Psychology of Popular Media Culture © 2015 American Psychological Association 2017, Vol. 6, No. 3, 193–207 2160-4134/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000095 Sport Fans and Sci-Fi Fanatics: The Social Stigma of Popular Media Fandom Elizabeth L. Cohen Anita Atwell Seate West Virginia University University of Maryland Shaun M. Anderson and Melissa F. Tindage West Virginia University Popular media culture fandom is associated with a variety of positive psychological, social, and cultural outcomes, but people who participate in these fandoms may be socially stigmatized because of the object of their fandom. A 2 (Fandom Type: Science Fiction/Fantasy; Sport) ϫ 2 (Target Fan Sex: Female; Male) between-subjects exper- imental design was used to examine the influence of fandom type and fan sex on the 3 dimensions of interpersonal attraction: social, physical, and task. In general, science fiction/fantasy fans were perceived as less socially and physically attractive compared to sport fans, particularly male science fiction/fantasy fans. However, there were no differences between the groups in task attractiveness. Female sport fans were judged as more physically and socially attractive than female science fiction/fantasy fans. Keywords: fandom, fans, stereotypes, geek, stigma Studies of sports and popular media culture matization of popular culture consumption has a fans alike have shown that there are several long history (Adorno & Horkheimer, 2002) and benefits that accompany fandom. Psychologi- fans of popular media culture (e.g., fans of cally, fandom is associated with self-esteem, novels, TV shows, pop music, etc.) have often empowerment, entertainment, self-fulfillment, been associated with low-status, immaturity, and a sense of social integration and community and poor taste (Fiske, 1989). A subcategory of (Fiske, 1992; Obst, Zinkiewicz, & Smith, 2002; popular media culture fandom is science fiction/ Smith, Patterson, Williams, & Hogg, 1981; fantasy fandom. Science fiction/fantasy fans Tsay-Vogel & Sanders, 2017; Wann, 1995). (e.g., Whovieans, Trekkies, Cosplayers, Twi- Sociologically, fandom can unite disparate so- lighters or Twihards, and Dungeons & Dragons cial groups and serve as a gateway to civic players) are associated with characteristics that engagement and cultural production (Jenkins, overlap with the broader geeks or nerd stereo- 1992; Scardaville, 2005; Shefrin, 2004). type. Anderegg (2011) suggests that this stereo- However, despite the benefits of fandom, type is unique in that, although people recog- fans can also be stigmatized socially. The stig- nize that being stereotyped as a geek is negative and try to avoid being labeled as such, use of the label is nonetheless considered socially accept- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. able. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and isThis not to be disseminated broadly. article was published Online First August 17, 2015. If the stigma of geeks and geek subcultures Elizabeth L. Cohen, Department of Communication Stud- like science fiction/fantasy fans is, in fact, nor- ies, West Virginia University; Anita Atwell Seate, Depart- malized, this could be problematic because, like ment of Communication, University of Maryland; Shaun M. Anderson and Melissa F. Tindage, Department of Commu- all stigmata, it contributes to shame and social nication Studies, West Virginia University. isolation (Major & Eccleston, 2005). Addition- We thank Edward L. Fink for his thoughtful suggestions. ally, people could be discouraged from engag- Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- ing in “geeky” behaviors that are personally dressed to Elizabeth L. Cohen, Department of Communica- fulfilling and beneficial for society, such as en- tion Studies, West Virginia University, PO Box 6293, Mor- gantown, WV 26506-6293. E-mail: elizabeth.cohen@mail gagement in participatory cultures and involve- .wvu.edu ment in science, technology, engineering, and 193 194 COHEN, ATWELL SEATE, ANDERSON, AND TINDAGE mathematics fields (Anderegg, 2011; Croasdell, stereotype. Bednarek (2012) investigated dic- McLeod, & Simkin, 2011; Jenkins, Clinton, Pu- tionary and Wikipedia entries, Google images, rushotma, Robinson, & Weigel, 2006). and academic literature to identify stereotypic However, although several scholars have associations with geeks/nerds and found that documented the negative geek stereotypes that they typically are depicted or described as being afflict science fiction/fantasy fans, no research interested in science fiction and fantasy and has yet examined whether this social stigma disinterested in sports, among other stereotypi- exists. In fact, only a handful of studies have cal geek traits, such as being intelligent and explored public impressions of fans, and these studious, being interested or obsessed with tech- studies have been limited to perceptions of sport nology and science, being socially awkward and fans (e.g., Wann, Schinner, & Keenan, 2001; reclusive, being physically awkward and unat- Wann, Waddill, & Dunham, 2004). The current tractive, dressing strangely, and not having a study investigated whether or not science fic- sex life. tion/fantasy fandom is more or less socially Fan studies research also indicates that pop- acceptable than sport fandom, another common ular media culture fans are stereotyped as plac- popular culture activity. By experimentally ma- ing too much importance on, and overindulging nipulating the object of fandom (sport or sci- in the consumption of information about the ence fiction/fantasy) and the fan’s sex in a de- object of their fandom (Jenkins, 1992; Jensen, scription of a fan, this research sheds light on 1992; Sandvoss, 2005; Stanfill, 2013). The link the potential social costs of participating in sci- between fans and a lack of self-control also ence fiction/fantasy fandom for male and female bleeds over into the stereotype that fans have fans. problems distinguishing between fantasy and reality, or suggesting that they are mentally The Stigma of Science unbalanced (Anderegg, 2011; Jenkins, 1992; Fiction/Fantasy Fandom Jensen, 1992; Johnson, 2007). Even the word “fan,” short for “fanatic,” hints at the associa- Because one of the ways that people form tion between fandom and “madness and de- impressions of other people is by considering monic possession.” (Jenkins, 1992, p. 13). Me- their social group memberships (Turner, 1985), dia portrayals and researchers alike have people’s association with different fandoms depicted celebrity and popular media culture should impact others’ assessments of interper- fan behaviors as pathological (cf. Stever, 2011), sonal attractiveness. However, research on de- rather than a normal and natural expression of pictions of fans in the media and popular culture social and aesthetic affinity. discourse suggest that not all fandoms are per- Popular media culture fandom has been as- ceived as being equally attractive. In his semi- sociated to a number of positive experiences, nal work, Jenkins (1992) observed that media including enjoyment, narrative transportation, depictions of popular media culture fans may be knowledge acquisition, and the tendency to stigmatizing, such that they are routinely shown search for meaningfulness (Taylor, 2015; Tsay- as being immature, emasculated, freakish, asex- Vogel & Sanders, 2017). The social stigma at- ual or sexually incapable, socially inept and tached to science fiction/fantasy fandom is isolated, and unstable. More recent research problematic because it could shame existing finds that these stereotypes persist in media fans and discourage other people from partici- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. discourse (Johnson, 2007; Stanfill, 2013), and pating in this and other popular media culture This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. are applied to other, related fan groups. For fandoms. “Geek shaming” and social ostracism instance, the negative perception of science fic- could have damaging psychological effects on tion/fantasy fans as being lonely, socially awk- fans, and this stigma could adversely affect peo- ward, misfits overlaps with the stereotype of ple’s willingness to identify as a fan and engage gamers and “fanboy” comic book readers and in related activities. Fan studies scholars have collectors as well (Gagliardo, 2013; Kowert, presented extensive evidence that popular me- Griffiths, & Oldmeadow, 2012). Stereotypes of dia culture fandom lays the ground work for popular media culture fans—particularly sci- participatory cultures, in which people produce ence fiction and fantasy fans, could be consid- and distribute their own media (e.g., Barton & ered an archetype of a broader nerd or geek Lamply, 2013; Jenkins, 1992; Jenkins et al., SPORT FANS AND SCI-FI FANATICS 195 2006). These participatory cultures have been chosen object of affection, are rarely described as linked to positive educational, social, and civic “creepy.” (Zubernis & Larsen, 2012) outcomes like activism (e.g., Jenkins et al., To our knowledge no study has yet experi- 2006; Kell, 2009; Scardaville, 2005; Shefrin, mentally demonstrated that the object of a per- 2004). The stigmatization of popular media cul- son’s fandom (rather than fan behavior) can be ture fandom could contribute to what Jenkins et a stigma, and in turn affect interpersonal im- al. (2006)