Risk and Protective Factors of Child Delinquency

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Bulletin Series

J. Robert Flores, Administrator April 2003

Gail A. Wasserman, Kate Keenan, Richard E. Tremblay, John D. Coie, Preventing children from engaging Todd I. Herrenkohl, Rolf Loeber, and David Petechuk in delinquent behavior is one of OJJDP’s primary goals. Early intervention is crucial to achieving this goal, and understanding the factors Sparked by high-profile cases involving Some aspects of children’s behaviors, related to child delinquency is essen- children who commit violent crimes, pub- such as temperament, are established tial to effective early childhood inter- lic concerns regarding child delinquents during the first 5 years of life. This foun- vention. As part of its effort to understand and respond to these needs, have escalated. Compared with juveniles dation, coupled with children’s exposure OJJDP formed the Study Group on whose delinquent behavior begins later in to certain risk and protective factors, Very Young Offenders. adolescence, child delinquents (offenders influences the likelihood of children younger than age 13) face a greater risk becoming delinquent at a young age. This Bulletin, part of OJJDP’s Child of becoming serious, violent, and chronic However, the identification of these Delinquency Series, focuses on four types of risk and protective factors: juvenile offenders. OJJDP formed the multiple risk and protective factors has individual, family, peer, and school Study Group on Very Young Offenders to proven to be a difficult task. Although and community. It is derived from examine the prevalence and frequency no magic solutions exist for preventing the chapters devoted to these critical of offending by children younger than 13. or correcting child delinquency, identify- areas for prevention and intervention This Study Group identified particular risk ing risk and protective factors remains in the Study Group’s final report, and protective factors that are crucial to essential to developing interventions to Child Delinquents: Development, developing effective early intervention prevent child delinquency from escalat- Intervention, and Service Needs. and protection programs for very young ing into chronic criminality. To succeed, intervention methods offenders. designed to prevent child delinquency According to the Study Group on Very from escalating into serious and vio- This Bulletin is part of OJJDP’s Child Young Offenders, a group of 39 experts lent juvenile offending must address Delinquency Series, which presents the on child delinquency and child psy- a range of risk and protective factors. findings of the Study Group on Very Young chopathology convened by the Office In addition to the factors addressed Offenders. This series offers the latest of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency in this Bulletin, OJJDP is pursuing information about child delinquency, in- Prevention (OJJDP), risk factors for research to examine the role of reli- gious traditions and training as pro- cluding analyses of child delinquency sta- child delinquency operate in several tective factors in the life of a child. tistics, insights into the origins of very domains: the individual child, the young offending, and descriptions of early child’s family, the child’s peer group, Preventing delinquency early in a intervention programs and approaches the child’s school, the child’s neighbor- child’s life can pay significant divi- that work to prevent the development of hood, and the media. Most profession- dends by reducing crime rates and decreasing crime-related expendi- delinquent behavior by focusing on risk als agree that no single risk factor leads tures of tax dollars. More important, and protective factors. a young child to delinquency. Rather, it can help children avoid the consequences of delinquent behavior by increasing their chances of leading law-abiding and productive lives. Access OJJDP publications online at ojjdp.ncjrs.org the likelihood of early juvenile offending increases as the number of risk factors Child Delinquency Research: An Overview and risk factor domains increases. Historically, delinquency studies have focused on later adolescence, the time when delinquency usually peaks. This was particularly true in the 1990s, when most re- Although some risk factors are common searchers studied chronic juvenile offenders because they committed a dispropor- to many child delinquents, the patterns tionately large amount of crime. Research conducted during this period by OJJDP’s and particular combination of risk fac- Study Group on Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders concluded that youth re- tors vary from child to child. Profes- ferred to juvenile court for their first delinquent offense before age 13 are far more sionals have learned a great deal about likely to become chronic offenders than youth first referred to court at a later age. which risk and protective factors are To better understand the implications of this finding, OJJDP convened the Study relevant for screening and intervention. Group on Very Young Offenders in 1998. Its charge was to analyze existing data and For example, most professionals agree to address key issues that had not previously been studied in the literature. Consist- that early on in a child’s life, the most ing of 16 primary study group members and 23 coauthors who are experts on child important risks stem from individual delinquency and psychopathology, the Study Group found evidence that some factors (e.g., birth complications, hyper- young children engage in very serious antisocial behavior and that, in some cases, activity, sensation seeking, temperamen- this behavior foreshadows early delinquency. The Study Group also identified sev- tal difficulties) and family factors (e.g., eral important risk factors that, when combined, may be related to the onset of early parental antisocial or criminal behavior, offending. The Study Group report concluded with a review of preventive and reme- substance abuse, and poor child-rearing dial interventions relevant to child delinquency. practices). As the child grows older and becomes integrated into society, new The Child Delinquency Bulletin Series is drawn from the Study Group’s final report, risk factors related to peer influences, which was completed in 2001 under grant number 95–JD–FX–0018 and subsequent- the school, and the community begin ly published by Sage Publications as Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, to play a larger role. and Service Needs (edited by Rolf Loeber and David P. Farrington). OJJDP encour- ages parents, educators, and the juvenile justice community to use this information Although focusing on risk factors is to address the needs of young offenders by planning and implementing more effec- important, examining protective factors tive interventions. that reduce the risk of delinquency is as important for identifying interventions that are likely to work. For exam- The risk factors for child delinquency Antisocial Behavior ple, some common protective factors discussed in this Bulletin are categorized Early antisocial behavior may be the against child delinquency and disrup- into four groups: (1) individual, (2) fami- best predictor of later delinquency. Anti- tive behavior are female gender, proso- ly, (3) peer, and (4) school and commu- social behaviors generally include vari- cial behavior (such as empathy) during nity. A greater understanding of these ous forms of oppositional rule violation the preschool years, and good cognitive risk and protective factors could serve and aggression, such as theft, physical performance (for example, appropriate as the basis for future social policies fighting, and vandalism. In fact, early language development and good aca- designed to prevent and control delin- aggression appears to be the most signif- demic performance). The proportion of quency (see Burns et al., in press, anoth- icant social behavior characteristic to protective factors to risk factors has a er OJJDP Bulletin in this series). predict delinquent behavior before age significant influence on child delinquen- 13. In one study, physical aggression in cy, and protective factors may offset the kindergarten was the best and only pre- influence of children’s exposure to mul- Individual Risk Factors dictor of later involvement in property tiple risk factors. Children’s behavior is the result of crimes (Haapasalo and Tremblay, 1994; genetic, social, and environmental fac- Tremblay et al., 1994). In contrast, proso- This Bulletin is based on four chapters tors. In relation to child delinquency, from the Study Group’s final report, cial behavior (such as helping, sharing, the Study Group defined individual risk and cooperation), as rated by teachers, Child Delinquents: Development, Inter- and protective factors as an individual’s vention, and Service Needs (Loeber and appeared to be a protective factor, specif- genetic, emotional, cognitive, physical, ically for those who have risk factors for Farrington, 2001): “Individual Risk and and social characteristics. These fac- Protective Factors,” “Family Risk and committing violent and property crimes tors are frequently interrelated, yet before age 13. Protective Factors,” “Peer Factors and the underlying mechanism of how this Interventions,” and “School and Com- occurs is not fully understood. Studies conducted in Canada, England, munity Risk Factors and Interventions.” New Zealand, Sweden, and the United

2 behaviors. By the end of the third year Childhood Risk Factors for Child Delinquency of life, children can express the entire and Later Violent Juvenile Offending range of human emotions, including anger, pride, shame, and guilt. Parents, The following risk factors are discussed in this Bulletin. teachers, and even peers affect chil- Individual factors ● Family structure dren’s socialization of emotional expres- sion and help them learn to manage ● ● Early antisocial behavior Large family size negative emotions constructively. Thus, ● Emotional factors such as high Peer factors how children express emotions, espe- behavioral activation and low cially anger, early in life may contribute ● Association with deviant peers behavioral inhibition to or reduce their risk for delinquency. ● Peer rejection ● Poor cognitive development Many studies of delinquency have School and community factors ● Low intelligence focused on the concepts of behavioral ● Failure to bond to school inhibition and behavioral activation. ● Hyperactivity Behavioral inhibition (in response to a ● Poor academic performance Family factors new stimulus or punishment) includes ● Low academic aspirations fearfulness, anxiety, timidity, and shyness. ● Parenting Behavioral activation includes novelty ● Living in a poor family ● Maltreatment and sensation seeking, impulsivity, ● Neighborhood disadvantage hyperactivity, and predatory aggression. ● Family violence The Study Group found evidence that ● Disorganized neighborhoods ● Divorce high levels of behavioral activation and ● Concentration of delinquent low levels of behavioral inhibition are ● Parental psychopathology peer groups risk factors for antisocial behavior. For ● example, high levels of daring behavior Familial antisocial behaviors ● Access to weapons at ages 8–10 predicted convictions and ● Teenage parenthood self-reported delinquency before age 21, whereas measures of anxiety and guilt Source: This list is largely based on R. Loeber and D.P. Farrington, eds. 2001. Child did not (Farrington, 1998). Overall, stud- Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. ies have shown that impulsive, not anx- ious, boys are more likely to commit delinquent acts at 12 to 13 years of age. States have confirmed that early anti- In another study, the two best predic- More studies are needed to determine social behavior tends to be the best tors of later antisocial behavior were whether emotional characteristics in predictor of early-onset delinquency mothers’ ratings of their children as childhood are causes of or simply corre- for boys. For example, in a study by difficult to manage at 3 years of age and lates of later antisocial behavior. Patterson and colleagues, antisocial parents’ ratings of behavior problems at behavior was the best predictor of age 5 years of age (White et al., 1990). Most Cognitive Development at first arrest when compared with family children whose caregivers perceived Emotional and cognitive development social disadvantage, parental monitoring, them as difficult to manage at age 3 did appear to be associated with children’s and parental discipline. Long-term results not become delinquents before age 13. ability to control social behavior within also indicated that those with an early However, most children who became the first 2 years of life. Evidence sug- arrest (before age 13) were most likely to delinquents before age 13 had behavior gests that these factors play an impor- be chronic offenders by age 18 (Patterson, problems that had emerged in the first tant role in the development of early Crosby, and Vuchinich, 1992; Patterson years of life. delinquency and may affect the learning et al., 1998). Likewise, the Cambridge of social rules. In addition to traditional Study in Delinquent Development in measures such as IQ, the Study Group London, England, showed that one of Emotional Factors considered cognitive development in the strongest predictors of a conviction Although early aggressive behavior is terms of language development, social between ages 10 and 13 was trouble- the most apparent and best predictor of cognition, academic achievement, and some behavior between the ages of 8 later delinquency, other individual fac- neuropsychological function. and 10, as rated by teachers and peers tors may contribute to later antisocial (Farrington, 1986).

3 The Terrible Twos The Study Group identified evidence linking behavior problems around age 3 with delinquency by age 13. Antisocial behaviors, such as anger and physical aggression, can appear during the first year of life but often peak at the end of the second year after birth. Thus, before age 3, most children engage in behavior that would be considered antisocial at a later age, including physical aggression. However, most children outgrow early problem behavior. The ones who do not outgrow such behavior are of concern here because of the increased risk that they may become child delinquents. behavior (e.g., Farrington, Loeber, and Family Risk Factors Van Kammen, 1990; Lynam, 1997). Clin- ical studies of hyperactive children Children and their families defy narrow Poor cognitive development and behav- have shown that they also are at high descriptions. Social, environmental, and ior problems during early childhood risk of delinquency (e.g., Loeber et al., family risk factors tend to cluster, and could explain the association between 1995). For example, motor restlessness any number of them can occur together academic achievement and delinquency. (hyperactive or hyperkinetic behavior), within the same family. Understanding For example, numerous studies have as rated by kindergarten teachers, the role and influence of each of these shown that delinquents’ verbal IQs tend was a better predictor of delinquency factors is a difficult task. For example, to be lower than their nonverbal IQs between ages 10 and 13 than lack of early child offending may develop through (e.g., Moffitt, 1993). Delinquents also prosocial behavior and low anxiety several pathways. For some children, have lower mean global IQs and lower (Tremblay et al., 1994). Another study the primary risk factor may be a family school achievement rates compared concluded that hyperactivity leads to risk factor such as lack of parental super- with nondelinquents (e.g., Fergusson delinquency only when it occurs with vision; for others, it may be an individ- and Horwood, 1995; Maguin and Loeber, physical aggression or oppositional ual risk factor such as a diagnosis of 1996). behavior (Lahey, McBurnett, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Loeber, 2000). (Cicchetti and Rogosch, 1996). Mild neuropsychological deficits pres- ent at birth can snowball into serious behavior problems by affecting an infant’s temperament (Moffitt, 1993). A Question About Biological Factors These deficits can affect children’s All behavior, including delinquency, is influenced by biological factors. These fac- control of behaviors such as language, tors include not only physical strength but also brain functioning, such as neuro- aggression, oppositional behavior, at- transmitters that pass signals to the brain. Serotonin receptors, for instance, are tention, and hyperactivity. Basic cogni- neurotransmitters that have been associated with impulsive behavior (Goldman, tive deficits may also be associated with Lappalainen, and Ozaki, 1996). Other biological factors have also been associated impaired social cognitive processes, with delinquency. Compared to nondelinquents, delinquents tend to have a lower such as failure to attend to appropriate heart rate and a lower skin response (Raine, 1993), which are measures of autonomic social cues (e.g., adults’ instructions, nervous activity. Another line of research has concentrated on hormones, including peers’ social initiations). testosterone. However, a high level of testosterone during the elementary school years is not known to predict later delinquency. Currently, research on genes has Hyperactivity come as far as the identification of proteins associated with neurotransmitters, but it is unlikely to shed light on complex processes such as delinquency (Rowe, 2002). Studies have shown that restless, In summary, it is far from clear to what extent biological processes determine delin- squirmy, and fidgety children are more quency at a young age. likely to be involved in later delinquent

4 Studies have shown that inadequate 1996). In the Pittsburgh Youth Study, factors that impose additional risk in child-rearing practices, home discord, the co-occurrence of low levels of moni- violent families include a high incidence and child maltreatment are associated toring and high levels of punishment of other behavior problems (e.g., alco- with early-onset delinquency (e.g., increased the risk of delinquency in 7- hol abuse and incarceration) in male Derzon and Lipsey, 2000). In addition, to 13-year-old boys. Conversely, attach- batterers. Maternal psychological dis- the strongest predictors of early-onset ments to conventional parents and to tress may also expose children to addi- violence include family size and parental society’s institutions are hypothesized tional indirect risks, such as the mother antisocial history. Early temperamental to protect against developing antisocial being emotionally unavailable to the difficulties in the child coupled with behavior (Hirschi, 1969). children (e.g., Zuckerman et al., 1995). parental deficiencies that interfere with proactive parenting are also thought to be important in the development of early- Maltreatment Divorce onset behavior problems. Child maltreatment or abuse commonly Compared with boys whose parents occurs with other family risk factors remained married, boys whose parents In looking at the clustering of family risk associated with early-onset offending. divorced have been found to be more factors, one goal is to identify which Focusing specifically on the relationship likely to have continuing problems with combinations of risk factors promote between physical abuse and children’s antisocial, coercive, and noncompliant early misbehavior because, more than aggression, one study suggests that behaviors through age 10 (Hetherington, likely, early misbehavior is the result of 20 percent of abused children become 1989). As with many family factors, an accumulation of a number of factors. delinquent before reaching adulthood establishing the exact effects of divorce The number of risk factors and stres- (Lewis, Mallouh, and Webb, 1989). Clearly, on children is difficult because of other sors and the length of exposure to them most physically abused children do not co-occurring risks, such as the loss have a strong impact on child behavior go on to become antisocial or violent. of a parent, other related negative life (e.g., Tiet et al., 1998; Williams et al., However, one study that compared chil- events (e.g., predivorce child behavior 1990). dren without a history of abuse or neg- problems, family conflict, decrease in lect with children who had been abused family income), and a parent’s subse- A number of social adversities in fami- or neglected found that the latter group quent remarriage. When these related lies can affect children’s delinquency. accrued more juvenile and adult arrests factors are considered, the impact of These factors include parenting, mal- by the age of 25 (Widom, 1989). Abused divorce itself is substantially less. treatment, family violence, divorce, or neglected children also offended parental psychopathology, familial anti- more frequently and began doing so Parental Psychopathology social behaviors, teenage parenthood, at earlier ages. family structure, and family size. High rates (as high as 45 percent) of parental antisocial personality disorder Family Violence Parenting have been consistently reported for Each year, approximately 3.3 million parents of boys (including preadoles- Inadequate parenting practices are children witness physical and verbal cents) referred for conduct problems among the most powerful predictors of spouse abuse (Jaffe, Wolfe, and Wilson, (e.g., Lahey et al., 1988). Similar rates early antisocial behavior (e.g., Hawkins 1990). Witnessing domestic violence occurred for parental substance abuse et al., 1998). Compared with families has been linked to increased child and depression (Robins, 1966). Depressed in which the children do not have con- behavior problems, especially for parents show many parenting deficien- duct problems, families of young chil- boys and younger children (Reid and cies associated with increased antisocial dren with conduct problems have been Crisafulli, 1990). Little is known about behaviors in children, such as inconsis- found to be eight times more likely to the age range in which children may be tency, irritability, and lack of supervision engage in conflicts involving discipline, most vulnerable or how long associa- (Cummings and Davies, 1994). Parental to engage in half as many positive inter- tions persist. In most families, when the psychopathology has been linked to actions, and, often unintentionally, to woman is battered, children are also increased rates of psychiatric disorder reinforce negative child behavior (Gard- battered (McKibben, De Vos, and New- among school-aged children (Costello ner, 1987; Patterson and Stouthamer- berger, 1989). The co-occurrence of et al., 1997). The Pittsburgh Youth Study Loeber, 1984). Three specific parental child abuse and witnessing domestic found that the association between practices are particularly associated violence affects children’s adjustment delinquency and parental anxiety or with early conduct problems: (1) a high more than twice as much as witness- depression was stronger in younger than level of parent-child conflict, (2) poor ing domestic violence alone (Hughes, in older children (Loeber et al., 1998). monitoring, and (3) a low level of posi- Parkinson, and Vargo, 1989). Other tive involvement (Wasserman et al.,

5 Familial Antisocial Behaviors Belle, 1980), have higher levels of residential mobility (McLanahan and Booth, A long history of research demonstrates Sibling Influences 1989; McCormick, Workman-Daniels, that aggressive behavior and criminal- and Brooks-Gunn, 1996), and have fewer Based on data from the 1979 National ity are more prevalent in some families resources to monitor their children’s Longitudinal Survey of Youth, a num- than in others. For example, the Cam- activities and whereabouts. Each of ber of publications have underscored bridge Study in Delinquent Development, these factors on its own contributes the role played by siblings in influenc- which followed 411 families, found that to increased levels of early childhood ing delinquent behavior in both the offending was strongly concentrated in a behavior problems. domains of family and peer influence. small group of families and that approxi- For example, compared with teens mately 5 percent of the families account- with lower rates of offending, teens ed for about half of the juvenile criminal Family Size with high rates of offending were convictions (West and Farrington, 1977). The more children in a family, the more likely to have siblings who also greater the risk of delinquency. The committed delinquent acts at a high Antisocial adults tend to select antiso- Cambridge Study found that, compared rate. Some studies speculate that cial partners (e.g., Farrington, Barnes, with boys who had fewer siblings, boys older siblings who are prone to delin- and Lambert, 1996). Overall, antisocial who had four or more siblings by the quent behavior may reinforce anti- parents show increased levels of family age of 10 were twice as likely to offend, social behavior in a younger sibling, conflict, exercise poorer supervision, regardless of the parents’ socioeconomic especially when there is a close, warm experience more family breakdown, and status (West and Farrington, 1973). These relationship (Rowe and Gulley, 1992). direct more hostility toward their chil- associations may be related to dimin- dren. In addition, having an antisocial ished supervision in larger families. sibling also increases a child’s likelihood of antisocial behaviors (e.g., Far- words, do “birds of a feather flock togeth- rington, 1995). The influences of siblings Peer Risk Factors er” or does “bad company corrupt”? are stronger when the siblings are close in age. Peer influences on child delinquency The Study Group found that a strong case usually appear developmentally later could be made that deviant peers influ- than do individual and family influence nondelinquent juveniles to become Teenage Parenthood ences. Many children entering school, delinquent. For example, according to Being born to a teenage mother has for example, already show aggressive data from the National Youth Survey on been found to strongly predict offending and disruptive behaviors. Two major a representative sample of U.S. juveniles in adolescence (Conseur et al., 1997), mechanisms associated with peer fac- ages 11 to 17, the most frequent pattern although much of this effect may stem tors or influences are association with was a child moving from association from the mother’s own antisocial histo- deviant peers and peer rejection. with nondelinquent peers to association ry and involvement with antisocial part- with slightly deviant peers, and then on ners (Rutter, Giller, and Hagell 1998). Association With Deviant to commission of minor offenses. More frequent association with deviant peers Peers and more serious offending followed, Family Structure Association with deviant peers is related leading to the highest level of associa- Many single parents are able to raise to increased co-offending and, in a minor- tion with deviant peers (Elliott and their children very well. However, chil- ity of cases, the joining of gangs. Since a Menard, 1996; Keenan et al., 1995). dren from single-mother households are 1931 report showing that 80 percent of at increased risk for poor behavioral Chicago juvenile delinquents were Deviant peers influence juveniles who outcome (Pearson et al., 1994; Vaden- arrested with co-offenders, empirical already have some history of delinquent Kiernan et al., 1995; McLanahan and evidence has supported the theory that behavior to increase the severity or Booth, 1989; Sampson, 1987), even con- deviant peer associations contribute frequency of their offending. A few stud- trolling for the fact that single-mother to juvenile offending (Shaw and McKay, ies of children younger than 14 support households on average have fewer eco- 1931). The unresolved question is this hypothesis. For example, in a study nomic resources. Other factors could whether deviant peers model and rein- of Iowa juveniles, involvement in the explain this relationship. Especially as force antisocial behaviors or whether juvenile justice system was highest for compared with partnered women, sin- the association with deviant peers is those who engaged in disruptive behav- gle mothers report more mental health simply another manifestation of a child’s ior and associated with deviant peers at problems (e.g., Guttentag, Salasin, and predisposition to delinquency. In other a young age (Simons et al., 1994). The Study Group concluded that deviant

6 peers contribute to serious offending hyperactivity problems and conduct School and Community by child delinquents during the period problems in fourth grade. of their transition to adolescence. Risk Factors One explanation for the role of peer Few studies have addressed risk factors Although an extreme form of associa- rejection in increasing antisocial be- that emerge from young children’s social- tion with deviant peers, gangs provide haviors is that it leads to greater suspi- ization in schools and communities. The aready source of co-offenders. Not sur- ciousness of other people’s motives as Study Group focused on a social devel- prisingly, gang membership reflects the hostile and hence to greater aggression opment model integrating insights from highest degree of deviant peer influence in response. A second explanation is current theories that consider the influ- on offending. The Rochester Youth De- that rejection causes children to have ence of community and schools on child velopment Study, the Denver Youth Sur- fewer positive social options and, conse- delinquents (Catalano and Hawkins, 1996; vey, and the Seattle Social Development quently, to become part of lower status Farrington and Hawkins, 1991; Hawkins Project have all shown that gangs appear and deviant peer groups. Rejected, and Weis, 1985). The model proposes to exert a considerable influence on the aggressive children are more likely than that socialization involves the same delinquent behavior of individual mem- others to be members of deviant peer processes in producing either prosocial bers. Juveniles are joining gangs at groups and tend to be peripheral mem- or antisocial behaviors. These processes younger ages, and the role of gangs in bers of these groups (Bagwell et al., include the following: crimes committed by youthful offenders 2000). Their tenuous sense of belonging appears to be an increasing problem may dispose them to engage in more ● Children’s opportunity for involve- (Howell, 1998). In the case of violence, antisocial activity in an effort to gain ment in activities and interactions even after accounting for other risk standing in these groups. with others. factors (such as association with delin- ● Children’s degree of involvement quent peers who are not gang members, Peer rejection and deviant peers are and interaction with others. family poverty, lack of parental supervi- mediating factors rather than primary sion, and negative life events), gang causes of child delinquency. As shown ● Children’s ability (skills) to partici- membership still has the strongest rela- in the diagram (on page 8), early com- pate in these involvements and tionship with self-reported violence munity, family, and individual risk fac- interactions. (Battin et al., 1998). tors can lead to early aggressive and ● disruptive behaviors. The already “at- Reinforcements received from indi- risk” child then enters school, where viduals for children’s performance Peer Rejection peer risk factors can culminate in pre- in involvements and interactions The evidence that peer rejection in adolescent or very early adolescent with others. childhood is a risk factor for antisocial serious offending. The Study Group behaviors is relatively new compared concluded that three factors combine with evidence about association with to account for a juvenile’s accelerated deviant peers. Recent findings have movement toward more serious offend- shown that young aggressive children ing in early adolescence: who are rejected by peers are at signifi- ● The high-risk juvenile’s own anti- cantly greater risk for later chronic social tendencies. antisocial behaviors than children who are not rejected, whether or not they ● The negative consequences of peer were aggressive early on. For example, rejection resulting from these one study found that peer rejection tendencies. in third grade predicted increasingly ● greater antisocial behaviors from sixth The resulting deviant peer grade onward, even when boys’ earlier associations. aggressiveness was accounted for in the predictions (Coie et al., 1995). The The Study Group believes that peer frequency of violent offending in adoles- influence is an important mediating fac- cence was greater for these rejected, tor in child delinquency. Research sug- aggressive juveniles, and they were more gests that peer influence has an impact likely to persist in violent offending in on delinquency in two ways: (1) the ini- early adulthood. In the early school tial offending of relatively late starters years, peer rejection accentuates the and (2) the escalation of serious offend- relation between early attention and ing among very early starters.

7 School Factors risk for general offending and for child importance in the development of anti- delinquency (e.g., Hawkins et al., 1998; social behaviors (Catalano and Hawkins, The Study Group found that the failure Le Blanc, Coté, and Loeber, 1991). It is 1996). Disorganized neighborhoods with to bond to school during childhood can likely that children who perform poorly few controls may have weak social con- lead to delinquency. In addition, as stat- on academic tasks will fail to develop trol networks that allow criminal activity ed above, early neurological deficien- strong bonds to school and will have to go unmonitored and even unnoticed cies, when combined with the failure lower expectations of success. As a re- (e.g., Elliott et al., 1996; Sampson and of family, school, and community to sult, academic achievement and school Lauritsen, 1994). In terms of violent provide adequate socialization, lead bonding are, in many ways, interdepend- crimes, one study concluded that social to early-onset offending that persists ent. For example, one study found that disorganization and concentrated poverty throughout life. A specific school risk boys who engage in delinquency are within the community lead to residents’ factor for delinquency is poor academic less committed to school and are also decreased willingness to intervene performance. A meta-analysis of more more likely to have “shorter plans” for when children are engaging in antisocial/ than 100 studies examined the relation- their schooling. These boys described unlawful acts, further contributing to ship between poor academic perform- themselves as bad students (Le Blanc agreater likelihood of violence within ance and delinquency and found that et al., 1991). neighborhoods (Sampson, Raudenbush, poor academic performance is related and Earls, 1997). to the prevalence, onset, frequency, and seriousness of delinquency (Maguin and Community Factors Certain residential areas may support Loeber, 1996). In young children ages 8 Numerous risk factors for young chil- greater opportunities for antisocial to 11, academic performance has been dren’s offending lie within the commu- learning. For example, disadvantaged related to serious later delinquency nity domain. For example, findings from inner-city neighborhoods are often char- (Loeber et al., 1998). Even when indi- studies of childhood exposure to family acterized by a predominance of delin- vidual intelligence and attention prob- poverty have been very consistent. quent peer groups and gangs that draw lems are taken into account, academic Children raised in poor, disadvantaged young people into crime (Sutherland performance remains a predictor of families are at greater risk for offend- and Cressey, 1970). Juveniles living delinquency. ing than children raised in relatively within high-crime neighborhoods are affluent families (e.g., Farrington, 1989, often exposed to norms favorable to Children with weak bonds (low commit- 1991, 1998). Disadvantages at the neigh- crime and are at high risk for offending ment) to school, low educational aspira- borhood level are also of primary (Developmental Research and Programs, tions, and poor motivation are also at

Development of Early Offending Behavior and Peer Influences

Increased Aggressiveness and Destructiveness Peer Rejection Community

Family Aggressive and Delinquent Disruptive Behaviors Activity

Child Association With Deviant Peers

Early Risk Factors School Entry Early School Years Preadolescence

Source: J.D. Coie and S. Miller-Johnson. 2001. Peer factors and interventions. In Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions, edited by R. Loeber and D.P. Farrington. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 191–209.

8 and, eventually, criminal behavior in Who’s in Control at School? adulthood. Schools play an important role in the socialization of children and the development of antisocial behavior. When schools are poorly organized and operated, children Individual are less likely to value their education and do well on academic tasks and more If the impulse control necessary to likely to experience peer influences that promote delinquency and opportunities for avoid trouble is learned largely during antisocial behavior (Gottfredson, 2001). For example, schools with fewer teacher the preschool years, the best time to resources and large enrollments of students have higher levels of teacher victimiza- help those who have difficulty in acquir- tion by pupils. Teacher victimization is also higher in schools with lower cooperation ing this control would be during the between teachers and administrators and with poor rule enforcement. Furthermore, “sensitive period” of early childhood. It poor rule enforcement within schools has been associated with higher levels of is difficult to imagine that later interven- student victimization. Disciplinary problems are also more common in schools with tions would have nearly as much effect. less satisfied teachers (Ostroff, 1992). Although much more research is needed on Instead of looking for the onset of ag- the relationship between school organization and processes and children’s delin- gression and antisocial behaviors after quency, available evidence suggests that, in addition to those already noted, several children enter school, it is more impor- other specific school characteristics may be linked to antisocial behaviors of students, tant to focus on the preschool years, including poor student-teacher relations, norms and values supporting antisocial when clearly much of the development behaviors, and poorly defined rules and expectations for appropriate conduct. of impulse control is taking place (e.g., Broidy, Nagin, and Tremblay, 1999; Tremblay et al., 1998). 1996). In addition, having ready access intervention focuses on the risk factors to weapons generally increases the risk just discussed. In general, the Study for violence (Brewer et al., 1995). Group found that the number of ade- Family quately designed experimental interven- Several types of programs provide tions is insufficient to guide policymakers family-based interventions. For exam- Interventions in their efforts to prevent child delin- ple, Olds and colleagues (1998) report- Although the Study Group’s findings quency. The lack of interventions tar- ed on nurses’ home visits to unmarried concerning interventions for child delin- geting antisocial behaviors in young women living in households with low quency will be discussed more fully in children is particularly conspicuous. socioeconomic status during pregnancy Treatment, Services, and Intervention The Study Group believes focusing on to the end of the second year after birth. Programs for Child Delinquents (Burns children’s early years is essential to These visits subsequently had a posi- et al., 2003), the following brief better understand the socialization fail- tive effect on the 15-year-old children’s overview of the issues associated with ures that lead to juvenile delinquency reports of arrests, convictions, violations

Violence and the Media Some studies have shown that antisocial behaviors, such as violence, can be learned by viewing violence in the media. For example, children exposed to high levels of television violence at age 8 were found to be more likely to behave aggressively at that age and subsequently, up to age 30 (Eron and Huesmann, 1987). In addition, children of parents who frequently watched violence on television and showed aggression were found to be more likely than other children to exhibit aggression and to prefer violent programs (Huesmann and Miller, 1994).

9 should focus on reducing contact with et al., 1995; National Crime Prevention Bad Company deviant peers for juveniles predisposed Council, 1994). Most take a comprehen- Sometimes even the best intentions to antisocial behaviors and on promot- sive approach to addressing behavior go astray. The fact that antisocial ing the development of prosocial skills across several risk domains, but their juveniles are often grouped together (e.g., skills for resolving peer conflicts) effect on child delinquency remains in intervention programs may, in fact, (Hawkins and Weis, 1985). Studies have to be demonstrated. Multicomponent promote friendships and alliances shown that peer relations training (in instruction programs have been devel- among these juveniles and intensify combination with parent training) reduc- oped in several big cities, and these delinquent behavior rather than re- es children’s involvement with deviant programs will be discussed in Treatment, duce it (e.g., McCord, 1997; Dishion, peers during preadolescence, thus help- Services, and Intervention Programs for McCord, and Poulin, 1999). For exam- ing to protect them from subsequent Child Delinquents (Burns et al., 2003). ple, group discussions among antiso- involvement in delinquent activities. cial peers may inadvertently reinforce Summary antisocial attitudes and promote anti- School social friendships that may continue The Study Group stresses that the focus Several types of school programs have outside group sessions. on risk factors that appear at a young shown promise as interventions for age is the key to preventing child delin- reducing aggressive behavior in the quency and its escalation into chronic classroom. For example, evaluations of of probation, consumption of alcohol, criminality. By intervening early, young the Good Behavior Game showed that sexual activity, and running away from children will be less likely to succumb proactive behavior management can home. Earlier reports (Olds et al., 1997; to the accumulating risks that arise positively affect the long-term behav- Olds et al., 1986) had shown that this later in childhood and adolescence ior of the most aggressive elementary intervention also reduced the incidence and less likely to incur the negative school children (Murphy, Hutchinson, of childhood injuries and child abuse social and personal consequences of and Bailey, 1983; Kellam and Rebok, and neglect. several years of disruptive and delin- 1992; Kellam et al., 1994). The Seattle quent behaviors. Many family-based interventions that Social Development Project has also focus on issues such as spousal vio- demonstrated effectiveness in reducing Child delinquency usually stems from a lence and divorce conflict disregard disruptive behavior in children (Hawkins combination of factors that varies from children completely or deal with them et al., 1992; Hawkins, Von Cleve, and child to child. No single risk factor is only in the abstract. Conversely, inter- Catalano, 1991; Hawkins et al., 1999; sufficient to explain it. To develop effec- ventions for reducing aggression in O’Donnell et al., 1995). Numerous tive methods for preventing child delin- young children do not always target schools have also developed social quency and its escalation into serious family issues, such as domestic violence competence curriculums to promote and violent juvenile offending, interven- or parental psychopathology, that may norms against aggressive, violent, and tion methods must account for the contribute to the child’s behavior prob- other antisocial behaviors (e.g., Green- wide range of individual, family, peer, lems. Focused, family-based approaches, berg, 1997). Other efforts include con- school, and community risk factors. such as Parent Management Training flict resolution and violence prevention Some effective intervention programs (Wasserman and Miller, 1998), have curriculums, bullying prevention pro- that focus on reducing persistent dis- helped reduce the risk of poor family grams, multicomponent classroom pro- ruptive behavior in young children management practices and physically grams to improve academic achievement have reduced later serious, violent, and abusive behavior, which can contribute and reduce antisocial behaviors, after- chronic offending. Some interventions to antisocial behaviors in children. school recreation programs, and men- focus on parent behaviors that increase Nevertheless, a lack of sensitivity to co- toring programs. the risk of persistent disruptive behav- occurring risk factors has generally led ior in children. Peer relations training to interventions that are too narrowly Community and school/classroom programs have focused. As a result, they fail to address also shown some promise. Still, many adequately the multiple sources of risk Because most studies have not specifi- gaps exist in our knowledge about the for children in family life. cally focused on child delinquency, sur- development of child delinquency, the prisingly little is known about community risk and protective factors that con- risk factors for child delinquency. Several tribute to it, and effective prevention Peers community approaches for preventing and intervention methods. Addressing Interventions to reduce antisocial be- and reducing juvenile crime have been these gaps offers an exceptional oppor- haviors associated with peer influence developed in recent years (e.g., Brewer tunity to reduce overall crime levels

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13 Reid, W.J., and Crisafulli, A. 1990. Marital Sutherland, E., and Cressey, D. 1970. West, D.J., and Farrington, D.P. 1973. discord and child behavior problems: Criminology. New York, NY: Lippincott. Who Becomes Delinquent? London, A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal England: Heinemann. Child Psychology 18:105–117. Tiet, Q.Q., Bird, H.R., Davies, M., Hoven, C.W., Cohen, P., Jensen, P.S., and Good- West, D.J., and Farrington, D.P. 1977. The Robins, L.N. 1966. Deviant Children man, S. 1998. Adverse life events and Delinquent Way of Life. London, England: Grown Up. Baltimore, MD: Williams and resilience. Journal of the American Acad- Heinemann. Wilkins. emy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37:1191–1200. White, J.L., Moffitt, T.E., Earls, F., Robins, Rowe, D.C. 2002. Biology and Crime. Los L., and Silva, P.A. 1990. How early can we Angeles, CA: Roxbury. Tremblay, R.E., Pihl, R.O., Vitaro, F., and tell? Predictors of childhood conduct Dobkin, P.L. 1994. Predicting early onset disorder and delinquency. Criminology Rowe, D.C., and Gulley, B. 1992. Sibling of male antisocial behavior from pre- 28:507–533. effects on substance abuse and delin- school behavior. Archives of General quency. Criminology 30:217–233. Psychiatry 51:732–739. Widom, C.S. 1989. The cycle of violence. Science 244:160–166. Rutter, M., Giller, H., and Hagell, A. 1998. Tremblay, R.E., Schaal, B., Boulerice, B., Antisocial Behavior by Young People. Arseneault, L., Soussignan, R.G., Paquette, Williams, S., Andersen, J., McGee, R., New York, NY: Cambridge University D., and Laurent, D. 1998. Testosterone, and Silva, P.A. 1990. Risk factors for Press. physical aggression, dominance, and behavioral and emotional disorder in physical development in early adoles- preadolescent children. Journal of the Sampson, R.J. 1987. Urban black vio- cence. International Journal of Behav- American Academy of Child and Adoles- lence: The effect of male joblessness ioral Development 22:753–777. cent Psychiatry 29:413–419. and family disruption. American Journal of Sociology 93:348–382. Vaden-Kiernan, N., Ialongo, N.S., Pearson, Zuckerman, B., Augustyn, M., Groves, J.L., and Kellam, S.G. 1995. Household B.M., and Parker, S. 1995. Silent victims Sampson, R.J., and Lauritsen, J.L. 1994. family structure and children’s aggres- revisited: The special case of domestic Violent victimization and offending: sive behavior: A longitudinal study of violence. Pediatrics 96:511–513. Individual-, situational-, and community- urban elementary school children. level risk factors. In Understanding and Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology This Bulletin was prepared under grant num- Preventing Violence: Social Influence, 23:553–568. ber 95–JD–FX–0018 from the Office of Juvenile vol. 3, edited by A.J. Reiss and J.A. Roth. Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- Washington, DC: National Academy Wasserman, G.A., and Miller, L.S. 1998. partment of Justice. Press, pp. 1–115. The prevention of serious and violent Points of view or opinions expressed in this juvenile offending. In Serious and Violent document are those of the authors and do not Sampson, R.J., Raudenbush, S.W., and Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and necessarily represent the official position or Earls, F. 1997. Neighborhoods and vio- Successful Interventions, edited by R. policies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department of lent crime: A multilevel study of collec- Loeber and D.P. Farrington. Thousand Justice. tive efficacy. Science 277:919–924. Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 197–247. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Shaw, C.T., and McKay, H.D. 1931. Prevention is a component of the Office of Report on the Causes of Crime, vol. 2. Wasserman, G.A., Miller, L., Pinner, E., Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Washington, DC: U.S. Government and Jaramillo, B.S. 1996. Parenting pre- Justice Statistics, the National Institute of Printing Office. dictors of early conduct problems in Justice, and the Office for Victims of Crime. urban, high-risk boys. Journal of the Simons, R.L., Wu, C.I., Conger, R.D., and American Academy of Child and Adoles- Lorenz, F.O. 1994. Two routes to delin- cent Psychiatry 35:1227–1236. quency: Differences between early and late starters in the impact of parenting and deviant peers. Criminology 32:247–276.

14 Acknowledgments Gail A. Wasserman, Ph.D., is Professor FFindind OJJDPOJJDP ProductsProducts of Clinical Psychology in Child Psy- chiatry, Columbia University. Kate Keenan, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor, OOnlinenline Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago. Richard E. Tremblay, Ph.D., is Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Montreal. John D. Coie, Ph.D., is Professor, Department of Psychology, Duke University. Todd I. Want to know more about the Herrenkohl, Ph.D., is Assistant Profes- issues in this Bulletin or related information? sor, Social Welfare Department at the Log on to ojjdp.ncjrs.org: University of Washington. Rolf Loeber, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychiatry, Psy- ➤ Browse titles alphabetically or by topic. chology, and Epidemiology, University It’s Fast of Pittsburgh, PA; Professor of Develop- ➤ Discover the latest OJJDP releases. mental Psychopathology, Free Univer- sity, Amsterdam, Netherlands; and ➤ Subscribe to OJJDP’s listserv JUVJUST Director of the Pittsburgh Youth Study. It’s Easy and the electronic newsletter JUSTINFO. David Petechuk is a freelance health sciences writer. ➤ Link to the NCJRS Abstracts Database Photo on page 4 © 2002 Corbis Images; to search for publications of interest. photos on pages 7 and 9 © 1999–2002 It’s Free Getty Images, Inc.

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