). Science Publishing House, Moscow. Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1967b. Effect of diversion of flow of northern rivers to basin of Caspian Sea on national economy of Komi ASSR. Komi Branch, Science Publishing House , I Leningrad (partial translation available). 1 I j Academy of Sciences of USSR, 1971. Biologic studies of northern I rivers within ancient lake depressions (in Russian). Publi­ I. cation No. 22 of Komi Branch, Syktyvkar, Komi ASSR. I, All-Union Academy of Agricultural Science, 1969. Work in tail­ water reaches of hydraulic structures (in Russian). Kolos Publishing House, Moscow. Altunin, S.T., 1958. Reservoir sedimentation and channel degra­ dation below da~s. AcademY of Sciences of USSR, Moscow (translation available).

Biswas, A.K. and'S. Chatterjee, 1971. Dam disasters: an assess­ ment. Engineering Journal, Montreal, Mar. 1971. " Biswas, A. K. and R. W. Durie, 1971. Sociological aspects of water development. Water Resources Bulletin, American Water Re­ sources Association, Dec. 1971. Bratsev, L.A. and V.A. Vityazeva, 1969. New concepts in technical solutions of problems of diversion of flow of northern rivers. Proceedings of Komi Branch of Geographic Society of USSR. 11-2-12. Syktyvkar, Komi ASSR (translation available). Bray, D. L, 1971. Computer print-out far river data tables. Research Council of Alberta" HighlYay and Rivet" Engineering Division, Edmonton, July 1971. Butorin, N.V., 1969. Hydrologic processes and dynamics of water masses in series of reservoirs on Volga River (in. Russian). Academy of Sciences of USSR, Science Publishing House, Leningrad.

690 J m'., 1 GoillJl1itteeon Saskatchewan River Delta Problems, 1972. Resources, ".j :=(JFt~~: not development and problems of Saskatchewan River Delta. Govt. of Saskatchewa.n, Regina. Cooper, R.H., A.W. Peterson and T. Blench, 1972. Cri-+:ical review Jm of sediment transport experiments. Journal of Hyd. Div., Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, May 1972. h.in zone of 'nmHouse, Crawford, N.H. and R.K. Linsley, 1966. Digital simUlation in hydrology: Stanford Watershed Model IV. Tec:;hnical Report No. 39, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Stanford University. smn of flow aJJlonal Department.of Fish and Game, 1968. Prediction of thermal energy l.;L~hing House, distribution in streams and reservoirs. State of California. ill northern Dirschl, B.J., A. S. Goodman and M. C. Dennington, 1967. Land ian). Publi... capability for wildlife production and utilization in western Saskatchewan River Delta. Govt. of Canada and Govt. Sffi· of Saskatche\1an, Regina. rillin tail­ an). Kolos Dzhamalov, S.A. and A.1. Akaev, HiS8. Sedimentation of reservoirs on mountainous rivers. Academy of Sciences of lISSR, Moscow (transJation available). a]ll degra. , Moscow Einstein, H.A., 1961. Needs in sedimentation. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Mar. 1961. rn. an assess- Engineering News Record, 1972. Corps may destroy darn.; other jobs in question. Max 2S, 1972: .... ~m of water Fickessen, J.W., 1970. Water for Texas through the Tex.as Water n Water Re- Plan. Water Resou:cces Bulletin, Arner. Water Resources Assoc.! JUly-Aug. 1970. S III technical Filmon, G.A., 1967. An investigation of the diversion of northern orthern rive!',s. Manitoba waters into Lake Winnipeg. University of Manitoba, ~JJf USSR. Winnipeg. ~l{)~le) • Fleming, G., 1970. Sediment balance of Clyde estuary. Jour. of tables. Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Issue 11. E~Ineering ForbesI' P.J. and R.C. Hodges, 1971. New approaches to compre­ hensive planning in Canada. Water Resources Bull., Amer. iq]··l.·of water Water Resou'::ces Assoc. ~ Oct. 1971. itt. u.ssian). H se, Govt. of Canada, 1971. Peace... Athabasca Delta Project ... the problems, proposals and action taken. O.ttawa~ Det.. 1971. ]) Grishanin~ K.V., 1969. Dynamics of channel flow (in Russian). Hydrometeorologic Publishing House" Leningrad. JI 691 JI Grishanin, K.V., 1972. Theory of channel processes (in Russian). r Transport Publishing House, Moscow. I

Hammad, H. Y., 1972. River bed degradation after closure of dams. I Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proc. of "~Jner. Soc. of Civil Engineers, April 1972.

Hollingshead, A.B., 1971. Sediment transport measurements in gravel river. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Nov. 1971.

Johnson, J.G., 1970. State flood-plain management activities. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Oct. 1970.

Kalesnik, S.V., 1968. Ladoga Lake (in Russian). Hydrometeorolo~ gic Publishing House, Leningrad.

Kellerhals, R. and D. Gill, 1972. Downstream effects of large storage projects in northern Canada. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada (for presentation to International Com­ mission on Large Dams, Madrid, June 1973).

Kerr, J.A., 1960. Control of moving ice in the USSR~ The Engineering Journal, Montreal, Feb. 1960.

Kerr, J.A., 1961. Sedimentation and erosion problems in darn construction. Kilborn Engineering, Toronto.

Ker:- > J .. A. , ,J967. Digital computer program series for hydraulic and generation simulation of Manitoba hydrothermal system and water resources investigations. Manitoba Hydro, Winnipeg.

Kerr, J.A., 1971.. Preliminary analysis of surface water availa­ bility. Proe. 14th Congress, Inter. Assoc. of Hyd. Research, Paris, Aug. 1971.

Kerr, J.A., 1972a. Report on effects of diversions to Qu'Appel1e River from Lake Diefenbaker on Saskatchewan River system. Environment Canada., Regina, Apr. 1972.

Kerr, J .. A., 1972b. MUltireservoir analysis techniques in water quantity studies. Water Resources Bull., Amer. Water Resources Assoc., Oct. 1972.

Kerr, J .A. > L. Parmley and Others, 1972. Hydrology and hydraulic control of Peace-Athabasca Delta region. Prepared for Govt. of Alberta, Edmonton, JUne 1972.

692 -

~1: )(

s~in RUSSian). Kuiper, E., 1960. Sediment transport and delta formation. Journal of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers" Feb. 1960. losure of dams. Engineers ~ Kuiper" E. ., 1965. Water resources development. But "erworths, vll London.

Ujf.f•ents in Kuiper, E." 1968. Feasibility of water export. Jour. of Hyd. lIJ Soc. of Div.~ Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers" July 1968. Landine, R.C., 1969. Prediction of dissolved oxygen levels in ivities. the South Saskatchewan River. University of Saskatchewan, vi~ Engineers Saskatoon. ~, . . " Lane, E. W.', 1955. The importance of fluvial morphology in y~ometeorolo_ hydraulic engineering. Journal of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, July 1955.

tMof large Latyshenkov, A.M., 1960. Problems of hydraulics of artificially 't~ f Alberta, constricted char-nels (in Russian). Academy of Construction i 1 Com- and Architecture of USSR, Moscow.

Laycock, A.H., 1971. Interbasin transfer ... the international R~~ The dimension. Water Resources Bull., Amer. Water Resources Assoc., Oct. 1971.

dam Lee, T.M., 1972. Effect of transportation planning on flood­ JI mlfn plain management. ,Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proe. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Mar. 1972. I for hydraulic '" . 1 ~llo~ystem LeFeuvre, A.R., H.D. Altinbilek and M.R.. Carstens, 1970. Sediment-pickup function. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, ISSUf 10. . wa r availa- Liggett, J .A. and K.K. Lee, 1971. Properties of circulation in R~• Res earch, stratified lakes. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Jan. 1971. tillQufAPpelle McNaughton, W., 1957. Sedimentation in Fanshawe Lake - 1953-;;7. er system. Conservation Branch, Govt. of Ontario, Toronto.

Moor, J.B. and C.R. Watson, 1971. P.t-eld tests of ice jam pre­ eJJin water vention techniques. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proc. of Amer. Soc. Water of Civil Engin~ers, June 1971. Moscow University, 1972. Complex investigations of Caspian Sea ! all hydraUlic (in Russian). red for Govt. NegeV, M., 1967. A sediment model on a digital computer. Technical Report No. 76, Dept .• of Ci.vil Engin., Stanford 11 University, USA.

693 <)

Neill, C.R., 1964 (reprinted 1970). River-bed scour. Roads and Transportation Assoc. of Canada, Tech. Publ. No. 23, Ottawa.

Neill, C.R., D.l. Bray, M.F. Schouten and J.R. Card, 1970. Selected characteristics of streamflow in Alberta. River Engin. and Surface Hydrology Report 70-1, Research Council of Alberta~ Edmonton. Nelson, M. L. and D.M. Rockwood, 1971. Flood reg-Illation by Columbia Treaty projects. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Proe. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Jan. 1971 (closure May 1972),

Newsletter, 1970. Water Resources Bull. J American Water ResoUl'ces Assoc., Mar.~Apr., 1970. Perkins, F.E., 1970. Floodplain modeling. Water Resources BUllO) Amer. Water Resources Assoc., May~June 1970.

Perm State University~ 1968. Storage reservoir on Votkinsk Hydro Station on Kama River (in Russian). Laboratory of Water Economy Problems, Perm, USSR.

Popov, 1.V., 1969. Deformation of river channels and hydraulic construction (in Russian). Hydrometeorologic Publishing House, Leningrad. Quebec Press Release, 1972. March to the North. Reclamation, Canadian Water Resources Assoc., Summer 1972. " Rer\i1lieux, M., 1958. Study of improvement of navigability of Niger River between Koulikoro and Segou (in French). National Hydraulics Laboratory, Chatou, France. Saskatchewan-Nelson Basin Board, 1972. Series of reports. Environment CanauJ, Regina. Saskatchewan Water Resources Commission, 1963. Minimum stream­ flow requirements downstream from South Saskatchewan Dam. Regina. Saskatchewan Water Resources Commission, 1968. Report on experi­ mental release of water from Lake Die£enbaker. Regina.

Smith, L.G. J 19~i9. Towards a national water. plan. Irrigation Age, Apr. H;69. Smith, W.O., C.P. Vetter, G.B. Cummings and Others, 1960. Compre­ hensive survey of sedimentation in Lake Mead. U.S. GOyt. Printing Of£ice~ Washington.

694 •

Spafford, G., 1968. Report on Seal River diversion. Prepared ~oads and for Manitoba Hydro, Winnipeg. 23, Ottawa. State Hydrology Institute, 1971. Data on minimum flow pf rivers 11]0. of USSR. Hydrometeorologic Publishing House, Lenhl:;rad at·1 River (partial translation available). ch Council Tas'. Committee on Sedimentation Research Needs Related to Water Quality, 1971. Influences of sedimentation on water quality: JJlbY an inventory of research needs. Journal of Hyd. DiV., Proc. roc. of of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Aug. 1971. ay 1972}. er1 Task Committee for Preparation of Sediml.~~tation Manual, 1971. ater Resources Hydr~ulic relations for alluvial streams. Jour. of Hyd. Div., Pr'.Jc. of Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers" Jan. 1971. esLl:ces aUll •• Task Committee for Preparation of Sedimentation Manual, 1972. Sediment sources and sediment yields. Journal of Hyd. Div., Amer. Soc. of CiVil Engineers. Closure May 1972. ''7l f J . ti .• nsk Hydro of Water Texas Water DeVelopment Board, 1968. The Texas Water Plan. Austin.

.J d ~ JdraUlic Texas Water Development Board, 1971. Simulation of water quality {bhl'Shing in $treams and canals. Report 128, Austin. Timofeev, V.T., 1960. Water masses of Arctic Basin (in Russian). JICIW "tion, Hydrometeorologic Puplishing nouse, Leningrad. Tinney, E.R. and F.J. ',Qninn, 1969. Canada has no moral responsi­ ~ 1~~~J~ty of bility to supply water to arid areas of U.S. Canadian ConSUlting Engineer, Ma.r. 1969. Tureva, V.V., 1969. Fauna - mammals and birds -- in zone of future water reservoir on Pechora River. Publication No. 21 of Komi Branch of Academy of Sciences of USSR, Syktyvkar, Komi ASSR (partial translation available). d!strellm­ he.. n Dam. University af Alberta, 1971. Proceedings of the Peace-Athabasca Delta Symposium. Water Resources Centre, U of A, Edmonton.

rt ~n e:x.peri­ U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1968. Annual Report of Hydrologic Regina. Engineering Center. California. It' 19ation U.S. Water Resources Council, 1972. 1975 national and regional , J assessments. National Programs and Assessment Committee, Washington. 19"~.' Compre-­ U. I Govt. , J

695 tl {I -

Vladimirov, A.M., 1969. Minimum flows of rivers of USSR. Hydro­ meteorologic Publishing House, Leningrad (partia.l translation ava11a.ble).

White, W.A •., L•. F~ Tischler and T.AJ. Austin, 1972. Water quality prediction within an interbasin transfer system. Water Resources BUll., AIDer. Water Resources Assoc., June 1972.

Wolman; A., 1970. Multiple purpose river development. Jour. of American Water Works Assoc., Feb. 1970.

Znamenskaya, N.S., 1967. C~1culatiQn of maximum possible depth of channel erosion. M..~teorology and Hydrology, No. 4 (translatio11 availabl~.I.

''''i •

696 u c

Mo:f-;USSR. Bydro­ GENERAL DISCUSSION 1_lr1 al translation NEIL VAN DER GUGTEN 1 disagree with the statement made by Mr. Kerr conc€:rning ateT quality the downstream effects of W.A.C. Bennett Dam. The actual adverse Water effects thus far observed have been limited to navigation and pos­ June 1972. sibly some trapping and fishing while the effects on big ~ame and wildfowl have been beneficial, due to reduced flooding. Flooding t. Jour. of formerly swept away many nests, and also was responsible for some I larger .. "dmals drowning each year (Peace - Athabasca Delta P:roj ect "' t 1972 Summary Report). The way of life of the natives of the are:!, sible depth particularly with respect to trapping and fishing, is subject to No.4 many influences> of which lower water levels is only one. For exam­ ple, compulsory schooling prevents young people from trapping along wit]l their fatl\ers, and learning the trupping skills. Also, in­ creased social Welfare has reduced the attractiveness of tTapping as a means of income. Much of the discussion concerning the effects of W.A.C. Bennett Dam has been of a speculative and hypothetical nature, and as yet there is little clear evidence of what the adverse effects have been. Much more basic data is needed befOTe definite conclu­ sion can be made. J.A. KERR It has been shown beyond all doubt that the regulation of the Peace River by means of upstream storage caused major downstream changes in flows and ''later levels. In the Peace-Athabasca delta area.. these changes ,were pronounced to the degree that a new vege­ tation pattern less suited to animal life was ~volving; that tlLe negative effects on fish, muskrats and oeher forms of Ilfe were extremely serious; and that the fishing .. trapping, hunting and related activities of the native people living in the aTea suffered. Factors such as haVing to go miles further into a lake to obtain fish and having fur catches reduced are difficult to evaluate in economic te1'ms, because the pToducts of such activity are of gr~at importance in the livelihood of the residents of the area yet small in monetaTy terms on the national scale. The main lesson to be learned here is that the difficulties were not foreseen and avoided before they occur1'ed; s11ch mistakes should not be repeated in the future.