Meeting the Qualifying Court on the Day of the Date, the Student

F I N A L W O R K O F M A S T E R

RECORD OF THE MASTER F I NA L EXAM E

S Meeting the Qualifying Court on the day of the date, the student:

A Mr/Mrs.

L presented his Master’s Final Project in Integrated Architecture Project, which dealt about the following topic:

T Finished the presentation and answered by the student the objections made by

the members of the Court, the named Work was assessed with a qualification of:

A Barcelona

VOCAL VOCAL F

PRESIDENT OF THE COURT

STUDENT: UTHMAN HANNAFI BAMALLI SPEAKING TEACHER: C

S C H O O L O F A R C H I T E C T U R E L A S A L L E S

RETHINKING & RESUSCITATING HAUSA-LAND DOMESTIC VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE - KANO, A CITY STATE (GIDAJEN HAUSA NA KANO)

UTHMAN HANNAFI BAMALLI | MASTER THESIS | 03-07-2020

LA SALLE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE RAMON LLULL UNIVERSITY , BARCELONA 2020 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my parents Alh. Nu’umanu Hannafi Bamalli & Khadijah Hannafi Bamalli Thank you For all Your Sacrifices

& The Starving/Dying African and Hausaman, Your History Is Too Complex And Rigid For Some Critics. Keep Surviving Against All Odds.

In The Name of Allah, The Most Beneficient, The Most Merciful. Rise and Prosper Once Again. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 3.5 PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF A KANO HOUSE

1.1 AIM OF STUDY 3.5.1 CONSTRUCTION TYPES AND MATERIALS

1.2 GEOGRAPHY & BACKGROUND OF THE HAUSA-LAND 3.5.2 MOTIF DECORATIONS AND AESTHETIC ELEMENTS

1.3 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN AFRICA 4. CONCLUSION

1.4 THESIS FORMAT 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

2. CONNOTATIONS IN HAUSALAND

2.1. CULTURAL REPRESENTATION IN ARCHITECTURE

2.2. HAUSA ART AND SYMBOLISM

2.3. THE TRIPLE HERITAGE CONCEPT

2.4. COLOR REPRESENTATION

3. CASE STUDY - KANO, A CITY STATE (Garin kano)

3.1. KANO-A CITY STATE IN THE HAUSA-LAND

3.2 SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE OF A HAUSA SOCIETY

3.3 KANO URBAN FORMATION (GROWTH OF A CITY)

3.3.1 THE NORTHERN SECTOR

3.3.2 THE EASTERN SECTOR

3.3.3 THE SOUTHERN SECTOR

3.3.4 THE WESTERN SECTOR

3.4 A TYPICAL DOMESTIC KANO HOUSE ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The continent of Africa flourishes with numerous native architecture that do more or I have to first give thanks to the almighty Allah who made writing this piece possible. less have some similarities been built out of mud. The traditional Hausa architecture The lengthy researches, endless phone calls and sleepless nights. Writing this could not stands out unique amongst them all due to it’s detailed characteristics of construction be achieved without his wisdom bestowed upon me to. techniques, decorations, colors and structural configuration. I Would like to give thanks to my academic father and tutor for letting me pursue this Although there have been some researches about the Hausa architecture, mostly were research and guiding me on how to document all that i have gathered and putting to- focused on monumental buildings, such as the royal palaces and mosques. But this gether bits and pieces of a topic that barely had the attention it deserves. This is for you study aims at focusing on the domestic architecture of Kano, a city state. The city of Prof. Marc Manzano. Kano, is the biggest city of Kasar Hausa (Hausaland). Kano being the capital of the Hausa kingdom, until the merger of northern Nigeria and finally the amalgamation of the I would also like to thank Malam Abdullahi of Gidan Makama Museum as well for taking eastern, western and southern hemispheres to what we know today as Nigeria, is rich his precious time to school me about the building techniques and the history of Kano, in history and culture. the city state and all the data he shared with me from the archives of the museum. Na- gode (Thank You) malam Abdullahi. This study will be highlighting how the socio-cultural way of life of the Hausa’s had a great influence in their domestic architecture and all the influences it has had over the To my dearest uncle, Baba Sammani, Thank you for taking me around the city of Kano, past centuries. gathering data in the peak heat time of the year. To my brother Mubarak, my cousin Usman, Thank you for helping me in capturing images i needed during this research. I The Hausa architecture has predominantly been influenced by external cultures which appreciate all the help i have received from these people as this research has made be are highly represented on the decorations, usage of colors and materiality. But due to become a very proud Hausa native man and a citizen of Nigeria. westernization and colonialism, it has lost some of it’s identity in today’s architecture in the Hausaland. 6 7 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 AIM OF STUDY And the final chapter will be talking about the impact and of the Hausa architecture due to the invent of colonialism took and how it lead to the downturn of the cherished ver- To understand the purpose of this study, one has to understand that mankind learned to nacular architecture of the hausaland. live and survive with any available material present to build, shelter and reflect it’s local tradition in the best way possible. This in architecture, is called domestic architecture. This study is focusing on the neglected traditional Hausa land architecture to not only And the era mankind lived with the way of using what it had for building and construct- the western world but to Africans as well whom are finding it hard to believe such archi- ing a shelter for him and his family in is what is termed today as Vernacular Architecture. tecture came from the dark continent and with the advent of modern materials, people do stay away from it and rather go with the modern ways. But that aside, by studying The loss of the African architecture came into play during the colonial era as much other the traditional architecture of the hausaland, a rebirth into the 21st century could be aspects which have all been influenced by Euro-centric standards of way of life.1 The achieved and with the usage of modern materials, some ideas from the creative builders continent of Africa is brimful with unknown indigenous architecture which the western of the past could be implemented in the lost domestic architecture of the hausaland and world knows little about or basically just refers to it as vernacular Architecture. As Su- give a neglected heritage a well deserved appreciation in the 21st century hausaland san Denyer stated in her book: (kasar Hausa)

“The myth of darkest Africa is persistent and there are still many peo- 1.2 GEOGRAPHY & BACKGROUND OF THE HAUSA-LAND ple who find it difficult to accept that the traditional buildings of the Situated on the gulf of guinea, bottom west of Africa, Nigeria spans a total area of continent merit more than passing consideration . One only has to 923,768 km2 (356,669 sq mi), stretching 1,064 km (661 mi) from North to South and consider for a moment the vocabulary used to refer to them to realize 1,127 km (700 mi) from East to west2 A very well diverse nation with a population of that even for those who know and respect other aspects of African estimate 200 million people, with over 400 ethnic groups speaking over 300 languages. culture, it is hard to avoid being down into a web of selective and dis- However, the most dominant ethnic groups are the Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo4. A country torted perception”.1 with mainly two religions, into the north with mainly Muslims and to the south constitut- ing Christians. This quote by Susan Denyer in her book, African traditional architecture, lives on within the western world in the 21st century and this is what this research will be addressing Kasar Hausa (Hausaland) covers a considerate part of northern Nigeria, southern re- in lieu to domestic architecture of the Hausaland (kasar Hausa). public of Niger, Chad, Cameroon and Ghana. The Hausawa (the speakers of the Hausa language), are arguably the most important cultural group in Africa, south of the Sahara The first chapter of this research will give a preview on domestic architecture in west and certainly the most populous3. The Hausa language, as the language of commerce Africa, and how the architecture of the Hausaland came into existence and all it’s influ- and enterprise, is the most widely spoken language in the whole of Africa other than Ar- ences from other cultures in respect to structural configuration, ornamental design and abic and English. . More importantly the Hausa have been famous for their architectural spatial segregation which reflects into the domestic architecture. The second chapter forms; their construction techniques and their wall structure and decorations. Building will be focusing on the connotations of the Hausaland architecture in terms of building mainly with molded clay. The Hausa builders are the only ones in the entire West African style, art representation,and color usage and what they do represent to the culture . The Savannah to fully develop the art of construction with adobe. Not only that, they, excel third chapter will be examining one major Hausa city, Kano, the city state. Being the in the use of sculptural relief for both the interior and exterior of faces of buildings. Early capital of the Hausa kingdom is the reason why Kano was chosen as the case study for Hausa social and political organization was centered mainly around the bimi (walled it’s characteristics. town or city) which usually contains a self-sufficient united communities by commerce and industry. By the end of the first millennium seven such cities have become well established and strong enough to be the Centre of all subsequent 1 Susan Denyer, African traditional architecture (New York: Africana Publishing Company) 2 Oluwagbemiga Paul Agboola and Modi Sule Zango, ‘Development of Traditional Architecture in Nigeria: A Case Study of Hausa House Form.’ International Journal of African Society Cul- tures and Traditions Vol.1, No.1 (2014) 3 Strictly speaking, the Hausa’s are not an ethnicity but rather a linguistic group of people 8 9 Hausa development. One of these cities is the city of Kano considered by some to be the military and economic hub Centre of Kasar Hausa (Hausa Land)2. The other six cities that constitute what is known in Hausa as “Hausa bakwai” are; Birom (Hadeija), Gobir, Daura, Rano, Katsina, Zazzau (zaria) and Kano. A myth surrounding the Hausa society proposes the Hausaland was said to have evolved from the seven Hausa states founded by the family of a man called Bayyajidda4. The folklore states that Bayyajidda traveled to Daura where he killed a snake from a well called “kusugu” that had prevent- ed people drawing water from the well. He then married the queen of Daura and his children became the fathers of the seven Hausa seven states.

The mass of Hausa architecture are in the form of normal domestic houses. For instance, in the old city of kano, it was estimated (Trevallion 1967:47) that in 1962 there were about 28,000 domestic houses. Unfortunately, to date, there is no single com- prehensive data that deals in depth with the domestic architecture of the city. What is known about the Hausa domestic architecture is through works of discipline in anthropology, archeology, art appreciation, economics, general architecture, E.T.C.

The first work of Hausa architecture to get recognized is the manual ofDaldy published in 1941. In this book, the construction materials and techniques (including a vocabulary and terms) used by the Hausa master builders were thoroughly described and made clear upon. Despite the acknowledgment of the skilled builders and unique techniques they used, the writer never considered it to be an architectural work. This is seen clearly from the title of the work5. From all indications, the author deemed the expenditure more as way to preserve the works rather than appreciating the architecture.

Fig 1.1. Map Showing The Location Of Nigeria In Africa

4. Maimuna Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In Traditional Hausa Architecture Of Northern Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, 2016).` 5. The work is titled “Temporary Buildings in Northern Nigeria”. Some of the buildings are still being maintained by the Public works Department in kano were over 200 years old. 10 11 1.3 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN AFRICA

Domestic architecture has always been a fundamental key element which accommodates the family. it is what defines who we are by giving us the freedom to decorate our spaces to our personal tastes. Nevertheless, domestic architecture has always been treated as the smallest segment of architecture in research history both carried out by architects and historians. An example of this study is Pevsner’s book titles “A history Of Building Types” published in 1976 didn’t cover any topic regarding domestic architecture. Certainly, Pevsner must have had his reasons for not including domestic ALGERIA architecture in his study.

The term vernacular architecture has come into acknowledgment lately at the beginning

Agades of the century specifically with the English rural form of architecture. This term however was not in respect of architectural detailing. An example is from Nuttgeens where he MALI NIGER says ; “A well thought out and proved junction between, say, two materials or between a wall and a roof corner, or the solution of a valley in the roof and the ridge can, if extend- Tahoua

Filangue Damagaran (Zinder) ed throughout the whole building , become the basis of design.” or “ if the solution to a

Malankan detailed problem could lead to a style the way that detail is solved suggests whether the

Dogon Duchi Magaria architecture is good or bad, true or untrue, valid or invalid.” (Nuttgens 1988. :42-43)1. Daura (katsina)

Birnin Kebbi Kano Domestic architecture has always been a concern for geographers that related the hu- Birnin Kudu Zaria man abode to geographical and technical factors (Guidoni 1978; Duly, 1979), or rather

Birnin Gwari addressed as a pursuit of ecology, almost excluding the socio-cultural factors. Anthro- Dirmin Yawuri Bauchi NIGERIA Jos pologist were amongst the first to give recognition to local architecture, especially hous- Bussa ing. This is to understanding every beginning of a civilization. This why with the emer- BENIN River Niger gence of African indigenous architecture, the subject that was first taken into account River Benue was the context of the habitations in lieu to anthropology architects, whom are very much acquainted with the importance of local architecture as “an index to the structure of the family occupying it” (Fortes 1949:50), rather than architects. HAUSA AS FIRST LANGUAGE CAMEROON Non- pedigree architecture became much more relevant at the end of the modern move-

1 HAUSA AS SECOND LANGUAGE ment back in the late of 1960s (Nuttgens 1988. :42-43) . Theoretically, this movement was supposed to improve social status of the masses as much as that of the privileged. Essentially, it was supposed to provide architecture for all at lowest possible cost with the use of the technology available. However, by the beginning of the 1960’s all be- Fig 1.2. Map Showing Kasar Hausa (Hausaland) came clearer that it was just an architecture of social concern without understanding the group aimed at serving.

1 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997).`

12 13 As a result of this failed endeavor, this led to critical comments and criticism made my One of the pioneering works and probably the most influential to instigate a strong professional architects. However, a new research emerged towards finding another the- case study of the non-western architecture and environment was the work of the Amos ory of architecture through understanding the socio-cultural terms in which it originated. Rapport, House Form and Culture (1969). The bases of Rapport’s work is the link Researchers started having a new insight on how architecture as a domain is been seen between built form of a given space and the behavioral aspect of the society. He also towards a new idea to what Rudofsky (1965) named, “architecture without architects”; distinguished between the faults of the theories produced regarding the forms of the visualizing architecture not as we know it but rather as a tool to solving the socio-cul- spaces and the environment in lieu to climate and materialism to social factors of se- tural wants of the users. curity and income. This concluded that the form of a house is not just the result of the natural forces, but rather the impact of the whole socio-cultural factors. As a result of this movement, African “vernacular” architecture began drawing attention towards study academically. Although other forms of African art have always been Hausa architecture has been seen as a unique art from the other forms of African in- subjects of study (sculptures). However, the African ‘vernacular” architecture was aca- digenous architecture, simply because of it’s building techniques, ornamentations and demically disregarded. The reason for this was, it couldn’t be defined or explained the- architectural elements. However, Hausa architecture surveyors have mainly focused on oretically. The first issue here is definition. “What is architecture? The strongest model mosques, palaces and a few standout houses. But the majority of what makes up a defined architecture in terms of permanence, monumentality and originality. Albeit, only culture or a society are the domestic houses. Not just in regards to Hausa architecture a portion of the built environment fits the definition in any means be it modern or -an but to the architectural world in totality. Because that’s what accommodates the people cient. (Rapport 1969; Pevsner 1976; Oliver 1987)1. regardless of any city. Rome wasn’t built in a day so as Hausa architecture.

Secondly, a concern of most architects, anthropologist, psychologist and sociologist The aim of this study is to study the lost Hausa Architecture. It will mainly focus on Hau- etc has been the relationship between building and occupants. The third point focused sa domestic architecture from what was scavenged from the older major urban cities of on making a transition to rich building materials, thus deemed for lasting for a long time the Hausa kingdom. As every major city in Africa came into existence from building it or even be preserved as part of the history and antiquity of architecture. up by the indigenous people of the land, Hausa architecture composes of several forms and origins to what it is known of today. Two cities will be the case studies as we go on, Lastly, there is the topic of conquering people’s land and as a result, African indigenous The old urban city of Kano and the old urban city of Zaria. architecture was regarded as “primitive”. This has become inbuilt that it seems difficult to people and Africans inclusive, that there is an African architecture worthy of being One could say the Hausa houses have never been studied in toto. So the layouts and studied and shared with the globe defining the past glorious times and the intellect the even the socio-cultural behavior of the people could be little known. For example, the people carried towards achieving what is now know or referred to as “Vernacular Archi- generic layout and different forms of the house might oppose to the original layouts of tecture”. the Hausa’s and how they lived. Two things might have lead to this: African indigenous architecture began coming into the spotlight academically rather 1. Perhaps, the Hausa’s never bothered to document their works than how it has been treated previously as an anthropological view. This was in lieu 2. Colonialism might have somehow destroyed all evidences to what we know of searching for physical factors, climate, topography, construction materials and the today of Hausa Architecture. height of technology used. The surveys were so enormous that they had to generalize and categorize the results into regions despite the rich diversity of cultures, an example Understanding the domain of an ordinary Hausa man/woman is the driven force behind alone of the rich diversity is that of northern Nigeria. Which brings us to today as we this work, thus focusing on the two major cities of the Hausa kingdom. It is to address lack so much insight regarding the African architecture in totality. And in particular, the the minute differences of two major cities flying the flag of a single Kingdom. indigenous domestic architecture.

1 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997).`

14 15 The old city state of Kano was chosen mainly for the below reasons; AN ABANDONED HOUSE a. Kano represents an example of what is a homogeneous Hausa environment I was once a happy place teeming with life, Loved and cared for by the ones who created me

b. Kano is very rich in history and excellence. One can argue that Kano I stood through the hottest days surpasses Zaria in excellence and glory. Nevertheless, both are seen as And the coldest nights. From hurricanes to tornadoes powerful citadels of the Hausa kingdom in Northern Nigeria. i always stood in the light.

c. Arguably, post colonial impact is visibly seen in the urban growth of Kano and i protected my makers with everything i had, other Hausa state cities. A good portion of Kano is still intact and so is Zaria. From robbers to murderers, And wild animals to bite. Not much has changed since the initial approach to surveying the cities. But then i was sold. Nevertheless, Kano was not chosen because it’s unique or better in displaying the My masters disappeared. i was heartbroken, urban characteristics of Hausa kingdom. The other Hausa cities do portray as much or Lost and abandoned in my grief. even better characteristics than Kano. i waited and hoped on my desolate hill Begging and pleading to be loved once more.

In time i changed. Becoming old and broken. My hope washed away in the sea of despair.

My doors are out of hinges The windows cracked by stray balls Painted peeled off my fences And weeds dominating the gardens

i am a house that was once loved by my caring masters. But now i am empty Void of what was perfect.

i sit patiently upon that old hill, Waiting, waiting, until i am noticed.

Soon.

(An Abandoned House: Athena Owl-2014)

16 17 18 19 2. CONNOTATIONS IN HAUSALAND 2.1 CULTURAL REPRESENTATION IN ARCHITECTURE 2.2 HAUSA ART AND SYMBOLISM

Every civilization started from somewhere and beliefs that defined who they are. Under- Art has always been a tool for representing power, governance and authority. It also standing the term culture is essential for this chapter as it solely deals with the norms speaks about the artist1 and what message is been passed on. As most art represen- and life of the Hausa people. So, what is culture?. Culture is term used that defines a tations do try to capture the aesthetic elements of political significance, Hausa archi- certain group of people based on their social behavior and norms based in their soci- tecture falls into the same notion. This notion is well represented in the Hausa architec- eties. It encompasses their beliefs, art, laws, customs and behavior of the individuals ture2,. As discussed in the previous chapter, cultural/ religious symbolism is very much based on that society1. emphasized in Hausa architecture, especially with the advent of Islam in the region. Be it from buildings, to kitchen utensils, clothing and so on. Historically, humanity has always associated communicating who they are through graphics and forms. Architecture dates back to the late stone age, hunters gathering Islamic art tends to be full of abstraction, decorations and floral patterns3. The patterns for food, building up structures with mammoth bones, mural paintings in caves and so and colors in Hausa architecture borrowed this idea and are well emphasized as a form on. This was a way in which we wanted to leave our legacies to the coming generation of spirituality but not directly. The art work tends to transcend with time, space, lan- about who we are. As we evolved, our structures evolved with us and the advent of guage and culture. agriculture began. Other significant factors that lead to the expansion of humanity to different places can be traced to commerce and religion. This expansion began portraying A heraldic element that transcends all is that which represents the Hausa people. An symbolic definitions as well functionality. emblem that is proudly worn by the Hausa’s and when seen from afar can be affiliated Generally, we can define symbolism into these four categories. Which are: with the Hausa People. The symbol in Hausa language is called Dagi or also known as a. Behavioral symbolism the northern knot. The symbol is a stretched diamond with four sides, over the diamond b. Culture/ Religion2 symbolism are two ellipses intersecting in loops 4. It is a motif that represents the people of the c. Commercial/ Economic symbolism Hausaland. It is so important that it became the nationally recognised emblem of North- d. Leadership symbolism ern Nigeria and was worn on every occasion by the statesmen of Alhaji Ahmadu Bello, the first post colonial premier of Northern Nigeria. Hausa architecture is been said to have several influences from the North Africans An- dalusian’s to the early Egyptian Jews. There is no concrete evidence as to where the The Hausa’s have used the Dagi motif in many variations. Be it in geometrical form, ab- Hausa’s originally did come from. All that can be confirmed is the spread of Islam came stract form or even arabesque form as a representational tool of identity. The methodol- into the Hausaland in the early 14th century Malian Empire in which most adopted the ogy of using lines and patterns in the north surpassed just the emblem but still remains Islamic belief and the minority that didn’t remained pagans. These group of people were present in crafts making, clothing, pottery and as the most powerful tool in architecture called Maguzawa or Bunjawa. which will be discussed in the coming chapters.

For this research, we will be focusing on the cultural/ religious symbolism category as The origin of the Dagi is still unknown till date. Some believe that it came from the influ- this is very much stated in the Hausa architecture. This comes in forms, patterns, and ence of North Africans whom at that time were a Christendom nation. Northern Africa spatial distribution. had a huge influence with the Hausa’s as they were into the trans Saharan trade. Per- haps during this endeavor, it found it’s way into the society and they adopted.

The other part of pond believes that the knot has an influence from Judaism. There have been numerous discoveries of the Judaic presence in the Hausaland. The genealogy

1 The artist in this case is the society. Could be an individual as well. 1 Tylor, Edward. (1871). Primitive Culture. Vol 1. New York: J.P. Putnam’s Son 2 Domestic and non domestic architecture in the Hausa land often carry out symbolism 2 Historically, since the advent of Islam, the Hausaland has intertwined it’s culture with religion 3 Floral patterns in Islamic architecture signify peace. 3 Literal translation of maguzawa from the Hausa language is someone who doesn’t believe in 4 Beverly B Mack, Muslim Women Sing, 1st ed.(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004): any supreme piety 22 20 21 of Jewish past Hausa leaders are mentioned in the several books of researchers. To support the claim, stories have been told by the elders of the Hausaland and the stories believe to say that Hausawa5 migrated from a place called Nubian. This is a place situated between Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt 500 A.D under the rule of the Ethi- opian empire. These people were believed to be Jewish in lieu to where they migrated from and ended up in northern Nigeria. Later on, they were conquered by Sheikh Usman Dan-fodiyo who established the Islamic caliphate in the 19th century and what brought the Hausawa under on flag which is Islam. There is no proof to this notion as well, but it stands out to be the most authentic of both speculations. They are many claims to this theory actually, but as this is not the subject this chapter is dwelling on, we won’t be getting into that.

Fig 2.2. The Star Of David Fig 2.3. The Northern Knot Overlapped With The Star Of David

Fig 2.1. The Northern Knot (Dagi)

Fig 2.4. The Northern Knot Represented On The Jigawa Emir Palace

5 Hausawa is the acronym giving to people that belong to the Hausa tribe

22 23 2.3 THE TRIPLE HERITAGE CONCEPT Africa. The call came in through the North because of the presence of the water2. There has been a long relationship with the Arabs in terms of trade and that’s how the spread To understand the complexity of African architecture, one needs to understand how the of the religion came into existence. Now, in the north, they have adopted the language religious, colonial and indigenous aspects of civilizations molded the continent of Africa. and the religion. But down south of the continent, the people embraced the religion but To understand this concept, we must dive in to the mind of a renowned academician not the language. Make no mistake, Christianity was present in Ethiopia long before the whom solely dedicate his study to understanding the continent and it’s roots . Prof. Ali arrival of Islam. But the influence of buildings and culture of known old Africa is affiliated Al’amin Mazrui (may Allah rest his soul), was a Kenyan born American political writer with the intervention of Islam. on African and Islamic studies incorporated with the northern and southern relations. Now to the west. The west arrived to the continent in the early 15th century in the To understand what triple heritage means, we need to first define what heritage is. The name of textile trade. However, the exploration of the continent began when Henry term “Heritage” can be defined as the features belonging to the culture of a particular the Navigator of Portugal realized the vast wealth and the weakness of the people to group of people or society created in the past and still holding a historical importance his advantage, and so began the transatlantic slave trade that we have come to know (Cambridge English Dictionary, 2020). This concept highlights mainly three aspects in about. However, we need to understand why and when the west decided to colonize which he defined them as; the continent. During the exploration period, the Suez canal determined where the con- a. Traditional Africa tinent ended. This was a strategy of the west to divide and conquer and to escape the b. Islam industrialization taken place in their various lands. Their arrival came in with their cul- c. The west1 tures as well and way of life which was imposed on the Africans. Now with time gone by, These three concepts are very much seen in the Hausa architecture. The stages at it merged and blended with the two exiting cultures already existing of Traditional Africa which the architecture has changed is unknown. Aside traditional Africa, the major influ- and Islam. Thus becoming the triple heritage influence. ence in culture and architecture is Islam. Islam has been intertwined with the continent 1000 years before the west arrived. Now back to Hausa architecture and how all the analysis of Prof Ali Mazrui influenced the architecture and the culture of the people. Hausa architecture first had it’s encounter The earliest remains of humanity can be found in Africa. Thus giving it the crown of with Islam through the Saharan caravan routes. Perhaps the medieval Sudanic empires being the cradle of mankind. Traditionally, Africans have always chosen to stay close migration at the time such as, the Kanem empire, Mali empire and the rest made the to nature and kept themselves in isolation with what they have. They took interest in intervention of the know Hausa architecture of today. They are quite a lot of similarities the oceans for sustenance of course, but they never had the interest to know what was whilst comparing the Ancient Egyptian architecture to thats of the Sub-Sahara. The use beyond the horizon (Empty Set Productions, 2017). For a typical African, if he has what of adobe or mud pretty much the primary element that stands out, exterior stair-casing, to eat all year long, feed his family and has a place to lay his head on at night, that is heavy metallic doors for the palaces and wooden doors for the domestic houses, sky- sustenance for him. light and courtyard system. One might argue they are different styles entirely, and yes they might be different but the system is pretty much similar. This could have been from The subject of having one single deity to an African is not something new. The belief of the connection between the Hausa’s coming the Jewish land next to Egypt and fusing other deities on the other hand existed but in many forms. Take for an example, the pyr- with the Sudanic empires islamic influence3. The major influence in the Architecture of amids which represented immortality of ancient pharaohs. In this instance, the human the Hausas came when the mali empire occupied northern Nigeria in the 14th Century. and the divine are one (Empty Set Productions, 2017). In Nigeria, the spirits of ances- With this advent, the Hausa people started building mosques and remodeling their ways tors are recalled back in masked ceremonies vis a vis virgin Mary to God to the roman of life to that of the principles if Islam. Catholics. Then came in Islam in the seventh century with the cry of “God is great”. This was when the first Islamic Arabs came to spread the language of Arabic through North

1 The west here is referring to the colonial powers. 2 The Mediterranean and red sea at the north and east made it easier to reach the country. 3 Nnamdi Elleh, African Architecture, 1st ed. (New York; Mcgraw-Hill, 1997) :47

24 25 As we move on forward, you will see how the triple heritage reflected in the Hausa ar- 2.4 COLOR REPRESENTATION chitecture both ornamentally and spatially as well. The Hausa always had their pagan culture in their form of art and representation. However, the advent of the west and Islam There are mainly two aspects in the Hausa culture that do tend not to be studied well on. forged a way into how they now design and adapted all the aspects into their way of These aspects are the color terms and color symbolism. Thanks to the brilliant work of life4. Pauline M. Ryan we can share some light regarding the neglected areas of the Hausa culture. The perception of colors dates back to the stone ages. Humanity understood One thing to note is the western influence in northern Nigeria if fairly recent. Northern the three main colors which are: red, white and black. Red signifies danger or in some Nigeria succumbed to colonialism in the early 20th century which brought what we other cultures, it signifies power. Black gives the perception of something being evil or call today as modernization. Which includes, building materials, western education and full of negative energy surrounding it. While as white represent peace and tranquility. re-modified building style. The Hausa empire has been an independent power for quite a long time and has resisted being conquered quite a long period of time. Pauline M. Ryan broke down the colors into two main categories which are primary and secondary colors. The primary group consists of colors which are generally used by all. The group consists of fari, baki, ja and kore which in English terms are white, black, red and green1. With the exception of green which sometimes could be absent from the common usage of colors in the Hausa culture. These primary colors are used in every single aspect of Hausa culture, be it literature or art. Now the secondary group, the secondary group of colors are more or less a combination of either four primary colors, and the secondary colors are rarely used. Sometimes either one of the secondary group is used more than the other. Some of the secondary group colors are shudi, rawaya and shuniyya. In English terms, Blue, yellow and purple1. These colors can be seen quite often in the Hausa wall ornamentations, mostly in the royal palaces, mosques and in domestic houses sometimes as well. We will be discussing the ornamentations in the coming chapters.

Fig 2.5. Hausa Soldiers At The Colonial Battle Field, Kano, 1903 The perception of colors have also been interpreted in the Hausaland one way or the other. In Hausaland, Blacks denotes the general culture of color perception as an evil color and white represents vice-versa. White is called Fari in the Hausa language and it symbolizes goodness. For example, the Hausa’s say farinciki, in literal translation, it means ‘white stomach’ which is used to in saying, i am happy. Farin jini is another term used, literal translation, ‘white blood’ which denotes someone whom is lovable in a place or a community2. Another term used by the Hausa’s for color representation is jar fata, in literal translation it means “Red skin”. This terms is mainly associated with a white person based on his or her character and culture towards the Hausa’s rather than the color of his skin. The color red in Hausa culture sometimes is perceived with authority and power if the portrayer displayed some negative qualities. Some other colors like Blue, green and yellow are associated with Islam. Blue represents the Islamic Fig 2.6. Hausa Soldiers Charging Towards, The British Army, Kano, community, green represents the colour of the prophet and religion which is peace and 1903

4 Maimuna Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In Traditional Hausa Architecture Of Northern 1 Pauline M. Ryan, “Color Symbolism In Hausa Literature”, Journal Of Anthropological Re- Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, 2016).` search 32, No. 2 (1976): 141 2 Maimuna Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In Traditional Hausa Architecture Of Northern Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, 2016).` 26 27 tranquility and yellow represents royalty. Simply because it has the tone of the golden colour2. The use of colors is quite important in the Hausa culture and it says it all when you see their attire, art, architecture and even literature. The Hausa’s are known to be a proverbial culture.

Fig 2.7. Hausa Horse Riding Boots Fig 2.8. Inside Gidan Makama Museum, Kano

Fig 2.9. Dutse Emir Palace With Dagi Motifs, Jiga- Fig 2.10. Dutse Emir Palace With Dagi Motifs, wa Jigawa

Fig 2.11. Hausa Horse Riders During The Durbar Fig 2.12. Inside Kano Emir Palace, Kano Festival Of Eid, Kano Fig 2.13. HRH Emir of Kano, Muhammadu Sunusi II, In His Royal Attire Holding the Royal Spear featuring the Dagi Motifs On His Dress

28 29 30 31 3. CASE STUDY- KANO, A CITY STATE 3.1KANO-A CITY STATE IN THE HAUSA-LAND a very big impact and significance on the socio-cultural way of life pre-islamic times. Islam had a huge impact in changing most of the cultural ways of life of the Hausa’s, Kasar Hausa (Hausaland) is situated in a considerable part of Northern Nigeria and ranging from their outlooks, educational system, literacy development in what is known southern Niger republic. The Hausa speakers are the most important ethnic group and as escape from jahilliyah3, re-modified laws, trade, administration and many more other arguably the most important tribe in Africa south of the Sahara. There’s an argument things affiliated with the teachings of Islam. It is commonly known that Islam reached whether Hausa is an ethnic group or a linguistic group. Others do take them to be both the Hausaland after the fall of the Songhai4 empire in the early 14th century. However, based on language and cultural background. A more emphasized analysis consider the the wave of immigrants and the sub Saharan business men from the north in the early Hausa’s to be culture based in terms of religion over language which as explained in 10th century also influenced the arrival of Islam to the Hausaland. the second chapter of this document has been an influence to not only the Hausa’s but rather all ethnic groups that have existed and still do exist. At the downturn of the 12th century, the ruling power of the state known as the Sarauta system assumed a steadfast establishment of ruling the Hausaland. The highest power Kano state was formerly known as Kano city is the capital of the Hausa kingdom. Situat- in this monarchy system was is known as sarki whom resides in the states capital and ed in the south of the sahelian geographic region is the Centre of commerce of Northern had his dukes and lords spread around the kingdom. He was supported by several Nigeria and the second largest state both in terms land mass and population. With a chieftains and law makers that serve him advisors and councilors. For example, the city population of about 2,828,861 as at 2016. of Kano known as the ninth member king or formally known as Tara-ta-Kano carefully selected based on their portfolios. Being one of the chieftains was not solely restricted Kano state is said to be found by a blacksmith named “Kano” which is his honour the to the members of the royal family, being an important figure or slave could get you a city was named after him. Archaeologists found stone tools used in building the city place in the royal chamber. walls during the reign of the king of the city at the time, King Gajemasu and dates back between 1095-1134 AD 1. However, this theory is more of a myth. What is generally The system of administration worked in a way that appointees were designated to dis- accepted is at the turn of 14th century, Kano grew to be a vibrant and powerful settle- tricts of uneven sizes and every important appointee is designated as a district head or ment. At some point in time, the Kano urban area consisted of six settlements which known as hakimi. The Districts consisted of numerous towns ruled by an administrator defined the landscape of today’s Kano. The focal points of these six settlements were or formally known as Dagaci. The towns then are made up of wards or unguwowi which between Dala Hill and Jakara river. It is said that the settlers were mainly hunters and is led by a ward head or known as maiunguwa. The heads of the wards are the most blacksmiths. Their specialty in blacksmithing were mainly smithing and iron smelting. prominent members of the Hausa ruling system as they are the eyes and ears and know the nooks and crany of their various wards albeit the people in the wards as well. The Kano is known to be a very hot-dry climatic region. Temperatures are generally mild and extent of how important they are to the monarchy is a ward head knows the what the range between 25-30 degrees with more or less no precipitation 2. job of every single individual in his ward and what he owns, how many cattle or don- keys does an individual have. How many kids does an individual have. And many more The urban area of Kano is geographically know as the Sudan Savannah vegetation. details associated to his ward. From all that has been said, the hierarchy goes as such, Consisting of spread medium sized trees and mimosa grasses that grow as high as 2 maiunguwa reports to the Dagaci, Dagaci reports to Hakimi, Hakimi is the last strand metres. The city of Kano has one of the most fertile soils in Africa due to its high water and the final spokesperson to Sarki. containment despite the dry humid weather condition. Also, a known fact about Kano is , the land is very suiting to animal husbandry and it is a tsetse-fly free land which is very common pandemic affecting the western part of the African continent.

The coming of Islam and its adoption as the religion of the state of the Hausa’s had a

1 The Editors Of Encyclopedia Brittanica (2019) , Kano. In Brittanica Encyclopedia, Retrieved 3 Jahilliyah is a term used by the arabs that signifies illiteracy and barbaric way of life from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kano-Nigeria. 4 The songhai empire was a state that occupied the western sahel between 15th and 16 centu- 2 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa ry that consisted of today’s Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, southern Morocco and other counties Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997).` around the western sahel and south of the sahara 32 33 The growth and development of Kano as a city state from its formation as a nomadic land to an empire happened between the 12th-13th century. The Four main factors that defined the growth of Kano as a city are;

a. The fertility of the soil made it easier for the city to produce food in surplus and even do trade for other things in exchange for business purposes.

b. The city of Kano today is known as the center of commerce of the nation as it earned this title from how good the Hausa’s were and still are in manufacturing and trading

c. The strategic positioning of Kano as a city state made it possible to exploit And expand both regionally and internationally.

d. Lastly, the setting up of the Sarauta system (monarchy) empowered the Presence of Kano as a force to reckon with economically.

The coming of ‘Usman Dan Fodiyo’ played a very important role in the establishment of the Islamic caliphate and the rise of the Fulani’s to power in early 19th century. Despite Fig 3.1. Map Showing The Location Of Kano In Nigeria the take over by the fulani’s, Kano was still needed as it was a military and economic power that was flourishing and had even a better stability than the rest of the Hausa States at the time. Maintaining Kano and all it is was key to the Sokoto caliphate. Kano did keep flourishing as a great city state until in the early 20th century when it was finally conquered and colonized under the British imperial power. The British however adopted the colonial indirect rule in which the Hausa sarauta system was left as it is but was under full control of the colonial British power.

Prior to the arrival of the British, Kano’s urban structure was that of a pre-industrial city. It’s economy of the other hand was indeed far from being that of a pre-industrial city for their main economical sources were manufacturing, entrepreneurship, marketing, trans- portation and taxation5. Although, as mentioned earlier, the city flourished in agriculture, craftsmanship and commerce. As a matter of fact, agriculture and commerce were one of the major catalyst that pushed the British to conquer the city sate of Kano. It is to be noted that it is not a typical pre-industrial city as most believe it to be. Yes it was a flourishing caliphate at its prime is the Sahel and a force to reckon with in the sub-Saharan states, but regarding it as a typical pre-industrial city is not entirely right based on the Fig 3.2. Kano Annual Climatic Data definition of a what qualifies a city to be regarded as an industrial city.

5 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College London, 1997).`

34 35 As every civilization flourished in wealth and power, slavery was a thing of the old times, 3.2 SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE OF A HAUSA SOCIETY and the hausaland did practice it as well which did play a major role in the economics of Kano, pre-colonial times. However, slavery in hausaland was never practiced in the The Hausa society has functioned as a society based on a social system that was main- image we have today of being owned and tie to his or her master in any sense. In fact, ly divided into two categories. This system has always been the way of life for the Hau- mid 19th century tells us that slaves were generally treated well, never over worked and sa’s till things change at the advent of colonialism. The two categories are; the saraki often considered as family members of the house they are affiliated to6. In a nutshell, we whom are the aristocrats and the talakawa whom are the ordinary citizens. Within these can conclude that there was no slavery in the Hausa society and the slaves were indeed two categories, other sub-categories are as follows; free and had the right to quit or in some cases, even get promoted to a much higher status within the house hold. Some of them out of loyalty and respect they have offered to the house they work with grows into marriage between the salve and a member of the household. This was however a change that came to the hausaland after the conquest of the Fulani’s and establishment of the Sokoto caliphate late 18th century and early 19th century.

Colonial impact to the city of Kano had tremendous effects in mainly it’s socio cultural way of life it changes its political system which was the sarauta system. To have full Fig 3.3. Hausa Socio Cultural Tree control of Kano as British colony, they had to dissolve the power of the Sarki to a mere subject that answered to the whiteman. The emir became a subject to the whiteman as he had to keep his kingdom safe from being executed every time he refuses to coop- The Saraki category could be further classified into yayan sarki and yayan bayi. The erate. It got to a point in time where the emir was completely dethroned and alienated yayan sarki come from the lineage of the king whom their parent are of royal blood. The from the general populace to diminish any hope for a rebellion. This was the first step yayan bayi are known as the children of concubines whom their mothers are slaves but taken to making changes to the socio-cultural way of life of the Hausa’s. did bear a child for the kind. The talakawa, known as the commoners are further classified into three sub categories of farmers, business blokes and merchants. This was The second step taken towards succession was to completely alter the economy of the and still is the most prominent means of sustenance in the hausaland as it is a rich land city state with the fully-fledged world economy and introduction of the capitalistic sys- in farming and quite advanced in trading. These subcategories are either people whom tem into the society. Gradually, a new currency was integrated into the society and the worked hard to establish a business for themselves or inherited this from their parents English way of life was beginning to take over the society. The Islamic education system or granted some land or sum of money from the state to set up an establishment for was replaced as the primary education system with western education. Buildings began themselves. Yan kasuwa can be further sub categorized to masana and almajirai. Ma- changing and concrete structures began erupting eliminating the muddy structures and sana are what in Hausa society are considered to be gifted people that have risen to character of the city. Another economical institution that sustained the city state was excellence due their knowledge on how to run a business with massive returns to the slavery, that got abolished along the way as well. yan kasuwa. In due time, they do rise to a higher status to being business blokes themselves. And Almajirai are what are known as servants or slave workers. These are peo- The last step was to weaken or completely alter the social institutions of the city state. ple coming from rural areas to the urban state to pursue a career in farming or business. Replacing the sharia Islamic law with the English law mainly to cripple down the power The last category is that of the malamai whom are known as men of letters renowned of the emir. The last straw was the introduction of tax system. Not only collecting taxes in the Islamic knowledge. They are highly held in great esteem and sometimes given a but also forcing the people to pay their dues in cash rather than in kindness which was public office usually associated with the sarki. They are majorly seasonal farmers or in not the way of life the society had as taxation was a thing for the rich and middle class. the trading group.

6 However, Arabs residing in hausaland did treat there slaves but rather in the image we have today and did answer to a master in a sense.

36 37 Changes in the hausaland social system began as result of colonialism. Despite the two To summaries the Hausa way of life, it’s every man or womans ambition to attain three groups stayed as they were or perhaps rendered, some drastic changes still occurred things during their lifetime. Honour, dignity and heaven. These three things are what like in the case of slavery. It was completely abolished. Household were not allowed ot defines a person being a well trusted and respectable man in a society. In the chase to have slaves anymore thus making the slave circle insignificant within the society. Anoth- achieving these three things, the House is the focal point to defining a Hausa man or er change was how the slave born became more significant in the society rather than womans creed and this is why even the architecture of the Hausaland translates into the aristocrats themselves. This was as result of the English taking the slave born and these beliefs. educating them with the western education system. They became more relevant in the society as the society was gradually been remodeled to the western way of life.

Division of labor between sex is a very strong pattern in the Hausa society which exists till date. As agriculture used to be the basic Hausa way of life, women were more or less totally excluded from ploughing the fields or even sowing the seeds. The women might participate in harvest season, but aside that, they were mostly associated with going to the market and or processing food. However, although the females are associated with the house chores and taking care of the children, they are free to either support the husband in his endeavors to provide of the family. In this case, rendering such services attracts pay which inmost circumstances, the wife waves the pay and adds the profit to the house savings.

The Hausa of the past and still of today are mostly engaged in crafts making and trades. Mostly into textiles , leather production, e.t.c. However the Hausa of today are most Fig 3.4. Dye Pit For Textiles And Leather Making, Kano, Nigeria drive towards tailoring and traditional cap making, smithing lights and leather manufacturing. Unfortunately, in todays society, trading has almost disappeared. There is less manufacturing and more of importation. This is due to the Hausa’s not having access to the necessary tools for production and the creating relationships with the outside world.

A typical Hausa domestic society is focused on the House. This usually comprises of the husband and his wife or wives, children in which some are adults and married as well. Aside the nuclear family, you can and will always find the grand parents also living in the House and also some distant relatives or sometimes unrelated family members. A house that constitutes all these features is referred to as baban-gida or the big house. This can be mostly found in the urban parts of the city. The Hausa’s are very strict when it comes to sexes as this is associated with the religion of Islam. However, adult male and female do mix socially only if they related by marriage or kinship. This division can be easily understood even from the design of their houses and how the female area if mostly hidden from the public which we will see in the coming chapter that explains a typical Hausa house and its spatial organization Fig 3.5. A Typical Hand Sewed Hausa Cap Worn By Men

38 39 3.3 KANO URBAN FORMATION (GROWTH OF A CITY)

The modern city of Kano today, post colonial times, covers and an approximate area of 499km2 with a built urban area of 251km2. Kano is the second most populous city state in Nigeria with an average population of 2,8 million according to the 2006 census conducted in Nigeria. There is an estimated 1 million increase in the population coming 2026.

The urban division of Kano has and still been physical divided into three main areas which are1: i. Bimi / cikin gari or the walled city ii. Wajen gari or the outskirts iii. The township1.

The bimi/ cikin gari or the walled city is considered to the first and oldest establishment of the city of Kano. The walled city was first established during the reign of king Gijima- su (1095-1134) to bring together all the settlements between the two hills of Dala and Goron Dutse along side river jakara1. The wall later on expanded in time as the city grew in population and recognition. The wall was surrounded by several gates or Kofofiwhich protected the city from invaders. There are 15 of these door gates that surrounds the old city. There are still remains of this wall in some parts of the old city in today’s Kano.

Wajen Gari or the outskirts sits just outside the city walls as this was a ground for mostly traders established in the early 12th century, with one of the most important and oldest sub-urban area called fagge. The wajen gari was initially a place where Hausa’s from other Hausa cities resided after migrating to the capital city of the Hausa kingdom. We then have the sabon gari which was established in the 1914 after the invasion of Britain as a designated neighborhood for people that migrated from the southern part of Nige- ria and it’s still today a dominant place for the non-Hausa people.

And lastly, we have the Township. The township mainly constitutes of newer sub-urban areas that were formed by the colonial government during their intervention in Kano. Fig 3.6. Old Walled Kano City Map Most houses there are of modern structures, as that was the location of offices and residences of the colonial government were situated. In Kano of today, the area still remains the same as this is where the democratic government house is, consulates and diplomatic drives, European / middle eastern / Asian migrants whom are mostly busi- nessmen or women and aristocrats from within the city or beyond.

1 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997).`

40 41 Kano as a city states constitutes of 138 wards distributed into 4 main sectors. However, THE EASTERN SECTOR this was a post-colonial intervention. The system of the city pre-colonial times was, the city was divided into 10 sectors monitored by a councilor appointed by the king. Each The eastern sector is considered as one of the most important or rather the most im- of this sectors constituted of various wards or unguwowi based on the social features portant sector is the history of Kano. The sector is said to the economic core of the city of the residents1. of Kano which has the Kasuwan Kurmi or Kurmi market. It is the most populated of all the four sectors and the smallest in the area1. It is like all the other sectors where you The advent of the colonial government saw the city divided into four sectors which are: have the rich and poor wards. It is classified as the sector with the majority of the middle a. The Northern sector class commoners as it is cheaper and highly dense in population. b. The Eastern sector c. The Southern sector It is to be noted that this sector is the least affected sector in terms of colonial interven- d. The Western sector tion as it remains very much Hausa socio-physical sector.

THE NORTHERN SECTOR

The Northern sector of the old city is seen as the initial settlement of the Kanawa or Kofar Jakara Kano people. The birth of Kano is mostly associated with Dala Hill and it’s political-spir- itual leader that lived on the hill Tsumburbura which there are still remains of the shrine on top of the Hill. The King’s palace was situated within the Northern sector, so was the first mosque and that is why the northern sector is considered as the birth place of the city or what we can call the city Centre. The northern sector is the biggest in area out Kofar Wambai of the four sectors and in population as well.

Kofar Ruwa

Kurmi Market

Kofar Dawanau

Kofar Mazugal

Dala Hill

Kofar Jakara

Fig 3.8. Old Walled Kano City-Eastern Sector

Kurmi Market

Fig 3.7. Old Walled Kano City-Northern Sector

1 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997).`

42 43 THE SOUTHERN SECTOR The south Sector is the smallest and arguably the most recent of the all the four sectors in the old city. Established in the mid 15th century, King Muhammad Rumfa came into power in1463 and built a new palace in the southern sector just outside of the city wall before the extension of the wall of course1.

The exact date of the emergence of this sector is lost. However, we know that king Muhammad Rumfa died in 1499. The move of the palace to the southern sector meant all the aristocrats relocated there to be closer to the citadel of the kingdom. This shift made the south sector become the sector of the richest men and women as it was highly guarded and protected due to the presence of the king’s palace there. It became known to as the political area guiding the city and was associated as the sector where power and splendor flourished.

Kofar Wambai

Kurmi Market

Kofar Mata Fig 3.10. Remains Of The Ancient Kano City Wall

Kofar Nassarawa

Sabuwar Kofa

Kofar Na’isa Kofar Danagundi

Fig 3.9. Old Walled Kano City-Southern Sector

THE WESTERN SECTOR Last but the least is the western sector. This sector is the largest in terms land area and sparsely populated. Is the only flexible sector amongst all the four sectors as it has increased on area quite a lot over the years. Throughout the nourishment of Kano in Fig 3.11. Remains Of The Ancient Kano Fig 3.12. Opening On The Ancient Kano City Wall City Wall agriculture, it has been the site where it has been solely designated to more of farming and animal husbandry and less of residency.

1 Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997).`

44 45 3.4 A TYPICAL DOMESTIC KANO HOUSE A typical Hausa house is divided into three sections which is sketched in FIG : a. Kofar Gida or the outer section After all that has been said about Hausaland and it’s culture, it’s time to have a look at b. Tsakar Gida or the midsection/courtyard what a typical Hausa house is. Gida or House is perhaps the most important possession c. Cikin Gida or the inner house/section to a Hausa man/woman. A Hausa typical house adheres to the same model of that of a Kofar gida or the outer section is the most public zone in a Hausa home which open to typical African house which generally is spaces arranged around a courtyard and then the all genders and accessible by all. This is space where the friends of the male or hus- closed by a general compound tall wall. band spend their time to dine and catch up on their various affairs. This zone includes the entry to the house, a short built up beam at the entry known as dakali. It is mainly a Initially, the walls were meant to serve as defensive mechanisms or some kind of wind male dominant space. breakers. However, with the advent of Islam in the hausaland, the purpose of the compound walls switched functions to mainly serve as privacy elements between genders. Tsakar gida or the midsection/courtyard is a semi public space which open mainly for Smith explained the types of marriage in for the Hausa’s which are auren kulle or seclu- the nuclear or extended family and invited guests sometimes. This space is usually a sive marriage which completely secludes the wife, auren tsare or protective marriage courtyard, a guest chalet, toilet, kitchen and a storage. It is accessible from both the first which is a partial seclusion and lastly auren jahilai which is considered as the ignorant zone and connected to the inner private zone. marriage where the wife is not secluded at all and not protected1. The Hausa’s practice auren kulle which is the reason why the walls of the compound were maintained but with a modified function

ZONE C Living cells

Compound wall Secondary spaces ZONE B Foyer

ZONE A

ZONE C: Cikin Gida or the inner house/section

ZONE B:Tsakar Gida or the midsection/courtyard

ZONE A: Kofar Gida or the outer section Fig 3.13. A Typical Hausa House Scheme Fig 3.14. A Typical Hausa House Zonal Distribution

1 M. G Smith, The Economy Of Hausa Communities Of Zaria, 1st ed. ([London]: H.M.S.O. for the Colonial Office, 1955: 50

46 47 Cikin Gida or the inner house/section is the most private zone of the house. This is com- Cikin Gida or the inner house/section is the most private zone of a Hausa home. This is a pletely out of boundaries to non-nuclear or extended family members of the household. zone only for the nuclear family and a storage room of valuables. This is the only place This zone is where bedrooms and other private spaces. In some other housing types, where a couple or siblings can talk freely about private matters. the kitchen is considered to be in the cikin gida as this is usually a space for the women of the house.

The zaure or the entrance hall sometimes entails other smaller spaces in it like shago (After Sa’ad 1981: An expert in Traditional Hau- or a kiosk that is usually allocated to a male servant, unmarried adult children (male or sa hosuing configuration) female) and guests to use in the case where there are no more free rooms in the house. This space is usually open to the outside, thus it being an office or business space, depending on the user.

The zaure sometimes is not open to the outside. In such cases, it’s function still stays as a dominant male zone where social gatherings do occur to either celebrate weddings, child birth and in some cases, funeral gatherings. It is very common in the Hausa land to mourn a person by visiting the house of the dead and mourn them for seven days straight and return back on the 40th day to mourn him and so on continuously. In the case where the house is very big, you can find sub space called turaka which is an extension of the zaure. Turaka is a space that houses a space called rumfa and a room sometimes which is allocated to a male servant. Turaka is the border line for the adult male relatives and are not allowed beyond this space without a permission from the housewife. Any adult male that goes beyond this space is either has wife or a mother living in the house.

The next zone after the kofar gida/zaure is the Tsakar Gida or the midsection/courtyard. This space opens up the public and private zones of a house. It is usually just an open space with a kitchen, toilet, and sometimes a domestic animal penitentiary. As the zaure is considered to be a male dominant zone, tsakar gida is considered as the female dominant zone as this is where all their day to day activities take place whilst they are at home. This is the space where the extended family and the nuclear family do spending their time together before the advent of a living room in the hausaland. In the early times, there used to be a door created that connects a very close neighbors courtyard to yours connecting the women together rather than them beeding to exit their various houses to visit her friend. However, this door connection can still be found is some old family Fig 3.15. An Ideal Hausa House Compound houses. It is not common anymore to find this in modern Hausaland due to urbanization and gentrification.

48 49 3.5 PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF A KANO HOUSE 3.51 CONSTRUCTION TYPES AND MATERIALS

The physical attributes of typical Hausa houses depend on three aspects which are the To kick-start this sub-chapter, we need to first identify the 4 carefully categorized Hausa size of the family, structure of the family of when the house was built. These aspects houses which are: define each house respectively. The era of when the house is built is very important as this shows the physical change in the looks the houses, precolonial and post-colonial a. Houses built completely out of tubali or molded adobe bricks and times and how the change in materials changed the looks of the houses. azara or palm tree roofing. b. Burgi or molded bricks in rectangular or square shaped casing and The physical looks of Hausa architecture have been studied by numerous scholars in azara or palm tree roofing or sometimes steel roofing. pursuit of publicizing the hidden gem of Hausa architecture. From the detailing, con- c. Concrete built houses with steel roofing. struction, finishing and motif decorations have been carefully studied by series of schol- d. Houses built completely out of tubali or molded adobe bricks and ars from all over the Hausa kingdom. In our case, it is to be noted that this research is fo- azara or palm tree roofing but due to damage and the advent of modern cused on Kano and all what it has to deliver. There are similarities all over the Hausaland materials, a portion or a component of the house gets replaced or rebuilt in terms of the spatial configuration and what so on. But finishes, decorations and methodology of building do differ sometimes which is most probably had to do with the a. Houses built completely out of tubali or molded adobe bricks and azara or palm styles of the builders in their various cities or perhaps, climatic factors. tree roofing.

To kick start this chapter, we need to define three certain features that do define the TUBALI : looks of a Hausa house. The first feature is the age of the house which i have already Houses built completely out of tubali or molded adobe bricks and azara or palm tree emphasized on the previous paragraph. Second feature to look into are the building ma- roofing are the first generation of Hausa houses. The tubali bricks are conically shaped terials used and the methodology of construction. Next is the spatial size of the house bricks made out of mud/adobe. Arranged in a vertical and horizontal walled manner and are the spaces distributed in it’s planning. And finally, the mean ratio between the and filled with a mud paste to keep the bricks together.Tubali bricks are made up of not built up spaces and the open spaces. only mud/ adobe but rather other mixtures such as garin dorawa or locust bean powder, locust beans peal, bagaruwa or oblivion, clay mud, gashin akuya or goat fur, katsi or Identifying the above mentioned features will be carefully examined by series of images white sand paste, and marmara marble. All this sub materials are meant for structural spanning through all ages and a detailed explanation on how each of was built, materi- and insulation purposes. The walls are usually made very thick as 500mm-1000mm as als used and its exterior aesthetic features. this materials were cheap to find, slave labor is very cheap and to make the structure very rigid as well. In general, Hausa houses are seen as structure built out of mud and thatch roofs. Which is all true. But its more than just a composition of mud/adobe bricks. A lot of compo- AZARA ROOFING: nents made up the structure. Hausa builders were not creative in building structures The roofing in a Hausa house is the most challenging to put in place as it is usually that stood for hundreds of years, but also understood that buildings are meant to be heavy. Typically, the roof spans about 1800mm supported by tubali walls at both ends. sustained for a very long time and protected from natural hazards due to the nature of Sometimes, the roof exceeds the structural credibility of the azara and do span to about adobe not being water resistant. This next sub-chapter will break down into details each 2700mm-5000mm. When this happens, other elements are introduced to strengthening of the building elements and what they are made up of for insulation purposes and for the azara roofing. Such materials for reinforcement areshuci or grass, igiyar gini or raffia structural purposes. rope, and karan dawa or corn stuck. However, azara roofing is quite pricey, hence why it’s not used in all houses but rather the houses of the elites and rich either as domes,

50 51 Flat roofs or solely grass roofs for huts. The azara material is also used as a beam material, lintels for doors and windows and pendentives for the flat and dome shaped roofs.

Fig 3.22. Oblivion-Bagaruwa Fig 3.23. Clay Mud-Kasar Gini Fig 3.16. Tubali Bricks Fig 3.17. Marmara-Marble

TUBALI WALL MATERIALS

Fig 3.18. Locust Beans Peal-Bawon Dorawa Fig 3.19. Katsi-White Sand Paste

Fig 3.24. Raffia Rope-Igiyar Gini Fig 3.25. Shuci-Grass

Fig 3.20. Locust Beans Powder-Garin Dorawa Fig 3.21. Goat Fur-Gashin Akuya Fig 3.26. Desert Palm-Azara Fig 3.27. Corn Stuck-Karan Dawa

TUBALI WALL MATERIALS AZARA ROOFING MATERIALS

52 53 Fig 3.28. Tubali Bricks Composition Fig 3.30. A Tubali Wall With Azara Beam As Lintel Fig 3.31. A Tubali Structural Column With Azara Beams

Fig 3.29. A Flat Shaped Azara Roof With Tubali Fig 3.32. A Tubali Structural Column Fig 3.33. A Conical Shaped Azara Roof Structural Columns With Tubali Buttresses

54 55 b. Burgi or molded bricks in rectangular or square shaped casing and azara or palm apart, for some reason unknown, the Hausa’s began rehabilitating their houses with tree roofing or sometimes steel roofing. modern materials either from the interior or the exterior. Perhaps, this was a kind of rebellious movement towards the tubali structures needing reconstruction after every BURGI WALL: 50-100 year span. And this what we will be discussing in the concluding chapter of this Burgi or molded bricks came into Hausa architecture during the colonial and post co- writing. lonial times. They are basically made of the same materials as that of the tubali. The only difference between the two is that tubali bricks were hand molded and burgi were It is to be noted that the categorization of the houses is based on an analysis of the molded into rectangular or square shaped bricks. This bricks are still used till date in houses from all phases of the Hausaland architecture rather than a full fledge research. Hausaland for the less privileged whom can’t afford the cement bricks to build there The methodology of this analysis is based on pictures taken from different houses and houses or rather this is what society of today has subjected the users of burgi to be analyzing their conditions physically. perceived as. People started migrating from the ancient tubali to burgi at the colonial/ post-colonial times as they tend to be more fashionable and smother on face. Also because using the burgi required less labor and were easier to use.

AZARA ROOFING AND CORRUGATED STEEL ROOFING: For some of the users, they preferred the azara roofing than the steel roofing as the steel roofs conducted too much heat into the houses. While some other users preferred the steel because it was cheaper and faster to build. Till date, the azara roofing is quite expensive for the less privileged one’s as palm trees are getting quite rare in the north due to deforestation and urban expansion. c. Concrete built houses with steel roofing. The use of concrete bricks and mortar is still seen as something of luxury to the Hau- sa’s. And of course, this came into the Hausaland post-colonial times after the major economic change of Nigeria in the 1970’s. The use of modern materials beacme a trend for mainly the attajirai or merchants and the saraki or aristocrats. When urban expansion started happening in the city of Kano, people started building houses outskirts of the city with the modern materials but still maintained their tubali or burgi family houses back in the old city. As the modern are very expensive to use back then and till date, this Fig 3.34. A Tubali Abandoned House Featuring Fig 3.35. A Tubali Abandoned House Featuring began having impact on the sizes of the house and the lost all the features of a Hausa Zankwaye Zankwaye And Colorful Dagi Motifs house with no zaure or even a courtyard. d. Houses built completely out of tubali or molded adobe bricks and azara or palm tree roofing but due to damage and the advent of modern materials, a portion or a component of the house gets replaced or rebuilt. The last intervention to Hausa architecture was when the tubali buildings began falling

56 57 Fig 3.38. A Modern House Featuring The Dagi Motif And Zankwaye

Fig 3.36. An Abandoned Burgi House Featuring Corrugated Steel Roofing

Fig 3.39. A Modern House Featuring The Dagi Motif Fig 3.37. A Burgi House Featuring Zankwaye With Patches Of And Zankwaye Cement

58 59 3.5.2 MOTIF DECORATIONS AND AESTHETIC ELEMENTS

We can’t talk about Hausa architecture and it’s houses without discussing it’s colorful and decorative motifs, zankwaye or pinnacles and makuba or wall engravings. The motifs are usually associated to the aristocrats or commoners of high esteem and power. Other essential commoners do use motifs to define who they are in a society. For example, a butcher has an animalistic motif engraved on his house or a blacksmith with a some hammer and fire motif on his house. This is very common to the Hausa’s to be running a business in where they sleep as explained in the previous chapter about how a zaure can have an office or a shop known as shago. The motifs are usually engraved around a home entry or exterior window looking to the street. As for the aristocrats, this motifs can be very much exaggerated on their palaces to signify how powerful and rich Fig 3.40. Makuba Engraving Fig 3.41. Motif On Makuba they are.

Hausa motifs are usually used to express a feeling or to pass on a message either re- quested by the user or what the builder/artist is passing on. The motifs can sometimes be quranic verses, makuba patterns which are repetitive or the taking inspiration from the dagi motif and translating into another pattern as not to pose an opposition to the aristocrats. A renowned Hausa scholar by the name of Sa’ad (1986) broke down the Hausa motifs into four cases;

i. The first which is crafting a pattern separately from adobe into a certain Fig 3.42. Motif With Paint Fig 3.43. Quranic Verse Engraving On A Steel Door shape or art and later plastered on the finished wall1. ii. Another type is making the art on a freshly finished walled and let it dry out all together with the wall. it can later on be painted over with colors1. iii. The third style is the most common pattern used by almost all, both aristocrats and commoners called makuba or wall engraving. This pattern is repetitive pattern1. iv. Last type is that in which the motif paint in done directly on finished and painted wall1.

As for the zankwaye or pinnacles, this are decorative features you can usually find at the corners of individuals home whom is of high status/ esteem. There is no clear evidence as when they did become part of the Hausaland architecture and where they originated from and why they are used. However, the Hausa’s have adopted it and made it part Fig 3.44. Motif On Makuba

1 Gali Kabir Umar, Danjuma Abdu yusuf, Abdullahi M. Usman and Abubakar Ahmed The practice of Hausa traditional architecture: Towards conservation and restoration of spatial morphology and techniques, KUT kano and ABU zaria, 2019 60 61 Of what defines a typical Hausa house. There are indeed some similarities between the Hausa zankwaye to that of the Egyptians. J.C. Moughtin did emphasize on the similarities between Hausa architecture to that of the Nubian Egyptians by saying:

“The roots of Hausa architecture are lost in antiquity, but it is possible that is shares a common ancestry with great buildings of Nubian Egypt. Some of the early pre-dynastic hieroglyphics depict houses with small pinnacles similar to the zankwaye that decorate the Hausa buildings. The whole character of the Egyptian drawings resembles that of the architecture of both present day Nubia and Hausaland” 2

Perhaps, as we earlier discussed about where the Hausa’s did originate from could be where the Hausa builders brought the zankwaye initiative into their designs. Fig 3.45. Egyptian Pinnacles Fig 3.46. Hausa Zankwaye According to malam Abdullahi, a staff of Gidan Makama Museum, Kano, he stated that the zankwaye do play an important role in prevent the tubali walls from eroding. And his theory does make sense as the are designed in an angle thus collecting water way from the edges of the walls and transferring all the collected to the ground. They are not just aesthetic but do serve as gutters.

Another use the zankwaye had was, people used them as reference points to get from point A-B as the zankwaye came in many different designs and based on where they placed, be it a palace or a house2.

The term zankwaye goes beyond just the element placed in a house. The Hausa also translated this into their aristocratic attires. You will always fond the royal bloods wear- ing the zankwaye on their turbans. It has been translated into a religious portrayal as well, spelling the name of God in Arabic “ALLAHU”. However, the authenticity of this portrayal has never been confirmed nor denied.

Fig 3.47. Zankwaye On Turban - HRH Emir Of Kano, Muhammadu Sunusi II

2 Maimuna Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In Traditional Hausa Architecture Of Northern Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, 2016).`

62 63 64 65 4. CONCLUSION Every civilization that is existing or existed flourished because of culture and credence. downturn of the Hausa architecture began taking a turn towards “civilization” as this This subject has shared some light about how culture plays a significant role is the lives was what the colonial powers preached into the conquerors. Materials began changing of people in a society. In today’s society, being cultured is seen as being an illiterate or from adobe to cement, aesthetics began disappearing, colors began becoming much living in the past. Which is not true in any sense as culture is what defines a society. more basic and simplistic. There won’t be the great Romans without culture, or the Pyramids of Giza without the Egyptians. We do admire the remains off what we see from these past great times or The advent of colonialism came with a prize of relegating culture to being second to people but only in a historical view rather. Unfortunately, we do forget about where the western ways. This can be clearly seen in most African countries and so called third people spent their nights when they do retire from their daily workings. world countries as forcing the society to go with the western ways for being cultured is perceived as backward way of life. The drastic change in the architecture of most Afri- We started this topic by defining what domestic architecture is and what relevance it can countries is very noticeable and Hausaland is a very good reference to this. Hence has to the society. We have always focused on monuments and religious spaces as making this study. antiques but never where the people live. There is a famous Hausa Proverb which says, Kifi a ruwa sarkki ne (Maimuna Muhammad Giwa, n.d). Meaning, A fish is a king in the Hausaland lacks an identity these days in their architecture. Yes, they are indeed few waters. The Hausa’s use this proverb to describe how a man can be the author of what palaces and monuments that are still standing. But the identity of the identify of the he does in his or her condo or domain. This is how important it is to a Hausaman to own Hausaland is gradually disappearing in the Hausa society of today. Of course, we a house. shouldn’t go back to using adobe to build, but with the advancement in technology in today’s world, we can indeed keep the elements still on the domestic spaces as We have talked about how the Hausa architecture has been influenced by series of they have been for we have seen civilizations vanish completely. This faith should not other cultures, pre-colonial times and how they incorporated all the other influences befall the Hausaland. We have seen a successful combination of Hausa animalistic ar- into their culture and socio-cultural way of life. The triple heritage concept defined these chitecture to that of the Islamic architecture and other influences it had. This could be influences clearly throughout our study. achieved with the modern materials as well.

Hausa architecture is not that much different from other major African civilizations as Indeed, some interventions have been carried by hopeful young designers in seen the this was the typology of the continent. Building with adobe was the way of the Hausa’s heritage of the Hausa’s kept. But in the age of moving towards green designs, Hausa as the Greeks did with stones and the romans with mortar. But what stands the Hausa architecture could adopt this phase as well. The open courtyards, rammed earth replac- architecture out of all the other African civilizations is adaptation. The Hausa’s really did ing the adobe bricks, mechanical ventilation free and many more other green design ini- adapt to all other changes and made the changes one with their culture except for one, tiatives. Hausaland is a very hot region, usage of solar panels on the new green design the post-colonial impact. concepts will be a very successful treat towards energy.

Culture, art, ornamentation and religion is what defines the architecture of the Hausaland. This is the responsibility of architects in Nigeria and the Northern Nigerian architects to This is not something seen alone just on the physical face of their architecture but even act towards this initiative. The designers are the forerunners towards achieving this with in the spatial distribution of their spaces. Privacy is very important in the Hausa commu- the support of the communities of the residents in today’s Hausaland as well. nity as this can bee seen on their planning and how protective they are of their family. This is something more leaning towards religion of course. But privacy, art and use of It is understandable why the Hausa’s are staying away from Adobe as a building material colors has been part of the culture ever since before the advent of Islam into the culture. as it corrodes, washes away and its just not as durable as cement. But todays we have rammed earth, which is very much adobe compressed and cured better, insulates better Upon the arrival of the British empire in the early 20th century to Kano, this is where the and will surely beautify much better as well. Preserving the heritage of the Hausaland

66 67 will surely put the architecture of the Hausa’s on a pedestal and truly share it’s beauty with the present and next generation of Hausa’s to appreciate their culture and towards understanding their socio-cultural way of life.

Hausaland is full of history and external cultural influences that made it what it is today, and this has formed the architecture we now know as Hausa architecture. When we hear of Hausa architecture o today’s society, we usually associate it to the royal palaces and something of history. But the Hausa’s are still a huge existing linguistic group spread all over the continent of Africa and the world beyond. A reawakening and resuscitating the architecture needs to be made hastily as it is gradually vanishing in the even the biggest and capital city of the kingdom, Kano the city state. Moving towards green designs could be something of the further future, but the resuscitation can be achieved Fig 4.2. Conceptual Modern Hausa Architecture With Modern Materials in the modern cement and mortar buildings currently taking over in the Hausaland. The adaptation has been achieved previously with the advent of Islam. Western advent can and should be incorporated towards keeping the beautiful Hausaland architecture.

Fig 4.3. Conceptual Modern Hausa Architecture With Modern Materials

Fig 4.1. GT Bank Featuring Dagi Motif and Kakaki Spanning Across, Kano, Nigeria Fig 4.4. Conceptual Modern Hausa Architecture With Modern Materials

68 69 • Paul, Dr. Agboola & Zango Modi, Sule. (2014). “ DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITION- BIBLIOGRAPHY AL ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF HAUSA HOUSE FORM “. https://www.eajournals.org/journals/international-journal-of-african-society-cul- BOOKS tures-and-traditions-ijasct/vol-1no-1june-2014/development-traditional-architec- • Denyer, Susan. African Traditional Architecture. 1st edition. New York: Africana ture-nigeria-case-study-hausa-house-form-2/ Pub. Co. 1978 • Saliu, A. R.1, Muhammad Aliyu2 and Osiboye, Oluwaseun Opeyemi. (2018). “An- • Elleh, Nnamdi. African Architecture. 1st edition. New York: Mcgraw-hill. cient Kano City Wall: Tourism and Economic Resource”. Vol. 1. N0. 1, Pp 10-28. 1997 https://www.zeetarz.com/iajah/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Ancient-Kano-City- • Mazrui, Ali Al’amin. The Africans. 1st ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986 Wall-Tourism-and-Economic-Resource.pdf • J.C Moughtin. The traditional settlements of the Hausa people, 1964. Published by • Aliyu, Mohammed. “Built Environment In transition: The significance of Postmod- Liverpool university press, 2013 ern Residential Designs In Cultural Sustainability”. International Journal Of Archi- • Jibo, Nura. Traditional Hausa Architecture In Northern Nigeria. 1st ed. Saarbrücken tecture, Arts and applications 1, No.2 (2017): 30-40. : Lambert Academic Publishing, 2011 • Ryan, Pauline M. “Color Symbolism In Hausa Literature” Journal Of Anthropologi- • Smith, M.G. The Economy Of Hausa Communities Of Zaria. 1st ed. [London]: cal Research 32, No.2 (1976) : 141-160. H.M.S.O. For The Colonial Office, 1955. • I.I Danja, Xue li, S.S Dalibi. Vernacular Architecture of Northern Nigeria. Internation- • J.C Moughtin. Hausa Architecture. 1st ed. London: Ethnographica, 1985 al Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 8, Issue 3. 2017 • Smith, M.G. The Study Of Hausa Domestic Economy In Northern Zaria. Africa Vol 22. 1952. DISSERTATIONS • Smith, M.G. The Hausa Of Northern Nigeria. In Gibbs ed. 1965 • Maimuna, Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In Traditional Hausa Architecture Of • Trevalion WC, Metropolitan Kano: Report on the Twenty Year Development Plan. Norther Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, 2016). Elsevier Pub. 1963-1983 • Abdulrazzaq, Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997). JOURNALS • Experience. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife: Department Of Architecture, • Evelyn Allu, Kankia mustafa. Towards adapting Hausa traditional architecture in a O.A.U Ile-Ife, 2006. changing climate: meeting the needs for sustainable housing in Nigeria. Central university of technology, South Africa. 2018 WEBSITES • Nmadili N. Okwumabua. Architectural retention and the development of modern • Encyclopedia Britannica, Accessed Jan, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/place/ African design in the works of architect Demas Nwoko. Clark Atlanta university, Kano-Nigeria 2006 • “Tubali: Hausa Architecture- Sky-scrapper city”. Accessed Jan, 2020. Last Modi- • Oluwagbemiga Paul Agboola, Modi Sule Zango. Development of tradition fied Jan 6. 2011.https://www.skyscrapercity.com/threads/tubali-hausa-architec - al architecture in Nigeria: a case study of Hausa house form, 2014 ture.1293777/ • “The Arts Of The Hausa” African Arts 9, No.4 (1976) : 70-71. • Waziri, Ibraheem. “The Northern Knot: The Arewa Insignia Is Of Christian Northern • Steve Kemper. Under Control: the Beauty of the Traditional Way, 2012. https:// Origins”. Acessed Jan 30, 2020. http://newsrescue.com/theOnorthernOknotO- blog.stevekemper.net/tag/lake-chad/ theOarewaOinsigniaOisO actuallyOofOchristianOnorthernOorigins/#axzz4W9Ch- • Kofar Na’isa. A Portal Into Kano, Nigeria: City Walls and Gates, 2011. https://kofar- fjAl. naisa.wordpress.com/ • Smithsonian Library, Acesssed Jan, 2020. National Museum Of African Art. https:// www.si.edu/object/siris_arc_121147

70 71 IMAGES IMAGES • Front cover Image 1- [Untitiled African aerial footage]. A typical African settlement. • Case study-Kano, a city state chapter cover page- Gidan Makama Museum. Au- https://i.pinimg.com/originals/8e/ca/44/8eca4457b7099f4624d3e2b209e0cf91.jpg thors own. • Introduction chapter cover page- Gidan Dan Hausa. (2018). Kano State History • Figure 3.1-Location of Kano in Nigeria. [Online image]. (2020). https://www.worl- Museum. [Online image]. https://www.kanostate.gov.ng/?q=places-visit-kano datlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/afoutl.htm • Back cover image 2- Sokoto caliphate [Online image]. (2011). https://www.sky- • Figure 3.2- Kano Annual Climatic Data [Online Data]. (2020). Authors graph. scrapercity.com/threads/tubali-hausa-architecture.1293777/ https://www.weather-nga.com/en/nigeria/kano-climate • Figure 1.1-Location of Nigeria in Africa. [Online image]. (2020). https://www.worl- • Figure 3.3- Hausa Socio Cultural Tree. Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, datlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/afoutl.htm “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, Uni- • Figure 1.2-Hausaland Map. Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The versity College Londod, 1997). Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, University College • Figure 3.4- John Gillow. Dye pit for textiles and leather making, Kano, Nigeria. Londod, 1997). [Online Image]. Digital wax print. http://digitalwaxprint.com/iterations/impor- • Connotations in Hausaland chapter cover page- [Untitiled Kano emirs interior pal- tance-of-indigo/ ace]. Kano state Emirs palace. • Figure 3.5- A Typical Hand Sewed Hausa Cap Worn By Men (2018). Authors own • Figure 2.1- Dagi Motif. [Online image]. (2013). http://specialbeatservice.blogspot. • Figure 3.6- Old Walled Kano City Map. Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Muhammad-Oumar, com/2013/02/ “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spaces” (Phd diss, Uni- • Figure 2.2- Star of David. [Online image]. https://www.seekpng.com/ima/u2q8a- versity College Londod, 1997). 9w7u2q8w7e6/ • Figure 3.7- Old Walled Kano City Map; Northern Sector. Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Mu- • Figure 2.4- Dutse Emirs palace. [Online image]. https://www.pinterest.co.uk/ hammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spac- pin/474355773236306782/ es” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997). • Figure 2.5- Hausa Soldiers At The Colonial Battle field, Kano, 1903. Authors own • Figure 3.8- Old Walled Kano City Map; Eastern Sector. Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Mu- • Figure 2.6- Hausa Soldiers Charging Towards, The British Army, Kano, 1903. Gidan hammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spac- Makama Museum. Authors own es” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997). • Figure 2.7- Hausa Horse Riding Boots. Gidan Makama Museum. Authors own • Figure 3.9- Old Walled Kano City Map; Southern Sector. Abdulrazzaq Ahmad Mu- • Figure 2.8- Inside Gidan Makama Museum, Kano. Gidan Makama Museum. Au- hammad-Oumar, “Gidaje: The Socio-Cultural Morphology Of Hausa Living Spac- thors own es” (Phd diss, University College Londod, 1997). • Figure 2.9- Dutse Emirs palace with Dagi motifs, Dutse, Jigawa. [Online image]. • Figure 3.10- Badala Ancient Kano City Wall [Online Image]. Cable ng. (2018) https://hotels.ng/places/palace/960-emir-of-dutse-palace https://africanstylesandculture.com/2018/09/14/kano-a-city-of-antiques-and-cul- • Figure 2.10- Dutse Emirs palace. [Online image]. https://www.pinterest.co.uk/ ture/ pin/474355773236306782/ • Figure 3.11- Badala Ancient Kano City Wall [Online Image]. Kofar Na’isa. (2012). • Figure 2.11- Hausa Horse Riders During The Durbar Festival of Eid, Kano. [Online https://kofarnaisa.wordpress.com/ image]. (2018). https://nigerianpeoples.wordpress.com/page/2/ • Figure 3.12- Badala Ancient Kano City Wall, Window opening [Online Image]. • Figure 2.12- Kaura 5000. Indigenous Hausa Tubali Architecture. [Online image]. Cable ng. (2018) https://africanstylesandculture.com/2018/09/14/kano-a-city-of- (2015). https://www.nairaland.com/2196866/indigenous-hausa-tubali-architecture antiques-and-culture/ • Figure 2.13- Peter Hills. Portrait of HRH Emir of Kano. [Online image]. (2019). • Figure 3.13- A typical Hausa House Scheme. (2020). Authors Drawing https://twitter.com/20thdisciple/status/123769040685234995 • Figure 3.14- A typical Hausa House Zonal Distribution. (2020). Authors Drawing • Figure 3.15- An ideal Hausa House Compound. (2020). Authors Drawing

72 73 IMAGES IMAGES • Figure 3.16- Tubali Bricks. Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. • Figure 3.38- A Modern House Featuring The Dagi Motif And Zankwaye. Jogana, • Figure 3.17- (Marmara) Marble. Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. Kano.(2020). Authors own • Figure 3.18- Locust Beans (Bawon Dorawa). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). • Figure 3.39- A Modern House Featuring The Dagi Motif And Zankwaye. Jogana, Authors own. Kano. (2020). Authors own • Figure 3.19- White Sand- (Katsi). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. • Figure 3.40- Makuba Engraving. Gidan Makama Museum, Kano. (2019). Authors • Figure 3.20- Locust Beans Powder (Garin Dorawa). Gidan Makama Museum. own. (2019). Authors own. • Figure 3.41- Motif On Makuba. Gidan Makama Museum, Kano. (2019). Authors • Figure 3.21- Goat Fur (Gashin Akuya). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own own. • Figure 3.42- Motif With Paint. Gidan Makama Museum, Kano. (2019). Authors own • Figure 3.22- Oblivion (Bagaruwa). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. • Figure 3.43- Quranic Verse Engraving On A Steel Door. Gidan Makama Museum, • Figure 3.23- Clay Mud (Kasar Gini). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. Kano. (2019). Authors own • Figure 3.24- Raffia Rope (Igiyar Gini). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors • Figure 3.44- Motif On Makuba. Gidan Makama Museum, Kano. (2019). Authors own. own • Figure 3.25- Grass (Shuci). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. • Figure 3.45- Egyptian Pinnacles. Maimuna Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In • Figure 3.26- Desert Palm (Azara). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. Traditional Hausa Architecture Of Northern Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, • Figure 3.27- Corn Stuck (Karan Dawa). Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors 2016) own. • Figure 3.46- Hausa Zankwaye. Maimuna Bala Shehu, “Cultural Symbolism In Tradi- • Figure 3.28- Tubali Bricks Composition. Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors tional Hausa Architecture Of Northern Nigeria” (Msc diss, University of Kent, 2016) own. • Figure 3.47- Sameer Lukman Ibraheem. Zankwaye On Turban. [Online Image]. • Figure 3.29- Flat Shaped Azara Roof With Tubali Structural Columns. Gidan Maka- (2020). https://twitter.com/disosameer?lang=pl ma Museum. (2019). Authors own. • Conclusion Chapter Cover Page. Katsina Emirs palace with Dagi motifs, Katsina, • Figure 3.30- Tubali wall as lintel. Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors own. Katsina. [Online image]. https://hotels.ng/places/palace/959-emir-of-katsina-pal- • Figure 3.31- Tubali Structural Column with Azara Beams. Gidan Makama Museum. ace (2019). Authors own. • Figure 4.1- Hutudoel. (2019). GT Bank, Kano, Nigeria. [Online Image]. https://hutu- • Figure 3.32- Tubali Structural Column. Gidan Makama Museum. (2019). Authors dole.com/kalli-wani-sabon-reshen-bankin-gt-kano/ own. • Figure 4.2- Khalifah, Rabiu. (2020). Conceptual Modern Hausa House. [Online • Figure 3.33- Conical Shaped Azara Roof With Tubali Buttresses. Gidan Makama image]. https://twitter.com/khalifarabiu/status/1263654603930980353 Museum. (2019). Authors own. • Figure 4.3- Khalifah, Rabiu. (2020). Conceptual Modern Hausa House. [Online • Figure 3.34- A Tubali Abandoned House Featuring Zankwayye. Jogana, Kano. image]. https://twitter.com/khalifarabiu/status/1263654603930980353 (2020). Authors own • Figure 4.4- Olalekkan, Ileola-Gold .The Puulak House. CPDI Africa.[Online Image]. • Figure 3.35- A Tubali Abandoned House Featuring Zankwaye And Colorful Dagi (2017). https://www.cpdiafrica.org/winners/ Motifs. Jogana, Kano. (2020). Authors own • Figure 3.36- An Abandoned Burgi House Featuring Corrugated Steel Roofing. Jo- gana, Kano. (2020). Authors own • Figure 3.37- A Burgi House Featuring Zankwaye With Patches Of Cement. Jogana, Kano. (2020). Authors own

74 75