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Home , British Ceylon, Indian Ocean, John Darwin (historian)

‘ AND BEACHES’: THE PACIFIC AND INDIAN IN THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY

Convenor: Dr. Sujit Sivasundaram, Gonville and Caius College, [email protected]

Sailing Chart of the , donated to the Royal Colonial Institute, 1875, now in the Royal Commonwealth Society Collection at Cambridge University Library.

‘ is vast. Oceania is expanding. Oceania is hospitable and generous. Oceania is humanity rising from the depths of brine and of fire deeper still. Oceania is us. We are the , we are the oceans, we must wake up to this ancient truth and together use it to overturn all hegemonic views that aim ultimately to confine us again, physically and psychologically, in the tiny spaces which we have resisted accepting as our sole appointed place, and from which we have recently liberated ourselves. We must not allow anyone to belittle us again, and take away our freedom.’

From ‘Our Sea of Islands’ in Contemporary Pacific, 1994, by Epeli Hau’ofa (1939-2009), Tongan writer and anthropologist.

Islands were critical in birthing our modern , and yet they have often been forgotten in our accounts of world history. Because of their rigid boundaries and small territories, islands were subject to intensive processes of cultural encounter, political annexation and settlement, making them particularly revealing and tragic places to observe the impact of colonialism and globalisation. This paper returns to the history of the Pacific and Indian Oceans in the long nineteenth century, by viewing these large expanses of as constellations of islands. In these , islands served amongst other things as garrison states, laboratories of science, sites for the exclusion of the diseased and penal colonies. They were violent spaces: connected to regimes of labour servitude and with narratives of depopulation and extinction.

The teaching for this paper starts with the age of at the end of the eighteenth century, which was characterised by an obsession with cultures and peoples, because of prevalent notions of romanticism, noble savagery, utopianism and scientific inquiry. It picks up on the impact of the global age of revolutions on these islands and seas, where islands were staging points for discourses of rights and freedom, and republican protest as much as imperial rivalry. At the mid-point of its chronology, the paper will construct a connected history of anti-colonial rebellions at the mid nineteenth-century between far flung islands. Along the way, students will study the impact of the law, war, religion, and in zoning these oceans and defining island spaces. They will also turn to literary accounts and consider why islands were peculiarly interesting to novelists and artists. The paper will study how islands were important as environmental laboratories and for the origins of ideas of consciousness. The narrative of labour, indenture and is critical here, as new systems of plantation labour emerged in these spaces after the abolition of Atlantic slavery. From the perspective of a maritime and technological history, islands were critical nodes in a world of increasing globalisation; these were the points of access to landmasses, via and telegraphs, which allowed global forces to do their work, while erasing the islands’ place in the map as the century proceeded. The paper will end with the years before the first , when new notions of cosmopolitan nationalism, heritage and attachment emerged on these islands. This marked the demise of the age of colony, as Europeans took over the interior of , for instance in the Scramble, and as geo-political power was theorised as linked to land routes, rather than sea-lanes. The analytical arc of the paper therefore marks the rise and fall of islands as colonies in world history.

Why look at islands to study world history? In historiographical terms, world history is now awash with a rich literature on oceanic histories which maps connections across water and traces transnational and transregional relations. At the same time, world history is characterised by a highly distinguished tradition of work in area studies, evident in other offerings in the Specified Papers at the Faculty in Indian history, Middle Eastern history, African history and Latin American history. The current paper is an attempt to find a middle plane of analysis, between the globe and the . It takes the importance of locality firmly into view whilst avoiding the grand generalisations that sometimes characterise world history. It also begins with a commitment to the fact that tiny places have had significant impacts on the broader contours of world history. For students, it provides an innovative method of understanding how extra-European peoples were caught in the middle of global forces, whilst making them their own. Focusing on islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans also offers a way of thinking in comparative terms about . Yet it is important to underscore that the island histories considered here will open up broader themes, rather than allowing students ‘to island’ their own knowledge. In other words and in summary, this is an attempt to see the world in an island, to see seas as islands, and to see islands as in worlds.

The teaching of this paper will be structured into two parts. In Part A, which will involve a course of 8 core lectures, students will be introduced to themes in nineteenth century oceanic history which touch on islands. In Part B students will attend 10 1.5 hour Faculty classes devoted to particular islands, and some of these classes will be held alongside primary materials in the Archaeology and Anthropology Museum (on ), in the Royal Commonwealth Society Collections (on Sri ) and the Darwin Correspondence Project (on ). The examination paper will have c. 24 questions which take on board broader themes as well as individual case studies. A model exam is attached at the end of this reading list. Supervisions for this paper will be arranged by Sujit Sivasundaram. Students will be advised to divide up their supervision topics across Part A and Part B, ensuring coverage and an integrated understanding of the whole paper.

There will be a total of five or six supervisions for this Paper, and students will be asked to choose their supervision topics in advance, so that the right arrangements for

teaching can be put in place. A student’s supervision pattern for this paper will include single, paired and grouped supervision, and students will be able to choose from within the wide menu of topics on offer below.

Indicative general bibliography: C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (2004). Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian in an Age of Global (2006). Megan Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island: Slavery in Eighteenth-century (2005). Clare Anderson, Subaltern Lives: Biographies of Colonialism in the (2012). Abdul Sheriff and Engseng Ho eds., The Indian Ocean: Oceanic Connections and the Creation of New Societies (2014). David Igler, The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush (2013). David Armitage and Alison Bashford eds., Pacific Histories: Ocean, Land, People (2014). John Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific in the Age of Enlightenment (2014). Gregory T. Cushman, Guano and the Opening of the Pacific World (2013). Matt K. Matsuda, Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures (2012). Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches: Discourses on a Silent Land, Marquesas, 1774-1880 (1980). Donald Freeman, The Pacific (2010). Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism (1995). Sunil Amrith, Crossing the Bay of : The Furies of Nature and the Fortunes of Migrants (2013). Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800-1930 (2003). Sujit Sivasundaram, Islanded: Britain, and the Bounds of an Indian Ocean Colony (2013). Pier Larson, Ocean of Letters: Language and Creolization in the Indian Ocean Diaspora (2009). Thomas Metcalf, Imperial Connections: in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860-1920 (2008). Michael Pearson, The Indian Ocean (2003). Marshall Sahlins, Islands of History (1995). Anne Salmond, Aphrodite’s Island: The European Discovery of Tahiti (2010). Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of the Cook Voyages (1992). Vanessa Smith and Rod Edmond eds., Islands in History and Representation (2003). , Islanders: The Pacific in an Age of Empire (2010). Engseng Ho, The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean (2006). E. Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (2014).

Reference

Students will find the seventeen-volume series edited by Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500-1900 (Ashgate Press) of use. They may also wish to consult the Oxford History of the and its Companion Series. The following journals will be directly relevant to this course, and students are encouraged to keep an eye on recent articles: The Journal of Pacific History; The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History; Itinerario; Journal of Global History; Comparative Studies in Society and History; Comparative Studies of South , the and ; Modern Asian Studies; Modern Intellectual History; ; Journal for Maritime Research.

Novels and travel literature:

Lady Isabelle Burton, Arabia, , India: A Narrative of Travel (1879). J.L. Burckhardt Travels in Arabia, (1829). , Typhoon and other Tales (1902). Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (1714). George Windsor Earl, The Eastern Seas, or Voyages and Adventures in the Indian in 1832-4 (1837). Frederick Marryat, The Naval Officer (1829). Alfred Russel Wallace, The (1869). Robert Fitzroy, The Narrative of the ‘Beagle’ Voyage, 1831-6, edited by Katharine Anderson (2011). Mark Twain, The Great Revolution in Pitcairn (1879) or Following the : A Journey Around the World (1897). Mizar Abu Taleb Khan, Travels in Asia, Africa and during the years 1799 to 1803 (first published 1814, republished 1972). Herman Melville, Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846); Moby Dick (1851). Jehangeer Nowrojee and Hirjeebhoy Merwanjee, Journal of a residence of two years and a half in Great Britain (1841). Authors are Parsi naval engineers. Fanny Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque (1850). Robert Louis Stevenson, Treasure Island (1887). G. L. Sullivan, chasing in and on the Eastern coast of Africa: narrative of five years suppression of the slave trade (1873). H. G. Wells, The island of Doctor Moreau (1924). Amitav Gosh, The Hungry Tide (2005); Glass Palace (2000).

PART A THEMES, linked to core lectures

1. THEORETICAL VIEWS ON OCEANIC HISTORIES

a. What is attractive about the ocean as a framework for historical study? b. What differences have appeared thus far in the writing of the histories of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans? c. How far is oceanic history primarily defined by an environmental approach? d. What characterises a world history of oceans?

*The American Historical Review 111.3 (2006). Forum on ‘Oceans of History’, Introduction by Karen Wigen and essays by Alison Games and Matt K Matsuda.

David Armitage, Alison Bashford and Sujit Sivasundaram eds., Oceanic Histories (2017).

Indian Ocean general reading: *Markus P.M. Vink, ‘Indian Ocean Studies and the new thalassology’, in Journal of Global History (2007) 2, pp. 41–62. Sugata Bose, ‘Space and Time on the Indian Ocean Rim: Theory and History’, in Leila Tarazi Fawaz and C.A. Bayly eds., Modernity & Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean (2002), pp. 365-388). J. de V. Allen, ‘A Proposal for Indian Ocean Studies’, in Historical Relations across the Indian Ocean (1980), pp.137-151. *Michael Pearson, ‘Littoral Society: The Concept and the Problems’, Journal of World History, 17.4 (2006). Special issue, Journal of Social History (2011), ‘Marginal Centres: Writing Life histories in the Indian Ocean World’. Especially introduction. Special issue, History Compass (2013), ‘Tracks and Trails: Indian Ocean Worlds as Method.’ Isabel Hofmeyr, ‘The Complicating Sea: The Indian Ocean as Method’, in Comparative Studies of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa (2012). Sebastian Prange, ‘Scholars and the Sea: A Historiography of the Indian Ocean’, History Compass, 6 (2008), pp. 1382-93. Anne Bang, ‘Reflections on the history of the Indian ocean’, Transforming Cultures eJournal (2009). *Sujit Sivasundaram, ‘Indian Ocean’, in Armitage et al. eds., Oceanic Histories (2017), pp. 31-61. Smiriti Srinivas, Bettina Ng'weno, Neelima Jeyachandran eds., Reimagining Indian Ocean Worlds (2020). Isabel Hofmeyr and Charney Lavery, ‘Exploring the Indian Ocean as a rich archive of history – above and below the water line’, The Conversation (7 June 2020).

Pacific ocean general reading: *Greg Dening, Islands and beaches: Discourses on a silent land, Marquesas 1774-1880 (1990). *Warwick Anderson, Miranda Johnson and Barbara Brookes eds., Pacific Futures: Past and Present (2018). *Epeli Hau’ofa, ‘Our Sea of Islands’, in Contemporary Pacific (1994). Alison Bashford and David Armitage eds., Pacific Histories: Ocean, Land, People (2013). Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: The Pacific in an Age of Empire (2010). Brij Lal ed., Pacific islands history: journeys and transformations (1992). Doug Munro ed., ‘Reflections on Pacific Island Historiography’, Special Issue, Journal of Pacific Studies 20 (1996). *Damon Salesa, ‘The Pacific in Indigenous Time’, in Armitage and Bashford, (eds.) Pacific Histories: Ocean, Land, People (2014); also introduction by Armitage and Bashford. *Chris Ballard, ‘Oceanic Historicities’, in Contemporary Pacific, 26 (2014), pp. 96-124. *Margaret Jolly, ‘Imagining Oceania: Indigenous and Foreign Representations of a Sea of Islands’, in The Contemporary Pacific (2007). Margaret Jolly et al. eds., Oceanic Encounters: Exchange, Desire, Violence (2009).

Atlantic ocean general reading: *David Armitage, ‘Three Concepts of the Atlantic’, in David Armitage and Michael J. Braddick eds., The British , 1500-1800 (2009). ----, ‘The ’ in Armitage et al. eds., Oceanic Histories (2017). *Bernard Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concepts and Contours (2005). Joce C. Moya, ‘Modernization, Modernity, and the Transformation of the Atlantic World in the Nineteenth Century’ in Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra and Erik Seeman eds., The Atlantic in Global History, 1500-2000 (2007).

Mediterranean history: Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2vols., 1972-73). , ‘What is the Mediterranean?’, in Abulafia ed., The Mediterranean in History (2003) ----, ‘Mediterraneans’ in W Harris ed., Rethinking the Mediterranean (2005). ----, The Great Sea (2012). ----, The Boundless Ocean (2019). , The Making of the Middle Sea (2013). Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A study of Mediterranean History (2000).

2. PACIFIC ISLANDERS AND HISTORIES OF AND EXPLORATION AFTER 1750

a. How did Pacific islanders define the before Europeans? b. To what extent was there a meeting of traditions of navigation and exploration in the Pacific? c. How did European voyagers come to terms with the accounts of the migration of islanders? On Pacific islanders’ traditions of navigation: *David Turnbull, Masons, Tricksters and Cartographers (2000). Chapter 4 on Pacific navigation. *Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: The Pacific in an Age of Empire (2011) David Turnbull, Mapping The World in the Mind: An Investigation of the Unwritten Knowledge of the Micronesian Navigators (1990). D. Lewis, We, the Navigators: The of Landfinding in the Pacific, (2nd ed., 1994). *Damon Salesa, ‘The Pacific in Indigenous Time’, in Armitage and Bashford eds. Pacific Histories: Ocean, Land, People (2014). Warwick Anderson et. al. eds., Pacific Futures: Past and Present (2018). Paul D'Arcy, People of the Sea: Environment, Identity and History in Oceania (2008). Matthew Spriggs, ‘Oceanic Connections in Deep Time’, in PacifiCurrents: EJournal of Australian Association for the Advancement of Pacific Studies (2009), pp. 7-27. K. R. Howe, Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors: The Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific (2007). K.L. Nālani Wilson, ‘ Nā Wāhine Kanaka Maoli Holowa'a: Native Hawaiian Women Voyagers’, International Journal of , 20 (2008), pp. 307-324. R Standfield, Indigenous Mobilities: Across and Beyond the Antipodes (2018).

On European voyagers in the Pacific ocean after 1750: Matt K. Matsuda, Empire of Love: Histories of and the Pacific (2005). John West-Sooby ed., Discovery and Empire: The French in the South Seas (2013). *Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: The Pacific in an Age of Empire (2011). Simon Werrett, ‘Russian Responses to the Voyages of Captain Cook’, in Glyndwr Williams ed., Captain Cook: and Reassessments (2000). Ryan Tucker Jones, Empire of Extinction: Russians and the North Pacific’s Strange Beast of the Seas (2014). John Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific in the Age of Enlightenment (2014). *Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific 1768–1850: A Study in the and Ideas (1969). ----, Imagining the Pacific: in the Wake of the Cook Voyages (1992). Glyndwr Williams, ‘Pacific: Exploitation and Exploration’ in P.J. Marshall ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, Vol.2 (1998). *Greg Dening, Mr. Bligh's Bad Language: Passion, Power and Theatre on the Bounty (1994). Paul Carter, The Road to Botany Bay (1987).

European views of Pacific migration and race: *B. Douglas and C. Ballard eds., Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750–1940 (2008). Especially chapters 3 and 6. Jane Samson, ‘Ethnology and Theology: Nineteenth-Century Mission Dilemmas in the South Pacific’, in Brian Stanley ed., Christian Missions and the Enlightenment (2001), pp. 99-122. Sujit Sivasundaram, ‘Ideas of the ‘Native’ in the Rise of British imperial heritage’, in Peter Mandler and Astrid Swenson eds., From Plunder to Preservation: Britain and the Heritage of Empire. c.1800-1940 (2013).

On the meeting of epistemologies ‘across the beach’: *Anne Salmond, 'Tute: The Impact of on Captain Cook', in G. Williams ed., Captain Cook: Explorations and Reassessments (2004), pp. 77–93. *Gananath Obeyesekere, ‘British Cannibals’: Contemplation of an Event in the Death and Resurrection of James Cook, Explorer.’ Critical Inquiry 18, pp. 630-55. Marshall Sahlins, 'Cosmologies of capitalism: the trans-Pacific sector of the world system', Proceedings of the British Academy 74 (1988), pp. 1-51. Online at www.proc.britac.ac.uk A. Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook’s Encounters in the South Seas (2003). Bronwen Douglas, ‘Voyages, Encounters, and Agency in Oceania: Captain Cook and Indigenous People’, in History Compass, Vol. 6 (2008); or ‘In the Event: Indigenous Countersigns and Ethnohistory of Voyaging’, in Margaret Jolly, Serge Tcherkezoff, Darrell Tyron eds., Oceanic Encounters: Exchange, Desire, Violence (2009). ----, ‘Naming places: Voyagers, toponyms, and local presence in the fifth part of the world, 1500-1700’, Journal of Historical , 45 (2014), pp. 12-24. L. Russell, 'The singular transcultural space': Networks of ships, mariners, voyagers and 'native' men at sea, 1790-1870’, in Jane Carey and Jane Lydon eds., Indigenous Networks: Mobility, Connections and Exchange (2014), pp. 97-113.

3. THE TRADING WORLD OF THE INDIAN OCEAN BEFORE AND AFTER 1800

Which groups dominated the trade of the Indian Ocean world until 1800 and how far was this domination changed by 1850?

General overviews: K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (1985). ----, Asia before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (1990). *Prasannan Parthasarathi, Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia did not: Global economic divergence 1600-1850 (2011). Read with Prasannan Parthasarathi and Giorgio Riello, ‘The Indian Ocean in the Long Eighteenth Century’, in Eighteenth Century Studies (2014). *Tom Metcalf, Imperial Connections: India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860-1920 (2007). *Sugata Bose, A hundred horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (2006). M.N. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, 1500-1800 (2003). *Pedro Machado, Ocean of Trade: South Asian Merchants, Africa and the Indian Ocean (2014). A. Das Gupta, The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant, 1500–1800: Collected Essays of Ashin Das Gupta (2001). A. Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson eds., India and the Indian Ocean (1987). In particular essay by Das Gupta on maritime trade of . Claude Markovits, The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750-1947, Traders from Sind from Bukhara to Panama (2000). *E. Tagliocozzo, ‘Trade, Production, and Incorporation: The Indian Ocean in Flux, 1600-1900’, in Itinerario (2002). Mark Frost, ‘Emporium in imperio: networks and the Straits Chinese in , 1819-1914’, in Journal of South East Asian Studies (2005). Raja Kanta Ray, ‘Asian capital in the age of European expansion: The rise of the bazaar, 1800-1914’, Modern Asian Studies, 29.3 (1995), pp. 449-554. Om Prakash and D. Lombard eds., Commerce and Culture in the 1500- 1800 (1999). Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise in pre- (1998). Jos Gommans, ‘Trade and Civilisation around the Bay of Bengal, 1650-1800’, in Itinerario (1995). *Special issue of South Asia (1996), ‘Asia and Europe: Commerce, Colonialism and Culture: essays in honour of Sinnapah Arasaratnam’. In particular essay by Anthony Reid and Radin Fernando. Janet J. Ewald, ‘Crossers of the Sea: Slaves, Freedmen and other migrants in the north-west Indian ocean, c.1750-1914’, in American Historical Review (2000). Sanjay Subrahmanyam ed., Merchant networks in the early modern world (1996). John Middleton, A History of Swahili, an African mercantile civilisation (1992). Niels Steensgaard, ‘The Indian Ocean network and the emerging c.1500-1750’ in Satish Chandra eds., The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics (1987). E. A. Alpers and H P Ray eds., Cross-Currents and Community Networks: The History of the Indian Ocean World (2007). Ashin Das Gupta, Malabar in Asian Trade, 1740-1800 (1967). Christine Dobbin, Asian entrepreneurial minorities: Conjoint communities in the making of the World-Economy, 1570-1940 (1996). F.A. Bishra, A Sea of Debt: Law and Economic Life in the Western Indian Ocean, 1780- 1850 (2017). Johan Mathew, Trafficking and Capitalism Across the (2016).

4. THE UTOPIAN ISLAND a. Why was the island a ground of intensive cultural encounter in c.1760-1840? b. How was the island mythologised and imagined, and did this representation change after 1840? c. How was the Pacific imagined in the Cook voyages?

Theoretical work on tropicality and utopianism: Srinivas Aravamudan, Tropicopolitans: Colonialism and Agency, 1688-1804 (1999). Chapter 2 especially. Michael D. Gordin, Hellen Tilley and Gyan Prakash, Utopia/Dystopia: Conditions of Historical Possibility (2010).

Traditions of travel c.1760-1840: the picturesque, romanticism, utopianism Tim Fulford et al. eds., Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Era (2004). Felix Driver and Luciana Martins eds., Tropical Visions in an Age of Empire (2005). Esp. Ch. 5 by Peter Hulme and also chapter by Leonard Bell, ‘Eyeing .’ Elizabeth Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (1992). Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770-1840 (2002). David Arnold, The Tropics and the Traveling Gaze: India, Landscape and Science, 1800-1856 (2006).

Islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and Britain as an island Anne Salmond, Aphrodite’s Island: The European Discovery of Tahiti (2010) Harry Liebersohn, The Travelers World: Europe to the Pacific (2006). Rod Edmond, ‘Abject Bodies/abject sites: Leper islands in the high imperial era,’ in Rod Edmond and Vanessa Smith eds., Islands in History and Representation (2006), pp. 133-145. See other chapters in this book. Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism (1995). Pamila Gupta, ‘Islandedness in the Indian Ocean’, in Michael Pearson, Isobel Hofmeyr and Pamila Gupta eds., Eyes across the Water (2010). Roxani Margariti, ‘An Ocean of Islands, Insularity and Historiography of the Indian Ocean’, in Miller ed., The Sea: Thalassography and Historiography (2013). Sujit Sivasundaram, Islanded: Britain, Sri Lanka and the Bounds of an Indian Ocean Colony (2013). ----, ‘Science’ in Armitage and Bashford eds. Pacific Histories (2014). Lauren Benton, A Search for Sovereignty (2010). Sections on islands.

Captain Cook in the Pacific: Captain James Cook The Journals of Captain Cook, abridged edition, Penguin Classics (2003). Johann Reinhold Forster, Observations made during a voyage round the world, N. Thomas, H. Guest, M. Dettelbach eds., (1996). Nicholas Thomas Discoveries: the voyages of Captain Cook (2003). Gananath Obeyesekere, ‘British Cannibals’: Contemplation of an Event in the Death and Resurrection of James Cook, Explorer’, in Critical Inquiry (1992). B. Douglas, ‘Voyages, Encounters and Agency: Captain Cook in Oceania’, in History Compass (2008). Vanessa Smith, Intimate Strangers: Friendship, Exchange and Pacific Encounters (2010). Anne Salmond, Two Worlds: First Meetings between Maori and Europeans (1991). ----, Trial of the Cannibal Dog: The remarkable story of Captain Cook’s encounters in the South Seas (2008). Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific (1985). Glyndwr Williams eds., Captain Cook: Exploration and Reassessments (2004). Kate Fullagar, The Atlantic World in the Antipodes: Effects and Transformations since the Eighteenth Century (2012). John Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific in the Age of Enlightenment (2014). Maria Nugent, Captain Cook was Here (2009).

Comparative Atlantic material and Britain as island: Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race; Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (2003). John Gillis, ‘Islands in the Making of an Atlantic Oceania, 1500-1800’, in Jerry Bentley, Renate Bridenthal, and Kären Wigen eds., Seascapes: Maritime Histories, Littoral Cultures and Transoceanic Exchanges (2007). See also Karen Wigen’s introduction to this volume. Peter Hulme, Remnants of Conquest: The Island Caribs and Their Visitors, 1877-1998 (2000).

5. THE OCEANIC AGE OF REVOLUTIONS a. What does it mean to speak of an age of revolutions in the Indian and Pacific oceans? b. Was the legacy of the age of revolutions in these seas: authority or liberty, enlightenment or parochialism?

*David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmanyam eds., The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, c.1760-1840 (2010).

*Sujit Sivasundaram, Waves Across the South: A New History of Revolution and Empire (2020).

The global age of revolutions: C.A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World: 1780-1914 (2004). Chapter 3. John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empire (2007). Chapter 4. Kenneth Pomeranz, The : , Europe and the Making of a Modern World Economy (2000). Nicholas Guyatt and Jane Rendall eds., War, Empire and Slavery, 1770-1830 (2011). Especially chapter by Bayly. V. T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, 1763-1793 (2 vols. 1952-3). P. Linebaugh and M. Rediker, The many-headed hydra: sailors, slaves, commoners and the hidden history of the revolutionary Atlantic. (2000). For comparison. Manuel Barcia, The Great African Slave Revolt of 1825 (2012).

Pacific and Indian ocean histories: Richard B. Allen, ‘Creating Undiminished Confidence: Free Population of Color and Identity Formation in Mauritius, 1767-1835’, in Slavery And Abolition (2011). *Mike McDonnel and Kate Fullagar eds., Facing Empire: Indigenous Experiences in a Revolutionary Era (2018). Especially chapters 4, 5, 7, and 8. Adrian Carton, ‘Shades of Fraternity: Creolization and the Making of Citizenship in , 1790-1792’, in French Historical Studies (2008). Special Issue in International Review of Social History (2013) on ‘Mutiny and Maritime Radicalism in the Age of Revolution.’ Chapters 4, 6, 8, 9 and 11. Alan Frost, The Global Reach of Empire: Britain’s Maritime Expansion in the Indian and Pacific Oceans (2003). Kate Brittlebank, ‘Curiosities, conspicuous piety and the maker of time’, in South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies (2007). P.J. Marshall, The Making and Unmaking of Empires (2005). M.C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis in : A History of Islamization from the fourteenth to the early nineteenth centuries (2006). Peter Carey, The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the end of an Old Order in Java, 1785-1830 (1989). Maya Jasanoff, Edge of Empire: Lives, Culture and Conquest in the East, 1750-1850 (2006). Lynn Hunt et. al. eds. in Global Perspective, (2013). Introduction.

6. AND LEGALITY IN THE INDIAN AND PACIFIC OCEANS

a. Who counted as a ‘pirate’ in the Indian ocean and why? b. Which description best serves the status of mutineers and beachcombers in the island world of the Pacific: nativised interlopers or colonial brokers? c. How did the exercise of the law create zones of control in the Indian and Pacific oceans?

Piracy in the Indian Ocean: J.L. Anderson, ‘Piracy and World History: An Economic Perspective on Maritime Predation’, in Journal of World History, 6.2 (1995), pp. 175-199. Simon Layton, ‘Discourses of Piracy in an Age of Revolution’, in Itinerario, 25 (2011). ----, ‘Hydras and Leviathans in the Indian ocean world’, in International Journal of Maritime History (2013). Nicholas Tarling, Piracy and politics in the Malay World: A study of British imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (1963). Eric Tagliacozzo, Secret , Porous Borders: Smuggling and states along a Southeast Asian Frontier, 1865-1915 (2005). James Francis Warren, The Sulu Zone 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State (1981). al-Qasimi,. The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf. (1988). Charles E. Davies, The Blood Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy 1797- 1820 (1997). Carl Trocki, Prince of pirates: the Temenggongs and the development of Johor (2007). Joseph N.F.M. à Campo, ‘Discourse without Discussion: Representations of Piracy in Colonial Indonesia 1816-25,’ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 34.2 (2003), pp. 199-214. Ota Atsushi, ‘Pirates or Entrepreneurs? Migration and Trade of Sea People in Southwest Kalimantan, c. 1770-1820,’ Indonesia 90 (2010), pp. 67-96. Anne Pérotin-Dumon, ‘The Pirate and the Emperor, Power and the Law on the Seas, 1450-1850,’ in James D. Tracy ed., The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade 1350-1750 (1991), pp. 196-227. Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700-1750 (1987). L. Subramanian, ‘Of Pirates and Potentates: Maritime Jurisdiction and the Construction of Piracy in the Indian Ocean,’ in UTS Review: The Indian Ocean 6, no. 2, ed. Devleen Ghosh and Stephen Muecke (2000), pp. 14-23. L. Subramanian, The Sovereign and the Pirate: Ordering Maritime Subjects in India’s Western Littoral (2016).

Legality and Legal regimes *Lauren Benton, ‘Legal Spaces of Empire: Piracy and the Origins of Ocean Regionalism,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 47, no. 4 (2005), pp. 700-24. ----, Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400 1900 (2010). ----, Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History,1400-1900 (2002). L. Benton and L. Ford eds., Rage for Order: The British Empire and the Origins of International Law, 1800-1850 (2016). J. Kelly, ‘Gaze and Grasp: Plantations, Desires, Indentured Indians and Colonial Law in Fiji,’ in Lenore Manderson and Margaret Jolly eds., Sites of Desire, Economies of Pleasure: Sexualities in Asia and the Pacific (1997), pp. 72-98. Charlotte Macdonald, ‘Crime and punishment in , 1840-1915,’ New Zealand Journal of History, XXIII (1989), pp. 5-21. P. Howell, 'Prostitution and the place of empire: regulation and repeal in Hong Kong and the British imperial network', in Lindsay J. Proudfoot and Michael M. Roche eds., (Dis)placing Empire: Renegotiating British Colonial Geographies (2005), pp.175-197. Elizabeth Kolsky, Colonial Justice in British India: White Violence and the Rule of Law (2009). Lisa Ford, ‘Law’, in Armitage and Bashford eds., Pacific Histories (2014). ----, Settler Sovereignty: Jurisdiction and Indigenous People in America and , 1788-1836 (2010). Tracy Banivanua Mar, ‘Frontier Space and the Reification of the Rule of Law: Colonial Negotiation in the Western Pacific, 1870-74’, Australian Feminist Law Journal (2009). F.A. Bishra, ‘‘No country but the ocean’: Reading International Law from the Deck of an Indian Ocean Dhow, c1900’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History (2018).

Beachcombers, buccaneers and Europeans ‘gone native’ Glyndwr Williams, Buccaneers, Explorers and Settlers: British enterprise and encounters in the Pacific, 1670-1800 (2005). H.E. Maude, ‘Beachcombers and Castaways’, in Journal of Polynesian Society (1964). Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: The Pacific in an Age of Empire (2011). Greg Dening, Mr. Bligh’s Bad language: Passion, power and theatre on the Bounty (1992). Susanne Williams Milcairns, Native Strangers: beachcombers, renegades and castaways in the South Seas (2006). Vanessa Smith, Literary culture and the South Pacific: nineteenth-century textual encounters (1989). Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin (1997). Michael Ellary, ‘Crossing the Beach: A Victorian Tale Adrift in the Pacific’ in Victorian Studies (2005). Richard Ewes, ‘Going Troppo: Images of White Savagery, Degeneration and Race in Turn of the Century Colonial Fictions of the Pacific’, in History and Anthropology (1999), pp. 351-385. Alex Calder, ‘The Temptations of William Pascoe Crook: An Experience of Cultural Difference in the Marquesas, 1796-98’, in Journal of Pacific History, 31 (1996), pp. 144-161. I.C. Campbell, ‘Gone Native’ in Polynesia: Captivity Narratives and Experiences from the South Pacific (1998). Angela Wanhalla, In/visible sight: The mixed descent families of Southern New Zealand (2013). L. Russell, Roving Mariners: Australian Aboriginal Whalers and Sealers in the Southern Oceans, 1790-1870 (2012).

7. ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRIES IN THE PACIFIC AND INDIAN OCEANS a. If Britain dominated the Indian Ocean World by 1815, how did France begin a new programme of colonisation in the later nineteenth century? a. How did Anglo-French rivalries accelerate the formal colonisation of the Pacific islands? b. What was the difference between French and British modes of engagement with the Pacific in the latter half of the nineteenth century?

The Indian Ocean David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmanyam eds., The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, c.1760-1840 (2010). C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World (1989); see also David Todd, ‘A French Imperial Meridian’, in Past and Present (2011). Maya Jasanoff, Edge of Empire: Lives, Culture and Conquest in the East, 1750-1850 (2005). Alan Frost, The Global Reach of Empire: Britain’s Maritime Expansion in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, 1764-1815 (2003). R. Aldrich, Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996). Nicola Cooper, France in Indochina: Colonial Encounters (2000). S. Bayly, ‘French Anthropology and the Durkheimians in Colonial Indochina’, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 34, No. 3 (2000), pp. 581-622.

The Pacific Jane Samson, Imperial Benevolence: Making British Authority in the Pacific Islands (1998). Robert Aldrich, The French Presence in the South Pacific, 1842-1940 (1990). Matt Matsuda, Pacific Worlds (2012). Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: The Pacific in an Age of Empire (2011). John West-Sooby ed., Discovery and Empire: The French in the South Seas (2013). Jane Samson ed., British Imperial Strategies in the Pacific 1750-1900 (2003). Fracois Peron, French Designs on Colonial (2014). Introduction. John Connell, or Kanaky? The Political History of a French Colony (1987). Donald Denoon, The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders (1997). W. P. Morrell, Britain in the Pacific Islands (1960). Matt K. Matsuda, Empire of Love: Histories of France and the Pacific (2005). A.Foucrier ed., The French and the Pacific world, 17th-19th centuries: explorations, migrations and cultural exchanges (2005). J. D. Legge, Britain in Fiji, 1858-1880 (1958). Nic Maclellan and Jean Chesneaux, After Moruroa: France in the South Pacific (1998). Martyn Lyons, The Totem and the Tricolour: A Short History of New Caledonia since 1774 (1986). Colin Newbury, Tahiti Nui: Change and Survival in , 1767–1945 (1980). R. Aldrich and Isabelle Merle eds., France Abroad: Indochina, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna (1997). Dorothy Shineburg, They Came for Sandalwood: A Study of the Sandalwood Trade in the South-West Pacific, 1830-1865 (1967). S. Firth. New under the Germans (1983).

8. THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY STRADDLING OCEANS

How far did the Dutch empire retain its status as a maritime empire in the nineteenth century?

F. Gaastra, The Dutch : Expansion and Decline (2003). J. van Goor eds., Prelude to colonialism: The Dutch in Asia (2004). Nigel Worden eds., Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World (2007). N. Tarling ed., The Cambridge History of South-, Vol.2 (1992). K. Ward, Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the (2009). J.H. Bentley, R. Bridenthal and K. Wigen eds., Seascapes: Maritime histories, littoral cultures and trans-oceanic exchanges (2007). Chapters by Gaynor and Ward. Eric Tagliocozzo, ‘Hydrography, technology, coercion: Mapping the sea in South-east Asian imperialism, 1850-1900’, in Rigby, Lincoln, Killingray eds., Maritime empires (2004). ----, ‘Kettle on a slow boil: Batavia’s threat perception in the Indies’ Outer islands, 1870-1910’, in Journal of South-east Asian Studies (2000). P. Carey, The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the end of an Old order in Java, 1785-1855 (2007). L. Blusse, Visible Cities: Canton, Nagasaki and Batavia and the Coming of the Americans (2008). R. Betts and R. Ross eds., Colonial Cities: Essays on Urbanism in a Colonial Context (1985). Essays by Blusse on Batavia and Ross on Town. N.H. Schulte, The Spell of Power: A History of Balinese Politics, 1650-1940 (1996). A. Schrikker, Dutch and British Colonial Intervention in Sri Lanka, 1780-1815 (2007). A. Singh, Cochin in , 1750-1830: The Social Conditions of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu (2010). R. Ross, Status and Respectability in the , A Tragedy of Manners (1999). U. Bosma and R. Raben, Being Dutch in the Indies: A history of creolisation and empire (2008). J.G. Taylor, The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia (2009). L. Blusse, W. Remmelink, and I. Smits eds., Bridging the Divide: 400 years of Netherlands-Japan (2000). N. Tarling, Anglo-Dutch rivalry in the Malay World 1780-1824 (1962). J. van Lohuizen, The Dutch East India Company and Mysore 1762-1790 (1961). Catie Antunes and Jos Gommans eds., Exploring the Dutch Empire: Agents Networks and Institutions, 1600-2000 (2015).

9. ‘SLAVERY’ IN THE INDIAN AND PACIFIC OCEANS a. How far did unfree labour continue -- and even come to a new peak -- in the nineteenth-century Indian and Pacific oceans? b. What were the main types of ‘slavery’ practiced in the Indian and Pacific Oceans in this era?

Pacific islanders as indentured labourers Tracey Banivanua-Mar, Violence and Colonial Dialogue: The Australian- Pacific Indentured Labour Trade (2007). H.E. Maude, Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian Labor Trade in Polynesia 1862-1864 (1981). Peter Corris, Passage, Port and Plantation: A History of Labour Migration 1870-1914 (1973). D. Munro, ‘The Labor Trade in Melanesians to ’, Journal of Social History, (1995). A. Curthoys, ‘Working for the white people: An historiographical essay on aboriginal and islander labor’, Labour History (1995). O.W. Parnaby, Britain and the Labour Trade in the Southwest Pacific (1964). J. Siegel, ‘Origins of Pacific Islands Labourers in Fiji’, Journal of Pacific History (1985). J. Harris and W. Harris, ‘The struggle against Pacific island labour’, Labour History, (1968). L. Russell, ‘Procuring passage: Southern Australian aboriginal women and the early maritime industry of sealing’, in Carol Williams ed., Indigenous Women and Work: From Labor to Activism (2012), pp. 60-72.

Indian Ocean slavery Gwyn Campbell, ‘Introduction: Slavery and other forms of unfree labour in the Indian Ocean World’, in Slavery and Abolition, 24.2 (2003), pp.ix-xxxii. Matthew S. Hopper, Slaves of One Master: Globalization and Slavery in Arabia in the Age of Empire (2015). Marina Carter, ‘Slavery and unfree labor in the Indian Ocean’, History Compass (2006). ----, Servants, sirdars and settlers: Indians in Maurities, 1834-1874 (1995). Patrick Manning, ‘The Slave Trade: A Formal Demography of a Global System’ Social Science History (1990). Nigel Worden, ‘Indian Ocean Slaves in Cape Town, 1695-1807’, in Journal of Southern African Studies, 42 (2016), pp. 1695-807. Megan Vaughan, ‘Slavery and Colonial Identity in Eighteenth-century Mauritius’ in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1998). Patrick Harries, ‘Slavery, indenture and Migrant labour: Maritime immigration from to the Cape, c.1780-1880’, in African Studies (2014). Megan Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island (2005). Janet J. Ewald, ‘Crossers of the Sea: Slaves, Freedmen and other migrants in the northwestern Indian Ocean’, in American Historical Review (2000). J. Watson ed., Asian and African Systems of Slavery (1980). Richard B. Allen, Slaves, Freedmen and Indentured Labourers in Colonial Mauritius (1999). Edward A. Alpers, ‘Flight to Freedom: Escape from Slavery among bonded Africans in the Indian Ocean World c.1750-1962’, in Slavery and Abolition, 24.2 (2003). Edward Alpers and H.P. Ray, Cross currents and community networks: The history of the Indian Ocean World (2007). Pedro Machado, ‘A Forgotten Corner of the Western Indian Ocean: Gujarati Merchants, and the Mozambique Slave Trade, c.1730-1830,’ in Gwyn Campbell ed., The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (2004). Richard B. Allen, ‘The Mascarene Slave-Trade and Labour Migration in the Indian Ocean during the 18th and 19thC’, Slavery and Abolition, 24.2 (2003). ----, ‘Licentious and Unbridled Proceedings: The illegal slave trade to Mauritius and the Seychells during the nineteenth century’, Journal of African History (2001). William Gervase Clarence-Smith ed., The Economics of the in the nineteenth-century (1989).

Indentured labour in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and beyond Brij Lal, ‘Kunti’s Cry: Indentured women on Fiji’s plantations’, Indian Economic and Social History Review (1985). John D. Kelly, ‘Coolie’ as a Labour Commodity: race, Sex and European dignity in colonial Fiji’ in Journal of Peasant Studies, 19.3 (1992). Carol A. Trocki, Opium and Empire: Chinese society in colonial Singapore 1800-1910 (1992). James Warren, Ricksham Coolie: A people’s (1986). Marina Carter, ‘The transition from slave to indentured labour in Mauritius’, in Slavery and Abolition (1993). ----, Voices from Indenture (1996). D. Northrup, Indentured labour in the age of imperialism 1834-1922 (1995). Hugh Tinker, A new system of slavery: The export of Indian labor overseas 1830-1920 (1974). Madhavi Kale, Fragments of empire: Capital, Slavery and Indian indentured labor migration to the British (1998). Clare Anderson, ‘Convicts and Coolies: Rethinking Indentured Labour in the Nineteenth Century’, in Slavery and Abolition (2009). Brij Lal, ‘Approaches to the study of Indian indentured labour with special reference to Fiji,’ in The Journal of Pacific History, 15.1 (1980). ----, ‘Understanding the Indian indenture experience’, in South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 21.1 (1998), pp. 215-237. M. Carter, ‘Indian Indentured Migration and the Forced Labour Debate’, Itinerario, 21 (1997). Adam McKeown, Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change, 1900-1936 (2001). Sunil Amrith, Crossing the Bay of Bengal (2013). See also the recent work represented at this website: http://www.coolitude.shca.ed.ac.uk.

10. CONNECTIVITY IN MID-NINEENTEENTH CENTURY REBELLIONS AND WARS AT THE OCEAN RIM a. ‘An opening for the extension of colonialism and the colonial state in particular.’ Discuss this view of mid-nineteenth rebellions and wars at the rim of the Indian and Pacific oceans. b. What was the connection – if any – between rebellions and wars at the edge of the Pacific and Indian oceans?

C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World (2004). Chapter 4. J. Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the 1856-1888 (1995).

The Java War, 1825-30 Peter Carey, ‘Waiting for the ratu adil: the Javanese community on the eve of the Java War’ in Modern Asian Studies (1986). ----, ‘Changing Javanese perceptions of the Chinese communities in , 1755- 1825’, in Indonesia (1984). ----, The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the end of an Old Order in Java, 1785-1830 (1989). C. A. Bayly, ‘Two colonial revolts: The Java War and the Indian Revolt of 1857’ in C.A. Bayly and D.H.A. Kolff eds., Two Colonial Empires (1986).

The New Zealand Wars, 1845-72 *James Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict (1990). Judith Binney, Stories without end (2010). *Tony Ballantyne, Webs of Empire: Locating New Zealand’s Colonial Past (2012). Chapters on ‘War, knowledge and the crisis of empire’ and ‘Sealers, Whalers and the Entanglement of Empire’. P.M. Smith, A concise history of New Zealand (2005). Chapter 5 T. Ryan, The colonial New Zealand Wars (2002). J. Cowan, The New Zealand Wars (2 vols, 1922).

The Ceylon Rebellion of 1848 and other uprisings in 1848 Miles Taylor, ‘The 1848 rebellions in the British Empire’, Past and Present (2000). Sujit Sivasundaram, Islanded: Britain, Sri Lanka and the Bounds of an Indian Ocean Colony (2013). K. M. De Silva ed., Letters on Ceylon, 1846-50: The Administration of Viscount Torrington and the ‘rebellion’ of 1848 (1965).

Taiping Rebellion J. Spence, The Search for Modern China (1991). Philip Kuhn and Susan Mann-Jones, 'Dynastic decline and the roots of rebellion,' in Fairbank ed., Cambridge , vol. 10 (1978), pp. 107-62. R. Wagner, Reenacting the heavenly vision: The role of religion in the Taiping Rebellion (1982). R. Smith, Mercenaries and Mandarins: The Ever Victorious Army of Nineteenth-century China (1978). Jen Yu-wen The Taiping Revolutionary Movement (1973). Franz Michael and Chang Chung-li, The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents (1966— 1971, 3 vols).

The global/regional history of the Indian rebellion of 1857-8 C.A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence gathering and social communication in India, 1780-1870 (1996). Marina Carter and Crispin Bates, ‘Empire and locality: A Global Dimension of the 1857 Indian Uprising’, in Journal of Global History (2010). Marina Carter and Crispin Bates eds., Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the Indian Uprising of 1857: Volume 3, Global Perspectives (2013). Eric Stokes, The Peasant and the Raj (1980). Thomas Metcalf, The Aftermath of the Revolt: India, 1857-1870 (1965). Clare Anderson, Subaltern Lives (2012).

11. RACE IN THE OCEANIC REPUBLIC OF LETTERS a. Was the idea of race created across oceans? b. What was distinctive about the imagination of race in the Indian and Pacific oceans?

Please read across on ‘Slavery’ Sujit Sivasundaram and Marwa Elshakry eds., Science, Race and Imperialism (2012), for primary sources.

The Indian ocean circuit: Tony Ballantyne, Race and orientalism: Aryanism in the British Empire (2002). Shruti Kapila, ‘Race Matters: Orientalism and Religion, India and Beyond, c. 1770– 1880,’ Modern Asian Studies (2007), pp. 471–513. Ann L. Stoler, ‘Making empire respectable: the politics of race and sexual morality in twentieth-century colonial cultures’, in American Ethnologist (1989). ----, Carnal knowledge and imperial power: race and the intimate in colonial rule (2002). Harriet Deacon, ‘Racial categories and psychiatry in Africa: the asylum on in the nineteenth century’, in Ernst and Harris eds., Race, science and medicine, 1700-1960 (1999). Thomas Trautmann, and British India (1997). Mark Harrison, ‘The Tender Frame of Man’: Disease, , and Racial Difference in India and the , 1760–1860,’ Bulletin of the History of Medicine 70 (1996), pp. 68–93. P. Scully, ‘Rape, Race and Colonial Culture: The sexual politics of identity in the nineteenth-century Cape Colony’, in American Historical Review (1995). R. Roque, Headhunting and colonialism: Anthropology and the circulation of skulls in the (2010). R. Buschmann, Anthropology’s global histories: the ethnographic frontier in German (2009). Sujit Sivasundaram, ‘Race, empire and biology before Darwin’, in Ron Numbers and Denis Alexander eds., Biology and ideology (2010).

The Pacific ocean circuit: Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 1768–1850, A Study in the History of Art and Ideas (1960). Roy MacLeod and Philip F. Rehbock, eds., Darwin’s Laboratory: Evolutionary Theory and Natural History in the Pacific (1994). B. Douglas eds., Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race (2008). W. Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American tropical medicine, race and hygiene in the (2006). Damon Salesa, Racial Crossings: Race, Intermarriage, and the Victorian British Empire (2011). ----, ‘The Power of the Physician: Doctors and the Dying Maori in early colonial New Zealand’, in Australia and New Zealand Society for the History of Medicine (2001). R. Eves, ‘Black and white, a significant contrast: race humanism and missionary photography in the Pacific’, in Ethnic and Racial Studies (2006). P. Levine, ‘States of undress: Nakedness and the Colonial Imagination’, in Victorian Studies (2008). Harry Liebersohn, The Travelers’ World: Europe to the Pacific (2006). Nicholas Thomas, ‘The Force of Ethnology: Origins and Significance of the /Polynesia Division,’ Current Anthropology (1989), pp. 27–41. Sujit Sivasundaram, Nature and the Godly Empire: Science and Evangelical Mission in the Pacific, 1795-1850 (2005). Matt K. Matsuda, Empire of Love: Histories of France and the Pacific (2005). Warwick Anderson, ‘Racial Conceptions in the Global South’, in Isis (2014).

12. SCIENCE’S MOST EXPANSIVE LABORATORIES

‘The expansive laboratories which gave birth to modern science.’ Discuss this view of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

You are encouraged to read this special issue which arose from a recent conference in Cambridge closely connected to teachers of this course:

*Sebestian Kroupa, Stephanie Mawson and Dorit Brixius eds., 'Science and Islands in the Indo-Pacific Worlds', in British Journal for the History of Science (2018).

Simon Schaffer et. al eds. The Brokered World: Go-Betweens and Global Intelligence, 1770-1820 (2009) Sujit Sivasundaram, ‘Science’, in Armitage and Bashford eds., Pacific Histories (2014). Kapil Raj, Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the construction of knowledge in South Asia and Europe (2007) John Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific in the Age of Enlightenment (2014). Ralph Kingston, ‘A not so Pacific voyage: The floating laboratory of Nicholas Baudin’, in Endeavour (2007). Richard Drayton, Nature’s Government: science, imperial Britain and the Improvement of the world (2000). Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentaism, 1600-1860 (1995). Sujit Sivasundaram, Nature and the Godly Empire: science and Evangelical Mission in the Pacific (2005). Saul Dubow, A Commonwealth of Knowledge. Science, Sensibility and White , 1820-2000 (2006). Lissa Roberts, ‘Situating Science in Global History: Local Exchanges and Networks of Circulation’, Itinerario (2009), pp. 9-30. Simon Werrett, ‘Transit and Transition: Astronomy, Topography and Politics in Russian expeditions to view the transit of Venus, 1874’, in Cahiers Francois Viete (2006), pp. 147-176. C. Skott, ‘The VOC and Swedish natural history: The transmission of scientific knowledge in the eighteenth century’, in Siegfried Huigen et al. eds., The Dutch trading companies as knowledge networks (2010). Vinita Damodaran and Anna Winterbottom eds., The East India Company and the Natural World (2014). Jane Samson, ‘An empire of science’ in Samson and Frost eds., Pacific empires: essays in honour of Glyn Williams (1999). Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific (1985). *R. Sorrenson, ‘The as scientific instrument’, in Osiris (1996). Alder, ‘The ship as laboratory: Making Space for Field Science at Sea’, in Journal of the History of Biology (2013). Margaret Lincoln eds., Science and Exploration in the Pacific (2001). Tony Ballantyne eds., Science, Empire and the European Exploration of the Pacific (2004) P.F. Rehbock, Nature in its greatest extent: Western science in the Pacific (1998) P.F. Rehbock and R. Macleod eds., Darwin’s laboratory: Evolutionary theory and natural history in the Pacific (1994). Ron Numbers and John Stenhouse eds., Disseminating Darwinism (2001). Chapter by Stenhouse on New Zealand. B. Dougalas, Foreign Bodies in Oceania (2008). Roy Macleod eds., Nature and Empire : Science and the Colonial Enterprise (2000). Rochelle Pinto, ‘A Travelling Science: Anthropometry and Colonialism in the Indian Ocean’, in S. Moorthy and A. Jamal eds., Indian Ocean Studies (2010). Anna Winterbottom, Hybrid Knowledge in the Early East India Company World (2016).

13. MARINE TECHNOLOGIES AND THE CHALLENGE OF THE GREAT SEAS a. How far did new technologies make the seas disappear in the long nineteenth century? b. With what consequences did Indian ocean peoples continue to work on the ships in their seas through the course of the nineteenth century?

Read across on ‘Science’

P.F. Rehbock, Nature in its greatest extent: Western science in the Pacific (1998). Helen Rozwadowski, ‘Technology and Ocean-scape: Defining the deep sea in the mid nineteenth century,’ History and Technology, 17 (2001), pp. 217-247. ----, Fathoming the Ocean (Cambridge, 2008) Frances Steel, Oceania under Steam: Sea Transport and the Cultures of Colonialism, c.1870-1914 (2011). David Arnold, ‘Europe, Technology and Colonialism in the 20th Century’, History and Technology, 21.1 (2005), pp. 85-106. ----, Everyday Technology: Machines and the Making of India’s Modernity (2013). D.G. Burnett, 'Hydrographic discipline', in J Ackerman ed., The imperial map (2009). Margaret Lincoln eds., Science and Exploration in the Pacific (2001). R. Sorrenson, ‘The ship as scientific instrument’, in Osiris (1996). Roland Wenzlhuemer and Michael Offermann, ‘Ship Newspapers and Passenger Life Aboard Transoceanic in the Late Ninteenth Century’, in Transcultural Studies (2012). Jane Samson, ‘An empire of science’, in Samson and Frost eds., Pacific empires: essays in honour of Glyn Williams (1999). D. Parkin and R. Barnes eds., Ships and the Development of Marine Technology in the Indian Ocean (2002). M.N. Pearson, The Indian Ocean (2003). Chapter 7. Eric Tagliocozzo, ‘Hydrography, Technology, Coercion: Mapping the Sea in Southeast Asian Imperialism, 1850-1900’, in Rigby, Lincoln, Killingray eds., Maritime empires (2004). F. Harcourt, Flagships of imperialism: The P&O Company and the politics of empire from its origins to 1867 (2006). R. Mrazek, Engineers of Happy Land: technology and nationalism in a colony (2002). P.M. Kennedy, 'Imperial cable communications and strategy, 1870-1914' in English Historical Review (1971), pp. 728-752. Daniel Headrick, Tentacles of Progress: Technology transfer in the age of imperialism, 1850-1940 (1988). ----, Tools of empire: Technology and European imperialism in the nineteenth century (1981). B. Marsden and C. Smith, Engineering Empires: A Cultural in Nineteenth-century Britain (1999), Chapters on telegraph. Deep Kanta Lahiri Choudhury, 'India's First Virtual Community and the Telegraph General Strike of 1908.' International Review of Social History 48 (2003), pp. 45-71. Bruce Hunt, 'The Ohm is where the art is: British Telegraph Engineers and the development of electrical standards', in Osiris (1994), pp.48-63. Ralph Kingston, ‘A not so Pacific voyage: the ‘floating laboratory’ of Nicolas Baudin’ in Endeavour (2007). D. Cannadine eds., Empire, the sea and Global History (2007). Mio Wakita, ‘Sites of Disconnectedness: The Port City of Yokohama, Souvenir Photography and its Audience’, in Transcultural Studies (2013).

Indian ocean seamen ‘Cultures of protest in transnational contexts: Indian seamen abroad’, in Transforming Cultures ejournal (2008). J. Hyslop, ‘ Empire: Asian, African and British Sailors in the merchant marine’, in African studies (2009). E. Gilbert, and the Colonial Economy of Zanzibar (2004). Abdul Sheriff, Dhow cultures of the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism, Commerce and Islam (2010). G. Balachandran, ‘Conflicts in the International Maritime Labour Market: British and Indian Seamen, Employers, and the State, 1890-1939', in Indian Economic and Social History Review (2002). ----, ‘Circulation through Seafaring: Indian Seamen 1890 - 1945,’ in Claude Markovits et al. eds., Society and Circulation: Mobile Peoples and Itinerant Cultures in South Asia, 1750-1950 (2003). Janet Ewald, ‘Crossers of the Sea: Slaves, Freedmen, and Other Migrants in the Northwestern Indian Ocean, C. 1750 - 1914’, American Historical Review 105 (2000). Ravi Ahuja, ‘Mobility and Containment: the voyages of South Asian seamen, c.1900 – 1960’, in International Review of Social History 51(2006), pp. 111– 141. Rozina Visram, Ayahs, and Princes: Indians in Britain 1700-1947 (1986). A Jan Qaisar, ‘From Port to Port: Life on Indian ships in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries’, in A. Das Gupta and M.N. Pearson eds., India and the Indian Ocean 1500-1800 (1987). Mariam Dossal, ‘Indian Maritime Historiography: West Coast Merchants in a Globalizing Economy’, in F. Broeze eds., Maritime History at the Crossroads (1995). A. Jaffer, Lascars and Indian Ocean Seafaring, 1780-1860 (2015).

14. CHRISTIANITY ACROSS WATERS a. How and why did Pacific islanders accelerate the process of Christian evangelism? b. Did conversion give rise to particularly ‘hybrid Christianities’ in locations close to the sea?

*Piers Larson, Ocean of Letters: Language and Creolization in the Indian Ocean Diaspora (2009). *Tony Ballantyne, Entanglements of Empire: Missionaries, Maori and the Question of the Body (2014). Susan Bayly, Saints, Goddesses and Kings (2004). E. Elbourne, Blood Ground: Colonialism, Missions and the contest for Christianity in the Cape Colony and Britain, 1799-1853 (2002). R. Elphick and T.R.H. Davenport eds., Christianity in South Africa (1997). J. and J. Comaroff, Of revelation and revolution (2vols, 1991-1997). Neil Gunson, Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South Seas (1978). J Blanco, Frontier Constitutions: Christianity and colonial empire in the nineteenth- century Philippines (2009). Anna Johnston, Missionary writing and empire (2003). Chapters on the Pacific. *Sujit Sivasundaram, Nature and the Godly Empire: Science and Evangelical Mission in the Pacific (2005). Doug Munro and A Thornley eds., The Covenant Makers: Islander Missionaries in the Pacific (1996). Jane Samson, ‘Ethnology and Theology: Nineteenth-Century Mission Dilemmas in the South Pacific’, in Brian Stanley, ed., Christian Missions and the Enlightenment (2001), pp. 99-122. Helen Gardner, Gathering for God: George Brown in Oceania (2006). Christine Weir, The Work of Mission: Race, Labour and Christian humanitarianism in the south-west Pacific 1870-1930 (2003). Vanessa Smith, Literary Culture and the Pacific (1998). Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific (1991). R. Eves, ‘Black and white, a significant contrast’: Race, humanism and missionary photography in the Pacific’, in Ethnic and Racial Studies (2006).

Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin (1997). Jane Samson, Imperial Benevolence: Making British Authority in the South Pacific (1998). J. Garrett, Footsteps in the sea: Christianity in Oceania to World War II (1992).

15. PILGRIMAGE AND RELIGIOUS MODERNITY IN THE INDIAN OCEAN a. What was the impact of being separated by the sea on the emergence of Islamic modernity in the Indian Ocean world? b. What was the role of the hajj in sustaining religious connections?

Edward Simpson and Kai Kresse eds., Struggling with history: Islam and cosmopolitanism in the western Indian Ocean (2008). Eric Tagliacozzo, The Longest Journey: Southeast Asians and the Pilgrimage to Mecca (2013). Green, Bombay Islam: The Religious Economy of the West Indian Ocean, 1840-1915 (2011). ----, ‘The Hajj as its Own Undoing: Infrastructure & Integration on the Muslim Journey to Mecca’, Past & Present (2015). Roundtable, ‘The Indian Ocean and other Middle Easts’ in Comparative Studies of South Asia, Middle East and Africa (2014). Felicitas Becker, Becoming Muslim in Mainland (2008). Chapters 6, 7, and 8. K. Kresse, Philosophizing in : Knowledge, Islam and intellectual practice on the Swahili coast (2007). John Slight, ‘British Imperial rule and the Hajj’, in D. Motadel ed., Islam and the European Empires (2014), pp. 53-72. A. Bang, Sufis and Scholars in the sea: family networks in , 1860-1925 (2003). Engseng Ho, Graves of Tarim: geneaology and mobility across the Indian ocean (2006). U. Freitag and W.G. Clarence-Smith eds., Hadhrami traders, scholars and statement in the Indian ocean 1750s-1960s (1997). Michael Miller, ‘Pilgrim’s Progress: The Business of the Hajj’, in Past and Present (2006). Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination (1990). F.E. Peters, The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places (1994). Chapter 4 onwards. Barbara Metcalf, ‘What happened in Mecca? Mumtaz Mufti’s ‘Labbaik’’, in Robert Folkenflik ed., The Culture of Autobiography (1993). M.N. Pearson, Pilgrimage to Mecca: The Indian Experience (1996). Chapter after 1750. D. Parkin and S. Headley eds., Islamic prayer across the Indian ocean (2000). Tim Youngs ed., Travel Writing in the Nineteenth Century: Filling the Blank Spaces (2006). Chapter 7 on Nawab Sikander Begam’s haj pilgrimage. Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: the Indian Ocean in the age of global empire (2006). Chapter Six, “Pilgrim’s Progress under Colonial Rules”, pp.193- 233. Saurabh Mishra, ‘Beyond the bounds of time? The Haj pilgrimage from the , 1865-1920’, in Harrison and Pati eds., The Social History of Health and Medicine in Colonial India (2009), pp. 31-44. M.C. Low, ‘Empire and the Hajj: pilgrims, plagues and Pan-Islam, 1865-1908’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 40 (2008), pp. 269-290. William Roff, ‘Sanitation and Security: the imperial powers and the nineteenth century Hajj’, Arabian Studies VI (1982), pp. 143-61. William Ochsenwald, Religion, society, and the state in Arabia : the Hijaz under Ottoman control, 1840-1908 (1984). Chapter 2: Religion and Chapter 3: Pilgrimage.

16. AMERICAN EMPIRE IN THE PACIFIC

‘Another westward expansion or the origins of a new empire?’ Discuss in relation to American engagement with the Pacific islands in the nineteenth century.

Primary source Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the Exploring Expedition (1845).

American interests in the Pacific across the long nineteenth century Michael Auslin, Pacific Cosmopolitans: A Cultural History of Japan-U.S. Relations (2011). Bruce Cumings, from Sea to Sea: Pacific Ascendancy and American Power (2010). Arthur Power Dudden ed., American Empire in the Pacific: From Trade to Strategic Balance, 1700-1922 (2004). James R. Fichter, So Great a Profit: How the Trade Transformed Anglo- American Capitalism (2010). James R. Gibson, Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwestern Coast, 1785-1841 (1992). Patricia Grimshaw, ‘Christian Woman, Pious Wife, Faithful Mother, Devoted Missionary: Conflicts in Roles of American Missionary Women in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii', Feminist Studies (1983). Gerald Horne, The White Pacific: U.S. Imperialism and Black Slavery in the South Seas after the Civil War (2007). Paul Lyons, American Pacificism: Oceania in the U.S. Imagination (2006). Sally Engle Merry, Colonizing Hawai'i: The Cultural Power of Law (2000). Joy Schulz, Hawaiian by Birth: Missionary Children, Bicultural Identity, and U.S. Colonialism in the Pacific (2017). Jennifer Thigpen, Island Queens and Mission Wives: How Gender and Empire Remade Hawai'i's Pacific World (2014). Ian Tyrrell, Reforming the World: The Creation of American's Moral Empire (2010). Chapter 6. Gray H. Whaley, Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee: U.S. Empire and the Transformation of an Indigenous World, 1792-1859 (2010).

The United States’ ‘formal’ empire in the Pacific Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines (2006). David Brody, Visualizing American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines (2010). Julian Go and Anne L. Foster eds., The American Colonial State in the Philippines: Global Perspectives (2003). J. A. C. Gray, Amerika Samoa: A History of Samoa and its United States Naval Administration (1960). Kristen L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (1998). Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (2006). Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865-1900 (2004). Noenoe K. Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism (2004). Lanny Thompson, Imperial Archipelago: Representation and Rule in the Insular Territories Under U.S. Dominion (2010).

The Pacific within longer histories of American expansion Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (1980). Part 4 Walter L. Hixson, American Settler Colonialism: A History (2013). Chapters 7 and 8.

Re-centring Pacific islanders Noelani Arista, The Kingdom and the Republic: Sovereign Hawai'i and the Early United States (2018). David A. Chang, The World and All the Things Upon It: Native Hawaiian Geographies of Exploration (2016). Chapters 3-5, 7. Kealani Cook, Return to Kahiki: Native Hawaiians in Oceania (2018). Introduction. Gary Y. Okihiro, Island World: A History of Hawai'i and the United States (2008). Tom Smith, 'Hawaiian History and American History: Integration or Separation?', American Nineteenth Century History, 20.2 (2019).

Comparative perspectives Stuart Banner, Possessing the Pacific: Land, Settlers, and Indigenous People from Australia to (2007). Julian Go, Patterns of Empire: The British and American Empires, 1688 to the Present (2011). Introduction and chapters 1 and 2.

17. THE PACIFIC IN THE LITERARY IMAGINATION

a. Why was the Pacific such a fertile field of literary production and inspiration? b. In the midst of a redefinition of imperial priorities, how far did literature sustain a Western interest in Pacific island communities?

Robert Louis Stevenson, In the South Seas, ed. By Neil Rennie (1889, republished 1998). Herman Melville, Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas (1847, republished 2007). ----, Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846, republished 2001). Paul Gauguin, Noa Noa: The Tahiti Journal of Paul Gauguin (1985). Vanessa Smith, J. Lamb and Nicholas Thomas eds., Exploration and Exchange: A South sea Anthology (2000). Jack London, The Cruise of the Snark: Jack London's South Sea Adventure (1911, republished 2001). Vanessa Smith, Literary culture and the South Pacific: nineteenth-century textual encounters (1989). Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin (1997). Tim Fulford et al eds., Literature, Science and Exploration in the Romantic Era (2004). Steven Hooper, Pacific Encounters: Art and Divinity in Polynesia 1760-1860 (2006). Neil Rennie, Far-Fetched Facts: the Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (1995). Bill Pearson, Rifled Sanctuaries: Some Views of the Pacific Islands in Western Literature to 1900 (1984). A. Grove Day, Mad About Islands: Novelists of a Vanquished Pacific (1987). Nigel Krauth, New Guinea Images in Australian Literature (1982). Kerry Howe, Nature, Culture and History: The ''Knowing' of Oceania (2000). Roslyn Jolly, Robert Louis Stevenson in the Pacific: Travel, Empire, and the Author's Profession (2009). Ann C. Colley, Robert Louis Stevenson and the Colonial Imagination (2004). Barry Menikoff, Robert Louis Stevenson and 'the Beach of Falesa': A Study in Victorian Publishing with the Original Text (1984). Stephen F. Eisenman, Gauguin's Skirt (1999). Roslyn Jolly, ‘South Sea Gothic: Pierre Loti and Robert Louis Stevenson’ in English Literature in Transition 1880-1920, 47 (2004).

Contemporary/Asian Pacific literature Michell Keown, Pacific Islands Writing: The Postcolonial Literatures of Aotearoa/New Zealand and Oceania (2007). S. Naoto, Nayno-Orientalism: Japanese Representations of the Pacific (2007).

18. COSMOPOLITANISM AND NATIONALISM IN THE INDIAN OCEAN WORLD a. What was the link between cosmopolitanism and nationalism in the Indian Ocean World before 1914? b. What imagined political topographies were open to the peoples of the Indian Ocean world by 1914?

Carol A. Breckenridge et al. eds., Cosmopolitanism (2002). Edward Simpson and Kai Kresse eds., Struggling with history: Islam and cosmopolitanism in the western Indian Ocean (2008). T.N. Harper, ‘Empire, Diaspora and the Languages of Globalism, 1850-1914’, in A.G. Hopkins ed., Globalization in World History (2002). Sugata Bose, A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire (2006). L .T. Fawaz and C. A. Bayly, Modernity and Culture from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean (2002). Mark Frost, “‘Wider Opportunities’: Religious Revival, Nationalist Awakening and the Global Dimension in , 1870-1920”, in Modern Asian Studies 36.4 (2002), pp. 937-67. ----, ‘To via Singapore and other colonial port-cities: an historical journey across the Indian Ocean in search of cosmopolitanism, 1869-1919,’ in Pamila Gupta et. al. eds., Eyes across the water: Navigating the Indian Ocean (2009). Sugata Bose and K. Manjapra eds., Cosmopolitan Thought Zones: South Asia and the Global Circulation of Ideas (2010). Especially essay by Hofmeyr. Sunil Amrith, ‘Indians Overseas: Governing Tamil Migration to Malaya, 1870-1941’, in Past and Present (2010). F. Broeze ed., Brides of the Sea: Port Cities of Asia from the 16th to 20th Centuries (1989). Sulin Lewis, ‘Echoes of Cosmopolitanism: Colonial Penang's 'Indigenous' English Press’, in Chandrika Kaul ed., Media and the British Empire (2006). Articles in Vol.57, 2007 of South African Historical Journal on ‘South Africa/India’ and in particular: Isabel Hofmeyr, ‘The Idea of ‘Africa’ in Indian Nationalism: Reporting the Diaspora in The Modern Review 1907–1929’, in South. African Historical Journal 57 (2007), pp.60-81. V. Padayachee, ‘Struggle, Collaboration and Democracy: The 'Indian Community' in South Africa, 1860-1999’, in Economic and Political Weekly (1999). Wilson Chacko Jacob, For God or empire? Sayyid Fadl and the Indian Ocean World (2019). Nile Green, 'The Waves of Heterotopia: Toward a Vernacular Intellectual History of the Indian Ocean', American Historical Review 123.3 (2018), pp. 846 - 874.

19. THE TURN AWAY FROM THE OCEAN a. How had European empire moved ‘inland’ by the First World War? b. How did the sea lose its significance in political terms?

Halford Mackinder, ‘The Geographical Pivot of History’ in The Geographical Journal (1904). John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System 1830- 1970 (2009). ----, 'Imperialism and the Victorians: The Dynamics of Territorial Expansion', English Historical Review (1997), pp. 614-642. M. Kent ed., The Great Powers and the End of the . (1996). A.L. Macfie , The End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1923 (1998). G.N. Sanderson and R. Oliver eds., Cambridge , vol. 6, (1985). Esp. Chapter 2 and pp. 692-722. C. Newbury, and A. Kanya-Forstner, 'French Policy and the origins of the Scramble for Africa, in Journal of African History 10.2 (1969), pp. 253-276. Robert Holland, ‘The British Empire and the Great War’, in Oxford History of the British Empire, Vol IV (1999). James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have failed (1998). Daniel Headrick, Power over peoples: Technology, Environments and Western Imperialism (2009). , Empire: The Russian Empire and its Rivals (2003). P. Satia. ‘Air Control and the British Idea of Arabia’, in Wm. Roger Louis ed., Penultimate Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain, (2007). ----, ‘The Defense of Inhumanity: Air Control in and the British Idea of Arabia,’ in American Historical Review 111 (2006). Robert McCormack, ‘Airlines and Empires: Great Britain and the Scramble for Africa,1919-1939’, Canadian Journal of African Studies 10.1 (1976). James Ryan, ‘Visualising Imperial Geography: Halford Mackinder and the Colonial Office Visual Instruction Committee’, in Cultural Geographies (1994).

PART B – READINGS FOR CLASSES ON ISLANDS

Students should complete a selection of these readings for the Faculty classes. The readings have been kept short to suit class discussions and there are primary sources included since the class discussions will refer to these and since the essays on islands will benefit from some reference to primary sources. In writing supervision essays on the topics that follow, students should utilise the readings in Part A as well. They should ensure that their essays in Part B focus in on particular islands.

1. Tahiti

How did Tahiti become the paradise island of the late eighteenth century?

R. Joppien and B. Smith eds., The art of Captain Cook’s Voyages (3vols., 1985-1988). Anne Salmond, Aphrodite’s Island: The European Discovery of Tahiti (2009). , ‘The erotic as exotic: Captain Cook in Tahiti’, in Rousseau and Porter eds. Exoticism in the Enlightenment (1990). Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific (1985). Vanessa Smith, Intimate Strangers: Friendship, Exchange and Pacific Encounters (2010). P. O’Brien, ‘‘Think of me as a woman’: Queen Pomare of Tahiti and Anglo-French Imperial Contest in the 1840s Pacific’, in Gender and History (2006). Bronwen Douglas, ‘Voyages, Encounters, and Agency in Oceania: Captain Cook and Indigenous People’, in History Compass, 6 (2008). M. Kahn, Tahiti Beyond the Postcard: Power, Place and Everyday Life (2011).

2.

Please note that this class isn't being taught this year so it is not strongly recommended as a supervision topic.

Why was the history of Christianity on Madagascar so contested?

Rev. William Ellis, History of Madagascar (2 vols., 1838); also his The Martyr Church: A Narrative of the Introduction, Progress and Triumph of Christianity in Madagascar (1870). Solofo Randrianja and Stephen Ellis, Madagascar: A Short History (2009). Pier Larson, ‘Capacities and Modes of Thinking: Intellectual Engagements and Subaltern in the Early History of Malagasy Christianity’, in American Historical Review (1997). ----, Ocean of Letters (2009). Anna Johnston, ‘The strange career of William Ellis’, in Victorian Studies (2007). B. Gow, Madagascar and the Protestant Impact: The Work of British Missions, 1818-95 (1979).

3. Sri Lanka (At the Royal Commonwealth Society Collections in the University Library)

How and with what costs was Sri Lanka transformed into a plantation colony?

In preparation for the class, please read this paper which in fact grew out of this class in previous years:

*Sujit Sivasundaram, 'Towards a Critical History of Connection: The , The Geographical Circuit and the Visual Politics of New Imperialism', Comparative Studies in Society and History (2017).

General Introductory Texts: Nira Wickramasinghe, Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Contested Identities (2008). K.M. De Silva, A (1981). A. Strathern and Z. Biedermann, Sri Lanka at the Cross-Roads of History (2018).

Specific works on the history of nature/plantations in : James Duncan, In the Shadow of the Tropics (2007). Patrick Peebles, The Plantation of Ceylon (2001). James Webb, Tropical Pioneers: Human Agency and Ecological Change in the highlands of Sri Lanka (2002). Sujit Sivasundaram, ‘Islanded: Natural History in the British Colonisation of Ceylon’, in David N. Livingstone and Charles Withers eds., Geographies of Nineteenth- Century Science (2011). ----, Islanded: Britain, Sri Lanka and the Bounds of an Indian Ocean Colony (2013). Eric Meyer, 'Aspects of the Sinhala-Tamil relations in the plantation areas of Sri Lanka under the ', in Indian Economic and Social History Review (1999); or 'Enclave Plantations' and 'Hemmed-in-Villages', in Journal of Peasant Studies (1999). Roland Wenzlhuemer, From Coffee to Tea Cultivation in Ceylon, 1880-1990: An Economic and Social History (2008). J. Lorimer and S. Whatmore, 'After the 'King of the Beasts': Samuel Baker and the Embodied Historical Geographies of Hunting in Mid-Nineteenth Century Ceylon', in Journal of Historical Geography (2009).

For theoretical and wider scholarly contexts: T. Jazeel, Sacred Modernity: Nature, Environment and the Postcolonial Geographies of Sri Lankan Nationhood (2013). Jonathan Spencer, 'Anthropology, Politics and Place in Sri Lanka', in Ideas of South Asia (2014).

4. Fiji (At the Archaeology and Anthropology Museum Collections)

Did the British administration in Fiji protect indigenous Fijian rights? If so, in what ways and to what cost?

Peter France, The Charter of the Land: Custom and Colonization in Fiji (1969). Nicholas Thomas, Islanders: the Age of Empire in the Pacific (2010). Introduction and Chapter 9. ----, ‘Sanitation and Seeing: The Creation of State Power in Early Colonial Fiji,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History (1990). D. Scarr, ‘A Roko Tui for Lomaiviti: The Question of Legitimacy in the Fijian Administration, 1874-1900’, in The Journal of Pacific History, 5 (1970). Brigitte d'Ozouville 'Reading photographs in colonial History: A Case Study from Fiji, 1872', Pacific Studies, 20.4 (1997). Timothy Macnaught, The Fijian colonial Experience: A Study of the Neotraditional Order under British Colonial Rule prior to World War II (1982). Nicholas Thomas, 'Material Culture and Colonial Power: Ethnological Collecting and the Establishment of Colonial Rule in Fiji', Man 24.1 (1989), pp. 41-56. A. Herle, and L. Carreau, Chiefs & : Art and Power in Fiji (2013).

5.

How did commodities and trade shape Bahrain’s history?

Primary: E.L. Durand, Administration Report of the Political Residency and Political Agent for the year 1877-78 Allan Villers, Sons of Sinbad: An Account of Sailing with the in Their Dhows (1940). Digital Library online archive for photographs, documents, maps. Penelope Tuson, Records of Bahrain: Primary documents 1820-1960 (1993).

Secondary: J.E. Peterson, The Emergence of the Gulf States: Studies in Modern History (2016). James Onley, The Arabian Frontier of the British Raj; Merchants, Rulers, and the British in the Nineteenth-Century Gulf (2007). Matthew Hopper, Slaves of One Master: Globalization and Slavery in Arabia in the Age of Empire (2015). Fahad Bishara, ‘Ships Passing in the Night? Reflections on the Middle East in the Indian Ocean’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 48.4 (2016), pp. 758–62. Robert Carter, Sea of : Seven thousand years of the industry that shaped the Gulf (2012); or Carter, ‘The History and Prehistory of Pearling in the Persian Gulf’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the , 48.2 (2005), pp. 139–209. Laith Ulaby, ‘On the Decks of Dhows: Musical Traditions of and the Indian Ocean World’, World of Music 1.2 (2012), pp. 43-62.

6. Zanzibar

"Zanzibar is the coloured man's paradise. I know of no place where West and East meet on more friendly and intimate terms, or where there is less colour snobbism than in Zanzibar.” Discuss.

Primary: Emily Ruete, Memoirs of an Arabian Princess (1888). F. B. Pearce, Zanzibar: The Island Metropolis of East Africa (1920). Sailors and Daughters: Early Photography along the east coast of Africa, Smithsonian National Museum of African Art.

Secondary: A. Bang, ‘Cosmopolitanism colonised: Three cases from Zanzibar, 1890 – 1920’, in Simpson and Kresse eds., Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean (2007). J. Prestholdt, ‘From Zanzibar to Beirut: Sayyida Salme bint Said and the Tensions of Cosmopolitanism’, in James Gelvin and Nile Green eds., Global Muslims in the Age of Steam and Print (2014). Gudrun Miehe, Katrin Bromber, Said Khamis, Ralf Grosserhode eds., Kala Shairi: German East Africa in Swahili Poems (2002). A. Sheriff, Slaves, spices and ivory in Zanzibar (1987). ----, Zanzibar under colonial Rule (1991). S. Bose, A Hundred Horizons (2006). J. Glassman, War of Words, War of Stones: Radical Thought and Violence in Colonial Zanzibar (2011). ----, Feast and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856 - 1888 (1995).

7. Java

How much was transformed in the repeated regime changes of Java?

P. Carey, ‘Revolutionary Europe and the Destruction of Java’s Old Order, 1808-1830’, in D. Armitage and S. Subrahmanyam eds., The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, c.1760-1840 (2010), pp.167-88. U. Bosma, ‘The Cultivation System (1830-1870) and its Private Entrepreneurs on Colonial Java’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 38 (2007), pp. 275-91. P. Carey, ‘Waiting for the ‘Just King’: The Agrarian World of South-Central Java from Giyanti (1755) to the Java War (1825-30)’, Modern Asian Studies 20 (1986), pp. 59-137. K. Ward, ‘Blood Ties: Exile, Family, and Inheritance across the Indian Ocean in the Early Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Social History 45 (2011), pp. 436-52. U. Bosma and R. Raben, Being “Dutch” in the Indies: A History of Creolisation and Empire, 1500-1920 (Singapore, 2008). Chapter 1 (on the “Indies” world) and chapter 3 (on the shrinkage of that world). P. Carey, The British in Java, 1811-1816: A Javanese Account (1992). W. Thorn, Memoir of the Conquest of Java with the Subsequent Operations of the British Forces in the Oriental Archipelago (London, 1815). Preface, Part 2 Section 1, Part 3 Section 1. J.J. Stockdale, Sketches, Civil and Military, of the Island of Java and Its Immediate Dependencies (London, 1812). Preface, Book 3 Chapter 4, Book 3 Chapter 5.

8. /Aotearoa (New Zealand)

‘A dying race, or an race?’ How were such divergent representations and realities possible for neighbouring islanders?

Edward Tregear, The Aryan Maori (1885). E.B. Tylor, ‘On the Tasmanians as representatives of Palaeolithic Man’, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1894). H.L. Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania (1899).

New Zealand/Aotearoa: Damon Salesa, ‘The Power of the Physician: Doctors and the Dying Maori in early colonial New Zealand’, in Australia and New Zealand Society for the History of Medicine (2001). Damon Salesa, Racial Crossings: Race, Intermarriage and the Victorian British Empire (2011). *Tony Ballantyne, Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire (2002). ----, Entanglements of Empire (2014). ----, Webs of Empire: Locating New Zealand’s Colonial Past (2012). Judith Binney, Stories without end (2010). Frances Steel ed., New Zealand and the Sea: Historical Perspectives (2018).

Tasmania: L.L. Robson, A History of Tasmania: Colony and State from 1856 to the 1980s (1983). Lyndall Ryan, The Aboriginal Tasmanians (1982). Anna Johnston and Martin Rolls eds., Reading Robinson: Companion Essays to George Augustus Robinson’s Friendly Mission (2012). J. Boyce, Van Diemen’s Land (2008). Ann Curthoys, ‘Genocide in Tasmania: The History of an Idea’, in A. Dirk Moses ed., Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History (2008), pp. 229-252. Sujit Sivasundaram, Waves Across the South (2020). Chapter on . R. Standfield, Indigenous Mobilities (2018). L. Russell, Roving Mariners (2012). Tracey Banivanua Mar, 'Shadowing Imperial Networks: Indigenous Mobility and Australia's Pacific Past', in Australian Historical Studies (2015).

9. Tierra del Fuego (At the Darwin Correspondence Project in the University Library)

How did the islanders of Tierra del Fuego impact on scientific thought?

Charles Darwin, 'Tierra Del Fuego', in Journal of Researches (1845 ed.), available in C. Darwin, Evolutionary Writings (2008), pp. 15-38. Robert Fitzroy, Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle Betweem the Yars 1826 and 1836 (3 vols., 1839). Vol. 2, Chs 9 and 10. W.P. Snow, 'A Few Remarks on the Wild Tribes of Tierra del Fuego from Personal Observation', Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London (1861). F. Burkhardt et al., The Correspondence of Charles Darwin, vol. 1 (1986), pp. 302- 308. Gillian Beer, 'Travelling the Other Way', in N. Jardine, J. A. Secord and E. Spary eds., Cultures of Natural History (1996), pp. 322-337. Michael Bravo, 'Ethnological Encounters', in N. Jardine, J. A. Secord and E. Spary eds., Cultures of Natural History (1996), pp. 338-357. Janet Browne, Charles Darwin: Voyaging (1995), pp. 234-253. Anne Chapman, European Encounters with the Yamana People of Cape Horn, Before and After Darwin (2010).

10. Mauritius

What changed in Mauritius between slavery, apprenticeship and indenture?

Megan Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island: Slavery in Eighteenth-century Mauritius (2005). Richard Allen, Slaves, Freedmen and indentured labourers in colonial Mauritius (1999). Anthony Barker, Slavery and anti-slavery in Mauritius 1810-1833 (1996). Vijaya Teelock Bitter sugar: Sugar and slavery in 19thC Mauritius (1998). Marina Carter, Servants, sirdars and settlers: Indians in Mauritius, 1834-1874 (1995) and

‘The family under indenture: A Mauritian case study’ in Journal of Mauritian Studies (1992). Report of the Truth and Justice Commission, Volume 1 (2011) - http://www.gov.mu/portal/goc/pmo/file/TJC_Vol1.pdf

11.

Why were the Andaman islands seen to be suited as a site for prisoners?

E. H. Man, ‘On the Andaman islands and their inhabitants’, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain (1885). S. Sen, Disciplining Punishment: Colonial and convict society in the Andaman islands (2000). S Sen, ‘Savage Bodies: MV Portman and the Adamanese’, in American Ethnologist (2009). A. Vaidik, Imperial Andamans: Colonial Encounter and Island History (2010). C. Anderson, ‘Image, Object, Text: Representing the Andaman islands’, in History Workshop Journal (2009). ----, Subaltern Lives: Biographies of Colonialism in the Indian Ocean (2012). ----, ‘Colonisation, kidnap and confinement in the Andaman islands penal colony, 1771-1864’, in Journal of Historical Geography (2010). V. Pandya, In the Forest: Visual and Material Worlds of Andamanese History (2009). Clare Anderson, ‘Writing Indigenous Women’s Lives in the Bay of Bengal: Cultures of Empire in the Andaman Islands, 1789-1906’, Journal of Social History, 42.2 (2011). Clare Anderson et al. eds., New Histories of the Andaman Islands (2016).

12. Singapore

How did Singapore became a maritime cross-road and with what effect?

Mark Frost and Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Singapore: A Biography (2009), pp.132- 175. R. F. Warren, Rikshaw Coolie: A People’s History of Singapore, 1880-1940 (2003). Brenda Yeoh, Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore: Power Relations and the Urban Built Environment (2003). Sunil Amrith, Crossing the Bay of Bengal: The Furies of Nature and the Fortunes of Migrants (2013). Chapter 4. C. M. Turnbull, A History of Modern Singapore, 1819-2005 (2009). Chapter 3.

13. Hawai’i

To what extent was ownership of land the issue which defined Hawai‘i’s nineteenth- century history?

Hiram Bingham, A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands, Or the Civil, Religious, and Political History of Those Islands (1855). Sereno E. Bishop, Why are the Hawaiians Dying Out? (1888) https://archive.org/details/whyarehawaiiansd00bish/page/n1 Samuel M. Kamakau, The Works of the People of Old (trans. 1976). Lili‘uokalani, Hawai‘i’s Story by Hawai‘i’s Queen (1898). https://archive.org/details/hawaiisstorybyh00goog David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (1839). Report of the Board of Genealogy (1884) http://hawaiiankingdom.org/pdf/board-of- genealogy-english-1884.pdf Speeches of His Majesty Kamehameha IV to the Hawaiian Legislature (1861) https://archive.org/details/speecheshismaje00ivgoog Seth Archer, Sharks Upon the Land: Colonialism, Indigenous Health, and Culture in Hawai'i, 1778-1855 (2018). Noelani Arista, The Kingdom and the Republic: Sovereign Hawai'i and the Early United States (2018). Stuart Banner, Possessing the Pacific: Land, Settlers, and Indigenous People from Australia to Alaska (2007). Chapter 4 David A. Chang, The World and All the Things Upon It: Native Hawaiian Geographies of Exploration (2016). Kealani Cook, Return to Kahiki: Native Hawaiians in Oceania (2018). Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (1968). Lilikalā Kame‘eleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires (1992). Sally E. Merry, Colonizing Hawaii: The Cultural Power of Law (2000). Jonathan Kamakawiwo‘ole Osorio, Dismembering Lāhui: A History of the Hawaiian Nation to 1887 (2002). Gregory Rosenthal, Beyond Hawai'i: Native Labor in the Pacific World (2018). Joy Schulz, Hawaiian by Birth: Missionary Children, Bicultural Identity, and U.S. Colonialism in the Pacific (2017). Noenoe K. Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism (2004). Tom Smith, 'Hawaiian History and American History: Integration or Separation?', American Nineteenth Century History (2019). Ronald Takaki, Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835-1920 (1983). Jennifer Thigpen, Island Queens and Mission Wives: How Gender and Empire Remade Hawai'i's Pacific World (2014). Haunani-Kay Trask, From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai‘i (second edition, 1999). Introduction

Paper 30 – REVISION & SAMPLE EXAM PAPER

‘Islands & Beaches’: The Pacific and Indian Oceans in the long 19th century

Answer three questions

1. Who defined the unity of the Pacific Ocean after 1750?

2. ‘Europeans never achieved complete hegemony over the Indian Ocean trading system prior to 1914.’ Discuss.

3. EITHER (a) How did islands become discrete units of the colonial imagination prior to 1840? OR (b) ‘It was Cook who heralded the obsession with islands.’ Discuss

4. How far did the age of revolutions follow divergent patterns in the various regions of the Indian and Pacific Ocean worlds?

5. How did Europeans utilise the discourse of piracy between 1750 and 1850?

6. EITHER (a) ‘The racialisation of the Tasmanian and the Maori should be interpreted as resulting from divergent attempts on the part of Europeans to annex territory.’ Discuss. OR (b) What did maritime peoples contribute to European racial ideas?

7. Was the ship an ‘in-between space’, between Europe and the island societies of the Pacific and Indian Oceans?

8. How pluralised was the colonial project enacted on the Andaman islands?

9. Was there a Scramble for colonies in the Pacific AND/OR Indian Oceans at any point of the nineteenth century?

10. EITHER (a) How far was Christianity ‘vernacularised’ in the Indian and Pacific Oceans? OR (b) Why were there so many Christianities in Madagascar in the nineteenth century?

11. EITHER (a) What was the impact of sugar on Mauritius? OR (b) How multiple were the regimes of labour in the nineteenth century Indian Ocean world?

12. How ethnicised was the plantation system of Sri Lanka?

13. ‘The British attempt to protect Fijian culture did more harm than good to the Fijians.’ Discuss.

14. How far did Realism overtake the literature of the Pacific after 1850?

15. How did the Indian Ocean allow the circulation of Islamic ideas in the nineteenth century?

16. EITHER (a) Why was voyaging in the Pacific and Indian Oceans critical to the modernisation of science? OR (b) What role did the Tierra del Fuegians play in the history of science?

17. Who controlled the vital node of Zanizbar in the nineteenth century?

18. Was there a cosmopolitan public sphere in the Indian and Pacific Oceans after 1870?

19. ‘The Oceans have never receded from view and have sustained their place as terrains of globalisation.’ Discuss.