DOCSLIB.ORG

Observations on the Life Histories of the Stick Insects

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Observations on the Life Histories of the Stick Insects OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORIES OF THE STICK INSECTS Acrophylla t"essellata Gray and Ex-tatosmna t"iarat"unl Macleay nv K. KOH.BOOT DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY Volume I 1961 Number II lQL 4Zi l ·SJ�t v\ M II OBSERVATIONS ON TI-IE LIFE :HISTORIES OF THE STICK INSECTS A_crophylla tessellata Gray and Extatosom,a tiaratum Nfaclcay by K. KORBOOT Price: Two Shillings University of Queensland Papers Department of Entomology Volume I Number 11 THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND PRESS St . Lucia 24th August, IH6l Wholly set up and printed in Australia by WATSON, FERGUSON and COMPANY Brisbane, Q. 1961 Observations on the Life Histories of Acroph.rlla tessellata Gray and Extatosoma tiaratum Macleay (Phasmida) BY KATHERINE KORBOOT, B.Sc. Records observations, extending over two years, on the life histories of A. tessellata and E. tiaratum bred in captivity from eggs laid in the laboratory in January, 1959, by mated females. In both species the incubation period ranged from eight to twenty months. In the development of both male and female A. tessellata each of the six nymphal stadia was approximately fourteen d ys For there were six nymphal stadia for the female, and a . E. tiaratum. five for the male. In the case o.C females of E. tiaratum bred from eggs with an incubation of eight and nineteen months, the duration of each stadii.tm was approximately nineteen days and twenty-four days respectively. Male nymphal stadia were slightly longer than those of the female. The females of A. tessellata were usually found in the summer months on Eucalyptus saplings, but the males, unless taken in copula, were scarcely seen. The males were tree-top dwellers, and with their large, powerful hind wings were able to fly rapidly for a few hundred yards before settling . The females used their wings for gliding from one branch to the next. E. tiaratum was encountered less often than A. tessellata, as both males and females were tree-top dwellers. After storms in the summer months the females were found on young Eucalypt saplings. In both sexes of E. tiaratum the abdomen was fringed with spiny processes . and lamellate expansions, the legs were irregularly dilated, and the cuticle beset with spines. The females were larger and stouter than the males, and somewhat leaf-like in appearance. Their wings, however, were reduced and functionless. The favoured host trees of A. tessellata wete:- E. major, E. grandis, E. maculata, crebra, melanophloia, gummijera, trachyphloia, E. E. E. E. in order of preference, tiaratum e e: major, maculata, tereticomis. tessel­ while those of E. w r - E. E. E. E. laris was not favoured by either species. A constant supply of fresh gum tips was provided for the insects reared in captivity, as they refused withering or stale leaves. The older nymphs and adults readily attacked mature leaves, but the younger nymphs preferred the succulent leaves of the young tips. In absence of gum leaves, young Acacia leaves would be eaten. e Being edge feeders the insects cut off strip after strip of l af , the incision gradu­ ally becoming deeper. They swallowed the tissue whole and after taking one strip of leaf, returned to the starting point to take another strip, no food being consumed in the return motion. Much of the food provided was wasted because of their habit of biting through the leaf near the petiole, resulting in the fall of the leaf blade. They fed irregularly, eating a great deal one day and very little the next. The largest meals were those taken following an ecdysis. Feeding generally took place in the morning and in the evening, the insects remaining motionless at other times. A. tessellata. NS ON TilE L1 FE HlSTORlES UL<' l62 OBSEl<VilfiU STlCK lNSECTS On the .17th January, 1959, a male and a female were taken at Enoggera Crt�ek, a Ashgrove, BrisbanoJ e, and kept in cylindrical 8 in . x 15 in. plastic breeding cag(,, A small branch the food plant, F. maJor, was placed m a receptacle of water m the a cage and the floor of the (�age was covered with layer of sand. Every tiftb chy the leaves wen� replaced w1th fresh ones, and every second day they were sprinkled with water. CojJulation and OvijJosition. The adults copulated on the 20th .J an1tary and remained in cojJula nntil the 1st February, i.e. eleven days. The male took a position 011 the back of the female, witll his fore tarsi resting on her mctathorax, his mid tarsi grasping her second abdominal segment and his hincllegs banging freely cxtcndecl. On the 2nd Fchrua.ry, both the male and female ate ravenously. From the ard Feuruary until the 22nd February, i.e. nineteen clays, tbc female continued to oviposit, laying one llllndrcd and twenty eggs in all. The egg was visible within tbe genital cavity for an hour before oviposition, which , observed on several occasions, was a deliberate egg dropping. The female underwent no change in her position or in tile attitude of her abdomen during oviposition and she displayed no interes t in her eggs. Eight eggs were dropped in the i1rst twenty- four hours of oviposition, seven in each o1 the next four clays, and six on each o1 the remaining fourteen days. An egg was laid at inter vals of from three to four hours, mostly between the hours of 4 p.m. and 4 a.m. Form, Size and TVeight of Eggs. The typical egg of A. tessellata has a slightly curved ellipsoid form, somewhat compressed laterally. O ne end is roun ded , and the other flattened and covered hy the operculum, bearing a crown-like prom inence, the capitulum. 'J'he opercuhtm consists of a fiat platform with an encircling ridge. According to Sharp ( 1898) the operculum is present in all known phasmid eggs. The operculum is fastened to the rest of the chorion hy means of many small tpoth- like ridges which fit into corrcs·­ ponding slits on the inner side of the rim of the egg. 'fhe operculum may be removed without causing injury to the normal functions of the embryo. The capitulum is like a creamish shrivelled cap, and bears a central aperture for the admis sion of air to the embryo. This aperture is surrounclccl by a ring of minute perforations. When freshly laid the egg has a thin coating of varnish-like material wbich dries in twenty to thirty minutes, and gradu ally peels of£ during subsequent development. This coating was also mentioned by Mosca.n<l (1950) as being present on the eggs of Bacillus libanictts Uvarov. When laid the eggs were shining black in colour, becoming dull black when the outer covering peeled off, and changing to grey seven days before eclosion. On the dorsal surface of the egg is the micropylar plate which, according to Moscana, is common to all phasmid eggs. The details of the structure of the plate are different and characteristic in each species, so that this structure has been used as a systematic criterion (Brunner V. Wattenwyl and Redtenbacher, 100f)). The micropylar plate of A. tessellata is long ancl ribbon-like with a spearhead prominence pointing towards the posterior end of the egg. This prominence is black in colour, the rest of the micropylar plate being a <lull grey. The broadened posterior part of the plate, which bears the spe<lrhead prominence, may be called the plate proper. Occupying a central position on the prominence is the aperture of the micropylar canal. K. KORDOOT .163 Length of egg: 2. 70-3.10 mm. Width of egg: 1.65-2.10 mm. Diameter of operculum at its greatest width : 1.00-2.10 mrn. e: Length of micropylar plat l.S0-2.31 mm. There seems be 1�0 rrlati01_1Ship between the of thc micropylar p\ate to �ength . and that of the egg. W1dth of 1mcropylar plate: 0. 7n-0.92 mm. m the plate proper and 0.50-0.72 in the rest of the plate. were Freshly laid eggs cleaned of adhering foreign material and weighed in batches of ten. The average weight was 4.1 milligrams. Incubation of Eggs. The eggs were placed in a 3 in. x 2 in. glass tube with a ·finely punctured plastic top. A piece of moist blotting paper was placed · within the lid and renewed once a week. The tube was kept at room temperature throughout the incubation period. Forty-nine of the eggs hatched on the 30th August, 1959. The remaining seventy-one eggs were kept in the tube, but the moist blotting paper wru; not provided during the rest of the incubation period. Emergence from the Egg. The nymphs hatched at any time of the day or night. At eclosion the nymph raised its head pushing the operculum from the egg capsule. The legs were held downwards under the abdomen in a tangled mass, and not until the head and thorax were the did begin to unravel within ca sule. out of egg, the legs the p The abdomen was flipped out, and then the fore, mid, and finally the hind legs were drawn free of the egg. If at the time of eclosion the egg was very moist, the operculum was not pushed completely the hind s the by the free and leg tended to stick in hinge made not freed th could not be shaken free, and operculum. If mechanically e egg shell the nymph died. The fmt instar, unlike the following instars, was apparently incapable of autotomy o:f the legs. If one hind leg only was caught, the nymph was able to drag the empty shell around until it finally dropped off.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Insecta: Phasmatodea) and Their Phylogeny
    insects Article Three Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of Orestes guangxiensis, Peruphasma schultei, and Phryganistria guangxiensis (Insecta: Phasmatodea) and Their Phylogeny Ke-Ke Xu 1, Qing-Ping Chen 1, Sam Pedro Galilee Ayivi 1 , Jia-Yin Guan 1, Kenneth B. Storey 2, Dan-Na Yu 1,3 and Jia-Yong Zhang 1,3,* 1 College of Chemistry and Life Science, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China; [email protected] (K.-K.X.); [email protected] (Q.-P.C.); [email protected] (S.P.G.A.); [email protected] (J.-Y.G.); [email protected] (D.-N.Y.) 2 Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada; [email protected] 3 Key Lab of Wildlife Biotechnology, Conservation and Utilization of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China * Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected] Simple Summary: Twenty-seven complete mitochondrial genomes of Phasmatodea have been published in the NCBI. To shed light on the intra-ordinal and inter-ordinal relationships among Phas- matodea, more mitochondrial genomes of stick insects are used to explore mitogenome structures and clarify the disputes regarding the phylogenetic relationships among Phasmatodea. We sequence and annotate the first acquired complete mitochondrial genome from the family Pseudophasmati- dae (Peruphasma schultei), the first reported mitochondrial genome from the genus Phryganistria Citation: Xu, K.-K.; Chen, Q.-P.; Ayivi, of Phasmatidae (P. guangxiensis), and the complete mitochondrial genome of Orestes guangxiensis S.P.G.; Guan, J.-Y.; Storey, K.B.; Yu, belonging to the family Heteropterygidae. We analyze the gene composition and the structure D.-N.; Zhang, J.-Y.
    [Show full text]
  • Stick Insects Fact Sheet
    Stick Insects Fact Sheet Female Titan Stick Insect. Image: QM, Jeff Wright. Introduction Biology Stick and leaf insects, scientifically known as phasmids, Females lay eggs one at a time, often with a flick of their are among the largest of all insects in the world. At 26 cm, abdomens to throw the egg some distance. An individual the Titan Stick Insect (Acrophylla titan) is the longest of female drops eggs at a rate of one to several per day and all Australian insects. Phasmids have perfected the art of she can produce between 100 and 1,300 eggs in her life- camouflage. Some resemble sticks and foliage so closely time. They fall to the ground and lie in the leaf litter. they even feature false buds, thorns and ragged leaf-like flanges. Small wonder they are rarely seen except after storms when they are blown out of threes and shrubs. Phasmids are sometimes confused with a different group of insects, the mantids. Also called Praying Mantids, these are predators with large, spiny front legs, held folded ready to strike and grasp prey. In contrast, Phasmids are herbivores (plant-eaters) with simple front legs that are similar in size and structure to their other legs. A variety of insect eggs. (on left). An ant carrying a stick insect egg (on right). Images: QM, Jeff Wright. All stick insects feed on fresh leaves. Some browse on a wide variety of trees and shrubs but others are fussy, eating only a limited range of host plants that are often closely Stick insect eggs are generally oval, and superficially seed- related to each other.
    [Show full text]
  • Wild About Learning
    WILD ABOUT LEARNING An Interdisciplinary Unit Fostering Discovery Learning Written on a 4th grade reading level, Wild Discoveries: Wacky New Animals, is perfect for every kid who loves wacky animals! With engaging full-color photos throughout, the book draws readers right into the animal action! Wild Discoveries features newly discovered species from around the world--such as the Shocking Pink Dragon and the Green Bomber. These wacky species are organized by region with fun facts about each one's amazing abilities and traits. The book concludes with a special section featuring new species discovered by kids! Heather L. Montgomery writes about science and nature for kids. Her subject matter ranges from snake tongues to snail poop. Heather is an award-winning teacher who uses yuck appeal to engage young minds. During a typical school visit, petrified parts and tree guts inspire reluctant writers and encourage scientific thinking. Heather has a B.S. in Biology and a M.S. in Environmental Education. When she is not writing, you can find her painting her face with mud at the McDowell Environmental Center where she is the Education Coordinator. Heather resides on the Tennessee/Alabama border. Learn more about her ten books at www.HeatherLMontgomery.com. Dear Teachers, Photo by Sonya Sones As I wrote Wild Discoveries: Wacky New Animals, I was astounded by how much I learned. As expected, I learned amazing facts about animals and the process of scientifically describing new species, but my knowledge also grew in subjects such as geography, math and language arts. I have developed this unit to share that learning growth with children.
    [Show full text]
  • (Phasmida: Diapheromeridae) from Colombia
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Center for Systematic Entomology, Gainesville, Insecta Mundi Florida 11-27-2020 A new species of Oncotophasma Rehn, 1904 (Phasmida: Diapheromeridae) from Colombia Andres David Murcia Oscar J. Cadena-Castañeda Daniela Santos Martins Silva Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/insectamundi Part of the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Commons, and the Entomology Commons This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Center for Systematic Entomology, Gainesville, Florida at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Insecta Mundi by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. A journal of world insect systematics INSECTA MUNDI 0819 A new species of Oncotophasma Rehn, 1904 Page Count: 7 (Phasmida: Diapheromeridae) from Colombia Andres David Murcia Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas. Grupo de Investigación en Artrópodos “Kumangui” Carrera 3 # 26A – 40 Bogotá, DC, Colombia Oscar J. Cadena-Castañeda Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas Grupo de Investigación en Artrópodos “Kumangui” Carrera 3 # 26A – 40 Bogotá, DC, Colombia Daniela Santos Martins Silva Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV) campus Rio Paranaíba, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde Rodovia MG 230, KM 7, 38810–000 Rio Paranaíba, MG, Brazil Date of issue: November 27, 2020 Center for Systematic Entomology, Inc., Gainesville, FL Murcia AD, Cadena-Castañeda OJ, Silva DSM. 2020. A new species of Oncotophasma Rehn, 1904 (Phasmida: Diapheromeridae) from Colombia. Insecta Mundi 0819: 1–7. Published on November 27, 2020 by Center for Systematic Entomology, Inc. P.O. Box 141874 Gainesville, FL 32614-1874 USA http://centerforsystematicentomology.org/ Insecta Mundi is a journal primarily devoted to insect systematics, but articles can be published on any non- marine arthropod.
    [Show full text]
  • Phasmida (Stick and Leaf Insects)
    ● Phasmida (Stick and leaf insects) Class Insecta Order Phasmida Number of families 8 Photo: A leaf insect (Phyllium bioculatum) in Japan. (Photo by ©Ron Austing/Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.) Evolution and systematics Anareolatae. The Timematodea has only one family, the The oldest fossil specimens of Phasmida date to the Tri- Timematidae (1 genus, 21 species). These small stick insects assic period—as long ago as 225 million years. Relatively few are not typical phasmids, having the ability to jump, unlike fossil species have been found, and they include doubtful almost all other species in the order. It is questionable whether records. Occasionally a puzzle to entomologists, the Phasmida they are indeed phasmids, and phylogenetic research is not (whose name derives from a Greek word meaning “appari- conclusive. Studies relating to phylogeny are scarce and lim- tion”) comprise stick and leaf insects, generally accepted as ited in scope. The eggs of each phasmid are distinctive and orthopteroid insects. Other alternatives have been proposed, are important in classification of these insects. however. There are about 3,000 species of phasmids, although in this understudied order this number probably includes about 30% as yet unidentified synonyms (repeated descrip- Physical characteristics tions). Numerous species still await formal description. Stick insects range in length from Timema cristinae at 0.46 in (11.6 mm) to Phobaeticus kirbyi at 12.9 in (328 mm), or 21.5 Extant species usually are divided into eight families, in (546 mm) with legs outstretched. Numerous phasmid “gi- though some researchers cite just two, based on a reluctance ants” easily rank as the world’s longest insects.
    [Show full text]
  • Stick Insects (PDF 124KB)
    Handle with care Stick insects Species: Indian stick insect (there are lots of others which could be listed but this is the most common) Scientific names: Carausius morosus Description The Indian stick insect is the most commonly available of all stick insect species. Indian stick insects are normally olive green, but brown and yellow-green colours occur too. Their twig and leaf-like appearance gives them good camouflage. An adult stick insect measures about 7.5cm after about five or six skin moults and will live for about a year. Life in the wild Stick insects live in tropical and semi tropical areas of the world. They are vegetarians and eat the leaves of plants, shrubs and trees. Privet and bramble leaves are favourites. In the wild they are usually eaten by birds, so stick insects tend to feed at night when birds are not around. Source of animals Stick insects can be bought from pet shops or specialist breeders. RSPCA animal centres also occasionally have stick insects needing new homes. Prior knowledge and preparation Before keeping stick insects, it is crucial that any potential keeper finds out about them and how to provide for them in captivity. Only then can an informed decision be made about whether s/he can provide the facilities, time, financial means and long-term commitment to look after them properly. Suitable accommodation, food and the necessary accessories should be bought and prepared before taking the animal home. Novice keepers should also take the time to talk to experienced stick insect keepers and professionals – such as a vet – for further advice.
    [Show full text]
  • Goliath Stick Insect
    Husbandry Manual for Eurycnema goliath Tara Bearman Husbandry Manual for Goliath Stick Insect Eurycnema goliath (Gray, 1834) (Insecta: Phasmatidae) Compiled by: Tara Bearman Date of Preparation: 2007 Western Sydney Institute of TAFE, Richmond Course Name and Number: 1068 Certificate III –Captive Animals Lecturer: Graeme Phipps 1 Husbandry Manual for Eurycnema goliath Tara Bearman TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 6 2 TAXONOMY ....................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 NOMENCLATURE............................................................................................................................. 7 2.2 SUBSPECIES................................................................................................................................... 7 2.3 RECENT SYNONYMS ....................................................................................................................... 7 2.4 OTHER COMMON NAMES ................................................................................................................ 7 3 NATURAL HISTORY........................................................................................................................ 8 3.1 MORPHOMETRICS........................................................................................................................... 9 3.1.1 Mass and
    [Show full text]
  • Stick Insects Feed on Common Garden Leaves, Like Eucalyptus (Gum) and Only Require a Quick Mist with Water Daily
    Care Sheet Easily Handled Absolutely harmless, but delicate. Quite at home crawling on their new owners, gently exploring Great First Pets Stick Insects feed on common garden leaves, like Eucalyptus (gum) and only require a quick mist with water daily between 16degC to 28degC. Avoid direct sunlight as this can become too hot, also avoid draughty locations. Do not use Stick Insect insecticide or other chemicals anywhere near your insect. Crowned - Onchestus Rentzi You should clean your enclosure on a regular basis, checking Goliath - Eurycnema goliath for eggs if you wish to keep them. Spiny Leaf - Extatosoma tiaratum (pictured) Feeding/ Diet Strong - Anchiale briareus Stick Insect eat any types of Eucalypt (Gum) leaves and Titan - Acrophylla titan Acadia (Wattle) species. Small braches with fresh clean leaves should be placed in your enclosure in a container of General Information water. Your stick insect can drown so it is best to have a lid Stick Insects hatch from a small egg and grow by undergoing on the container and have small holes for the branches to be put through. Check that your insects are eating; look to see if a series of moults (shedding their outer skeleton) and moults the leaves are being eaten and if there are droppings in your into an adult at about 6 months of age. Stick Insects generally enclosure. If the aren't eating, try a different type of eucalypt. live from eight to eighteen months. This age variation is due Braches should be changed once or twice a week or as soon to many factors, including species type, temperature and sex as they start drying out.
    [Show full text]
  • Adhesion Performance in the Eggs of the Philippine Leaf Insect Phyllium Philippinicum (Phasmatodea: Phylliidae)
    insects Article Adhesion Performance in the Eggs of the Philippine Leaf Insect Phyllium philippinicum (Phasmatodea: Phylliidae) Thies H. Büscher * , Elise Quigley and Stanislav N. Gorb Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Institute of Zoology, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany; [email protected] (E.Q.); [email protected] (S.N.G.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 12 June 2020; Accepted: 25 June 2020; Published: 28 June 2020 Abstract: Leaf insects (Phasmatodea: Phylliidae) exhibit perfect crypsis imitating leaves. Although the special appearance of the eggs of the species Phyllium philippinicum, which imitate plant seeds, has received attention in different taxonomic studies, the attachment capability of the eggs remains rather anecdotical. Weherein elucidate the specialized attachment mechanism of the eggs of this species and provide the first experimental approach to systematically characterize the functional properties of their adhesion by using different microscopy techniques and attachment force measurements on substrates with differing degrees of roughness and surface chemistry, as well as repetitive attachment/detachment cycles while under the influence of water contact. We found that a combination of folded exochorionic structures (pinnae) and a film of adhesive secretion contribute to attachment, which both respond to water. Adhesion is initiated by the glue, which becomes fluid through hydration, enabling adaption to the surface profile. Hierarchically structured pinnae support the spreading of the glue and reinforcement of the film. This combination aids the egg’s surface in adapting to the surface roughness, yet the attachment strength is additionally influenced by the egg’s surface chemistry, favoring hydrophilic substrates.
    [Show full text]
  • Insects, Extatosoma Tiaratum (Macleay, 1826) by David S
    The Phasmid Study Group JUNE 2013 NEWSLETTER No 130 ISSN 0268-3806 Extatosoma tiaratum © Paul Brock See Page 11. INDEX Page Content Page Content 2. The Colour Page 9. Phasmid Books – Gray 1833 3. Editorial 10. My Little Friends 3. PSG Membership Details 11. PSG Winter Meeting 19.1.13 3. The PSG Committee 12. Sticks go to School 4. PSG Website Update 13. Development of Phasmid Species List Part 5 4. Contributions to the Newsletter 15. A New Leaf Insect Rearer’s Book 4. Diary Dates 16. X-Bugs 5. PSG Summer Meeting Agenda 16. Dad! It’s Raining Stick Insects 6. PSG Summer Meeting 17. BIAZA Big Bug Bonanza 6. Livestock Report 17. Stick Talk 7. PSG Merchandise Update 18. Holiday to Colombia 7. Newsletter Survey Results 19. Questions 8. National Insect Week @ Bristol Zoo Gardens 20. Macleay’s Spectre It is to be directly understood that all views, opinions or theories, expressed in the pages of "The Newsletter“ are those of the author(s) concerned. All announcements of meetings, and requests for help or information, are accepted as bona fide. Neither the Editor, nor Officers of "The Phasmid Study Group", can be held responsible for any loss, embarrassment or injury that might be sustained by reliance thereon. THE COLOUR PAGE! Acrophylla titan female. Picture on left, becomes picture on right. Unknown species. See page 18. See page 9. Ctenomorpha Acanthoxyla spp, brown version. See page 8. Acanthoxyla spp, green version. See page 8. marginipennis. See page 10. Pictures on the left are from when Sir David Attenborough went to Bristol Zoo Gardens on 21st May 2013 to film for his “Natural Curiosities” series, where he focused on butterflies (regarding metamorphosis) with a short piece on parthenogenesis – hence the Phyllium giganteum he is holding in the photo.
    [Show full text]
  • Extreme Positive Allometry of Animal Adhesive Pads and the Size Limits of Adhesion-Based Climbing
    Extreme positive allometry of animal adhesive pads and the size limits of adhesion-based climbing David Labontea,1, Christofer J. Clementeb, Alex Dittrichc, Chi-Yun Kuod, Alfred J. Crosbye, Duncan J. Irschickd, and Walter Federlea aDepartment of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom; bSchool of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD 4556, Australia; cDepartment of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge CB1 1PT, United Kingdom; dBiology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003; and eDepartment of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003 Edited by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, and approved December 11, 2015 (received for review October 7, 2015) Organismal functions are size-dependent whenever body surfaces animals to climb smooth vertical or inverted surfaces, thereby supply body volumes. Larger organisms can develop strongly opening up new habitats. Adhesive pads have evolved multiple folded internal surfaces for enhanced diffusion, but in many cases times independently within arthropods, reptiles, amphibians, and areas cannot be folded so that their enlargement is constrained by mammals and show impressive performance: They are rapidly anatomy, presenting a problem for larger animals. Here, we study controllable, can be used repeatedly without any loss of perfor- the allometry of adhesive pad area in 225 climbing animal species, mance, and function on rough, dirty, and flooded surfaces (12). This covering more than seven orders of magnitude in weight. Across performance has inspired a considerable amount of work on tech- all taxa, adhesive pad area showed extreme positive allometry and nical adhesives that mimic these properties (13).
    [Show full text]
  • The Antennal Motor System of the Stick Insect Carausius Morosus : Anatomy and Antennal Movement Pattern During Walking
    J Comp Physiol A ;2001) 187: 131±144 DOI 10.1007/s003590100183 ORIGINAL PAPER Volker DuÈ rr á Yvonne KoÈ nig á Rolf Kittmann The antennal motor system of the stick insect Carausius morosus : anatomy and antennal movement pattern during walking Accepted: 8 January 2001 / Published online: 22 February 2001 Ó Springer-Verlag 2001 Abstract The stick insect Carausius morosus continu- Key words Antennal movement á Tactile sense á ously moves its antennae during locomotion. Active Antennal muscle á Motoneuron á Limb coordination antennal movements may re¯ect employment of anten- nae as tactile probes. Therefore, this study treats two Abbreviations Ab1±4 abductor motoneuron 1±4 á Ad1±3 basic aspects of the antennal motor system: First, the adductor motoneuron 1±3 á AEP: anterior extreme po- anatomy of antennal joints, muscles, nerves and moto- sition á AL antennal lobe á AMMC antennal mechano- neurons is described and discussed in comparison with sensory and motor complex á aTB anterior tentorial other species. Second, the typical movement pattern of branch á cMD central part of MD á CI common inhibi- the antennae is analysed, and its spatio-temporal coor- tor á CT corpus tentorium á Dp1±5 depressor motoneu- dination with leg movements described. Each antenna is ron 1±5 á dTB dorsal tentorial branch á lMD lateral part moved by two single-axis hinge joints. The proximal ofMDá lML lateral levator muscle á Lv1±4 levator head-scape joint is controlled by two levator muscles motoneuron 1±4 á MD depressor muscle á mMD medial and a three-partite depressor muscle.
    [Show full text]