Russian Cultural Worldview and Modernization of Russia

Xu Fenglin. Russian Cultural Worldview and Modernization of Russia

RUSSIAN CULTURAL WORLDVIEW AND MODERNIZATION OF RUSSIA*

Xu Fenglin

Xu Fenglin – Doctor of Science (Philosophy), Professor of the Department of Philosophy, Institute for Foreign Philosophy at Peking University.

E-mail: [email protected]

Being the cornerstone of Russian traditional culture, Russian cultural worldview – Russian cultural mindset, as it were – is characterized by inherent harmony, wholeness, collectivism, ideal- ism, and intrinsic religiosity; all these features oppose the evolvement of the modernization process in Russia. When pondering the process of Russia’s modernization, Russian philosophy, grounded in a typically Russian cultural worldview and unique world perception, does not deem modernization the best social scenario and an ideal to be sought; Russian philosophy abounds in the highest spiritual and humanitarian concerns.

Key words: functions of Russian philosophy, Russian cultural worldview, modernization of Russia.

DOI: 10.31079/1992-2868-2018-15-2-169-174

Russian* philosophers label the national psycholog- 1. The Russian Mindset Hinders the Moderni- ical traits inherent in Russian people as “the Russian zation of Russia mindset” (Semyon Frank), “the Russian soul” (Nikolai The Russian mindset, or worldview, is character- Berdyaev), and “the Russian national character” (Niko- ized by a number of features outlined and described by lay Lossky), among others. Russian spirituality and cul- renowned philosophers, among them Nikolay Lossky, ture in modern times are subjected to clashes with a very Semyon Frank, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Vassiliy Zen- specific social reality of today – modernization; this col- kovsky. From the multiple definitive markers, one may lision causes the contradiction between Russian spiritual deduce and distinguish four major indicators: heritage and culture and the prevalent social reality. If 1.1. The Worldview and Mindset of Man we approach this issue from the perspective of the social The traditional Russian mindset resists and with- reality, it would appear that modernization in Russia – stands abstract rational thinking; of great value is life unlike that in the West – has the following characteris- experience which reflects the essence of the very being tics: adoption and borrowing, “zigzagging”, retardation, and imparts it meaning and inner sense. What the Rus- and cultural gap. If we perceive modernization from the sian mindset seeks is not truth in the Western gnoseo- perspective of spirituality and culture, we can’t ignore logical sense – that is to say, veracity which implies the the following question: what is the role that the Russian correspondence, the accord of the idea and the object; national tradition plays in the process of Russia’s mod- but the truth viewed as the unity of the Veritas and jus- ernization? Many scholars have pondered the aspects tice, fairness. This truth reveals itself not only as the related to the way the Russian national cultural tradition comprehension of the world and life but as the spiritual opposes the modernization process, but it appears the essence of existence. Truth, goodness, and beauty qua elucidation of the matter at hand is not profound enough. ultimate values in life are not separated and isolated We believe that the aforementioned question – that of categories but form a holistic unity. The Russian men- the modernization in Russia and the role the national tality and perception of life manifest themselves as the cultural legacy plays in it – is to be viewed from two striving for the life’s ideal – total fusion of the individ- angles. If one considers the given issue in the context of ual and the society. the development of Russia’s society as an objective his- The unity of mentality and worldview of an indi- torical process, then, it would seem that certain elements vidual cannot be realized in our contemporary society, of the Russian national tradition do hinder the moderni- because these two categories do not correlate with an zation process in Russia; if we, however, view the pro- individual consciousness. Our contemporary society is gress of Russian culture and society with a clear under- characterized by differentiation as a principle: the dif- standing that human life is the absolute value, then the ferentiation of social roles, variation of skills and moral reevaluation of the modernization concept by Russian qualities, distinction between social and private lives. philosophers is a rational and worthy endeavor which is In the modern world, every person expresses oneself as invaluable for philosophy, being far from indicative of a free, autonomous subject; that corresponds to the regress and retardation. requirements of modern market economy and demo- cratic policy. Individual consciousness and civil consciousness are formed, developed and perfected in the * Translated by E.Y. Malneva, Candidate of Science (Philology). course of progress of the Western society. The Eastern 169 «The Humanities аnd Social Studies in the Far East». Vol. XV. Issue 2, 2018

Orthodox conception of a person differs from that typi- ogists and religious thinkers, among those Leo Tolstoy, cal of the Western world, and that distinction, quite Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Nikolai Gogol, Mikhail Lermon- possibly, originates from the teachings of St. Augus- tov, Fyodor Tyutchev, and Nikolai Leskov. tine. According to the latter, Man after committing the How did the Russian national culture manage to original sin became a subject, an individual who corre- preserve its religious vector in the nineteenth century lated his actions with God, faith, and reason. Later, the and at the beginning of the twentieth century – despite Western world was affected by the Renaissance, the its prolonged exposure to Western secular culture? The Reformation and the Enlightenment; individual aware- answer to this lies in the immanent legacy of Eastern ness and civil consciousness grew more complex in the Orthodoxy which has become an intrinsic inextricable process of interaction of faith and reason, the church feature and a constituent part of the universal system of and the state, an individual and the society. moral values. Religion has transcended the boundaries But the aforementioned process is not typical of of the Church and theology and acquired a universal Russia which inherited the Orthodox faith from Byzan- significance for the formation of spiritual and cultural tium. Within the Russian Orthodox tradition, a person values. Russian religious philosopher Vladimir Solo- is not viewed as an autonomous subject; his essence is vyov posits that religion – to put it generally and in the dissolved in God. Man, as Orthodoxy posits, is an im- most abstract terms – is communion, a connection be- perfect being who opens up to God and aspires to God, tween Man, the world and the absolute beginning and being on the constant path – searching for a way from nexus of all existence. (Соловьев 1988, 5) imperfection to perfection and righteousness. Two rad- The religious gradient of the Russian mindset is ical and profound notions were fashioned in the Rus- closely entwined with the philosophy of life. The Rus- sian national worldview owing to this religious prem- sian cultural worldview decrees that human life is ise: 1) belief in the inherent connection between Man deemed meaningless – as is social secular culture – if it and the Absolute Being; 2) the absence of faith in the is devoid of religious values. The Russian cultural autonomy of human self-awareness, ideas, reason, and worldview does not behold any meaning in human life mind. Nikolay Lossky claimed that the Russians lacked and social secular culture if they are both lacking reli- empirical nature which was ingrained in the European gious values. It is this particularly sharp religious slant mentality. that enables Russian people to ponder such sempiternal The totality of the cultural worldview and mindset existential questions as “What is human?”; “What is the of a Russian person is inextricably linked with absolut- meaning of life?”; “How are humans and the Higher ism and religiosity. Being (Deity) connected?” Russian philosophers pay a 1.2. Absolutism and Religiosity significant amount of attention to such issues as the tran- In modern era, Western culture has started impos- scendental nature of philosophy and the problem of ab- ing significant influence on Russian culture; notwith- solutism. Nikolai Berdyaev claims that philosophers standing, Russian spiritual culture and philosophy sometimes tend to stoop to rude empiricism and materi- managed to preserve their religious nature. In the times alism, but a true philosopher aspires to the otherworldly, of Peter the Great, Russia proverbially opened – or the transcendent – beyond the boundaries of this world; better yet, smashed open – the window into the Euro- they are never satisfied with what lies within imminent pean world but, arguably, the major elements borrowed reach. Philosophy has always been an escape, a getaway from the Western milieu back then pertained primarily from the senseless, empirical world, assaulting and abus- to the material culture; spirituality used to be ignored ing us in every possible way, into the realm of meaning, for the most part, this inevitably resulted in the forcible of the ethereal, the otherworldly. (Бердяев 1994, 232) Europeanization of the Russian way of life. During the Lev Shestov, in his turn, believes that philosophy sees as period of Catherine the Great’s rule, there emerged the its final ultimate mission not the construction of a sys- Enlightenment movement in Russia – instigated by the tem, not the substantiation of our knowledge, not the French Enlightenment; however, its circle of influence reconciliation of the apparent contradictions of life – all was relatively small since it affected only the interests these are the tasks of the positive sciences (the legacy of of the minority group which was, essentially, nobility. positivism) which, as opposed to philosophy, serve life, The nineteenth century was the epoch characterized that is, the transient needs, the ephemera, whilst they fail by brilliant achievements in the sphere of Russian litera- to give death, i.e. eternity, a single thought. The duty of ture, arts, and philosophy. Some scientists and philoso- philosophy is to break free, at least partially, from life – phers who shared materialistic views were simultane- in life. (Шестов 1993, 215-216) ously preoccupied with religious ideas. In contrast to the In Europe, after the Reformation, Protestantism Western world’s literary emphasis, acknowledged the significance of secular culture; it 19-th century Russian literature was deeply concerned recognized rationality as the foremost motive, thus see- with religious notions and principles. Many outstanding ing Godly design in accumulating wealth – and serving Russian writers and poets may also be considered theol- God this way; beholding the mission and meaning of

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human life in art and labor, the latter being also a primordial for it has existed since the inception of all means of self-perfection and purification. According to things, in atemporal and spatial coordinates. It is exact- M. Weber, the Protestant ethic qua the initial motive of ly what served as a foundation stone of Russian philos- capitalism laid the foundation for modern Western ophy. civilization. The process of secularization of Russian In his work East, West and the Russian Idea (1922), culture has been less transparent and vivid: Russian a Russian philosopher Lev Karsavin delineated the link culture never witnessed the Renaissance; art and labor between the Russian idealistic mentality and life: “A were perceived merely as means of producing material Russian person cannot exist without an absolute ideal, wealth; they did not have a sacral significance for the although, in truth, he beholds – with touching naivete – purification and salvation of the soul. That is why even it in something utterly inappropriate and unfitting. If he in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries – when mod- is religious, he will go to ascetic extremes, the edges of ern Western civilization became even more advanced, orthodoxy, stumbling into heresy. If he were to substi- – Russian thinkers, being steeped in traditional reli- tute the absolute ideal for the Kantian system, he gious values, still continued to criticize the bourgeois would be ready to jump out of the window of a five- spirit and beheld it as the “absence of lofty aspirations storey building in order to prove the phenomenological and impulses” (Berdyaev), as “philistine esprit of satia- order of the external world… He does not wish to be a tion and complacency” (Herzen), as the “priority of the “gradualist” (“postepenovets”) – nor does he know material values over the spiritual” (Dostoyevsky). how – for he is dreaming of a sudden revolution. If you (Павлов 1992, 32) were to prove to him that the absolute does not exist The value orientation towards religiosity and abso- (do bear in mind, though, that the very refutation of the lutism typical of the Russian mindset facilitated the absolute he is prone to turn into the absolute in itself, consolidation of authoritarianism and conservatism in yet another dogma of faith) or cannot be implemented the political sphere, the protection of the societal hier- and realized, or merely hint at the remoteness of his archy and the rule of force; it helped uphold the hope ideal, and he will lose all will to live and act instanta- in the leader seen as “a strong man”, but not in the leg- neously. For the sake of the ideal, a Russian man is islation and democracy. Since the nineteenth century prepared to reject and abandon everything, sacrifice and up till nowadays, conservatism and dogmatism everything; harboring doubts about the ideal or its fea- have prevailed in Russia. The contemporary Russian sibility, he starts to exhibit unimaginable beastliness sociologist Leonid Ionin asserts that conservatism is and savagery or mythical indifference towards every- not a mere random act of thinking which manifests at a thing.” (Карсавин 1992, 322) certain historical moment and which is inevitably The idealistic mentality is alien, extraneous to the doomed to dissipation and oblivion. On the contrary, development of modern culture which is oriented to- this is an essential component of the thinking apparatus wards practicality. The ardent predilection for the of humankind; one of inextricable and indispensable search of the spiritual ideal has caused Russian people features of conservatism is respect for the mysteries of to dwell in the world of dreams, all the while ignoring life incarnate in the acceptance and support of the au- the reality around. The Russians have often opted for thority – be it God, nature, history or the state. Ration- creating happy projections in their dreams, castles in alism is a pillar and a moving force of progressive and the air, so to speak, rather than build that happiness revolutionary ideologies which demystifies life, un- with their own two hands. Striving for a great goal, masks and reveals secrets and debunks myths, leaving they have often failed to come up with real tactics of no spot for mystery and thus impoverishing human realization of the given scenarios and plans. This did existence, decreasing its spiritual and emotional levels, not hinder the Russian people from creating master- abandoning man in seclusion with indifferent abstract pieces of art and culture though – in the spheres of lit- forces. Conservatism, vice versa, attempts to preserve erature, music, fine arts, etc. However, all this precon- intact the sacral nucleus of social phenomena. (Ионин ditioned the occurrence of the Utopian social reality. 2005, 71) The problem arising from that is that such social utopi- The holistic nature of the Russian mindset and as have been hardly infrequent in the history of Russia. worldview, the value orientation towards religiosity In the second half of the nineteenth century and at and absolutism have promoted the formation of the the beginning of the twentieth century, certain mem- idealistic cultural mentality and the spirit of collectiv- bers of Russian intelligentsia believed that in case the ism nascent in the Russian society. old regime were overthrown, the new free egalitarian 1.3. The Idealistic Cultural Mentality society would be erected; after the October Socialist The essence of the idealistic cultural mentality con- Revolution, the Bolshevik leaders craved the imminent sists in its being oriented not at the empirical world but victory of the socialist ideals in the whole world. In the at the achievement of perfection of the higher exist- nineties of the twentieth century, similarly, there ap- ence. Idealistic existence may be said to be rendered peared people who desired to build a perfect market

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economy in Russia within the scope of 500 days. These Russian soil. And even though Russia’s communal grandiose prospects were founded on a false, albeit way vanished, collectivism has prevailed and remained radiant and promising, hope of implementing rapid the foundation of the Russian mindset and world-view. changes in the society and the advent of universal hap- The influence of collectivism, its impact on the piness for all the people, nevertheless, history demon- Russian cultural tradition can be traced in the weaken- strates that these social utopias resulted not in progress ing and waning of certain typical notions pertaining to and happiness but in destruction and the suffering of the concepts of individual rights, legal state, civil soci- the whole nation. ety, etc. Many researchers share a belief that this rela- 1.4. Psychology of Collectivism tively little interest as per the legal foundations of the The Russian cultural tradition professes the spirit of society is another typical feature of the Russian com- collectivism as opposed to Western individualism. This munity. It goes without saying that collegiality and spirit was born out of the kinship system and the patri- conciliarity pervade the Russian mindset: everything archy of Russian traditional communities. Western exists in God, God is omnipresent in all things; person- civilization and the Western worldview are based upon al sin is condemned not by societal laws but by the ego; this concept holds the central ground in Western laws of God. culture. The cognizance of the whole external world in Therefore, the antagonism of the European experi- Western philosophy stems from ego, from an individu- ence and the Russian cultural tradition has turned into a al isolated identity. These ideas dominating Western source of multiple problems. The issue delineated and philosophy were shaped and structured in the works of discussed by the Slavophiles and Westernizers a centu- René Descartes, George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, ry and a half ago still exists and is still very relevant. Friedrich Nietzsche, in sociological and political trea- Contemporary Russia has to make a choice – whether tises of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Hobbes. to enter modern civilization or follow its own path, to Conversely, Russian philosophers argued that not “I” choose Eurasianism or become the modern Atlantis. but “We” formed the ultimate foundation of spiritual It goes without saying that the modernization of the life and human existence. “We” is perceived not as an Russian society is an immense undertaking. The pro- external synthesis which originated at later stages of cess in question involves not merely external factors civilization, the combination of several “I”s or “I and such as political and economic endeavors but also in- You”, but as their primal indivisible unity, from the ternal ones: rituals and traditions, spiritual culture, etc. bosom of which burgeons “I” and owing to which it is A special attention within Russian society is paid to exclusively possible. Plainly put, “We” is a specific interior aspects. It is essential to highlight that Russian whole, within which there exist its particles, indistin- philosophical thought used to incorporate many dis- guishable from the latter, but which itself pierces and tinct trends: Alexander Radischev’s ideas of the En- penetrates every given part and is inherent in its totali- lightenment gradually shaping in the eighteenth centu- ty. (Франк 1990) ry; notions of freedom and democracy propelled by the Thus, the spirit of collectivism is not merely an Decembrists at the beginning of the nineteenth century; idea, shared by a number of Russian philosophers, but the critique of serfdom and the Czarist rule and autoc- one of the distinguishing features of the Russian tradi- racy on the part of the revolutionary democrats at the tional spiritual culture. The latter does not prioritize the end of the nineteenth century – all these movements ideals characteristic of individualism – unlike the value played a significant part in the process of economic orientation of the West. The West exemplifies the pri- and political modernization of Russia. ority of “ego” superseding that of “We”; it boasts a That said, it is important to underline that under no distinct differentiation of “I” and “Others”, and also the circumstances can we deem the Russian mindset and idolatry of individual heroism. This has resulted in the world-view stagnant, retarded and reactionary – despite formation of a more sophisticated system of individual its reluctance to accept the modernization progress as rights, personal freedom, and awareness of personal given. The Russian traditional culture is rife with ideas value. In the depth of the Russian world-view, there which might be employed for the compensation of cer- lies “We” which surpasses ego, and which presupposes tain weaknesses of modern social and spiritual life. In the absence of awareness of individual freedom and this respect, the reevaluation and the critique of mod- legality, alongside the inclination towards the collec- ernization by Russian philosophers may be very bene- tive way of life. In accordance with the precepts of the ficial because the value of Russian philosophy consists Russian mindset, a happy life entails a harmonious in its striving for the lofty humanist ideals and not for shared communal life, not the free one – in isolation modernization per se. from the community. Neither the process of European- 2. Denunciation of Modernization as the Ulti- ization undertaken in the epoch of Peter the Great, nor mate Goal within Russian Philosophical School industrialization and urbanization forced onto the So- Russian philosophy aspires to the most profound viet Union, implanted Western individualism into the and consecrated sense of life; this premise contradicts

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the argument that modernization is the major goal of the modern conveniences. However, modernization, the progress of civilization. The given belief has found undeniably, has also fashioned a number of losses – the manifestation in two postulates: 1) Russian philosophy loss of social values, for one, which led to the spiritual cannot and ought not to adhere to traditional theories of isolation of people; Western philosophers stressed the modernization but, on the contrary, it should re-think rampant “homelessness of modern Man”. In the nine- the consequences and results of the global socio- teenth and twentieth centuries, many Russian philoso- historical process; 2) facilitating social progress is not phers tended to receive Western education, they used believed to be the primary task of philosophy; the latter to live for significant periods of time in Europe; these is more concerned with maintaining equilibrium be- factors preconditioned their understanding of the exist- tween the social progress and the critical evaluation of ing drawbacks of modernization which led, in its turn, history and culture. to pronounced criticism of the former. In a way, this General philosophizing as regards modern social general philosophical introspection and humanistic history presupposes and includes the multifaceted and criticism of values are consistent with the Marxist cri- comprehensive analysis of social modernization. Al- tique and Western existential discourse. legedly, there are two aspects defining the moderniza- The modernization practice reveals certain damag- tion trend in Russia. Firstly, modernization is equaled ing consequences of the process in question in modern to social progress which is viewed as the ultimate goal, world. From this perspective, the study of the possible the highest priority, and value of human thought. Sec- ways of modernizing Russia undertaken and upheld by ondly, there is believed to exist a general model for philosophers and critical thinkers – in the period since modernization. It originated in the West and then tran- the nineteenth century up till nowadays – has an irrefu- spired within the confines of Russia. Consequently, the table ideological and informational value. process of modernization in the West has reached its Additionally, when viewed in the context of human apogee whilst in Russia it tends to lag behind. Presum- life and realization of the ultimate freedom, every so- ably, Russia’s duty is to follow in the Western foot- cial system possesses its own demerits. Modernization steps and catch up with it, unequivocally. fails to solve all the issues pertaining to the internal life For reasons given, we have arrived at the following of an individual, especially its most fundamental prob- conclusion: Russian philosophical thought (at least, in lems – that of free will, life, and death. Nikolai Ber- the subjective interpretation of the Russian scholars) dyaev claims that a man is a mystery – and the world’s ought to facilitate the modernization process in Russia most inscrutable mystery could he be. He (or she) is a since it is the only conceivable path towards the social mystery inasmuch as he is not an animal, and neither is progress of the country. Nevertheless, if we scrutinize he a mystery in his capacity of a social being; not as a the aforementioned process from a different angle, we part of nature or community but as a personality, iden- will realize that this premise cannot be dubbed axio- tity – exactly as a personality. The whole world is matic for two distinct reasons. nothing next to him / her – with a singular face of a First and foremost, neither the theory of moderniza- human and their unique destiny. (Бердяев 1995, 11) tion nor its practical realization is perfect and flawless. He posits that if such social categories as the state, na- Some Russian philosophers have detected evident de- tion, community, kin, even family, are viewed as abso- fects in the very idea of progress. And even though since lute and sacred, this is in itself a violation and desecra- the times of the European Enlightenment the concept pf tion of a person’s freedom. progress has gained momentum and popularity, having Having witnessed the inhuman carnage of World become the primary objective of the historical advance- War I, Semyon Frank heavily criticized the veneration ment, at the beginning of the twentieth century some of the revolution and progress: “The state, political Russian philosophers were dubious as per its implica- power, enforcement, and coercion – all these tend to be tions and inherent flaws. At present, the concept of fatal earthly necessities, the ones Man cannot do with- modernization is perceived qua doctrine which is to be out…Among those institutions, establishments, and questioned. It is regarded as a progressive vision of his- practices there are better and there are worse, more tory; also, as the censure of the ideas of positivism and fragile and more solid, the ones that were erected in the Darwinism in the social milieu. Accordingly, it causes right fashion and those constructed on the false founda- three negative outcomes: the defense of adverse and tion; those more in unison with the real needs of life questionable historical phenomena; additionally, it leads and the spiritual essence of Man and those opposing to the creed that the past and the present are mere tools those needs. But all details and minutiae are relative; for the future, the latter premise resulting in the con- they are predetermined by the time and the place, peo- demnation of the value and meaning of an individual ple’s lifestyles, habits, and their frame of mind. That is life. (马寅卯 2010, 12) why under no political order is there absolute good or, Modernization has promoted economic growth, ma- respectively, absolute evil; all this is not the final fron- terial affluence, and comfortable life replete with all tier, nor is it the dogma of faith which makes sense of 173 «The Humanities аnd Social Studies in the Far East». Vol. XV. Issue 2, 2018

life, imparts it meaning, and attributes verity to it and cally. The political reforms “from above”, instigated by genuine salvation. Whoever owns this final, inaliena- the Russian radicals in the second half of the nine- ble; who is in possession of the highest loftiest goals in teenth century, in the conditions yet unripe for change, life; whoever has been granted the real true blessing – didn’t correspond to the actual needs of the Russian that person will be equipped to employ all the relative society (constituted largely by peasants and diverse minutiae and particulars of life.” (Франк 1990, 130) civic groups); the outcome of these reforms was pain- And finally, one should bear in mind that some ful and problematic. But then again, not all ideological Russian philosophers did not share the ideals of mod- reforms are harmful to social change. They may actual- ernization because of the cultural national messianic ly bring about benefits – if they prevent excessive haste mindset they were imbued with. This results from the which causes deformity of development. Both positive unique Russian religious tradition and its prolonged and negative reforms are often estimated in a bad light, confrontation with the West. The concept of moderni- for their external results are rarely seen clearly. zation is closely knitted to Western culture. In the nine- Vladimir Solovyov argued that the mission of law teenth and twentieth centuries, Russian thinkers, on the is far from converting the world that abides in evil into one hand, were greatly influenced by the intricacies of the Kingdom of Heaven; its only aim is to prevent the Western thought and, on the other hand, were in radical world from metamorphosing into Hell. (Соловьев opposition to it. They opposed the imposition of the 1988, 454) We may surmise that the social value and Western ways, notions, and rituals onto Russian men- function of Russian philosophical thought can be es- tality, being convinced that Russian culture has been teemed in a similar vein. It seems most probable that anointed with a unique historic mission in the world. the chief purpose of philosophy is not to encourage the The criticism of the modernization theory from this advancement of material production but, most im- perspective is inevitably devoid of objectivity and im- portantly, to uphold and preserve the stability and equi- partiality. librium of the spiritual life of people at all times, in all It appears then that the philosophical thought in social conditions. Russia is focused not only on the material satisfaction of essential needs of people and the promotion of mod- REFERENCES ernization for its own sake. Rather, it displays an active 1. 马寅卯：俄罗斯哲学家对“进步”理念的反思《浙江 concern for the spiritual life of people. Russian philos- 学刊，2010年第5。 ophers view social history in a more profound human- 2. Бердяев, Николай. Философия свободного духа. istic light – not purely within the context of the theory Москва. 1994. of modernization; hence, they do not consider the pro- 3. Бердяев, Николай. Царство Духа и царство Кесаря. gress or the slackening of modernization as the only Москва. 1995. 4. Ионин, Леонид. «Необходимость консерватизма». criterion for the estimation of philosophy. If we are to Логос, 3 (2005). assess the role of philosophy in society in a more gen- 5. Карсавин, Лев. Восток, Запад и русская идея [Рус- eral sense, it appears pertinent to observe that philoso- ская идея. Под ред. М.А. Маслина. Москва. 1992]. phy regarded qua public consciousness of sorts should 6. Лосский, Николай. Бог и мировое зло. Москва. 1994. unequivocally promote and facilitate social progress. 7. Павлов, Aлексей. «К вопросу о своеобразии русской That said, we shouldn’t ignore the fact that since social философии». Вестник Московского университета, 6 (1992). 8. Соловьев, Владимир. Собрание сочинений. Т.2. progress is so multilayered and multifaceted a phe- Москва. 1988. nomenon, the final objective of philosophy must con- 9. Франк, Семен. Сочинения. Москва: Изд. «Правда». sist in the maintaining of the balance between the spir- 1990. itual and the cultural aspects of the societal progress 10. Франк, Семен. Духовные основы общества. Москва: and development, not just in enabling social change. Изд. «Республика». 1992. The role of ideology in social change cannot be always 11. Шестов, Лев. Собрание сочинений в двух томах. Т.2. beneficial. It is perilous to stimulate reforms too drasti- Москва. 1993.

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