Sport Fans and Sci-Fi Fanatics: the Social Stigma of Popular Media Fandom

Home , Cyberpsychology, Fantasy Fan, Fantasy fandom

Psychology of Popular Media Culture © 2015 American Psychological Association 2017, Vol. 6, No. 3, 193–207 2160-4134/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000095 Sport Fans and Sci-Fi Fanatics: The Social Stigma of Popular Media Fandom

Elizabeth L. Cohen Anita Atwell Seate West Virginia University University of Maryland

Shaun M. Anderson and Melissa F. Tindage West Virginia University

Popular media culture fandom is associated with a variety of positive psychological, social, and cultural outcomes, but people who participate in these fandoms may be socially stigmatized because of the object of their fandom. A 2 (Fandom Type: Science Fiction/Fantasy; Sport) ϫ 2 (Target Fan Sex: Female; Male) between-subjects experimental design was used to examine the influence of fandom type and fan sex on the 3 dimensions of interpersonal attraction: social, physical, and task. In general, science fiction/fantasy fans were perceived as less socially and physically attractive compared to sport fans, particularly male science fiction/fantasy fans. However, there were no differences between the groups in task attractiveness. Female sport fans were judged as more physically and socially attractive than female science fiction/fantasy fans.

Keywords: fandom, fans, stereotypes, geek, stigma

Studies of sports and popular media culture matization of popular culture consumption has a fans alike have shown that there are several long history (Adorno & Horkheimer, 2002) and benefits that accompany fandom. Psychologi- fans of popular media culture (e.g., fans of cally, fandom is associated with self-esteem, novels, TV shows, pop music, etc.) have often empowerment, entertainment, self-fulfillment, been associated with low-status, immaturity, and a sense of social integration and community and poor taste (Fiske, 1989). A subcategory of (Fiske, 1992; Obst, Zinkiewicz, & Smith, 2002; popular media culture fandom is science fiction/ Smith, Patterson, Williams, & Hogg, 1981; fantasy fandom. Science fiction/fantasy fans Tsay-Vogel & Sanders, 2017; Wann, 1995). (e.g., Whovieans, Trekkies, Cosplayers, Twi- Sociologically, fandom can unite disparate so- lighters or Twihards, and Dungeons & Dragons cial groups and serve as a gateway to civic players) are associated with characteristics that engagement and cultural production (Jenkins, overlap with the broader geeks or nerd stereo- 1992; Scardaville, 2005; Shefrin, 2004). type. Anderegg (2011) suggests that this stereo- However, despite the benefits of fandom, type is unique in that, although people recog- fans can also be stigmatized socially. The stig- nize that being stereotyped as a geek is negative and try to avoid being labeled as such, use of the label is nonetheless considered socially accept-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. able. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and isThis not to be disseminated broadly. article was published Online First August 17, 2015. If the stigma of geeks and geek subcultures Elizabeth L. Cohen, Department of Communication Stud- like science fiction/fantasy fans is, in fact, nor- ies, West Virginia University; Anita Atwell Seate, Depart- malized, this could be problematic because, like ment of Communication, University of Maryland; Shaun M. Anderson and Melissa F. Tindage, Department of Commu- all stigmata, it contributes to shame and social nication Studies, West Virginia University. isolation (Major & Eccleston, 2005). Addition- We thank Edward L. Fink for his thoughtful suggestions. ally, people could be discouraged from engag- Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- ing in “geeky” behaviors that are personally dressed to Elizabeth L. Cohen, Department of Communica- fulfilling and beneficial for society, such as en- tion Studies, West Virginia University, PO Box 6293, Mor- gantown, WV 26506-6293. E-mail: elizabeth.cohen@mail gagement in participatory cultures and involve- .wvu.edu ment in science, technology, engineering, and

193 194 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE

mathematics fields (Anderegg, 2011; Croasdell, stereotype. Bednarek (2012) investigated dic- McLeod, & Simkin, 2011; Jenkins, Clinton, Pu- tionary and Wikipedia entries, Google images, rushotma, Robinson, & Weigel, 2006). and academic literature to identify stereotypic However, although several scholars have associations with geeks/nerds and found that documented the negative geek stereotypes that they typically are depicted or described as being afflict science fiction/fantasy fans, no research interested in science fiction and fantasy and has yet examined whether this social stigma disinterested in sports, among other stereotypi- exists. In fact, only a handful of studies have cal geek traits, such as being intelligent and explored public impressions of fans, and these studious, being interested or obsessed with tech- studies have been limited to perceptions of sport nology and science, being socially awkward and fans (e.g., Wann, Schinner, & Keenan, 2001; reclusive, being physically awkward and unat- Wann, Waddill, & Dunham, 2004). The current tractive, dressing strangely, and not having a study investigated whether or not science fic- sex life. tion/fantasy fandom is more or less socially Fan studies research also indicates that pop- acceptable than sport fandom, another common ular media culture fans are stereotyped as plac- popular culture activity. By experimentally ma- ing too much importance on, and overindulging nipulating the object of fandom (sport or sci- in the consumption of information about the ence fiction/fantasy) and the fan’s sex in a de- object of their fandom (Jenkins, 1992; Jensen, scription of a fan, this research sheds light on 1992; Sandvoss, 2005; Stanfill, 2013). The link the potential social costs of participating in sci- between fans and a lack of self-control also ence fiction/fantasy fandom for male and female bleeds over into the stereotype that fans have fans. problems distinguishing between fantasy and reality, or suggesting that they are mentally The Stigma of Science unbalanced (Anderegg, 2011; Jenkins, 1992; Fiction/Fantasy Fandom Jensen, 1992; Johnson, 2007). Even the word “fan,” short for “fanatic,” hints at the associa- Because one of the ways that people form tion between fandom and “madness and de- impressions of other people is by considering monic possession.” (Jenkins, 1992, p. 13). Me- their social group memberships (Turner, 1985), dia portrayals and researchers alike have people’s association with different fandoms depicted celebrity and popular media culture should impact others’ assessments of interper- fan behaviors as pathological (cf. Stever, 2011), sonal attractiveness. However, research on de- rather than a normal and natural expression of pictions of fans in the media and popular culture social and aesthetic affinity. discourse suggest that not all fandoms are per- Popular media culture fandom has been as- ceived as being equally attractive. In his semi- sociated to a number of positive experiences, nal work, Jenkins (1992) observed that media including enjoyment, narrative transportation, depictions of popular media culture fans may be knowledge acquisition, and the tendency to stigmatizing, such that they are routinely shown search for meaningfulness (Taylor, 2015; Tsay- as being immature, emasculated, freakish, asex- Vogel & Sanders, 2017). The social stigma at- ual or sexually incapable, socially inept and tached to science fiction/fantasy fandom is isolated, and unstable. More recent research problematic because it could shame existing finds that these stereotypes persist in media fans and discourage other people from partici- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. discourse (Johnson, 2007; Stanfill, 2013), and pating in this and other popular media culture This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. are applied to other, related fan groups. For fandoms. “Geek shaming” and social ostracism instance, the negative perception of science fic- could have damaging psychological effects on tion/fantasy fans as being lonely, socially awk- fans, and this stigma could adversely affect peo- ward, misfits overlaps with the stereotype of ple’s willingness to identify as a fan and engage gamers and “fanboy” comic book readers and in related activities. Fan studies scholars have collectors as well (Gagliardo, 2013; Kowert, presented extensive evidence that popular me- Griffiths, & Oldmeadow, 2012). Stereotypes of dia culture fandom lays the ground work for popular media culture fans—particularly sci- participatory cultures, in which people produce ence fiction and fantasy fans, could be consid- and distribute their own media (e.g., Barton & ered an archetype of a broader nerd or geek Lamply, 2013; Jenkins, 1992; Jenkins et al., SPORT FANS AND SCI-FI FANATICS 195

2006). These participatory cultures have been chosen object of affection, are rarely described as linked to positive educational, social, and civic “creepy.” (Zubernis & Larsen, 2012) outcomes like activism (e.g., Jenkins et al., To our knowledge no study has yet experi- 2006; Kell, 2009; Scardaville, 2005; Shefrin, mentally demonstrated that the object of a per- 2004). The stigmatization of popular media cul- son’s fandom (rather than fan behavior) can be ture fandom could contribute to what Jenkins et a stigma, and in turn affect interpersonal im- al. (2006) terms a participation gap, a divide pression formation. In the current study, we between those who have acquired the cultural compare people’s impressions of a science fic- competencies and new media literacies needed tion/fantasy fan—a prototypical popular media to keep up with the demands of participatory culture fan, to impressions of a sport fan. Both culture and those who have not. types of fans will be described in the same Although science fiction/fantasy fans tend to terms, but the object of their fandom will be be stereotyped as geeky and overly obsessed, manipulated. Based on fan studies research that behaviorally speaking, fans of popular media suggests that science fiction/fantasy fans are culture are not much different from sport fans. stereotyped as being interpersonally awkward, Although direct comparisons of different types misfitting, mentally unstable, and all around of fan behaviors are rare, a cursory comparison geeky, we expect that they will be judged as of research on popular media culture fans (in- being less physically attractive, less socially cluding fans of science fiction and fantasy) and desirable, and less able and dependable than sport fans, suggests that they express them- sport fans. Based on this logic, we predicted selves and identify with other fans in similar that: ways, such as viewing and reading media texts related to the object of their fandom, looking up H1: Science fiction/fantasy fans will be statistics, discussing it with other fans, purchas- perceived as less physically, socially, and ing paraphernalia or clothing to express their task attractive compared to sport fans. fandom, and sometimes even engaging in role- play related to their fandom, such as digital Biological Sex and Science Fiction/Fantasy games, fantasy league sports, or cosplay (Baym, Fan Stigmatization 2000; Gantz & Wenner, 1991; Harrington & Bielby, 1995; Ruihley & Billings, 2013). How- Compared to males, females are just as likely— ever, contrary to the stereotype that popular if not more likely—to engage in many types of media culture fans are abnormally excessive, popular culture fandom. For instance, almost an equal number of males and females attend pop some research suggests that in actuality, sport culture fan conventions such as Comic Con, and fans might be more active and involved with the women are more likely to participate in cosplay, object of their fandom (Gantz, Wang, Paul, & write fan fiction, and blog about their fan expe- Potter, 2006; Reysen & Branscombe, 2010). riences than men (Eventbrite, 2014; Fan Fiction This suggests that fandom itself is not stigma- Network Research, 2011). However, there is tized, simply the object of fandom. Sport fans reason to suspect that male and female science and popular media culture fans may feel simi- fiction/fantasy fans are not perceived as being larly toward the object of their fandom and equal when it comes to interpersonal attractive- perform similar behaviors—even behaviors that ness. Research on common science fiction/ This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. seem fanatic, but only popular media culture fantasy fan practices suggests that flexible per- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualfans user and is not to be disseminated broadly. would be stigmatized.1 An interview with Larsen, the editor of the Journal of Fandom Studies captures this double standard: 1 Our intention is not to suggest that sport fans are not stigmatized as well. We recognize that sport participation The degree of ridicule that a male sports fan experi- and fandom can also be accompanied by harmful stereo- ences—even if he paints himself half green and half types. For instance, the “dumb jock” stereotype associates white and goes to an Eagles [football] game half na- athleticism with brutishness, ignorance, and stupidity and ked—is vastly different than the potential ridicule could be associated with a negative mental and academic tossed at a male media fan who paints himself green outcomes (e.g., Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007). and white and goes to Comic Con half naked as an However, we do argue that these negative stereotypes alien something-or-other. Eagles fans, no matter how should not have the effect on social attraction that stereo- extreme their presentation and participation in their types associated with science fiction/fantasy fandom has. 196 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE

formances of gender and other identities, and mately 50% of video game playing population the creation of texts that resist heteronormativ- is female (Entertainment Software Association, ity are fairly common behaviors (Bury, 2003; 2014). Gn, 2011; Scodari, 2003). Conceivably, these Collectively this research suggests that sche- experimental gender practices are seen as being matically, people will associate science fiction/ more deviant when they are performed by men, fantasy fandom with males. Therefore, people who are expected to conform more rigidly to should perceive male science fiction/fantasy dominant, masculine cultural norms. In this fans as being particularly unattractive interper- way, male participation in science fiction/ sonally compared to female science fiction/ fantasy fandom could be seen as particularly fantasy fans or sport fans, which are less likely freakish and socially aberrant. Furthermore, an- to fit the unappealing stereotype. Accordingly, ecdotal evidence and recent scholarship sug- we predicted the following: gests that males are more likely to be associated with geek images and behavior in the media, H2: The male science fiction/fantasy fan and thus, stigmatization of popular media cul- will be perceived as less physically, so- ture fandom may be more damaging to male cially, and task attractive compared to the fans than female fans. Discourse analyses of other three groups combined (i.e., the fe- geeks represented in popular culture (e.g., im- male science fiction fan, the male sport fan, ages on the Geek Squad computer-repair web- and the female sport fan). site), argue that geeks tend to be male by default (Eglash, 2002; Kendall, 2011). Bednarek’s In- Science fiction/fantasy fandom should also ternet search for stereotypical geek representa- be a socially unappealing pursuit for women, tions revealed that White males were dispropor- comparatively speaking. Of course, arguably tionately pictured compared to “nerd girls” (a any type of fandom could be seen as being less specific term used to describe the female excep- appropriate for women. “Fangirl” is often used tion to this stereotype). Furthermore, stereotyp- pejoratively as a means to ridicule what is seen ical geek portrayals on film and TV such as as overly enthusiastic female fandom (Click, those found on Revenge of the Nerds, Family 2009), and some have observed that woman are Matters, Big Bang Theory, Role Models, Silicon often perceived as lacking the knowledge to be Valley, and Community are overwhelmingly a “true” fan (Borer, 2009; Pope, 2014). None- represented by males, and many of these por- theless, female sport fandom appears to be a trayals feature stereotypical geeks engaging in lesser evil. Evidence suggests that female sport science fiction/fantasy fan behaviors, such as fandom is becoming increasingly common and playing fantasy role-playing games like Dun- socially acceptable. Some research has indi- geons & Dragons, or obsessing over plot details cated that men engage in more fan behaviors of their favorite TV program. Arguably one of (e.g., researching players, watching sports on the most common types of science fiction/ TV, and discussing the sport with others; Dietz- fantasy fan are a subgroup of players of Mas- Uhler, Harrick, End, & Jacquemotte, 2000; sively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games, Gantz & Wenner, 1991) and express more in- who may engage in fantasy role-playing games terest in sports (cf. Wann, Melnick, Russell, & like World of Warcraft or Final Fantasy. Work Pease, 2001). It is perhaps no wonder that men by Kowert and colleagues shows that gamer are also perceived as being more intense sport This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. stereotypes overlap with science fiction/fantasy fans (Dietz-Uhler, End, Jacquemotte, Bentley, This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. stereotypes (e.g., being socially incompetent & Hurlbut, 2000). However, this research may and unattractive; Kowert et al., 2013), and that overlook more female-centered styles of sport the public tends to associate gamers with social fandom (Pope, 2013). As Borer (2009) points groups related to science fiction/fantasy fandom out, sports tends to be male-dominated from an (i.e., comic book enthusiasts, Dungeons & ideological standpoint, but for better or worse, Dragons players, and geeks; Kowert & Old- female sport fans have developed a number of meadow, 2013). Notably, gaming also tends to strategies to express their sport fandom and be a stereotypically male activity (Selwyn, remain true to their gender identities that might 2007; Williams, Yee, & Caplan, 2008), even not resemble the type of fan behaviors males though a recent statistic indicates that approxi- engage in. Of course, other research suggests SPORT FANS AND SCI-FI FANATICS 197

that males and females engage in very similar ceived as less physically, socially, and task fan behavior when they strongly identify as attractive compared to female sport fans. sport fans, but the difference is that men appear more likely than women to identify as involved Method sport fans (Dietz-Uhler, Harrick, et al., 2000; Ware & Kowalski, 2012), and being a sport fan Students from a large Northeastern university is a more important determinant of social ac- were recruited from introductory communica- ceptance for men, compared to women (End, tion courses to participate in a 2 (Fan type: Kretschmar, & Dietz-Uhler, 2004). Even if sci-fi/fantasy fan or sport fan) ϫ 2 (Target fan sport fandom is typically a more salient part of sex: female or male) between-subjects design males’ identity, however, this should not sug- online experiment, in exchange for extra course gest that female sport fans are evaluated disap- credit. Participants were told that the study was provingly. In a study of male sport fan percep- on how people form impressions about other tions, Wann et al. (2001) found that men with an people and they were asked to read a descriptive interest in sports themselves evaluated a de- profile of another college student and consider scription of a female sport fan favorably, and their gut-level impressions of that person. After evaluated a description of a female with little reading the descriptions, participants proceeded interest in sports unfavorably. The authors de- to take an online questionnaire with questions scribe this as the Something About Mary effect, regarding how socially, task, and physically at- based on the 1998 movie that focuses on the tractive they perceived this person to be. romantic attachments of several men to a beau- tiful and intelligent woman who also happens to Experimental Manipulations be an intense sport fan. This film paired femininity with sport fandom, glamorizing the fe- All participants read a description of an in- male sport fan as the woman who has it all. In volved fan, but participants were randomly as- a follow-up experiment, Galyon and Wann signed to read and respond to one of four dif- (2012) found that this favorable impression of a ferent descriptions of a person that only varied female sport fan persisted regardless of whether in terms of what the person was a fan of, and the the female was described in highly feminine or sex of the person. In the science fiction/fantasy highly masculine. This finding suggests that condition, participants read a description of sport fandom could be an influential cue in how somebody that “is enthusiastically devoted to men form impression about women, above mas- watching and reading media about almost any- culinity and femininity.2 Although no similar thing involving science fiction and fantasy.” In study looking at female perceptions of female the sport fan condition, a sport fan is described sport fandom could be located, it stands to rea- as performing the exact same activities, but the son that female acceptance of female sport fan- wording was adjusted for sport fans (e.g., in- dom could mirror males’ acceptance, thereby stead of wearing reproductions of character uni- making female sport fandom on the whole more forms, the sport fan wears reproductions of socially acceptable than female participation in players uniforms). Fan sex was manipulated by more stigmatized fandom, such as science fic- changing the name of the fan and the gendered tion/fantasy fandom. As previously discussed, pronouns. Some participants were randomly assigned to read a description of Abby, and her This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. we expect male science fiction/fantasy fans to fandom, while others read a description of Allen This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualbe user and is not toconsidered be disseminated broadly. the least interpersonally attractive, but that is because males tend to be associated with this stigmatized fan culture, and 2 Several participants in this study were not included in females do not. However, we expect that female the final analysis because they did not answer a manipula- sport fans will still have a social leg up on tion check correctly, which was designed to gauge whether female science fiction/fantasy fans and will or not the males in the study identified the masculine and feminine characteristics used to describe the female sport elicit more positive interpersonal assessments. fans. The authors suggest that this could indicate that par- Thus, we predicted the following: ticipants had difficulty conceptualizing a masculine female, and this could be an alternative explanation for why there H3: Compared to female sport fans, female was no difference in their assessment of masculine and science fiction/fantasy fans will be per- feminine female sport fans. 198 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE

and his fandom. The experimental vignette can The social attraction scale consisted of 12 items be found in Appendix. to assess social desirability (e.g., “I think this Participants were told they would be quizzed person could be a friend of mine”; M ϭ 4.75, on what they can recall about the description SD ϭ 1.02). Finally, task attraction consisted of and instructed to read the description carefully 14 items that gauged participants’ impressions and try to remember as much about the person of how much they would like to work with that as they could so that they could answer specific person (e.g., “I have confidence in this person’s questions about the person and their impres- ability to get the job done”; M ϭ 4.40, SD ϭ sions of them later. A total of 58 participants in .60). All three scales were reliable, with Cron- the final sample were assigned to the male sci- bach’s alphas of .91, .93, and .82, respectively. ence fiction/fantasy fan condition, 66 were assigned to the female science fiction/fantasy con- Data Preparation dition, 75 were assigned to the male sport fan condition, and 76 were assigned to the female We used contrast codes to examine each sport fan condition. hypothesis. Hypothesis 1 was coded such that both sport fans conditions received a .25 and Participants both science fiction/fantasy fan conditions received a Ϫ.25. Hypothesis 2 was coded such A total of 298 students participated in the that the male science fiction/fantasy fan con- study, but 23 (7.71%) participants who did not dition received a .75 and all other conditions respond correctly to one of two manipulation (i.e., female science fiction/fantasy fan, fe- checks that asked them to identify the type of male sport fan, male sport fan) were coded as fan and sex of the fan in the description were Ϫ.25. Hypothesis 3 was coded such that the excluded from analyses.3 The final sample con- female science fiction/fantasy fan condition sisted of 275 participants. Slightly less than half received a .50, the female sport fan condition of the sample was male (46.5%), 42.5% was received a Ϫ.50, and the two male conditions female, and 10.9% did not report biological (i.e., both science fiction/fantasy and sport) sex.4 The ages of participants ranged from 18 to conditions received a 0. 55 (M ϭ 21.25, SD ϭ 3.57). Over three quarters of the sample identified as White (77.1%). Af- Results rican Americans were the next most frequently represented group in the sample (5.8%), fol- To test H1–H3, we conducted a series of lowed by Asians (3.6%), and Hispanics/ planned comparisons. For each hypothesis, Latino/as (1.8%). In total, 11.7% of participants we entered the contrast code into univariate reported identifying with another racial or eth- ANOVAs for each dependent variable. Because nic group or did not report their race or ethnic- our hypotheses are nonorthogonal, we took sev- ity. eral steps in order to reduce the risk of commit- ting a family wise Type I error. First, we com- Interpersonal Attraction Measures puted the determinant of the three contrast McCroskey and McCain’s (1974) interper- codes’ correlation matrix to ensure that there sonal attraction measures were used to assess was not a high degree of multicollinearity. The physical, social, and task attraction to the fan in This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. the description. These three indicators of inter- 3

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. A chi-square analysis was performed to demonstrate personal attraction have been validated and that the participants removed from each condition did not shown to be reliable in the past (see Rubin, differ, ␹2(3, N ϭ 298) ϭ 4.54, p ϭ .21. T-tests also Palmgreen, & Sypher, 2004). For each scale, confirmed that participants removed from the sample did not differ on measures of interpersonal attraction. participants were asked to indicate the extent 4 It is unclear why such a high percentage of participants that they agree with different statements on a did not report their sex, but a chi-square analysis confirmed 7-point Likert scale (1 ϭ disagree strongly;7ϭ that the number of participants that did not report sex did agree strongly). Physical attraction was mea- not vary across the four experimental conditions ␹2(6) ϭ 6.79, p ϭ .34 (male science fiction/fantasy fan, 3.7%; fe- sured with 12 items designed to gauge how male science fiction/fantasy fan, 2.2%; male sport fan, physically alluring a person is (e.g., “this person 2.6%; female sport fan, 1.8%), so we believe this occurred is physically attractive”; M ϭ 4.05, SD ϭ .84). at random and is unrelated to the results of this study. SPORT FANS AND SCI-FI FANATICS 199

determinant of the covariate matrix (.18) indi- to be less physically attractive (M ϭ 3.58, SD ϭ cates there is some degree of collinearity be- 0.89) compared to the other three groups (M ϭ tween the three contrast codes (as would be 4.18, SD ϭ 0.78), F(1, 269) ϭ 24.39, p Ͻ .001, 2 expected given that the hypotheses are nonor- ␩p ϭ .08. The male science fiction/fantasy fan thogonal), but the problem does not appear very was also perceived to be less socially attractive serious. Second, we computed a series of 2 (Fan (M ϭ 4.32, SD ϭ 0.94) compared to the other Type: science fiction/fantasy vs. sport) by 2 three groups (M ϭ 4.87, SD ϭ 1.02), F(1, 2 (Sex: female vs. male) between-subjects ANO- 269) ϭ 13.56, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ .05. However, the VAs for each dependent variable to ensure that male science fiction/fantasy fan was not per- model was statistically significant.5 Finally, we ceived to be less task attractive (M ϭ 4.25, reduced the Type I error rate for each of the SD ϭ 0.68) compared to the other three groups planned comparisons. More specifically, we di- (M ϭ 4.44, SD ϭ 0.57), F(1, 269) ϭ 5.02, p ϭ 2 vided the 5% alpha level by three (i.e., the .026, ␩p ϭ .02. As noted above, we are using an number of planned comparisons) to ensure that alpha risk of 1.667% for each of our analyses to the family wise Type I error rate is equal to 5%. maintain a family wise Type I error rate of 5%. Hence, for the analyses below, the alpha level Together, these results partially support H2. for each test is 1.667%, one-tailed. H3 predicted that female science fiction/ fantasy fans are perceived as less physically, Preliminary Analyses socially, and task attractive compared to female sport fans. The estimated marginal means indi- For the 2 by 2 ANOVA for physical attrac- cate that female science fiction/fantasy fans are tion, results indicate the model significantly pre- perceived as less physically attractive (M ϭ dicts the outcome, F(3, 267) ϭ 12.54, p Ͻ .001, 3.96, SE ϭ 0.10), 95% CI [3.76–4.16], com- R2 ϭ .11. The model predicts a significant adjusted pared to female sport fans (M ϭ 4.42, SE ϭ proportion of variance in social attraction, F(3, 0.10) 95% CI [4.23–4.61], F(2, 268) ϭ 10.65, 267) ϭ 10.98, p Ͻ .001, R2 ϭ .10, and adjusted p Ͻ .001, partial ␩2 ϭ .07. Female science lastly, the model predicts a significant propor- p fiction/fantasy fans are also perceived as less tion of variance in task attraction, F(3, 267) ϭ socially attractive (M ϭ 4.47, SE ϭ 0.09), 95% 3.73, p ϭ .012, R2 ϭ .03. adjusted CI [4.23–4.71], compared to female sport fans Hypothesis Testing (M ϭ 5.19, SE ϭ 0.12), 95% CI [4.96–5.42], 2 F(2, 268) ϭ 10.18, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ .07. How- H1 predicted that science fiction/fantasy fans ever, female science fiction/fantasy fans were are perceived as less physically, socially, and not perceived to be less task attractive (M ϭ task attractive compared to sport fans. Results 4.52, SE ϭ 0.07), 95% CI [4.38–4.67], com- indicate that science fiction fans are perceived pared to female sport fans (M ϭ 4.52, SE ϭ as less physically attractive (M ϭ 3.78, SD ϭ 0.07), 95% CI [4.38–4.65], F(2, 268) ϭ 5.41, 2 0.86) compared to sport fans (M ϭ 4.27, SD ϭ p Ͻ .01, ␩p ϭ .07. Overall, H3 received partial 2 0.76), F(1, 269) ϭ 24.41, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ .08. support. The means and standard deviations Science fiction/fantasy fans were also perceived for all three measures of interpersonal attrac- to be less socially attractive (M ϭ 4.40, SD ϭ tion are reported across experimental condi- 0.93) compared to sport fans (M ϭ 5.04, SD ϭ tions in Table 1. 2 1.02), F(1, 269) ϭ 28.85, p Ͻ .001, ␩p ϭ .10. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Lastly, there was no difference in task attraction This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Discussion between science fiction/fantasy fans and sport ϭ ϭ ␩2 ϭ fans, F(1, 269) .06, p .80, p .00. Although participation in fandom can lead to Hypothesis 1 was partially supported. many personal and civic benefits (Fiske, 1989; H2 predicted that the male science fiction/ Jenkins, 1992; Obst et al., 2002; Shefrin, 2004; fantasy fans are perceived as less physically, socially, and task attractive compared to the other three fans combined (i.e., the female sci- 5 Initially, gender of participants was entered as a covariate in these analyses. However, because no significant ence fiction/fantasy fan, the male sport fan, and main effects or theoretically meaningful interactions the female sport fan). Results show that the emerged, this variable was not included in the final analyses male science fiction/fantasy fan was perceived reported here. 200 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE

Table 1 Interpersonal Attraction Means and Standard Deviations Across Experimental Conditions

Physical attraction Target sex condition Target fan condition MSD Male Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.32 .94 Sport fan 4.90 .91 Total 4.65 .96 Female Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.47 .93 Sport fan 5.18 1.11 Total 4.84 1.08 Total Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.40 .93 Sport fan 5.04 1.02 Total 4.75 1.03 Social attraction MSD Male Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.32 .94 Sport fan 4.90 .91 Total 4.70 .96 Female Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.47 .93 Sport fan 5.19 1.11 Total 4.85 1.08 Total Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.40 .93 Sport fan 5.04 1.02 Total 4.75 1.03 Task attraction MSD Male Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.25 .66 Sport fan 4.31 .52 Total 4.28 .59 Female Sci-fi-Fantasy fan 4.52 .57 Sport fan 4.52 .62 Total 4.52 .59 Total Sci-fi/Fantasy fan 4.39 .63 Sport fan 4.25 .68 Total 4.31 .52

Wann, 1995), fan studies research has long sug- to the object of fandom (not fanish behavior), gested there is a stigma attached to participating and that there are adverse social conse- in popular media culture fandoms (Fiske, 1989; quences to participating in science fiction/ Jenkins, 1992). Science fiction/fantasy fandom fantasy fandom. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. in particular appears to be the subject social As expected, science fiction/fantasy fans This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ridicule (e.g., Jenkins, 1992; Johnson, 2007; were perceived as being less physically and Stanfill, 2013) as part of a broader geek culture socially attractive compared to sport fans. Be- (Bednarek, 2012; Kowert & Oldmeadow, cause the experimental stimuli used in this study 2013). However, prior to this study, psycho- described science fiction/fantasy fans and sport logical research had not confirmed that this fans with an identical description of their be- type of fandom was associated with outcomes havior, we can conclude that the science fiction/ that are socially detrimental. To our knowl- fantasy fan was not perceived as less interper- edge, this is the first study to provide exper- sonally appealing because their attitudes and imental evidence that not all fandoms are behavior toward the object of their fandom were perceived equally, that the disparity is linked any more extreme, fanatic, or different in any- SPORT FANS AND SCI-FI FANATICS 201

way from the sport fan’s behavior. In other fandoms. The disparagement of science fiction/ words, because we controlled for the intensity fantasy fandom could be psychologically dam- of fandom, we are confident that the object of aging to fans, who feel socially ostracized based fandom causes the differences in these interper- on a source of enjoyment. The stigma of science sonal perceptions, not behavior. This provides fiction/fantasy fandom could also detract from evidence that the stigmatization of science fic- the many personal rewards of participating in tion/fantasy fandom is a result of the associa- fandom. Research has shown that fandom is tions people have with the object of fandom, associated with several rewarding entertainment rather than fan behavior. These data support the experiences and opportunities for social con- contention that science fiction/fantasy fans are nection (Taylor, 2015; Tsay-Vogel & Sanders, marginalized for being ugly, awkward, and so- 2017) that could be otherwise lost if fans feel cially inept (e.g., Jenkins, 1992). uncomfortable socially identifying as fans. Fur- However, the results indicate that science fic- thermore, this stigmatization could have wider tion/fantasy fans and sport fans did not differ on societal effects if it discourages productive civic all dimensions of interpersonal attraction. Type behaviors associated with fandom. A well- of fandom did not affect participants’ impres- established body of fan studies scholarship has sions of task attractiveness, suggesting that par- demonstrated that participation in fandoms lead ticipating in science fiction/fantasy fandom to participatory cultures, in which citizens can does not detract from people’s impressions of develop valuable cultural competencies and me- others’ capability and reliability. This was true, dia production and distribution skills (e.g., Jen- regardless of whether the fan was described as kins et al., 2006; Kell, 2009; Scardaville, 2005; male or female. In many ways, this finding is Shefrin, 2004). If people’s willingness to affil- encouraging because it indicates that fandom— iate with and engage as fans is compromised, even a geeky fandom, do not discourage all this could contribute to a participation gap in a types of social contact. However, the combina- civic landscape that increasingly demands ex- tion of perceived competence but less physical periences and skills that can be cultivated with and social attractiveness might not necessarily fandom (Jenkins et al., 2006). be positive. Notably, this interpretation is con- Also as expected, the description of the male gruent with Behaviors from Intergroup Affect science fiction/fantasy fan was evaluated as be- and Stereotypes (BIAS) Map research (Cuddy, ing the least physically and socially attractive. Fiske, & Glick, 2007). BIAS Map research finds This is most likely due to the fact that men are that many types of social stereotypes are not most strongly associated with science fiction/ innately positive or negative, but instead are fantasy fandoms, as well as other physically and mixed, and associated with both positive and socially unappealing geekish traits (Eglash, negative (intergroup) behaviors. For example, 2002; Kendall, 2011; Kowert et al., 2014). Par- research finds that groups (e.g., rich people, ticipants appear to have applied the stereotype Asians) that are perceived as high competence of the unattractive, interpersonally unskilled, (e.g., capable) and low on warmth (e.g., warm, nerdy fanboy to their impression formation. sincere) illicit feelings of envy which in turns This discovery suggests that men are judged leads to active harming behaviors (e.g., attack- particularly harshly for participating in this type ing, fighting) and passive facilitation behaviors of fandom. This could be in part because of (e.g., cooperating with group members) depend- societal gender norms. Intuitively, it makes This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ing on the social context. This suggests that in sense that a strong affinity for things like fiction, This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. social contexts linked to things that these fans fantasy, and role-play would be associated with are stereotyped as being competent in, people immaturity and emasculation (Jenkins, 1992), may choose to cooperate with these individuals, particularly compared to athletic interests and but our results imply that outside of these social pursuits. Our results suggest that the social contexts, people will likely distance themselves stigma attached to male science fiction/fantasy from these types of fans. fans could be due to the perception that these These findings have important implications types of fans do not ascribe to societal mascu- for individual fans and society at large. Our line hegemonic norms. This makes sense given findings indicate that people form negative im- that we found that female science fiction/fantasy pressions of others based on the object of their fans were not judged as harshly as their male 202 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE

counterparts. If science fiction/fantasy fandom sults uncover evidence that the female science is perceived as departing from masculine fiction/fantasy fan was also stigmatized, com- norms, it would only be fitting that this type of pared to the female sport fan. In spite of the fact fandom would be perceived as being more so- that generally speaking fandom is often consid- cially appropriate for women, as compared to ered to be a male domain (Borer, 2009; Pope, men. Another possibility is that compared to 2014), research also suggests that women are their male counterparts, female science fiction/ becoming more visible and accepted as sport fantasy fans were actually regarded more favor- fans (Wann et al., 2001), indicating that social ably because they do not fit the stereotype of a stigmata around female sport fandom are being typical (male) science fiction/fantasy fan. Re- reduced. The same cannot be said for female search suggests that exposure to positive, atyp- science fiction/fantasy fans, even though fe- ical examples of a stereotypical group can make males are active in these types of fandom (e.g., the group more socially attractive (Boden- Eventbrite, 2014). Descriptions of female sci- hausen, Schwarz, Bless, & Wanke, 1995; Mas- ence fiction/fantasy fans were evaluated as be- tro & Tukachinsky, 2011). Counter stereotyping ing less physically and socially attractive com- could also explain the Something About Mary pared to female sport fans. Notably, this effect (Wann et al., 2001), in which female suggests that the fandoms under investigation sport fans are seen to be particularly appealing here are rooted in hegemonic norms. Sport fan- by virtue of the fact that they are fans of activ- dom, an important criterion for socially accept- ities that not considered as typical for women. able masculine behavior (End et al., 2004), is Participants might have viewed female science perceived as being more socially acceptable fiction/fantasy fans more positively than the than science fiction/fantasy fandom, even when male counterpart precisely because the descrip- a woman is participating. tion functioned as a counter to the negative stereotype of the socially inept male science Limitations and Future Research fiction/fantasy fan. On the surface, this finding seems like good Because people make many formative deci- news for female science fiction/fantasy fans sions about education, hobbies, extracurricular who, it seems, are not as socially undesirable as activities, and careers in young adulthood, un- male science fiction/fantasy fans. But a more derstanding how college students perceive and pessimistic interpretation of this finding is that respond to different types of fans is particularly it serves as evidence that geek culture is indeed, important. However, the reliance on a college perceived as a male-dominated culture. A great student sample in this study severely limits our deal of effort has been put into exploring the ability to generalize the findings about fan stig- reasons that more women do not engage in matization to other populations, who also might STEM fields, and some of this work suggests have an influential role in helping young adults that one reason is that being a geek in these lines chose and participate in various fandom types. of work is not considered compatible with being For instance, understanding more about parents’ a woman (e.g., Cho, Goodman, Oppenheimer, impressions of different types of fans is worthy Codling, & Robinson, 2009; Croasdell et al., goal for future research, as their perceptions 2011). Likewise, the recent “Gamergate” cam- could have a direct impact on the types of paign exposed the culture war that exists between activities and communities they encourage or This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. men and women in the gaming community (Wof- discourage their children to participate in. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ford, 2014), another geek culture where women It should also be noted that the greatest are marginalized. Hence, while it is true that it strength of our study, the use of a true experi- could be a blessing that female science fiction/ mental design in examining the causal mecha- fantasy fans are not as stigmatized as male science nisms in producing these social perceptions, fiction/fantasy fans, this could also be a curse if it greatly reduces the ecological validity of the indicates that women are not thought of as mem- findings. Although this design gives us confi- bers of these clubs at all. dence that type of fandom and fan sex cause Of course, female science fiction/fantasy fans interpersonal perception differences, the use of do not escape the stigma associated with this simple fan descriptions, void of context and science fiction/fantasy fandom entirely. The re- other details that could affect people’s impres- SPORT FANS AND SCI-FI FANATICS 203

sion like physical appearance, we cannot defin- For instance, it stands to reason that participat- itively surmise that these effects would occur in ing fandoms that are considered more typical actual interpersonal interactions. for women (e.g., soap opera fandom, romance Our findings illuminate a myriad a possibili- novel fandom), could actually bolster the inter- ties that should be explored in future research. personal attractiveness of women and under- First, this study adds to a limited body of re- mine the interpersonal attractiveness of men. To search on how the public thinks about and might fully understand the ways in which involvement respond to different fans (e.g., Wann et al., with popular media culture affects people’s im- 2001, 2004), but there is more work to be done. pression formation, the social of other types of Although it was not predicted, our findings are fandoms still stand to be investigated. consistent with BIAS Map research that sug- On a practical level, research is also needed gests that like many other social groups the to identify the sources of people’s fan percep- social perceptions of science fiction/fantasy tions, so that they can be improved. Previously, fans are not inherently all positive or negative, but are instead mixed, and can predict both we argued that images of science fiction/fantasy positive and negative behavior responses de- fans and other geek groups in popular culture pending on what the social context is (e.g., tend to portray these groups in a negative light. Cuddy et al., 2007). To expand on this discov- However, whether or not these depictions are ery, future research should explicitly test responsible for fan or geek social stigma still whether these fan types lead to differing behav- has yet to be systematically examined. Examin- ioral responses in a variety of social contexts ing the ways in which media portrayals could (e.g., STEM tasks, social gatherings). cultivate perceptions of fans—for better or Additional research is also needed to explore worse—is a fruitful area for additional research the effects of internalizing these social percep- that could also point to ways of reducing the tions of fandom. For instance, Cusack, Jack, and stigma attached to different fandoms. Kavanagh (2003) interviews with Star Trek fans Finally, scholarship on fandom has often revealed that they felt their fan behaviors were been siloed, and more comparative research is closely monitored and disapproved of by their needed on different types of fandom. Although family, but rather than resent the criticism, the a long line of critical cultural research has pro- fans themselves sometimes expressed gratitude vided rich insight into popular media culture fan for this disapproval, believing that they needed behaviors and outcomes (see Gray, Sandvoss, & it to keep “grounded in reality.” This suggests Harrington, 2007), studies of sport fandom are that fans take a cue from public stigmatization underrepresented in fan studies research (Pope, and self-stigmatize their own fandom to some 2014; Schimmel, Harrington, & Bielby, 2007). extent. Past research on stereotype threat effects Likewise, social scientific psychology, sociol- has found that when people know they are ste- ogy, and communication research on fandom reotyped as having social difficulties that this can actually interfere with their ability function has focused predominantly on understanding socially (e.g., Henry, von Hipple, & Shapiro, the motivations and experiences of sport fans 2010). Fan stereotypes could have similar social (e.g., Reysen & Branscombe, 2010; Ruihley & effects. This possibility speaks to a broader need Billings, 2013), with relatively little focus on 6 to study fandom as a social identity. This study did fans of popular media culture. Bridging the gap This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. not account for the extent to which people identi- between these two rich lines of scholarship This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. fied, as different types of fans could have affected could help us better understand how people their judgments of other fans, but likely fan iden- make sense of their leisure activities and how tity salience influences people’s perceptions of collectively, these activities affect personal and self and others. A couple of scales have been societal well-being. developed recently to measure fan identity (Tay- lor, 2015; Tsay-Vogel & Sanders, 2017), and they would be well utilized in future research on fan 6 Studies on soap opera fans (e.g., Baym, 2000; Bielby, Harrington, & Bielby, 1999; Scardaville, 2005), gamers perceptions and behavior. (Kowert, Festl, & Quandt, 2014; Kowert & Oldmeadow, It bears mention that the findings in this study 2013), and attachments to celebrities (e.g, Stever, 2011) might not generalize to all objects of fandom. provide some notable exceptions. 204 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE

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Appendix

Experimental Fan Description Vignette [Abby/Allen] is 20 years old and attends a his] favorite [stories/teams], [Abby/Allen] likes large, state university in eastern United States. to buy souvenirs and other fan paraphernalia to This year, [she/he] is taking courses in psychol- decorate [her/his] house. [She/He] has even ogy, history, biology, math, and English. [She/ been known to wear reproductions of [her/his] He] is of average height and average weight. favorite [characters’/players’] uniforms just for [She/He] has brown eyes and short dark hair. fun. [She/He] also enjoys doing things with [Her/His] favorite color is red. In [her/his] spare other fans. [She/He] loves to participate in fan- time, [she/he] enjoys playing with her Labrador tasy [role-playing/sports] games, and discuss Retriever puppy, listening to music, and watch- [science and fantasy fiction/sports] in online ing television. [Abby/Allen] is a huge fan of discussion groups. This year, [she/he] has saved [science and fantasy fiction stories/sports com- up enough money to attend an annual [science petitions]. [She/He] is enthusiastically devoted and fantasy fiction/sports] fan convention. to watching and reading media about almost Received November 5, 2014 anything involving [science and fantasy fiction/ Revision received June 30, 2015 sports]. To express [her/his] support for [her/ Accepted July 2, 2015 Ⅲ

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