Phonemes of British and American English

Appendix Phonemes of British and American English

This appendix is designed to be useful to teachers and parents whether or not they wish to use i.t.a. script to help their children to learn to read. Those who do not intend to use i. t.a. will find that this appendix will clarify what are the main units or phonemes of English speech. This will provide a clear guide to what sounds must be distinguished in teaching phonics. If the teacher or parent wishes to use i.t.a., this appendix constitutes a comprehensive set of rules for using i. t.a. spelling to represent the pronunciation of English. But both the i.t.a. teacher and the non-i.t.a. teacher need to know something about i. t.a. in order to get the most out of the guide to phonic sounds given in this appendix. Any code has a two-way function: one direction is decoding, that is, translating the symbols of the code back into the message they are intended to communicate, and the other is encoding, that is, putting a message into the symbols of the code. Similarly, one can explain or describe a code in two ways. One can say, for example, 'this letter represents that sound', which is like decoding. Alternatively, one can describe a code by saying, 'this sound is represented by that letter', which is like encoding. The i.t.a. code has been described in different publications sometimes in the decoding style and sometimes in the encoding style. Each style has its advantages and disadvantages. Letter-to-sound The decoding or letter-to-sound style is the simpler and quicker way to describe the i. t.a. code to an adult teacher or parent who has only a little time to spare for learning this new alphabet. Its chief advantage is in economy of time.

155 The disadvantage of this letter-to-sound way of describing the i.t.a. code is that it tends to suggest the false notion that there is a simple one-to-one correspondence between each i.t.a. character and each phoneme indicated in Table 7-6 in Chapter 7 (p 92). This oversimplified conception of i. t.a. may cause disappointment when the teacher begins to work more closely with i.t.a. It is better for the teacher to be forewarned that i. t.a. still retains some complexities or 'irregularities' in its code, though they are far fewer than exist in the t.o. code (the traditional orthography or con• ventional spelling of English). The reason why i.t.a. cannot be a simple one-to-one code is that its function is not to provide a perfect phonetic transcription of English speech, but to aid children to learn to read t.o. Therefore, there has to be a compromise between (I) the need for a simple code for beginners and (2) the aim of facilitating the transition from i.t.a. to t.o., once fluency in i.t.a. reading has been achieved. This second aim is the chief reason why the i. t.a. code cannot be as simple as Table 7-6 may suggest. For example, t is shown as the symbol for the initial sound in 'ten', but in 'littl' the tis doubled. The phoneme is the same but coded with tin one word and tt in the other. This is because all double-consonant letter spellings from t.o. are retained in i.t.a. to increase similarity of word configurations in the two codes-one of the chief aids to transition in i.t.a.'s design. Another reason why i. t.a. cannot be a perfect code for anyone's pronunciation of English is that it is a deliberate attempt to meet the needs of different dialects. This com• promise means that it is unlikely that any particular English-speaking individual will be absolutely satisfied with i.t.a. as a code for his own speech. However, the result is that, in our wide variety of dialects, everyone should find i.t.a. better than t.o. For example, no one pronounces the word once according to a simple phonic rendering of its t.o. spelling. Its i.t.a. spelling is 'wuns' which would be a recognizable pronunciation even by those who have a different vowel in their own dialect. The care taken by Sir James Pitman (1969) in designing i.t.a. to take account of different pronunciations of English is shown, for example, by his inclusion of the two i.t.a. characters wand~- In North America particularly, many speakers of English will find that the use of these characters in i.t.a. reflects their own speech, in which the initial phoneme in witch is quite different from that in which (i.t.a. witdt and ~i(jl). But other English-speakers will ask, 'why does i.t.a. have two symbols wand~ for the same sound?' because they pronounce witch and which identically. In Scotland the two different sounds are regarded as normal, whereas in England it is unusual to hear any difference. But imagine how difficult it would be if Scottish people were deprived of the initial clue to discriminating waute.r from ~isky! Another example is the pronunci• ation of the words caught and cot. The t.o. spellings indicate a different vowel phoneme whereas for many American speakers they constitute an acceptable rhyme. But the majority of British speakers pronounce them quite differently, and they are helped by having two different written symbols for the different sounds. The i.t.a. code preserves this difference in spelling which helps many English-speaking children even though it results in there being two different ways of writing the same sound in the perception of many others. Thus the i. t.a. spellings are caut and cot. The solution to this problem is related to the funda• mental feature of i.t.a.'s design as a transitional alphabet. It is not intended to be a perfect phonetic code. Rather, it is designed to provide a code which is a better approximation to the child's experiences of spoken English than t.o., and yet which does not differ too dramatically from t.o., so that transfer from i.t.a. to t.o. will be quite easy once the child has developed a basic understanding of and ability in the decoding and encoding processes. Therefore, like t.o., i .t.a. does not attempt to dif• ferentiate between the pronunciation of, for example, American English and British English, and certainly it cannot, and should not try to provide variant spellings for regional differences. If this characteristic of the i.t.a. code is recognized and accepted as inevitable, regional variations in pronunciation need create no real difficulty either for teachers or for pupils. Indeed, teachers can use this problem in i.t.a. to discuss dialect and regional pronunciation with

157 their pupils in a way which may lead even the youngest children to develop an interest in the English language as a living and changing entity. The experienced teacher of i.t.a. knows that the problems discussed above are of minor importance in actual practice in the classroom. The great reduction in the complexity of decoding and encoding difficulties which i.t.a. provides far outweighs the residual complexities which have been discussed in the preceding paragraphs. Nevertheless, it is desirable for teachers to approach their task of learning i.t.a. knowing that, although i.t.a. is simpler than t.o., it does require some concentration and effort to master it completely. It is desirable also that the teacher should know why these complications exist in the i.t.a. code. Sound-to-letter The encoding or sound-to-letter style of describing i. t.a. has the disadvantage of being more complex, and con• sequendy takes more time to study. Nevertheless the remainder of this appendix must be based on this encoding approach if we are to understand the phoneme system of English. Also, the teacher who learns the i. t.a. code by encoding sound-to-letter will obtain a much clearer understanding of the child's conception of a printed code. The encoding approach reflects the direction that the child's learning must take naturally. The new knowledge the beginner must acquire in learning to read and write is the code. The young child has to attach this new code to his previously-learned spoken language, i.e. the natural develop• ment is from sounds to letters (not vice versa as in the decoding letter-to-sound style). This helps the teacher to understand how the child approaches the problem of learning a code. The problem of dialect differences must be faced up to again at this point. An account of a code is bound to be based on the writer's own perception of the language to be coded. For the purpose of this appendix it was decided to take two widely-accepted dictionaries as a guide to pronunciation. For British English, we have employed Daniel Jones's English Pronouncing Dictionary (1956) and, for American

ISS English, The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition (1969). According to Bronstein (1969), in his introductory chapter to this American dictionary: 'The pronunciation key on the inside of the front of the dictionary . . . is the central point of departure . . . . The user of the dictionary who is unfamiliar with the sound represented by a certain symbol should find the symbol in the key and pronounce the sample words aloud in order to hear the sound itself. That sound will be the one appropriate in the speaker's own dialect for the word he is looking up.' Likewise, Jones's pronouncing dictionary has a list of 'key words' in the inside front cover that enables the reader to relate its phonetic symbols to his or her own pronunciation. The lists of phonemes that follow are based on Jones's and Bron• stein's analyses. The teacher or parent using either of these tables should develop the habit of thinking, 'What sounds do I hear in this word and how do I write them?' Ifthere are doubts about the pronunciation, then the teacher can refer to either the British or the American dictionary, as is appropriate. In learning the i. t.a. code, one should listen for the common sound in the examples in the first column of the tables that follow and consult the second column to see how that sound is written in the i. t.a. code. The final column shows the i. t.a. spelling for the whole word of each example.

159 The Sounds of British English The sounds are listed in the same order as given by Jones's English Pronouncing Dictionary. Sounds described by Jones as 'variants', or sounds that are used by a minority of speakers or that occur only rarely, as in foreign place names, have been omitted. Common t.o. Sound representation Examples of words in t.o. containing i.t.a. character Number of sound this sound for that phoneme Examples of words in i.t.a.

I p pen, drip, topper p pen, drip, topper 2 b beg, cab, ebb b beg, cab, ebb 3 t tip, mitten t tip, mitten 4 d dog, hidden d dog, hidden 5 c, k, ck, q cat, key, duck IN i.t.a. CIS USED FOR THIS SOUND IF t.o. SPELLING CONTAINS c, FOR EXAMPLE: cat, coat, chemist, tobacco (i) c cat, cret, cemist, tobaccre IN ALL OTHER CASES i.t.a. REPRESENTS THIS SOUND WITH k, FOR EXAMPLE: key, box, queen, trekking (ii) k kEE, boks, kwEEn, trekki~ EXCEPTION: IF ck IS USED IN t.O. USE ck IN i.t.a. duck, track, sick (iii) ck duck, track, sick 6 m mouth, lamb, hammer m moutP., lam, hammer 7 n note, knob, dinner n nret, nob, dinner 8 1 lot, feel, bill 1 lot, fEEl, bill 9 r red, very, ferry r req, very, ferry IO f, ph, gh fat, phone, cough f fat, fren, cof II v vile, save, revving v viel, srev, revvi~ I2 s, c sit, city, kiss s sit, si ty, kiss I3 z, s zoo, hazy, daisy IN i. t.a. Z IS USED FOR TillS SOUND IF t.o. USES z, FOR EXAMPLE: zoo, hazy, quiz, jazz (i) z Z(Q),hrezy, kwiz, jazz IN ALL OTIIER CASES i. t.a. REPRESENTS THIS SOUND WITII S (zess), FOR EXAMPLE: daisy, exact, stairs, possession (ii) s qresy, egsact, strers, possejhon 14 h hat, hate, who h hat, hret, h(Q) IS w witch, wail, went (i) w witQ:l, wrel, went FOR ENGLISH SPEAKERS FROM THE SOUTH OF ENGLAND A SECOND REPRESENTATION FOR THIS SOUND MUST BE LEARNED, Wh, ALTIIOUGH MANY OTHER ENGLISH SPEAKERS WILL REGARD THIS AS THE SYMBOL FOR A QUITE DISTINCTIVE PHONEME, THUS: IS(a) (wh) which, whale, when (ii) Wh WhiQ:l,Whrel, When 16 g gate, log, swagger g gret, log, swaggec 17 ch cheese, chips, chick (i) Q:l Ql.EE:s:,Q:lips, Q:lick IF t PRECEDES ch IN t.o., THEN t IS RETAINED IN i.t.a., FOR EXAMPLE: patch, hutch, stretch (ii) tQ:l patQ:l, hutQ:l, stretQ:l i.t.a.

ALSO

THIS

i.t.a.

natural

FOR

THEN

natueral

THEN

words

rejhan

nature,

faJhe.c

sreldie.c

bad3

EXAMPLE: USES

brePt

sujjestion

egsajjerret

ba~

yellre

nretuer,

SOUND

FOR

tre3uer

i.t.a.

hed3,

strejhon,

jem, .this'll,

Examples

Ptisl,

yot,

posture,

ri~k,

THIS

EXAMPLE:

THEN

kwestion,

jam,

jud3,

postuer,

ri~,

Ptie,

Jhie,

prosEEduer,

y(Q),

vi3on,

Jhop,

FOR

FOLLOWED FOR

EXAMPLE:

dg,

FOR

SUCH

FOR

ALSO,

t.a.

HAS

USES

WORDS

t.O.

t.o.

phoneme

character

(iv) (i)

(ii) IN

DOES IF

(iii) i.t.a.

SOUND, Pt (iii)

USES

(i)

that

i.t.a.

for

containing

natural

t.o.

badge

both

ocean

yellow

father

soldier

sound

bang

exaggerate

suggestion

nature,

words

this

treasure

hedge,

thistle,

station,

rink,

gem,

yacht,

this'll,

question,

posture,

judge,

jam, thy,

procedure,

ring, thigh,

you,

shop,

vision,

Examples

t.o.

sound

ng,n th

J,g

Common

representation

(cont)

Sound

20 2!

22 23 24

Number ue

DOES

i.t.a.

t.a.

t.o.,

THESE

THE

USES

EXAMPLE:

WITH

FOUND

t.o.

SOUND-GROUP IS

THEN NOTED

THE

for

i.t.a.

WITH

WHEN

union

AND

EXAMPLE:

muny

THIS

few.

SOUND

THEN

FOR

SOUND,

LINKED

FOR

WITH

cueb

fEEt

silly,

stallion,

storis

LINKED

AND

COMBINATION

THIS

EXCEPTION

fue,

THUS:

pit,

EXCEPTION

EE(jl,

due

REPRESENTED

THUS

FOR

SOUND

yIN

USUAL

REPRESENTED

FOR

million,

SOUND

galleon

i~k,

que,

EEl,

mystery,

ARE

CHARACTER

THE

THIS

SPECIAL

galleon

LETTERS

FREQUENT

SOUND

LETTERS,

HAS

THE

SIMILARLY

SOUNDS

SINGLE

SOUND

HAVE

WORD

EXAMPLE:

THIS

t.o.

FURTHER

(ii)

(iii)

IT INSTEAD A

A THE

IF (i)

REPRESENTATION WHEN (iv)

(ii) foof EE

NOT

OTHER AS TWO FOR

REPRESENTS

onion

money

cube

feet

silly,

stallion,

stories

few,

pit,

each,

million,

galleon

mystery,

due, eel, ink,

~a,

25 26

ALSO ALSO

SOUND SOUND

i.t.a. i.t.a.

i.t.a. i.t.a. EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

in in

THE THE

THAT THAT

THIS THIS

manrej manrej

BY BY

FOR FOR

words words

THEN THEN

i.t.a. i.t.a.

AND AND

re, re,

of of

FOR FOR

reporte

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

jh(Q) jh(Q)

waurn waurn

V. V.

clau, clau,

THE THE

prot prot

wosp wosp

fa1hec fa1hec

flat flat

bor

seq seq

USES USES

FOR FOR

BY BY

fountren, fountren,

SOUND, SOUND,

rerea, rerea,

C(Q)l, C(Q)l,

PRECEDED PRECEDED

Examples Examples

srot, srot,

bat, bat,

tauk, tauk,

t.a. t.a.

or, or,

THEN THEN

waurt, waurt,

IS IS

cam, cam,

jhor, jhor,

i. i.

IS IS

r, r,

THIS THIS

m(Q)n, m(Q)n,

crok, crok,

for, for,

aull, aull,

caut, caut,

foks, foks,

car, car,

menres, menres, appl, appl,

egg, egg,

hrete

FOR FOR

THEN THEN

AND AND

SOUND SOUND

REPRESENTATION REPRESENTATION

e e

0 0

a, a,

REPRESENTED REPRESENTED

THUS: THUS:

t.O. t.O.

t.o. t.o.

THIS THIS

HAS HAS

e, e,

BOTH BOTH

e e

re re

or or

(Q) (Q)

phoneme phoneme

au au

THE THE

t.o. t.o.

THE THE

character character

(i) (i)

WHEN WHEN (ii) (ii)

ro ro

USUALLY USUALLY

IF IF

(i) (i)

REPRESENTATION REPRESENTATION

HAS HAS

o o

a a

e e

INCLUDES INCLUDES

(iv) (iv)

a a

IF IF

(iii) (iii)

IF IF

USES USES

that that

i.t.a. i.t.a.

for for

containing containing

manage manage

t.o. t.o.

in in

claw claw

shoe shoe

reported reported

put put

flat flat

board board

father father

sound sound

warn warn

wasp wasp

said said

words words

fountain, fountain,

talk, talk,

cool, cool,

of of

area, area,

bat, bat,

this this

soot, soot,

fed, fed,

dog, dog,

calm, calm,

shore, shore,

wart, wart,

moon, moon,

cook, cook,

for, for,

all, all,

caught, caught,

fox, fox,

car, car,

apple, apple,

egg, egg,

menace, menace,

hated, hated,

Examples Examples

u u

or or

t.o. t.o.

sound sound

00 00

oo, oo,

au, au,

0 0

a a

e e

i i

of of

Common Common

representation representation

(cont) (cont)

33 33

32 32

31 31

30 30

28 28

29 29

27 27

26 26

Sound Sound Number Number HAS

ITS

i.t.a.

THE

THIS

THEN

POSITION

about,

pure

THEN

MISLEADING.

srefa

GENERALLY

RETAINS

NOT

ere

THUS: SOUND,

SOUND,

FINAL

REPRESENT jurnal,

ILLUSTRATED

i.t

i.t.a.

ectP-,

THIS

sic

vue

dJiena, y

fun IN

POSITION

REPRESENTATION

EXAMPLE:

myu ue

FOR

wurd,

BEFORE

THEN

gicl,

lecn,

fue,

PHONICALLY

HOWEVER

hut,

t.o.

ear

FOR

EXAMPLE,

t.O. yr,

EXAMPLES:

INITIAL

due,

up, burn,

hied, fecn,

myctl,

minorca,

pillar

NOT

THE

PRINCIPLE OR

THUS:

FOR

CHARACTER

SOUND IS

AND

CHARACTER ec,

EQUIVALENT

SOUNDS.

HAS

RESPECTIVELY

HAS

THE

RETAINS

SOUND,

GENERAL y

yc FOLLOWING

ec .

SPECIAL

China,

t.o.

PRECEDING (ii) REPRESENTED USES u PAIR

(i) IF

(ii) IF i.t.a. (iii)

(iv) IN

(i)

NO i.t.a THE LONG (ii) THIS NEAREST

THE

purr

err

sofa

journal,

earth,

sir

view

China,

fun

myrrh

word,

girl,

learn,

few,

hut,

due,

up, burn,

fern,

bird, myrtle,

Minorca, pillar

ir,

u ur,

(Unstressed

neutral

vowel)

34 35

INSTEAD INSTEAD

i.t.a. i.t.a.

or) or)

r r

in in

ar, ar,

USES USES

words words

TO TO regec regec

of of

rrer rrer

cret cret

nou nou

WEEry WEEry

maksimum maksimum

i.t.a. i.t.a.

fEEtuer fEEtuer

SPELLINGS: SPELLINGS:

fret fret

damson damson

toil toil

recec, recec,

bru.Jher bru.Jher

hie hie

APPLY APPLY

doctor doctor

bresin bresin

yr, yr,

out, out,

wrer, wrer,

pEEr, pEEr,

repen, repen,

t.a. t.a.

Examples Examples

current current

srel, srel,

toi, toi,

ies, ies,

ur, ur,

NOT NOT

sentec, sentec,

ir, ir, rets, rets, ie, ie,

mous, mous,

oil, oil,

Jhrer, Jhrer,

hEEr, hEEr, sre, sre,

martyr martyr

ar~uc ar~uc

crEEtuer, crEEtuer,

fa.Jher, fa.Jher,

minimum, minimum,

kaffic kaffic rresin, rresin,

fa.Jhom, fa.Jhom,

Jhe, Jhe,

pallor, pallor,

DOES DOES

THESE THESE

er, er,

HAS HAS

ALSO ALSO

ec ec

uer uer

(THIS (THIS

yc yc

u u

er er

uc uc

o o

e e

or or

phoneme phoneme

ic ic

i i

r. r.

t.o. t.o.

character character

v) v)

that that re re

rer rer oi oi

ou ou

re re ie ie

(xiii) (xiii)

(xi) (xi)

(xii) (xii)

EEr EEr

(x) (x)

(viii) (viii)

(ix) (ix)

NOTE NOTE (vii) (vii)

IF IF

(vi) (vi)

( (

(iv) (iv) OF OF

(iii) (iii)

i.t.a. i.t.a.

for for

containing containing

t.o. t.o.

ogre ogre

rare rare

now now

coat coat

sound sound

in in

weary weary

maximum maximum

feature feature

fate fate

high high

toil toil

this this

damso~ damso~

out, out,

acre, acre,

brother brother

basin basin

doctor doctor

words words

wear, wear,

peer, peer,

open, open,

ice, ice,

of of

sail, sail,

current current

toy, toy,

centre, centre,

oil, oil,

say, say,

martyr martyr eye, eye,

oats, oats, mouse, mouse,

there, there,

hear, hear,

creature, creature, Arthur Arthur

kaffir kaffir

m1mmum, m1mmum,

father, father,

raisin, raisin,

the, the,

fa~h?m, fa~h?m,

pallor, pallor,

Examples Examples

t.o. t.o.

ow ow

oi oi

oa oa

sound sound

igh igh

of of

ere ere

ou, ou,

ear ear

o, o,

oy, oy,

ay ay

i, i,

neutral neutral

vowel) vowel)

(Unstressed (Unstressed

Common Common

representation representation

(cont) (cont)

43 43 37 37

39 39

38 38

42 42

41 41

40 40

36 36

Sound Sound Number Number Dictionary

i.t.a.

natueral

House

stret(jl

t tch y ti

words

beq

bE€

muny

(jlips

qab

cam

sujjestion

pat(jl,

merry

mrery

nretuer, marry

SOUND

SOUND SOUND SOUND

SEEt,

Random

silly,

(jlEEs,

art, big,

set,

Examples

hat,

qrer,

the

THIS THIS THIS THIS

bam, qco,ruqqec, miety, req,crep,wre back, kwestion, ebb, rer, boot(jlec, EEkwal, postuer, (jlEEf,

act,

SPELLS SPELLS SPELLS SPELLS

chart

t.o. t.o. t.O. t.O.

y t(jl

€€

(jl

phoneme

character

(iii) q a e rer (iv) (ii) (i) WHEN (ii) re b (i)

WHEN a WHEN WHEN

that

Bronstein's

i.t.a.

for

given

natural

containing

stretch

chips

money

order

t.o.

bed

bee

sound

dab calm

way

suggestion

Mary

merry

patch,

nature,

marry

silly,

this

same

Edition.

seat,

words

cheese,

big,

set,

of cape,

hat,

the

dare,

rudder,

College mighty, ebb, question, equal, posture, do, back, butcher, air, balm, art, chief,

act,

aid,

English

Examples

here

listed

t.o.

American ee

Language:

sound

are

d e ea,

b ch

atr a

a ar

Common

representation

English

sounds

Sounds

the

I 8 9 5

3 2 6

The

of The

Sound

Number

di di

i.t.a. i.t.a.

SOUND SOUND

OR OR

in in

plant~n plant~n

du du

dg dg

e e

y y

e e

THIS THIS

heq3 heq3

beg beg

words words

whiet whiet

of of

FOR FOR

(jlEEr (jlEEr

jieant jieant

sie sie

h(Q) h(Q)

prosEEQuer prosEEQuer

SOUND SOUND

cof cof

SOUND SOUND

cabb~j, cabb~j,

storis storis

wh~l, wh~l,

jem, jem,

mystery mystery

trigger, trigger,

biet, biet,

mEEr, mEEr,

hop, hop,

THIS THIS

Examples Examples

THIS THIS

fren, fren,

THIS THIS

pit, pit,

SPELLING SPELLING

srelqiec, srelqiec,

just, just,

ies, ies,

men~s, men~s,

s~creq, s~creq,

syst, syst,

if, if,

gret, gret, hit, hit,

whi(jl, whi(jl,

Etr, Etr,

~rea ~rea

fit, fit,

t.O. t.O.

SPELLS SPELLS

SPELLS SPELLS SPELLS SPELLS

SPELLS SPELLS

a a

t.O. t.O.

t.o. t.o.

THE THE

t.o. t.o.

q q

e e

~ ~

e e

Q3 Q3

y y

phoneme phoneme

j j

i i

character character

(ii) (ii) (iii) (iii) WHEN WHEN

(i) (i)

WHEN WHEN

INCLUDES INCLUDES

~iv) ~iv)

1e 1e

(iii) (iii) WHEN WHEN

(ii) (ii)

(i) (i) WHEN WHEN

WHEN WHEN

g g h h

wh wh Etr Etr

f f (iii) (iii) WHEN WHEN that that

i.t.a. i.t.a.

for for

plantain plantain

containing containing

hedge hedge

white white

beg beg

t.o. t.o.

sound sound

cough cough

giant giant

in in

cheer cheer

sigh sigh

who who

cabbage, cabbage,

fudge, fudge,

procedure procedure

this this

deform deform

whale, whale,

stories stories

words words

trigger, trigger,

mystery mystery

gem, gem,

bite, bite,

mere, mere,

hop, hop,

of of

phone, phone,

pit, pit,

badger, badger,

just, just,

soldier, soldier,

ice, ice,

menace, menace, sacred, sacred,

cyst, cyst,

if, if,

hit, hit,

which, which,

goat, goat,

ear, ear,

fit, fit,

area area

Examples Examples

. .

gh gh

t.o

ee ee

g g

igh igh

ph, ph,

sound sound

~' ~'

J, J,

wh wh

g g

h h 1 1

f, f,

ear ear

ea, ea,

of of

Common Common

representation representation

(cont) (cont)

17 17

16 16

IS IS

14 14

13 13

12 12

II II 10 10

9 9

Sound Sound Number Number k

NOT

fyf

blue)

BUT

NOT

THE

true,

bl(Q)

FOLLOWED

DOES

SEE

nee

waurs

nre

froll

clock

tr(Q),

INCLUDES

CONTAINS

kween born

wosp

him

tueb

so~

silt

imbue

cemist

boil

PRECEDED

bret,

prot,

f(Q)l,

sack,

baull,

smne.r,

l~m,

SPELLING

nue,

ALWAYS,

boks,

si~k,

born,

vue,

cret,

Jhort,

boi,

Jhall,

t.O.

SPELLING

NOT mie, nou, si~, luck,

kee,

cot,

cat, Ire,

reve.r,

book, caut,

for, oil,

due,

b(Q)t,

fue,

ITS

SOUND

t.o.

t.o. OR

t.O.

t.o.

(BUT

AND

THE

THIS

(Q)

(iii)

WHEN

WHEN (i) m (ii) n ~

(ii)

re 1 0

(i) 01

WHEN (ii)

(iii) 00

(i)

WHEN USUALLY

CONTAIN

WHEN

SOUND

blue

knee

wars

wasp

clock

full silt

song

him true,

born

imbue

tube

queen

chemist

boil

ball,

put,

fool,

boat,

sack,

sinner,

sink,

new,

shall,

box,

view,

lamb,

bomb,

coat,

short,

boy,

cat,

my, now, luck, key,

sing,

low,

cot, over,

for,

caught,

oil,

due, book, boot,

few,

ck,

u ue

ng,n

0 o,

au,

oy, oo, oo,

21 22 23

24 25

26 27

t.o. t.o.

IN IN

ear ear

t.O. t.O.

t.o. t.o.

i.t.a. i.t.a.

IN IN

OR OR

IN IN

in in

yr yr

er er

ir ir

rejhan rejhan

words words

sm(Q)Jh sm(Q)Jh

went went

hat hat

lauyec lauyec

ec~ ec~ of of

sissors sissors

sic sic

wucq wucq

wuns wuns

<}loppec <}loppec

bre~ bre~

hav hav

nEEr nEEr

louq louq

mycc mycc

SPELLED SPELLED

wrel, wrel,

cut, cut,

gicl, gicl,

lecn, lecn,

strejhon, strejhon,

Jhis'll, Jhis'll,

srev, srev,

~isl, ~isl,

IS IS

yellre, yellre,

IS IS

kitten, kitten,

bucn, bucn,

hou, hou, qrop, qrop,

sEEli~, sEEli~,

very, very,

Examples Examples

myctl, myctl,

yes, yes,

wit<}l, wit<}l, bic

fecn, fecn, van, van,

~ie, ~ie,

ucj, ucj,

bum, bum,

Jhie, Jhie,

tap, tap,

rat, rat,

sat, sat,

pet, pet,

Jhip, Jhip,

out, out,

SOUND SOUND

THIS THIS

ic ic

yc yc

ec ec

y y

uc uc

phoneme phoneme

character character

(i) (i)

(iv) (iv)

v v

(iii) (iii)

WHEN WHEN w w

(ii) (ii)

WHEN WHEN

~ ~

(i) (i)

WHEN WHEN

Jh Jh

u u t t

s s

r r

p p

Jh Jh

ou ou

that that

t.a. t.a.

for for

containing containing

both both

ocean ocean

t.o. t.o.

went went

lawyer lawyer

word word

scissors scissors

earth earth

hat hat smooth smooth

in in

have have

sir sir

once once

chopper chopper

loud loud

near near

sound sound

myrrh myrrh

wail, wail,

thistle, thistle,

words words

cut, cut,

burn, burn,

girl, girl,

learn, learn,

station, station,

this this

save, save,

yellow, yellow,

this'll, this'll,

how, how,

kitten, kitten,

drop, drop,

of of

ceiling, ceiling,

very, very,

myrtle, myrtle,

yes, yes,

witch, witch, bird, bird,

van, van,

fern, fern,

urge, urge,

bum, bum,

thy, thy,

thigh, thigh,

tap, tap,

ship, ship,

sat, sat,

rat, rat,

out, out,

pet, pet,

Examples Examples

1r 1r

t.o. t.o.

ow ow

er, er,

c c

sound sound

y y

w w

v v

ur, ur,

u u t t

of of

th th

sh sh

r r

s, s,

p p

ou, ou,

Common Common

representation representation

39 39

40 40

41 41

38 38

37 37

36 36

35 35

34 34

33 33

32 32

31 31

30 30 29 29

Sound Sound Number Number WHEN t.o. SPELLS THIS SOUND i million, stallion, onion (ii) i million, stallion, union WHEN t.o. SPELLS THIS SOUND e galleon (iii) e galleon WHEN THIS SOUND IS FOLLOWED BY THE foof SOUND AND THE t.o. SPELLING CONTAINS NEITHER y NOR i, THE PAIR OF SOUNDS IS WRITTEN few, imbue, cube (iv) ue fue, imbue, cueb 42 z, s zoo, lazy, jazz (i) z z(Q), lrezy, jazz WHEN t.o. SPELLS THIS SOUND WITH ANY OTHER LETTER EXCEPT Z those, daisy, stairs (ii) s: Jhres:, qres:y, strers: 43 s vision, mirage, treasure 3 vi3on, mira3, tre3uer 44 (Unstressed THIS VOWEL HAS NO SPECIAL CHARACTER IN i.t.a. IN i.t.a. IT SHOULD BE SPELLED neutral AS IT IS IN t.o. - EXCEPT IF THIS WOULD BE MISLEADING. THE FOLLOWING LIST vowel) SHOWS THE MORE COMMON EXAMPLES OF THE DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH i.t.a. SPELLS THIS SOUND: about, sofa, alone (i) a about, srefa, alren system, the, current (ii) e system, Jhe, current easily, basin (iii) i ees:ily, bresin

g~llop,fa~?m, damsol?• (iv) o gallop, faJhom, qams:on ctrcus, mmtmum, maXImum (v) u siccus, miminum, maksimum

THE THE

t.o. t.o.

IN IN

THE THE

IN IN

a. a.

i.t.a. i.t.a.

i.t

t.o. t.o.

CORRECT CORRECT

EQUIVALENT EQUIVALENT

IN IN

in in

WHEN WHEN

WITH WITH

IN IN

THE THE

metal, metal,

words words

i.t.a. i.t.a.

IN IN

ONLY ONLY

of of

spindl spindl

IN IN

NEAREST NEAREST

c c

CONSONANTS CONSONANTS

OMITTED OMITTED

mountren mountren

fEEtuer fEEtuer

USUALLY USUALLY

WRITTEN WRITTEN

bru.thec bru.thec

IS IS

mental, mental,

doctor doctor

littl, littl,

. .

Jhrogar Jhrogar

THE THE

USES USES

USED USED

TWO TWO

IT IT

Examples Examples

i.t.a. i.t.a.

NOT NOT

WRITTEN WRITTEN

OR OR

IS IS

r r

IS IS

IN IN

i.t.a. i.t.a.

crredl, crredl,

fountren, fountren,

pallor, pallor,

crEEtuer, crEEtuer,

martyc martyc kitten, kitten,

ortlJuc ortlJuc

pillar, pillar,

fa.thec, fa.thec,

kaffic kaffic

SPELLING

BETWEEN BETWEEN

POSITION POSITION

re re

THEN, THEN,

t.O. t.O.

SOUND SOUND

CHARACTER CHARACTER

a, a,

uc uc

WRITTEN WRITTEN

uer uer

ORDINARY ORDINARY

ic ic

phoneme phoneme

yc yc

or or

ec ec

ar ar

character character

THE THE

t.o., t.o.,

e, e,

IS IS

THIS THIS

that that

THE THE

IN IN

IT IT

(i) (i)

(viii) (viii)

IF IF

(xii) (xii)

(xi) (xi)

(x) (x)

TO TO

(ix) (ix)

CORRECT CORRECT

(ii) (ii)

POSITION POSITION

(vii) (vii)

(vi) (vi) SAME SAME

i.t.a. i.t.a.

r r

for for

ue ue

y. y.

BY BY

OR OR

0 0

U U

OR OR

a a

OR OR

containing containing

i i

FOLLOWED FOLLOWED

BY BY

t.o. t.o.

metal, metal,

OR OR

IS IS

in in

spindle spindle

e e

sound sound

BY BY

this this

mountain mountain

feature feature

words words

SOUND SOUND

little, little,

brother brother

doctor doctor

mental, mental,

of of

sugar sugar

PRECEDED PRECEDED

THIS THIS

marytr marytr

IF IF

fountain, fountain,

creature, creature,

pallor, pallor,

kitten, kitten,

pillar, pillar,

WHEN WHEN

Arthur Arthur

kaffir kaffir

father, father,

cradle, cradle,

PRECEDED PRECEDED

Examples Examples

t.o. t.o.

a a

sound sound

of of

neutral neutral

e, e,

vowel) vowel)

(Unstressed (Unstressed

Common Common

representation representation

(cant) (cant)

Sound Sound

45 45

44 44 Number Number Other notes on teaching the i.t.a. code These notes apply both to British and American English. The character d is used by printers as a compromise between a and a when the vowel varies between these two from one dialect to another, for instance in pd~, Cdsl, 1dst. The teacher should not attempt to imitate it in his or her own writing, but should write either a or a according to the pronunciation in his or her own area. In addition to this phonetic key, the i.t.a. teacher (but not the child) needs to know the following rules: I Instead of capital letters, i.t.a. uses 'majuscules'. The i.t.a. character is simply written larger. 2 All t.o. double letter spellings of consonants are re• tained in i.t.a. The new i.t.a. characters are not doubled excepts and c, e.g. possession is possejhion, purr is puce. 3 The teacher should try to imitate as closely as possible the shape of the characters in the printed i.t.a. materials. 4 Punctuation is generally the same in i.t.a. as it is in t.o. This description of the i. t.a. code should help teachers to encode any English word that they may want to write for their pupils. Flexibility in encoding is permissible. Teachers may decide to use a different i.t.a. spelling from the ones shown here because they believe that all the children in the class pronounce the word in a different way. Children should be given individual freedom in encoding their own pronunciations. Readers may wish to try their own skill at encoding in i.t.a. The following children's story can be put into i.t.a. Then the results can be checked against the solution at the end of the book. Test The lion was the strongest of the beasts. But one day he was caught by hunters. They tied him up and later they meant to come back and kill him and skin him. He was very frightened. Just then a mouse came by and said, 'Do you want some help, lion?' The lion said, 'How can you help me? You are far too weak.' 'Can I try?' said the mouse. 'Well, you can try if you like,' said the lion. So the mouse began to gnaw the ropes with her sharp teeth. One by one the ropes fell loose. Q!Iite soon the lion was free. And that goes to show that even the strong may need the help of the weak. List of References

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Abiri,JOO 127,174 Caxton, W 69 Albrow, KH 6cr7o, 174 Cazden, CB 27, 175 Allen, PD 177 Chall, J S 29, 33, 43, 107, 175 Allen, R V 49-51, 174 Chappell, PR 16, 175 Ammon, R 53, 174 Chomsky, C 62, 63, 175, 1S3 Arnold, R 177 Chomsky, N 6, 32, 3S, 6o, 61, Ashton-Warner, S 46,174 62, 63, 64, 6s, 175 August, GJ 13, 1S1 Citron, AF 144-s, 175 Ayers, D 20, 76, 174 Oark, MM 26,175 Oay, MM IS, 17, s6, 175. ISO Bacon, F 5 Cooper F S 24, 179 Bakker, D J 1S2 Bamberger, R 146----7, 152, 174 Dale, E 107, 175 Baratz, J C 174. 1S3 Department of Education and Barganz, RA 63, 174 Science So, 175 Barik, H 136--7, 174 DeStefano, J S IS, 175 Belbin, E 14S, 174 Doake, DB 52, 53, 175 Betts, EA 10S, 122, 174 Dolch, E W 113, 175 Black, EL 99, 174 Douglass, MP 1S2 Bloomfield, L 22, 59, 70, 174 Downing, J 4, II, 12, 16, 17, 19, Blum, I 20, 177 20, 2S, 29, 32, 39, 43, 45, ss, s6, Bond, G L 13, 100, 101-3, 105, 57, 63, 64, 74, 76, So, S4, Ss, S7, 1oS-g, II3, II4, IIS, 174 go, 91, 92, 97, 99, 104, IIJ, 114, Bormuth, J 107, 174 II9, 12S, ISO, 174. 175. 176, Braun, C II, 177 177, 17S, ISO, 1S1 Bronstein, AJ 159, 166, 174 Dwyer, CA 127-9, 176 Brooks, V 22, 17S Dykstra, R 127, 176 Bruner, J S 2, 154, 174 Bullock, A 2, 3. 4. 13, 14, 4S, sS, Ehrhardt, AA 129, 1So So-1, S2, S4, S6, go, 91, gg-Ioo, Elkonin, DB 15, 25, 27, 2S, 43, 103, I 16, 147, 175 57,74-5,177 Burke, C 32, 36, 177 Emery, RM 149, 177 Burmeister, L E 13, 104, IIS, Evanechko, P 11, 19, 177 174 Evans, M 20, 177 Buswell, G 12, 179 Fasold, R W 141, rS3 Calfee, RC 26,174 Feitelson, D 176 Figa, L E 17, 179 International Institute for Figure}, J A 178 Children's Literature and Finder, M IIO, 177 Reading Research 146 Fisher, J A 106, IIo, 177 International Reading Fitts, PM II, 34, 37, s6, 147, 177 Association (IRA) 51, 123, Fleming, JT 179 176, 179, 18o, 182 Flesch, R 107, 177 Folick, M 79 Jansen,M 176,178 Foxley, B 182 Jensen,H 44,45,178 Francis, H 18, 56, 57, 177 John, VP 143, 178 Francis, WN 63, 65, 177 Johnson, DD 127, 178 Fries, C C 22, 59, 70, 177 Johnson, HM 27, I78 Fry, E 107, 177 Johnson,RJ 39, I78 Fyfe, T 87, 176 Johnson, T 28, 57,74, I8o Jones,D 158-6o, 179 Gates, AI I2I-2, I 53, I77 Judd, C H 12, 179 Gavel, SR 39, 40, I77 Gelb, IJ 44, 45 Kagan,} 128,179 Glucksberg, S 7, I79 Karlin, R 109, 179 Goddard, NL 48, 49, 72, I77 Karpova, S N 16, I79 Goodman, KS 22, 30, 3I, 32, 33, Kavanagh, JF 21, 179, 180, 182 34,351 36,I26,I46,ISI1 I77,I79 Kemppainen, R 176 Goodman, Y 32, 36, I77 Kingston, AJ I7, 179 Gray, CT 12, I78 Kirsch, R I07, 18I Gray, WS 43, I3I, I78 Klapper, Z S 9, I79 Green, R 129, I78 Knights, RM 182 Greene, FP I79 Kolers, P A 33, I79 Gunning, R I07, I78 Krauss, RM 7, 179

Hafner, LE III, 177, I78, 181 Lamb,P 177 Hahn, H 14 Lambert, WE I35, I37, 179 Hall,M 47,48, I78 Latham, W So, I76 Hall, N A 20, 178 Lefevre, CA 67, 6g, I79 Halle,M 22,60,63, 175,183 Levin, H I75, 177, 179 Halliday, MAK 6--;, 33, 178 Liberman, AM 24-5, I79 Harris, TL II4, 178 Liberman, I Y 24-5, 26, 179, Harris, WT 153 I82 Helfgott, J 25-6, 178 , Lindamood, C 26, I74 Herse, R 17, 180 Lindamood, P 26, I74 Hochberg,} 22,178 Luelsdorff, P A 183 Hodges, R 67 Lundberg, I 17-18, 179 Holden, MH 16, 178 Luria, AA 27 Holmes, J A 2, 132, 178 Lyon, M 87, 176 Homer, V M 143, 178 Hunt, LCJr 152, 178 McCracken,MJ 72-3,180 Huttenlocher, J 16, I78 McCracken, RA 72-3, I8o McCullough, CM 102, 183 International Bureau of Education McDonald, F J 150, 151, 180 II9, 178 MacGinitie, WH 16, 28,178, I8o

185 McLaughlin, B I22, ISo Pohly, SR 12S, IS2 McLaughlin, G H I07, I So Posner, M I II, 34, 37. 56, 147. Macnamara,} 3S,3g, I34, ISO I77 Makita, K I43-4, ISo Postman, L I2, 1S1 Malmquist, E 125, I So Preston, R C I27, ISI Marshall, S 46, ISo Matihaldi, H I76 Random House Dictionary 15g,

Mattingly, I G 2I-2, 23, 25, 3I, I66, I741 ISI 32, I7g, ISo, IS2 Raygor, AL I07, lSI Mazurkiewicz, AJ 12S, ISo Reggi, DR I76 Meltzer, N S I7, I So Reid, JF 2, II, I6,32, 36, 45,

Merritt, JE I74, I75, I7S, ISo, 56, II31 ISI ISI Resnick, L I7g Miller, G A 32, I So Richards, lA gg, ISI Milne, A I So Rickards, JP I3, ISI Modiano, N I3S, I So Robinson, FP 54, ISI Money,} I2g, I7S, ISo Robinson, HM g, I7g, ISI Morphett, MV I22, ISo Robinson, J 64, ISI Morris, JM 3, I27, I30, I32, Rose, IM go, ISI ISO Rousseau, JJ 42, IS2 Moskowitz, A 64, I So Ruddell, RB I77, I7S, IS2 Mueller, E I2S, IS2 Russell, DH I3, IS2

Natchez, G I7g StJohn,} 7g, 1S1 National Education Sakamoto, T 176 Association I2I, 180 Samuels, S J 35, 40, 182 National Foundation for Savin, HB 24, 1S2 Educational Research (NFER) Schaefer, B 20, 76, I74 7g,88,Sg, ISo, IS2, I83 Schonell, F Ss, 86 National Reading Council I23 Schools Council So-x, S3, S7, go Neale, M S5, S6 Scragg, D G 62, 65, 67, zS2 Searle, C I42, I82 Ohnrnacht, DD 3g, ISo Senders, V 12, IS I Oliver, P 12, I7, Ig, 56, 57, I76 Serafica, FC g, IS2 Ollila, L II, 12, Ig, 2S, 57, 74-5, Shankweiler, D 24-5, 26, 17g, I76, I77, ISO IS2 Oornrnen, C I27, I3I, ISI Shuy, R W 174, IS3 Osterberg, T I3S-4I, I42, ISI Sigel, IE g, IS2 Simmons, J S no, IS2 Palardy, J M 12S, ISI Simons, HD 63, 64, IS2 Palmatier, RA IOo-I, ISI Sinclair, H I7, ISI Papandropoulou, I I7, ISI Singer, H I77, I7S, IS2 Pennock, CD I2g, ISI Slobodin, C S I2I, IS2 Perelstein de Braslavsky, B 43, Smith, F 22, 30, 3I, 32, 33, 34, I3I1 ISI 35, 36, I46, 182 Peters, ML 75-6, ISI Smithells, J 12S, IS2, IS3 Piaget, J 2, 6, 7, IO, II, I6, 27, Solomon, AA g 32, ISI Southgate, V So, S3, S4, S7, go, Pitman, IJ I, 77, 7g, ISI I4g, IS2, IS3

186 Spache,CJ 107,182 University of London 79 Spolsky, B 142, 182 Start, KB 3, 182 Vachek, J 38, 63, 68-70, 183 Stein, AH 128, 182 183 Venezky, RL 38, 6o, 65, 66, 144, Steinberg, D 64, 18; 183 Stevens, KN 22, 183 Vernon, ~D 2, 8--g, 10, 23, 36 Stewart, W A 141, 142, 183 85, 91, 113, 140, 183 Strang, R 102, no, 183 Vygotsky, L S 2, 6, 8, n, 45, Stubbs,~ 134,183 113, 148--g, 183 Studdert-Kennedy, ~ 24, 179 Swain,~ 136--7, 174 Wade, B 181 Taylor, CJ A 153, 177 Walker, L 23, 183 Taylor, H 176 Warburton, FW So, 83-4, go, Taylor, N 20, 177 183 Thackray, D V 176 Washburne, C 122, 180 Thomson, D 128, 176 Wathen-Dunn, W 183 Thorndike, EL 12, 183 Watson, D J 177 Tinker, ~A 13, 100, 101-3, 105, Weaver, P 179 108--g, 113, 114, 115, 174 Weaver, WW 17, 179 Tinney, R 127, 176 Wedell, K 181 Wells, BK 3, 182 Torneus,~ 17-18,179 Traxler, AE 102, 183 Wijk, A 77. 183 Treiman, RA 26, 183 Williams, JP 175, 177, 179 Tucker, CJ R 135, 179 Wolfram, W 141, 183 Turnbull, K 17, 56, 183 Zaporozhets, A V 177 UNESCO 35. 119, 131, 178 Zucak,~ 26,183 Index of Subjects

Accountability 126 Backwardness. See Reading Acoustic analysis 24 disability Affective variable uS, IJS, Bilingual situations 33, 3S-g, IJ6-?, IJS, I40, 14I-2, 147. 151 134-S Mghanistan 1 I9 Blending difficulty IIJ Age for beginning reading Brain n, 22, 35, I29 II8-23, I25-6, 133 Britain 1, 79, So, S4, S7, go, Algorithm 33 II9-20, I2J, 124, I25, IJ4, I44, Alphabet 2J,24,25,37,5S, 59, 157. ISS, 159. 173 72,75.79-SI,S4, I44, 155 Analogy in spelling 63 Canada I2, I7, I9, 23, 2S, 75, Appreciation of literature 10S, 123, I27, I2S, I35-? IIO Categorising g-Io, IIJ-I4 Approach, language-experience Cerebral palsy 91 14,47-51,70,72-3, Child's viewpoint 47, 15S 76,86-J, I49. ISO Chinese 29, 43, 58, ng linguistic 22 Class, socioeconomic 12, I9, IJ7, opportunistic 149-50 I44-S Argentina 43, I24, IJI Clozereadability test I07-S Articulation I2J, IJ9, I40 teaching technique 53 Attitudes 52, 76, Sg-go, IoS, III, Cognitive clarity I, 2, s-6, 8, 121, IJS, I42 10, 19, 21, 24, 29, Auditory discrimination I9, 25, 33. 36-40, 42, so, ss. 74-5, I22, I27, I43, I44 76, 91, gS, n6, u7, Australia I7, I37 uS, I22, 129, IJ3, Austria 146 IJS, I45. 147. 152, Authors, children as 14, 47, 51, I 54 Io6, I5I hazards go, I17-1S, Automaticity phase 34, 35-6, I22, 126, 129, 131, I47. 153-4 I34, J40, 144, 145 Awareness, linguistic 7, 2I, 22-S, phase II, 34, 35, 37, JI-3, 37, 57, 5S, 6o, 39, 40, s6, I47. I 54 70, 74. 76, 9I College level reading 13, gg-xoo, of communication 102, 104, IIO, III, IJ4, II6 process S, II-IS Communication, concepts of 5, of skill performance s, n-xs, 2o, 153-4 36, 37, 42,

I88 Communication-cont. England 2, 3, II, I6, 18, 39, 49, 44-5.47-54.55 77, So, S6, 99, n6, 122, 127, experience of 12S, 130, 142, J4S, 157 7-8,42-54 English I,3,23,2S,3o,33,37-9, skills 7-S 43, sS--'71, 75, 76, 77, 7S, 79, So, Composition (See also Authors, S1, S2, Sg, 91, 104, 122, 127, children as) 47, 86, Io6 I34, I35, I36, I37, 14I, I42, Concepts 6, S, g-Io, II-12, I4, 144, 155--'73 I7, IS, 24, 32, 39-40, 42, 44. 49. Environmental studies 105 so-I, ss, s6, 57, 7I, 73-4, 76, Errors 33, 52-3, 75, II4 77. 9I, 105, I43. I44, I4S-(), Etymology 59 ISO, ISI Europe 43 Confidence, self 55, go, I39, I4o, Exliteracy 35 ISI Expectancy II 3 Confusion, cognitive 6, S, Io, 17, Eye movements 12, 56, IIS IS, 19, 2G-I, 23, 34, 37, 39, 55, 771 S3, 91, gS, II3-I41 II71 IIS, Features, concepts oflanguage 133. 134. 135. 136, 140, 142-4 6, I6-2S,32,36,371 40,44, Content areas. See Subject areas ss-8,7o-6,gi,g8, 136,144, Context clues 53, 104, II3 147. 14S, 149. 154 Continuity 3, 7 Feedback 30, 146, 147, 149, Control of reading performance, ISG-I, I54 106, pupil's own 14-IS, 55, Finland 120, 128 153-4 Finnish 144 Critical period for learning 3, Flexibility 13, 42, III, II4-IS, IIS-23, 126 151 Culture 12, IS, I2o-I, 12S-9, Follow-up of remedial teaching I3I, I33 103 France 124 Deafness s6, IIS French 33, 135--'7 Decoding 35, 3S, 43-5, 53, 67, Functions, concepts of 6, S, I57-S 7I,75,76-7,S2, ISS, II-IS, 24, 28, 36, 37, Denmark I20, 125, 126, 12S, 40,42,44-54.70,76, 129, 132, I33 g8, II3, 132, 147, I57-9, Dialect 64, I3S-43, IS6, 14S, 149, ISI, 152, 173 154 Dictionary skills 35 mathetic 7, 33 II4-I5 Difficulty of text 106, pragmatic 7 Discussions, pupils' I4-IS, 4S, 49. SI, 72, IOS-6 Division of classes 132 Germany 127, 133 Drill (See also Rote learning) Glass theory 27 45. II3, 152 Grammar 6-7,33-4, 3S, 6o-1, Dyslexia 10 106, ISI Greek 137 Economic factors 93, I30, 133 Guessing, intelligent 53, 104-5, Ecuador 119 II3 Emotion go, 102, IIS, 125, 126, Guidance 106, 10S, IIo, 111, 141, I42, 143, 147 147, 149-50

189 Hearing, phonematic 74 Linguistics 2I, 23, 29, 33, 3S, Home background 12, 57, uS sS, 59, 6o, 67,69 Homographs 3S, 6S Listening comprehension 25, Homophones 3S, 6S 103 Hong Kong II9 process 22-3, 3o-I, 33 Literacy, functional 3, 4, I3, 99, Immersion, French 135-'7 112, u6 India 124, 127, 131 Locating information read IoS, Individualisation 132-3 III Initial Teaching Alphabet (i.t.a.) sources of information 1,2,77-9S, 144, 155-'73 1101 III Intelligence 103, 125, 137, 153 Logographic principle 6S Intentions 37, 57, sS, 70, no Luring into reading 147, I 52 Ireland 3S--g, 134, 135 Irish 3S, 134 Main ideas so, Io6 Israel u9, 12S Markers 65 Italian 137 Mastering phase 34, I47, I53-4 Mathematics I27, 129 Japan 123-4, 143-4 Memory· 9, 63, 64, 105, 112, I40 Japanese 37, 43, sS, 12S, 143, Mental age I21-2 144 health 120, 124-6 Metalinguistics. See Language instruction register Kindergarten 17, 19, 26, 2S, 57, Method, atomistic decoding 44 75. 119--21, 125 code emphasis 29--30, Knowledge 42, sS, I47 36,40 look-say 29, 4I, 42-4 Language, egocentric 6, 7, 27 meaning emphasis experience approach. 29-30,33.36,40 See Approach, meaningful chunking 44 language-experience phonic IS, 2I, 29--30, instruction register 3S, 41, 42-4, 53, ss-s, IS, 7I 59-60,67,7o-I,76-S, mismatch I34-5, I22, I4S, 155 139--43 Mexico I37-S socialised 6 Miscues 33 standard 64, 13S-9, Models, theoretical 29, 30, 33 141, 142 Morphemes 3S, sS, 61, 63, 6S, 93 Latin America 43 Morphology study 104-5 Lebanon II9 Morphophonernictheories65-6 Letter names I9, 39--40 Motivation S,14,42,So, 1oS, sounds 9, u, 13, 20, 43, uS, 121, 129, 131, 135, 145, 44, 45, 55, sS, 59, 6o, 147. 151 61-2, 64-6, 67-S, 7I, Multicode, English as a 59, 67--g, 74. 8I-2, 9I, 112-I3, 71,76 122-3, 144, I52, ISS-'73 Lexical representation 6o-I, Navajo I43 63-4 New Zealand IS, I7, 46 Liberia I6 Nigeria 127 ~orway 120, 124-5, 126, 133 Punctuation IOS, 127, 173 ~ote taking 11o-I2 Purpose II-IS, 21, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44-5, SI-3, 109, 11o-11, 112, 113, 114, 115, 147. 151, Orientation 10 152, 154 Orthography, complexities of 43, 79. 81-3, 89-98, 143-5. 156 Q!lestioning 53-4, 109 history of 59, 62-3, 65,67,68 Readability 107 67, reform I, 65, Reading, ability range 52, Ioo-1 69,79 centres 103 traditional (t.o.) clinics 102, u6 ss. s8-77, 79-98, comparative 43, 55, 58, 144, 155-'73 119, 123, I24, 125, 130, 35-6 Overlearning 131, 133, 134 comprehension 12-13, Parents IS, 27, 40, 72, 93, 100, 23, 30, 35, 42, so, 52, 120, 126, I34. I35. I38, I45, 53, ss. 8s, 86, 99, 103, 155. 159 104-101 1151 I38, 1391 Partial-sight 9I1 118 151 Participation of learner I 54 creative 109 Perception Io, I6, 9I, 123, 144 critical so, 108, I09 Performance contracting 126 developmental 3, 81 Personality development I2o, disability 8, 9, 10, 21, 125-6, I40 34,64,85-6,89-go, Philology 44 91, IOI-16, II81 122-41 Phoneme, analysis 28 126, 144 concept of I7, 28, 32, for joy 147 s~. 71,73-5,91 for meaning 42-54, 152 unit 16-I7, 24, 37, 38, obsessional 109 s6,s8,s9,6o-I,63,64, oral 52, 105, 113, 139 65, 67, 69, 71, 76, 77, process 1-2, 12, 22-3, 144 3o-1, 34, 42, 51, s6, Pictorial and tabular materials 115, I54

1101 Ill readiness 11, 19, 25, Play 27 39, 75. 124, 127, 133. Practice 34, 35, 57, 105-6, 109, 153 no-11, 147, 148, 149, I5o-4 silent 52, 68, 152-3 Primary classes 13,35, 105, u6 social importance of Problem solving 5, 6, 10, 11, 16, I23-6 so, 143,148 standards 3, 4, 13, 99, Process, learning-to-read 1-2, u6, I24 16,29,33-4,35,37,40 word-by-word 105, 115 rediscovery 57 Reasoning 2, 5, 8-Io, 15, 16, Pronunciation 38, so, 52, 59, 62, 17-18, 23, 36, 55, 76, II71 146 63,64,67,69, II3,I55-'73 Rediscovery 23, 37-8, 57, 144, Psycholinguistics 5, 12, 21, 29, 148, 149 36 Relevance 45-'7, 152 Remedial teaching 91, 101-3, Tacit/explicit knowledge 24-5 112, u6, 122, 124, 129 Teacher education 3-4, roo, Reversals 1 o 124, 131 Right to Read 123, 126 mobility 93 Rote learning 9, 13, 21, 46, 70, Television 123 75 Thinking II, IS-Ig, 32, so, s6, Russia 2S, 119 57,71,72,73-4, Ill Russian 2S, 74-5 Thought units 105 Tobago 142 Samoa 15 Transfer oflearning St, S4, Scanning 115 S7-g0,93, 137,139,157 School readiness 124-5,139 Trinidad 142 Schooling provisions s6, 13Q-2 Tzeltal 13S Scotland 11, 16, 26, 32, 157 Tzotzil 13S Secondary schools 3, 13, 5, 99-116 Understanding 5, 7, S-10, Semantic links 61-2 II-2o, 24-5, 2S, 32, 33, 34, 36, Sentence sense 105 37, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47, 55-'7, 6o, Sex achievement differences 7D-I, 74, 76, S9, 91, lOS, 112, 12{rg 113, 116, uS, 123, 133, I34, role stereotypes 126-9 142, 145, qS, 151, 153, 157 Size of class 132-3 United States 3, 17, 20, 24, 30, Skill development 13-14, 34-5, 51, 75, S4, 99, 100, 102, 121- 2, 36--7, 39, 40, 56, St, Sg, gS, 123, 125-9, 132-3, 141, 157, 99-IOO, II4, 134, 145, 146--7, ISS, 173 149-SI, I54 Uruguay II9 Skimming III, 115 Social adjustment go, 125-6 Verbalising 32, 14S-so studies 35 Visual analysis to, 113 Soviet Union 15, 27> 43, 74, I I9, Vocabulary, development IS, 121 39, so, S7, 104-5 Spanish 43, 137-S key 46 Speech segmentation I6, 20, sight II3 24-s, s6, 71, 74, 113 Speed 13, 104, II4-I5, 139, 140 Weaknesses in reading, Spelling skill 76, SI, S7, go-1, diagnosis of Io2-4, 105 93, 127, 137 treatment ofio3-6, 109, 112-13, SQ3R 54,112 115, 124, ISI Structure, deep 6o Word, concept of I7-1S, 2S, 32, surface 30, 6o s6, 57, 71, 73 Study skills IOo-I, 104, uo-12, recognition 26, 47, 104, 151 112-I3 Subject areas 3, 104-5, 106, 109, unit 16-IS, 56, 6S, 71 111-12, 114, 116, 151 Writing systems, characteristics of Sub-vocalisation 115 21, 29, 37, Sweden 17, II9, 120, 123, 125, ss-g, I43-4 126, 132, I3S, 141 originators of Swedish 139 23, 25, 37, 44, Syllable 25, 37, sS, 143 57-S,70 Solution (Note: Underlining has been used to stress where majuscule characters should be used.)

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