DOCSLIB.ORG

Woodpeckers in the Rocky Mountain Region Black Hills National Forest

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Woodpeckers in the Rocky Mountain Region Black Hills National Forest United States Department of Agriculture Conservation Assessment Forest Service for the Woodpeckers in the Rocky Mountain Region Black Hills National Forest Black Hills National South Dakota and Wyoming Forest Custer, South Dakota April 2003 Tamara Anderson Conservation Assessment of Woodpeckers in the Black Hills National Forest South Dakota and Wyoming Tamara Anderson, Ph.D. Tamara Anderson is a biological consultant in Newcastle, Wyoming. In addition to consulting, she has also served as a Research Associate and Adjunct Professor at Black Hills State University in Spearfish, South Dakota. She received her B.A. in Biology at Illinois Wesleyan University in Bloomington, Illinois and her Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Iowa State University. Her interest in the woodpeckers of the Black Hills National Forest (BHNF) grew out of a study she is conducting on the BHNF to understand bird and invertebrate interactions, especially those related to forest edge habitat. 1 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................................1 BLACK-BACKED WOODPECKER .................................................................... 4 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................................4 CURRENT MANAGEMENT SITUATION.................................................................................................................4 Management Status...................................................................................................................................................4 Existing Management Plans......................................................................................................................................4 REVIEW OF TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE................................................................................................................5 Systematics/Taxonomy.............................................................................................................................................5 Distribution And Abundance....................................................................................................................................6 Distribution Recognized In Primary Literature (Overall Range) .........................................................................6 Additional Information (Local Distribution)........................................................................................................7 Estimates Of Local Abundance............................................................................................................................7 Population Trends.....................................................................................................................................................7 Movement Patterns ...................................................................................................................................................8 Habitat Characteristics..............................................................................................................................................8 General Habitat ....................................................................................................................................................8 Nesting Habitat...................................................................................................................................................10 Foraging Habitat.................................................................................................................................................12 Roost Habitat......................................................................................................................................................13 Food Habits.............................................................................................................................................................13 Prey Species .......................................................................................................................................................13 Characteristics Of Prey..................................................................................................................................14 Breeding Biology....................................................................................................................................................15 Phenology Of Courtship And Breeding .............................................................................................................15 Courtship Characteristics ...................................................................................................................................16 Clutch Initiation, Laying, And Size....................................................................................................................16 Parental Care......................................................................................................................................................16 Site And Mate Fidelity.......................................................................................................................................16 Demography ...........................................................................................................................................................16 Life History Characteristics ...............................................................................................................................16 Survival And Reproduction................................................................................................................................16 Social Pattern For Spacing .................................................................................................................................17 Local Density Estimates.....................................................................................................................................17 Limiting Factors.................................................................................................................................................17 Patterns Of Dispersal..........................................................................................................................................18 Community Ecology...............................................................................................................................................18 Predators.............................................................................................................................................................18 Competitors........................................................................................................................................................18 Parasites, Disease, Mutualistic Interactions .......................................................................................................19 Other Complex Interactions ...............................................................................................................................19 Risk Factors ............................................................................................................................................................19 Response To Habitat Changes ................................................................................................................................20 Management Activities ......................................................................................................................................20 Timber Harvest..............................................................................................................................................20 Recreation .....................................................................................................................................................22 Livestock Grazing .........................................................................................................................................22 Mining...........................................................................................................................................................22 Fire Suppression............................................................................................................................................22 Prescribed Fire...............................................................................................................................................22 Non-Native Plant Establishment And Control ..............................................................................................23 Fuelwood Harvest .........................................................................................................................................23 Insect Pest Control ........................................................................................................................................23 Natural Disturbance ...........................................................................................................................................23 i Insect Epidemics ...........................................................................................................................................23 Wildfire
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Purple Martin Monitoring After a Wildfire in the Lincoln
    PURPLE MARTIN MONITORING AFTER A WILDFIRE IN THE LINCOLN NATIONAL FOREST, NEW MEXICO – 2007 RESULTS Submitted To: Prepared By: USDA Forest Service Hawks Aloft, Inc. Danney Salas P.O. Box 10028 Sacramento Ranger District Albuquerque, New Mexico 87184 1101 New York Avenue (505) 828-9455 Alamogordo, New Mexico 87571 Website: www.hawksaloft.org E-mail Contact: [email protected] Purple Martin Conservation Association John Tautin 301 Peninsula Dr., Suite 6 Erie, Pennsylvania 16505 15 February 2008 Purple Martins in the Lincoln National Forest TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................2 STUDY AREA ....................................................................................................................3 METHODS ..........................................................................................................................4 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................7 DISCUSSION......................................................................................................................9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................13 LITERATURE CITED ......................................................................................................13
    [Show full text]
  • Terrestrial Ecology Enhancement
    PROTECTING NESTING BIRDS BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR VEGETATION AND CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS Version 3.0 May 2017 1 CONTENTS Page 1.0 INTRODUCTION 3 2.0 BIRDS IN PORTLAND 4 3.0 NESTING BEHAVIOR OF PORTLAND BIRDS 4 3.1 Timing 4 3.2 Nesting Habitats 5 4.0 GENERAL GUIDELINES 9 4.1 What if Work Must Occur During Avoidance Periods? 10 4.2 Who Conducts a Nesting Bird Survey? 10 5.0 SPECIFIC GUIDELINES 10 5.1 Stream Enhancement Construction Projects 10 5.2 Invasive Species Management 10 - Blackberry - Clematis - Garlic Mustard - Hawthorne - Holly and Laurel - Ivy: Ground Ivy - Ivy: Tree Ivy - Knapweed, Tansy and Thistle - Knotweed - Purple Loosestrife - Reed Canarygrass - Yellow Flag Iris 5.3 Other Vegetation Management 14 - Live Tree Removal (Native and Non-Native) - Snag Removal - Shrub Removal (Native and Non-Native) - Grassland Mowing and Ground Cover Removal (Native and Non-Native) - Controlled Burn 5.4 Other Management Activities 16 - Removing Structures - Manipulating Water Levels 6.0 SENSITIVE AREAS 17 7.0 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS 17 7.1 Species 17 7.2 Other Things to Keep in Mind 19 Best Management Practices: Avoiding Impacts on Nesting Birds Version 3.0 –May 2017 2 8.0 WHAT IF YOU FIND AN ACTIVE NEST ON A PROJECT SITE 19 DURING PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION? 9.0 WHAT IF YOU FIND A BABY BIRD OUT OF ITS NEST? 19 10.0 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AVOIDING 20 IMPACTS ON NESTING BIRDS DURING CONSTRUCTION AND REVEGETATION PROJECTS APPENDICES A—Average Arrival Dates for Birds in the Portland Metro Area 21 B—Nesting Birds by Habitat in Portland 22 C—Bird Nesting Season and Work Windows 25 D—Nest Buffer Best Management Practices: 26 Protocol for Bird Nest Surveys, Buffers and Monitoring E—Vegetation and Other Management Recommendations 38 F—Special Status Bird Species Most Closely Associated with Special 45 Status Habitats G— If You Find a Baby Bird Out of its Nest on a Project Site 48 H—Additional Things You Can Do To Help Native Birds 49 FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Spruce Beetle
    QUICK GUIDE SERIES FM 2014-1 Spruce Beetle An Agent of Subalpine Change The spruce beetle is a native species in Colorado’s spruce forest ecosystem. Endemic populations are always present, and epidemics are a natural part of the changing forest. There usually are long intervals between such events as insect and disease epidemics and wildfires, giving spruce forests time to regenerate. Prior to their occurrence, the potential impacts of these natural disturbances can be reduced through proactive forest management. The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) is responsible for the death of more spruce trees in North America than any other natural agent. Spruce beetle populations range from Alaska and Newfoundland to as far south as Arizona and New Mexico. The subalpine Engelmann spruce is the primary host tree, but the beetles will infest any Figure 1. Engelmann spruce trees infested spruce tree species within their geographical range, including blue spruce. In with spruce beetles on Spring Creek Pass. Colorado, the beetles are most commonly observed in high-elevation spruce Photo: William M. Ciesla forests above 9,000 feet. At endemic or low population levels, spruce beetles generally infest only downed trees. However, as spruce beetle population levels in downed trees increase, usually following an avalanche or windthrow event – a high-wind event that topples trees over a large area – the beetles also will infest live standing trees. Spruce beetles prefer large (16 inches in diameter or greater), mature and over- mature spruce trees in slow-growing, spruce-dominated stands. However, at epidemic levels, or when large-scale, rapid population increases occur, spruce beetles may attack trees as small as 3 inches in diameter.
    [Show full text]
  • Wildlife of the North Hills: Birds, Animals, Butterflies
    Wildlife of the North Hills: Birds, Animals, Butterflies Oakland, California 2005 About this Booklet The idea for this booklet grew out of a suggestion from Anne Seasons, President of the North Hills Phoenix Association, that I compile pictures of local birds in a form that could be made available to residents of the north hills. I expanded on that idea to include other local wildlife. For purposes of this booklet, the “North Hills” is defined as that area on the Berkeley/Oakland border bounded by Claremont Avenue on the north, Tunnel Road on the south, Grizzly Peak Blvd. on the east, and Domingo Avenue on the west. The species shown here are observed, heard or tracked with some regularity in this area. The lists are not a complete record of species found: more than 50 additional bird species have been observed here, smaller rodents were included without visual verification, and the compiler lacks the training to identify reptiles, bats or additional butterflies. We would like to include additional species: advice from local experts is welcome and will speed the process. A few of the species listed fall into the category of pests; but most - whether resident or visitor - are desirable additions to the neighborhood. We hope you will enjoy using this booklet to identify the wildlife you see around you. Kay Loughman November 2005 2 Contents Birds Turkey Vulture Bewick’s Wren Red-tailed Hawk Wrentit American Kestrel Ruby-crowned Kinglet California Quail American Robin Mourning Dove Hermit thrush Rock Pigeon Northern Mockingbird Band-tailed
    [Show full text]
  • Violet-Green Swallow
    Breeding Habitat Use Profile Habitats Used in Arizona Primary: Montane Riparian Secondary: Montane Forests, locally Upper Sonoran Desert Key Habitat Parameters Plant Composition Most montane forest types, often with some element of riparian, wetland, open water or 8 other moist habitat types Plant Density and Unknown Size Violet-green Swallow, photo by ©George Andrejko Microhabitat Snags, live trees, or cliffs for nesting, mesic Features areas with high insect productivity for forag- Conservation Profile ing 8; in wooded landscapes, often noted foraging and nesting near forest clearings Species Concerns and edges. Climate Change (Droughts) Increasing Fire Frequency Landscape Largely unknown, but must include some Timber Harvesting Practices old-growth forests or cliffs Conservation Status Lists Elevation Range in Arizona USFWS 1 No 3,200 – 10,500 feet, locally to 1,200 feet 9 AZGFD 2 No Density Estimate DoD 3 No Territory Size: Unknown BLM 4 No Density: Unknown, sometimes occurs in loose colonies 8 PIF Watch List 5b No PIF Regional Concern 5a No Migratory Bird Treaty Act Natural History Profile Covered Seasonal Distribution in Arizona PIF Breeding Population Size Estimates 6 Breeding April – early August, desert nesting may Arizona 710,000 ◑ begin in March 9 Global 7,200,000 ◑ Migration February – April; August – mid-October 9 9.93% Percent in Arizona Winter Rare, very small numbers 5b PIF Population Goal Nest and Nesting Habits Maintain 8 Type of Nest Cavity or crevice Trends in Arizona Nest Substrate Tree, rock, or cliff; also artificial
    [Show full text]
  • Landbird Habitat Conservation Strategy – 2020 Revision
    Upper Mississippi / Great Lakes Joint Venture Landbird Habitat Conservation Strategy – 2020 Revision Upper Mississippi / Great Lakes Joint Venture Landbird Habitat Conservation Strategy – 2020 Revision Joint Venture Landbird Committee Members: Kelly VanBeek, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Migratory Birds), Co-chair Chris Tonra, The Ohio State University, Co-chair Mohammed Al-Saffar, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Joint Venture) Dave Ewert, American Bird Conservancy Erin Gnass Giese, University of Wisconsin – Green Bay Allisyn-Marie Gillet, Indiana Dept. of Natural Resources Shawn Graff, American Bird Conservancy Jim Herkert, Illinois Audubon Sarah Kendrick, Missouri Dept. of Conservation Mark Nelson, U.S.D.A. Forest Service Katie O’Brien, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Migratory Birds) Greg Soulliere, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Joint Venture) Wayne Thogmartin, U.S. Geological Survey Mike Ward, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Tom Will, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Migratory Birds) Recommended citation: Soulliere, G. J., M. A. Al-Saffar, K. R. VanBeek, C. M. Tonra, M. D. Nelson, D. N. Ewert, T. Will, W. E. Thogmartin, K. E. O’Brien, S. W. Kendrick, A. M. Gillet, J. R. Herkert, E. E. Gnass Giese, M. P. Ward, and S. Graff. 2020. Upper Mississippi / Great Lakes Joint Venture Landbird Habitat Conservation Strategy – 2020 Revision. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bloomington, Minnesota, USA. Cover photo: Whip-poor-will, by Ian Sousa-Cole. TABLE OF CONTENTS STRATEGY SUMMARY ..................................................................................................1
    [Show full text]
  • Hairy Woodpecker Dryobates Villosus Kingdom: Animalia FEATURES Phylum: Chordata the Hairy Woodpecker Averages Nine and One-Half Class: Aves Inches in Length
    hairy woodpecker Dryobates villosus Kingdom: Animalia FEATURES Phylum: Chordata The hairy woodpecker averages nine and one-half Class: Aves inches in length. The feathers on its back, outer tail Order: Piciformes feathers, belly, stripes on its head and spots on its wings are white. The head, wing and tail feathers Family: Picidae are black. The male has a small, red patch on the ILLINOIS STATUS back of the head. Unlike the similar downy woodpecker, the hairy woodpecker has a large bill. common, native BEHAVIORS The hairy woodpecker is a common, permanent resident statewide. Nesting takes place from March through June. The nest cavity is dug five to 30 feet above the ground in a dead or live tree. Both sexes excavate the hole over a one- to three-week period. The female deposits three to six white eggs on a nest of wood chips. The male and female take turns incubating the eggs during the day, with only the male incubating at night for the duration of the 11- to 12-day incubation period. One brood is raised per year. The hairy woodpecker lives in woodlands, wooded areas in towns, swamps, orchards and city parks. Its call is a loud “peek.” This woodpecker eats insects, seeds and berries. adult at suet food ILLINOIS RANGE © Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 2021. Biodiversity of Illinois. Unless otherwise noted, photos and images © Illinois Department of Natural Resources. © Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 2021. Biodiversity of Illinois. Unless otherwise noted, photos and images © Illinois Department of Natural Resources. © Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 2021.
    [Show full text]
  • (Dendrocopos Syriacus) and Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocoptes Medius) Around Yasouj City in Southwestern Iran
    Archive of SID Iranian Journal of Animal Biosystematics (IJAB) Vol.15, No.1, 99-105, 2019 ISSN: 1735-434X (print); 2423-4222 (online) DOI: 10.22067/ijab.v15i1.81230 Comparison of nest holes between Syrian Woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus) and Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocoptes medius) around Yasouj city in Southwestern Iran Mohamadian, F., Shafaeipour, A.* and Fathinia, B. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran (Received: 10 May 2019; Accepted: 9 October 2019) In this study, the nest-cavity characteristics of Middle Spotted and Syrian Woodpeckers as well as tree characteristics (i.e. tree diameter at breast height and hole measurements) chosen by each species were analyzed. Our results show that vertical entrance diameter, chamber vertical depth, chamber horizontal depth, area of entrance and cavity volume were significantly different between Syrian Woodpecker and Middle Spotted Woodpecker (P < 0.05). The average tree diameter at breast height and nest height between the two species was not significantly different (P > 0.05). For both species, the tree diameter at breast height and nest height did not significantly correlate. The directions of nests’ entrances were different in the two species, not showing a preferentially selected direction. These two species chose different habitats with different tree coverings, which can reduce the competition between the two species over selecting a tree for hole excavation. Key words: competition, dimensions, nest-cavity, primary hole nesters. INTRODUCTION Woodpeckers (Picidae) are considered as important excavator species by providing cavities and holes to many other hole-nesting species (Cockle et al., 2011). An important part of habitat selection in bird species is where to choose a suitable nest-site (Hilden, 1965; Stauffer & Best, 1982; Cody, 1985).
    [Show full text]
  • Nest-Site Selection by Western Screech-Owls in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona
    Western North American Naturalist Volume 63 Number 4 Article 16 12-3-2003 Nest-site selection by Western Screech-Owls in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona Paul C. Hardy University of Arizona, Tucson Michael L. Morrison University of California, Bishop Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/wnan Recommended Citation Hardy, Paul C. and Morrison, Michael L. (2003) "Nest-site selection by Western Screech-Owls in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona," Western North American Naturalist: Vol. 63 : No. 4 , Article 16. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/wnan/vol63/iss4/16 This Note is brought to you for free and open access by the Western North American Naturalist Publications at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Western North American Naturalist by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Western North American Naturalist 63(4), ©2003, pp. 533-537 NEST~SITE SELECTION BY WESTERN SCREECH~OWLS IN THE SONORAN DESERT, ARIZONA Paul C. Hardyl,2 and Michael L. Morrison3 Key words: Gila Woodpecker, Gilded Flicker, nest-site selection, Otus kennicottii, saguaro cacti, Sonoran Desert, West­ ern Screech~Owl. The Western ScreecbOwl (Otus kennicottii) valley includes the creosote (Larrea triden­ is a small, nocturnal, secondary caVity-nesting tata)~white bursage (Ambrosia dumosa) series, bird that is a year-round resident throughout and in runnels and washes, the mixed-scrub much of western North America and Mexico series (Turner and Brown 1994). Temperatures (Marshall 1957, Phillips et al. 1964, AOU 1983, for the Arizona Upland and Lower Colorado Johnsgard 1988, Cannings and Angell 2001).
    [Show full text]
  • Fungi Associated with the North American Spruce Beetle, Dendroctonus Rufipennis
    Color profile: Generic CMYK printer profile Composite Default screen 1815 NOTE / NOTE Fungi associated with the North American spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis Diana L. Six and Barbara J. Bentz Abstract: Fungi were isolated from individual Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby) collected from six populations in Alaska, Colorado, Utah, and Minnesota, U.S.A. In all populations, Leptographium abietinum (Peck) Wingfield was the most commonly isolated mycelial fungus (91–100% of beetles). All beetles in all populations were associated with yeasts and some with only yeasts (0–5%). In one population, Ophiostoma ips (Rumbold) Nannf. was also present on 5% of the beetles but always in combination with L. abietinum and yeasts. Ophiostoma piceae (Munch) H. & P. Sydow was found on 2% of beetles in another population. Ceratocystis rufipenni Wingfield, Harrington & Solheim, previously reported as an associate of D. rufipennis, was not isolated from beetles in this study. Ceratocystis rufipenni is a viru- lent pathogen of host Picea, which has led to speculation that C. rufipenni aids the beetle in overcoming tree defenses and therefore contributes positively to the overall success of the beetle during colonization. However, our results, con- sidered along with those of others, indicate that C. rufipenni may be absent from many populations of D. rufipennis and may be relatively rare in those populations in which it is found. If this is true, C. rufipenni may be only a minor or incidental associate of D. rufipennis and, as such, not likely to have significant impacts on beetle success or popula- tion dynamics. Alternatively, the rarity of C. rufipenni in our and others isolations may be due to difficulties in isolat- ing this fungus in the presence of other faster growing fungi such as L.
    [Show full text]
  • Dieter Thomas Tietze Editor How They Arise, Modify and Vanish
    Fascinating Life Sciences Dieter Thomas Tietze Editor Bird Species How They Arise, Modify and Vanish Fascinating Life Sciences This interdisciplinary series brings together the most essential and captivating topics in the life sciences. They range from the plant sciences to zoology, from the microbiome to macrobiome, and from basic biology to biotechnology. The series not only highlights fascinating research; it also discusses major challenges associated with the life sciences and related disciplines and outlines future research directions. Individual volumes provide in-depth information, are richly illustrated with photographs, illustrations, and maps, and feature suggestions for further reading or glossaries where appropriate. Interested researchers in all areas of the life sciences, as well as biology enthusiasts, will find the series’ interdisciplinary focus and highly readable volumes especially appealing. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15408 Dieter Thomas Tietze Editor Bird Species How They Arise, Modify and Vanish Editor Dieter Thomas Tietze Natural History Museum Basel Basel, Switzerland ISSN 2509-6745 ISSN 2509-6753 (electronic) Fascinating Life Sciences ISBN 978-3-319-91688-0 ISBN 978-3-319-91689-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91689-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018948152 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
    [Show full text]
  • Scientific Note
    Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 2l(4):474-476,2OO5 Copyright @ 2005 by the American Mosquito Control Association, Inc. SCIENTIFIC NOTE DETECTION OF WEST NILE VIRUS RNA FROM THE LOUSE FLY ICO STA AMERICANA (DIPTERA: HIPPOBOSCIDAE) ARY FARAJOLLAHI,'.' WAYNE J. CRANS,I DIANE NICKERSON,3 PATRICIA BRYANT4 BRUCE WOLE4 AMY GLASER,5 INn THEODORE G. ANDREADIS6 ABSTRACT West Nile virus (WNV) was detected by Taqman reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in 4 of 85 (4.7Vo) blood-engorged (n : 2) and unengorged (n : 2) Icosta americana (Leach) hippoboscid flies that were collected from wild raptors submitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center in Mercer County, NJ, in 2003. This report represents an additional detection of WNV in a nonculicine arthropod in North America and the first documented detection of the virus in unengorged hippoboscid flies, further suggesting a possible role that this species may play in the transmission of WNV in North America. KEY WORDS West Nile vrrns, Icosta americana, Hippoboscidae, raptors West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus that rs blood feeders that are commonly associated with principally maintained in an enzootic cycle between birds of prey. Both sexes readily take blood (Be- Culex mosquitoes and avian amplifying hosts. To quaert 1952, 1953; Maa and Peterson 1987) and date, the virus has been detected in or isolated from females are viviparous, exhibiting a high frequency 59 species of mosquitoes in the United States and of blood feeding due to nutritional demands of de- Canada (CDC 2004) and the importance of mos- veloping larvae (Bequaert 1952). Host speciflcity quitoes as enzootic and epidemic vectors of WNV varies greatly among bird-feeding species (Lloyd in North America is well established (Andreadis et 2OO2),bult most species remain and feed on the host al.
    [Show full text]