Ocean Challenge Aims to Keep Its Readers up to Date ASSOCIATE EDITOR with What Is Happening in Oceanography in the UK and the Rest of Europe

OCEAN

Volume 12, No.3 Volume 12, No. 3, 2002 OCEAN (published 2003)

The Magazine of the Challenger Society for Marine Science

EDITOR SCOPE AND AIMS Angela Colling Ocean Challenge aims to keep its readers up to date ASSOCIATE EDITOR with what is happening in oceanography in the UK and the rest of Europe. By covering the whole range john Wright of marine-related sciences in an accessible style it Angela Colling and John Wright are both should be valuable both to specialist oceano- at the Department of Earth Sciences, graphers who wish to broaden their knowledge of The Open University, marine sciences, and to informed lay persons who Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK are concerned about the oceanic environment.

EDITORIAL BOARD Ocean Challenge is sent automatically to Chair members of the Challenger Society. Tim Jickells For more information about the Society, or for queries concerning individual subscriptions to School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia Ocean Challenge, please see the Challenger Society website (www.challenger-society.orn.uk) or contact the Executive Secretary of the Society at the address Martin Angel given on the inside back cover. Southampton Oceanography Centre Kevin Black INDUSTRIAL CORPORATE MEMBERSHIP University of St Andrews/Dunstaffnage Marine For information about this, please contact the Laboratory Executive Secretary of the Society at the address given on the inside back cover. Mark Brandon Department of Earth Sciences, ADVERTISING The Open University For information about advertising through Ocean Jon Copley Challenge, please contact the Executive Secretary of Southampton Oceanography Centre the Society at the address given on the inside back Peter Foxton cover. formerly Natural Environment Research Council (Marine Sciences) AVAILABILITY OF BACK ISSUES For information about back issues of Ocean Sue Greig Challenge please contact the Executive Secretary of The Open University the Society at the address given on the inside back Karl-Jiirgen Hesse cover. University of Kiel, Germany INSTITUTIONAL SUBSCRIPTIONS John Jones Ocean Challenge is published three times a year. University College, London The subscription (including postage by surface mail) Mark Maslin is £80.00 ($US 152) per year for libraries and other University College, London institutions. New subscriptions, renewals and information about changes of address should be sent Rachel Mills to Parjon Information Services, PO Box 144, Southampton Oceanography Centre Haywards Heath, West Sussex, RH16 2YX, UK. John Scott Qinetiq, Winfrith DATA PROTECTION ACT, 1984 (UK) Under the terms of this Act, you are informed that Hjalmar Thiel this magazine is sent to you through the use of a Hamburg, Germany computer-based mailing list. The views expressed in Ocean Challenge are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Cover printed by Albanian Press, St Albans. Challenger Society or the Editor. Text printed by Halstan & Co. Ltd, Amersham.

O Challenger Society for Marine Science, 2003 ISSN 0959-01 61 CONTENTS

2 News and Views 7 Sharks: Turning the Tide Kelvin Boot 9 Global Observations for Climate Colin Summerhayes 12 Now, there's a funny thing ... lohn Wright 14 CO, Sequestration Experiment Revisited 15 Letter to the Editor: Stakeholders Submerged? 16 The Maiden Voyage of UK ROV lsis Chris German, Paul Tyler and Gwyn Griffiths 19 A Plankton Guide to Ocean Physics: Colouring in the Currents Round South Africa and Madagascar Graham D. Quartly and Meric A. Srokosz 24 Tidal Response in Sea Lochs: a Case of Waves versus Jets Finlo Cottier and Mark lnall 28 Book Reviews

The cover was designed by Ann Aldred Associates. The maps and illustrations were drawn by John Taylor of the Cartography Office of the Department of Earth Sciences at the Open University. Dear Reader This issue of Ocean Challenge has two very different features articles. In 'A Plankton Guide to Ocean Currents . . .I, Graham Quartly and Meric Srokosz show how the global resource of SeaWlFS images can be used to reveal the detail of current patterns around South Africa and Madagascar. By contrast, in 'Tidal Response in Sea Lochs: a case of waves versus jetst, Finlo Cottier and Mark lnall describe how research into tidal mixing in sea lochs not only has important implications for the economics of the Scottish west coast, but also helps us to understand the global thermohaline circulation. We also have the latest news on the UK's new ROV, Isis, an overview of the important COOS programme, and a piece about how the shark's bad image can be turned to advantage. And, as you will see, the topic of ocean sequestration of CO, continues to stimulate debate! If you have views on this, or any other topic aired in these pages, please write to us and share them with other readers.

News & Views

Iceland to save cod by culling It is commercial overfishing by 'Burningt hydrogen in fuel cells may humans that has caused the global be all right for road and rail transport, whales depletion of fish stocks, not predation but it's less easy to power aeroplanes Despite the existing moratorium on by seals and whales, large though that that way. Using hydrogen as a whaling, set up in 1986, Iceland will predation undoubtedly is. If we transportable fuel in aircraft would join Norway and Japan to go whaling humans want to achieve a sustainable require the gas to be in liquid form, again, specifically for Fin, Sei and relationship with the natural world, possibly under pressure, and that's Minke whales. According to press we must realise that killing off wild not easy, because hydrogen has a reports in May, Iceland's justification predators because they compete with boiling point of 20 K (-253 "C), and for the move is to protect the fishing us for food, must inevitably disrupt - it's highly flammable, hence the well- industry, because - they say -the if not destroy - both marine and known concerns about safety in this whales are depleting fish stocks, terrestrial ecosystems. context. especially cod. conservation groups Iceland's intention to go whaling will Be that as it may, in lceland the have condemned the proposals, , not contribute to global sustainability, (much) longer term aim is to convert claiming that the chief reason for but the next item suggests at least an all the nation's buses and cars to resumption of whaling is not research initial move in that direction (see electric vehicles driven by fuel cells. into the whales' eating habits, i.e. below). Newspaper reports about these (among other things) to count the developments have mentioned nine numbers of fish in their stomachs, but other European cities, including to sell the meat. Minke whales are Iceland and the hydrogen London, where it is planned that road relatively abundant, Fin and Sei economy transport will be based upon fuel whales are not; moreover, harpooned cells. They also mention plans to whales die slowly and painfully. In what may be the first stage in a export Iceland's surplus geothermally global lgreeningfof energy use, a Is this merely the story of Andre the generated electricity via cables to 'hydrogen filling station' was opened Britain and other parts of Europe, a seal writ large (see p.6)? Anglers in Reykjavik last April. The hydrogen wanted to shoot the seal because he project that would require enormous will initially be used to refill the fuel investment, not to mention vast was eating 'their' sea trout and cells powering some of the city's bus salmon. lceland wants to slaughter annual expenditure on maintenance. fleet. Despite its reliance on geo- We venture to suggest it is unlikely to whales because the whales (allegedly) thermal steam and water for both eat 'their' cod and other fish. In the happen - it might be cheaper to build electricity and municipal central a new nuclear power station. last couple of years, the Norwegians heating, lceland is alleged to have the have taken to culling whales too, world's highest per capita greenhouse At all events, the eventual intention because of competition with fisher- gas emisions, because the population in lceland is to convert the country's men (cf. Ocean Challenge, Vol. 9, is relatively affluent and Icelanders fishing fleet to fuel-cell electricity. No. 2, p.7). Fishermen see seals and use cars a lot. However, it is expected One might be forgiven for wondering whales as pests, but from the point of that within a few years (perhaps) fuel whether, by the time that happens, view of the marine environment the cells will be used for powering small there will be any fish (or whales) left the real pests are the fishermen devices such as laptops and CDIDVD for them to catch. themselves, not seals or whales (cf. players. Ocean Challenge, Vol. 11, No. 2, p.4).

2 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 Jellyfish a new danger for if protein from fish is to continue to killed in large numbers, and there can - form an important proportion of our be no foreseeable end to overfishing. salmon farms ... diet. Within five years, possibly less, signs The Scottish salmon-farming industry reading 'fresh fish' will mean 'fresh is already beleaguered by accusations ... but the bad press doesn't farmed fish'. from both environmental and animal stop welfare groups about alleged bad practices, involving pollution by An article in the May issue of The excreta, excess fish food (containing Observer's Food Monthly mounted a dyestuffs to ensure 'attractive' flesh scathing attack on the fish farming colour on fishmongers' slabs), industry as a whole. The tally of pesticides and growth hormones, plus farmed fish has grown quite large in high stocking densities leading to recent years: salmon, trout, cod, stress and disease. And when fish halibut, sea bass and sea bream, escape from storm-damaged or tilapia, tuna, turbot, shrimps and poorly maintained cages, they can prawns, and even whales -that's the latest wheeze being pioneered in interbreed with wild stocks and pass Dol hin-friendly sea-bass diseases onto them - except for the Japan, where whale meat is a popular - 'giant' salmon genetically engineered dietary item. As indicated above, a up Bate bad press is nothing new in fish not only to grow six times faster than In recent years both politicians and normal, but also to be sterile (cf. farming, whether it's freshwater aquaculture, or sea-based mari- the fishing industry have endlessly Ocean Challenge, Vol. 10, No. 1, p.5). culture. discussed and debated the need for International competition from cheap nets that allow not only juvenile fish imports is apparently forcing down At the front of the Observer article is but also dolphins, turtles and other prices, so that salmon are being sold this trenchant summary: 'Dyed, de- 'by-catch animals' to escape, the one for less than the costs of production. sexed, and a threat to the planet: the to grow to maturity and breed (and fish on your plate is more likely than As if all that were not enough, contribute to future catches), the other ever to be farmed. Still think cod, sea simply to stay alive. Discussion and jellyfish swarms now pose another bass and tuna are wild?' threat to the industry, for they appear debate continues, but little is done, in suddenly and without warning and spite of repeated media attention in can have disastrous effects on the Market forces to the rescue? newspapers, as well as on radio and caged fish. Larger species may clog TV, with graphic pictures and grue- the cage walls and prevent water Fish farmers in Shetland have devised some accounts of suffering sea flowing through, so that the fish a novel way to keep large fish within mammals. Perhaps, at last, there is suffocate, while smaller species can nets while allowing smaller immature some hope, at least for dolphins, have the same effect by drifting into fish to escape and grow. The net is Trials of new 'separator grids' that the cages and clogging up the gills of simply a grid made of nylon rope allow fish into the net but push the salmon. Other small species have fitted with tubes of hard plastic that dolphins out through 'doors' in the stinging tentacles that are normally rotate round the ropes. Large fish top, have resulted in many fewer cannot get through the grid, small used to catch prey, but when these dolphins being drowned (cf. Ocean fish easily slip through, while me- get among the fish the stings cause so Challenge, Vol. 12, No. 2, p.3). If dium-sized fish can wriggle back- much irritation that the fish damage such separator grids could be themselves in frantic efforts to wards out of the grid, because of the combined with nets of the kind escape. rotating tubes. T& rotating tubes described in the previous item, there minimise damage and stress, which As Ferdinand0 Boero recorded in the might be a future for both dolphins result when fish are size-graded by and juvenile fish. EFMS issue of Ocean Challenge (Vol. hand and which will lower their 12, No. 1, pp.24-7), there is need for market value when they are sold. As Elliott Morley, Britain's fisheries a great deal more research into these indicated in the previous item, fish minister, is reported to be in favour of gelatinous zooplankton, not least to farming in general has a poor envi- these developments, but it will take understand their abrupt appearances ronmental image already, so any many years to achieve the necessary in gigantic swarms that can decimate development that improves the changes in fishing gear, cost alone populations of fish and zooplankton, condition of the fish is to be wel- being a major factor. In any case, the if not by consuming them directly, comed, even if the reason for it is British government's attitude to then by grazing on the primary principally commercial. environmental matters is not notice- producers. ably proactive, and help for marine If nets of this kind could become conservation is likely to be a long The biggest problem is sampling, for more widely available, many fewer time coming. the animals range in size from centi- juveniles of wild stocks would be metres to metres, and because they caught and subsequently discarded are gelatinous, they are destroyed by (because they are undersized and nets. Fortunately, advances in the cannot be marketed). However, cost technology of both diving and considerations alone, never mind the submersibles have enabled scientists bureaucracy of the CFP (or whatever to study jellyfish in more detail than succeeds it), will combine to ensure was previously possible. Not before that the introduction of 'juvenile- time either, since we humans are friendly nets' into general use will manifestly destined to rely increas- take years. In the meantime, imma- ingly on aquaculture and mariculture ture wild fish will continue to be

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 1 2, No.3 Ministerial dithering over Ministerial dithering over Cod Wars are different now reets Sellafield .... It's no longer about who's catching whose cod, and sending in the Press reports in April accused In April there were press reports gunboats to settle matters when Margaret Becket, the Environment accusing John Prescott, the Deputy disputes flare into open hostility. Secretary at that time, of reneging on Prime Minister, of reneging on Nowadays it's about how many fishing promises she made two years ago to promises made five yegrs ago, at a boats this or that country must scrap protect the cold-water reefs off north- ministerial meeting in Sintra, Portu- or decommission - a distinction west Scotland known as the Darwin gal (when he was in charge of without a difference - and about Mounds, from destruction by (mainly) environmental matters). Apparently, compensating fishing communities for French and lrish trawlers. The reports he agreed to ensure that discharges loss of livelihood. Compensation is stated also that Franz Fischler, the EC of radioactive wastes from Sellafield not a popular word in government fisheries commissioner, was in favour would be greatly reduced; and he circles, especially in the UK, because of protecting the reefs, but went on to subsequently signed an OSPAR money spent to support erstwhile suggest that the hydrocarbon indus- agreement to that effect, in the hope fishing communities is ipso facto not tries also have interests in the area, that Britain would shed its image as offset by revenue from fish catches - which is part of the Atlantic Frontier, 'the dirty man of Europe'. However, because decommissioned (scrapped) where drilling for oil and gas has discharges are allegedly higher now fishing boats catch no fish and bring been going on for the last two years. than they were in 1998, partly on account of the need to re-process in no taxable revenue. The oil industry has still not set up spent fuel from the first-generation Sure enough, in June this year, any marine protected areas, as Magnox stations, which BNFL plans Whitehall made no response to a directed by a High Court injunction to close by 2010. Prescott himself petition from three women (wives of (Ocean Challenge, Vol. 10, No.1, p.4, has not been doing well lately: Scottish fishermen) pleading for help also Vol. 9, No. 3, p.4), presumably around five years ago he promised to from Government to support their with the approval of British Govern- reduce traffic on Britain's roads, and husbands who cannot fish because of ment Ministers. So why are the reefs there are now more cars around than the cod ban (Ocean Challenge, Vol. still being smashed by trawling gear? ever. That may not be entirely his 12, No. 2, p.4). Large-scale decomis- Broadsheet newspaper reports in late fault, which is more than can be said sioning of boats is accompanied by june described 'Ministerial concern' for his failure to reduce radioactive massive hardship, consequent upon about these ecosystems and attributed discharges from Sellafield. the loss of tens of thousands of jobs in the lack of action to restrictive However, when Margaret Beckett fishing related industries. clauses in the Common Fisheries was made Environment Secretary in At the same time, industrial fishing is Policy. Without changes in the CFP, june, she did what John Prescott allowed to continue unabated, to Britain's deep water coral communi- failed to do. She instructed BFNL to ties are likely to be doomed. provide the fish meal used to feed cease discharging radioactive wastes both terrestrial and aquatic (fish farm) from Sellafield for nine months from livestock. This practice takes large ... and the dithering continues July, in accordance with the long- quantities of young cod, thus destroy- standing demands from both Ireland Britain's new Environment Minister ing the very stocks that the cod ban is and Norway. Elliot Morley (who is also Fisheries intended to protect. Worse, it seems Minister) was all set to ban fishing that according to provisions of the near the Darwin Mounds during the ... and Norway complains yet EU's Common Fisheries Policity, summer months, when trawling is again Spanish fishermen now have unre- generally most intense. Morley let it stricted access to the so-called lrish be known that emergency powers The Norwegians are reported still to Box, including the lrish Sea and the would be used to close the area to be concerned about levels of techne- Bristol Channel, a development that (it fishing vessels in a matter of weeks. tium-99 in their fish and shellfish, is claimed) will wipe out Ireland's fish However, the relevant letter sent from especially in their so-called 'Arctic stocks, thereby virtually eliminating DEFRA to the EC contained no formal quality' lobsters which can no longer coastal communities. Spanish boats proposal to close the area, which command the high prices they used apparently also have access to North would force the commission to reply. to. The report in question says that Sea waters off Scotland, hitherto the It merely 'suggested' that emergency discharges of technetium49 have main fishing ground of the Scottish powers be adopted, making it likely actually increased over the last year fleet. If the Scots are not allowed to that the issue will become lost in Euro or so. In a recent issue of Ocean fish those waters because of the cod bureaucratic tangles. Challenge (Vol. 11, No. 2, p.3) we ban, what loophole in the CFP permits recorded Sellafield's claim to have Spanish boats to do so? Conservation groups are reported to reduced discharges a thousand-fold Meantime, Britain's Government be outraged. They evidently feel that in the last 25 years, which sounds Ministers - including the Fisheries nobody in the EU gives a damn about very good - but we repeat the Minister, Elliott Morley - continue to the Darwin Mounds, and that fishing question posed then: what were ignore pleas for help from Scotland's will be allowed to continue - and discharge levels before 25 years ago? presumably hydrocarbon exploration fishing community, but make little or too. Perhaps Elliot Morley would like no effort to lobby for reform of the to tell Ocean Challenge readers why bureaucratic Common Fisheries the marine environment is of so little Policy. How long will it be before fish concern to his government? farms provide humanity's only source of fish-based protein (cf. p.3)?

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 Baltic blues Pier review piers became pleasure palaces, featuring theatres, concert halls, Humans have now come to realize Brighton's West Pier has had a rough winter gardens and bandstands, as that the oceans are part of the global time in recent months. Winter storms well as amusement arcades with their environment, with its own eco- last year caused collapse of the almost obligatory slot machines, and systems, not a dumping ground for seaward end, and fires in March and providing an ideal promenade where everything from old cars to nuclear May - blamed on arsonists - gutted folk who fancied themselves as waste. No such attitudes prevailed much of what was left. Built in 1866, fashionable gentry could see and be when the War ended over 50 years the pier's popularity peaked in the seen. Brighton's West Pier in particu- ago. Hundreds of thousands of tonnes 1920s but later declined because of lar excelled in flamboyant architec- of chemical weapons, apparently rapid social changes after the second ture, with domes and minarets and captured from German forces, were world war, and it has been closed to lots of ornamental cast iron. dumped by British and American the public for nearly three decades. ships in various parts of the Baltic. But there are plans to renovate the The Guardian article described how Mustard gas laced with arsenic was pier, and the recent setbacks have if the paper's Arts+Bool

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 5 NO more cockles I worth many £millions. Perhaps the cockles and polluted mussels is merely ... FSA will now turn its analvtical spot- / a cunning plan to support shellfish Cockle beds around Britain are to be light onto the mussel farming ind;stry - farmers &.eliminating competition closed down by order of the Food unless all of this fuss about toxic from 'natural' sources. Standards Agency (which is headed by Sir lohn Krebs). Apparently, the FSA transferred its shelifish testing contract to the CEFAS lab in Weymouth, which uses a testing procedure devised by a Japanesescientist who has acknowl- kdged that it is unreliable and suggests Crisis for large predatory fish item, sightings of oarfish could have that it be abandoned. The test used by given rise to legends about sea ser- the CEFAS lab involves adding solvent An article in the 15 May issue of pents, although the animal normally to large amounts of shellfish extract Nature (pp.280-82) achieved much inhabits deep waters of the eastern (equivalent to several hundred kg of press and media publicity because of Atlantic and Mediterranean and is rare cockle flesh), and injecting the solution its sombre message that in all the major in shallow coastal waters. Its presence into mice. Apart from the dubious oceans there have been reductions of in the North Sea is difficult to explain ethics of using animals to test for toxins 90% or more in stocks of tuna, marlin, but is thought unlikely to result from which might harm humans, it is also swordfish, sharks and rays in the last global warming. alleged that the CEFAS lab uses no two to three decades. Over the same controls to monitor the reliability of period the size of mature fish has also The seal in loch lomond these tests. lndependent analyses by decreased: they are now only about other laboratories have apparently half the size of those caught in the A grey seal found his way into Loch turned up no trace of the alleged toxins 1950s. Lomond last April and attracted some in the cockles, and when representa- modest publicity, because he con- tives of Britain's cockle industry Toothfish drama in Southern sumed sea trout and salmon that would notified John Krebs of their concerns, otherwise have been caught by anglers. he appeared to understand the points Ocean Their frustrations led to threats to shoot they made. But nothing happened to Customs vessels from Britain, Australia the animal, nicknamed Andre. Initial remedy the situation and the pro- and South Africa were recently in hot attempts to net the seal and remove gramme of cockle-bed closures pursuit of the Viarsa, a Uruguayan- him to a colony on the Fife coast were continued to be implemented. The registered fishing boat alleged to have entertaining but initially unsuccessful. Radio 4 programme 'You and Your's' fmillions worth of endangered What happened next? featured this same story on 22 July, Patagonian toothfish illegally caught off when a spokesperson for the FSA Australia. After three weeks, the Viarsa What, another bridge? refuted cacklers' claims that the CEFAS was caught, and the Australians aim to tests are unreliable, but gave the remove (and sell?)the fish, prosecute The Woolwich Ferry offers a free daily impression that the FSA is simply the crew and scuttle the boat. Countries service for car commuters across the covering its back. It seems that nothing in the Southern Hemisphere are angry Thames, and costs around £5 million a will be done and cockle beds will that those in the north have over- year to run. There are plans to replace continue to be closed. It's bad news for exploited their own waters and now go it with a six-lane road bridge costing an industry that employs thousands of south to look for more fish; the Viarsa's £400 millions or more - a sum that people, is worth £20 millions annually, Uruguayan owners are alleged to have would keep the ferry going for at least and exports most of its product. Mean- Spanish connections. Catching her 80 years! - and the ferry vessels would while the cockles continue to grow, won't make a lot of difference though, be subsumed into a commuter service and the beds are getting overcrowded. there are about 70 pirate boats fishing along the Thames. The bridge would illegally round Antarctica. need to be 50m high to allow clear- ance for shipping, but no more than ... or mussels 70 m high to avoid obstructing the 'Mussel dating' It seems that the FSA has much to approach to London's City airport. answer for. At the end of June it was Because illegal 'pearling' and dimin- reported that the agency now proposes ished water quality have driven fresh- Analysing really, really old to prohibit domestic sales of dredged water (pearl-secreting)mussels in seawafer mussels, because results of allegedly England and Wales to near-extinction, unreliable CEFAS tests show the water conservationists plan to collect solitary Droplets of fluid trapped in crystals of in which the mussels grow to be males and 'seed' them among groups of Archaean quartz and emerald are to be polluted. Laboratories in Holland and females, to encourage procreation. analysed using a new laser technique France are reported to have tested the Apparently the mussels live for 80-1 00 that should reveal what seawater was same water, without finding any years, and breed successfully in Scot- like when (microbial) Life on Earth evidence of pollution. In consequence, land and Ireland, but not elsewhere in began. Using lasers is better than Dutch and French operators have taken the British Isles. crushing crystals to release the fluid, to buying up British mussels at low though a question remains: the crystals cost, reclassifying and exporting them Alien in the North Sea must be in ancient sedimentary rocks back to Britain, labelled as being of where quartz is common enough - Dutch or French origin, and selling A short item in The lndependent in but aren't emeralds precipitated from them at substantial profit in super- February reported that a specimen of hydrothermal fluids in granitic environ- markets. So the FSA has apparently the world's longest teleost (bony fish) ments? How can their fluid inclusions closed down another industry that was caught in the North Sea off carry information about ancient employs thousands of people and is Cleveland. According to the news seawater?

6 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 Sharks: turnina Kelvin Boot Not so long ago the Weekly World small boat was covered by all news front end. Almost everyone has seen News, an American 'supermarket media and seemed to provide evi- or heard of the film 'Jaws'. Sharks tabloid' devoted most of its front page dence for the vindictive nature of are used in advertising to convey the to a fearsome photograph of a Great sharks, yet neglected to mention that idea of menace, and they leap out of White shark accompanied by the the shark was on the end of a fishing the sea to 'snap up' holiday bargains. headline: line at the time, and was understand- They are used to depict the human ably a bit fed up. occupations we love to hate -taking Castroysevil plot to the place of tax inspectors, traffic terrorize our beaches! Fascination with fear wardens and accountants in car- toons. It is no surprise, then, that the CUBA LAUNCHES SHARK Fascination with the 'blood and guts' over-riding impression of sharks is of element of shark encounters has ATTACK ON U.S.! a calculating predator bent on resulted in a self-perpetuating myth: ridding the seas of humans and the media generate gory stories in ... The 'depraved dictator', Fidel Castro, this is exactly what fascinates response to the blood lust of their had allegedly hatched a plot to people. threaten US national security through audience, which in turn is fed by the super-intelligent killing machines - stories and so on. Even credible 'blue So if we cannot beat these propagan- sharks -bred by marine biologists at chip' TV programmes find it hard to dists, let's join them. By focussing on an isolated island laboratory. talk about sharks without including the existing misconceptions, we have the obligatory section on shark an opporunity to set the record The article continued: attacks, often illustrated in true straight. 'Ichthyologists, geneticists and other Hollywood style. Articles or TV scientists and animal behavioural programmes about bees or coconuts Turning the tide experts working at the secluded never revel in the lethal potential of laboratory bred several generations of The 'Jaws' connection is an impor- these 'man-killers', both of which kill tant tool for engagement. Sharks do various shark species before develop- more people a year than sharks do. ing the dreadful killer species that not have to be 'sold' to aquarium now patrols America's coastlines.' We are still at the point where nobody visitors -there is already a very wants a shark story unless it has a high strong familiarity, albeit based on a This story not only reinforces the gore content - breaking the chain is fallacy. In the UK, the National popular notion that scientists manipu- not easy. Those of us concerned with Curriculum majors in a few subjects late nature to create monsters and/or raising awareness of, and concern for, of which numeracy (mathematics) develop weapons of mass destruction, the oceans and the life they contain, and literacy (language) are key it also feeds the belief that sharks are and who hope to change attitudes and elements. Sharks provide ideal malevolent, calculating killers, bent perceptions, face a real challenge - vehicles to address the needs of on wreaking vengeance on the human especially when the best-known amb- schools whilst providing us with the race. The story is patently suspect - assador from the depths is a creature vehicle for dispelling myths. A group especially when taken in context with that apparently means us harm. of children (or adults) can be encour- the other lead story about a three- aged to see sharks as perfect swim- breasted woman and a three-armed Yet it is the macabre fascination that ming machines, or as flying creatures man who between them produced a provides the most powerful tools of -the underwater equivalent of birds three-legged baby - but an awful lot engagement. Asked to sketch their of prey or even aeroplanes. Meas- of people would want to believe that favourite fish, most children visiting urements of the 'engine' -the tail that it is true. the National Aquarium will draw a movements - can be matched to shark with large sharp teeth at the Even now, it is difficult to find a shark different species and different story in the media that does not A Sand Tiger shark to the belief that all sharks are at best dangerous and at worst 'man- eaters' . The mythology, of course, makes for very good headlines and sells newspapers. A more recent 'serious' article reported the capture off Cornwall, of a 'baby killer shark', allegedly a Mako shark, a species which has been implicated in injuri- ous encounters with humans. The journalist had in fact been informed that the shark was a Porbeagle, but chose to run with the 'better' (but totally inaccurate) story. Shark stories are often embellished to 'give them teeth', but 'improvements' can also be gained by omitting relevant information. The report of a Mediterranean Great White repeatedly attacking a

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 7 A shark is a superb machine I us much. They are fascinated and I Attitudes are changing- - want a closer'look, they see the Not so many years ago the idea of a animal in the flesh as an incredible lifestyles. Gill slit movements can be conservation organization specifically creature - it is they, not the shark, related to the shark's activity. Differ- for sharks would have been met with who become hooked. Any 'expert' derision. After all, the prevailing ent fin shapes, body outlines and tail close by is bombarded with questions designs are largely hydrodynamically attitude was that 'the only good shark about what it is, where it came from, is a dead shark'. Now we have the determined, so sharks may be thought what age, sex, species it is. If a of as technological products. Shark Trust in the UK, the European female, has she left her babies out at Elasmobranch Association, and many Language relating to sharks is varied sea, and will they die without her? other societies established throughout and colourful. Asked to participate in The over-riding emotion is not the the world (see below for websites). a word association exercise, a group revulsion and disdain you might The real strength of these organiza- of visitors to an aquarium can gener- expect but rather, concern and tions is that they have been born of ate a shark vocabulary in a very short respect. The reason for this contra- necessity rather than sentiment. They time. At the first mention of the word diction is the proximity of the real have grown from scientific concerns 'shark' they will respond with 'bite, thing. Most people never see a shark rather than from a fluffy feel-good so close, even a dead one, but when fear, blood, teeth, man-eater, jaws, factor. They can only go from they do, they see it for what it is, not killer, cold-blooded', etc. This strength to strength as more people what they have been told it is. provides the educator with the perfect are converted to the cause. opportunity to put the record straight. Simply asking what visitors know Sharks suffer by the million There is a growing understanding of about sharks is an excellent way of The end-product of all our work in sharks and their importance in their bringing out the truth because, the aquarium has to be a greater environment, and there is a growing surprisingly, many children and adults understanding of sharks, which will in awareness of the threats that sharks do know much of the truth already - turn lead to more sensible and face worldwide. There is also a it simply needs raising to the surface. sustainable management and conser- growing appetite for information In a group there will often be some- vation. Most of our visitors have little about sharks and there is a great one who is more knowledgeable or understanding of the actual frequency opportunity to accelerate the changes concerned than the others, and he or of shark attacks, the relative risk of in attitude that are taking us from she will become a champion of the shark attack, or the figures for global killing to conservation. Aquariums cause. It is never long before the mortalities. They certainly have little should be at the vanguard of this vocabulary changes to include the appreciation of the number of sharks turning tide. They have a huge part words 'sleek, misunderstood, elegant, killed by humans, whether by acci- to play in replacing shark fiction with endangered, beautiful, amazing', and dent or design, for malicious pleasure shark fact. Sharks are ambassadors SO on. or economic need. for the seas and their inhabitants, so we all have a duty to be less hostile Aquariums provide an intimacy with The scale of the slaughter is stagger- to them, treat them well and help our living sharks that very few people will ing: I00 million shark deaths every visitors understand the truth rather experience in the wild, but even dead year. This equates to over one quarter than the fiction. sharks hold a fascination for people. of a million sharks each day - about The trophy shark on the quayside is a three sharks each second. Such Kelvin Boot is Head of Education and decreasingly common sight as shocking numbers are perfect for Information at the National Aquarium, attitudes gradually change - per- making the point. Timing a talk and Plymouth.* versely but predictably the people translating it into shark deaths, or who hunt sharks are the very people having a death counter totting up the Sharks feature prominently in the who are starting to champion their total is both immediate and very Aquarium's excellent website: cause. But sharks still come ashore, powerful. The message is clear - www.national-aquarium.co.uk: and the and when they do they still generate a sharks have far more to fear from us Aquarium is the home of the Shark huge amount of interest. Watching than we do from them. people around a dead shark can teach *The Rope Walk, Coxside, Plymouth, PL4 OLF.

8 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 r Climate Colin Summerhayes Climate affects us all. Regardless of without the long term commitments communication networks to data whether or not there is global warming, that the operational community is more centres. There the data are processed with more and more people having to accustomed to. by numerical models to produce useful live on the surface of our finite planet &formation (e.g, maps or forecasts), for Already, a great many countries are the benefit of a broad range of custom- we would be wise to understand actively involved in GOOS through climate better and, if possible, forecast ers including those working in forestry, COOS Regional Alliances in different agriculture, energy supply, water its behaviour. Climate change occurs including the USA, the on many time-scales from the seasonal, supp/y, fisheries, urban and coastal Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the development, and tourism. through the interannual to the decadal, Caribbean, the lndian Ocean, the and includes short- and long-term fluc- Pacific ~sl&ds,the south-east Pacific, Let's look first at in situ measuring tuations as well as progressive change. south-east and north-east Asia, and systems in the ocean. The El Nifio In order to track these changes and Africa. observing System collects observations make those forecasts, the international of the atmosphere, the sea-surface and We need svstematic and sustained the upper ocean to help forecast short- scientific community is engaged with observations of the ocean to: governments in instrumenting the term climate changes associated with surface of the planet, especially the Understand global change El Nifio and La Nifia. It consists of ocean, the least well known bit. That Forecast weather and predict climate moored buoys, coastal sea-level brings us to the Global Ocean Observ- Protect life and property on the coast stations, surface drifting buoys, and ing System (GOOS), and its twin, the and at sea expendable bathythermographs Global Climate Observing System Forecast future ocean states for a deployed along the routes taken by (GCOS). The climate part of GOOS is variety of uses and users. volunteer observing ships, as well as the ocean part of GCOS. GOOS and satellites measuring" the temDerature GCOS are helping to provide the Focussing on climate, we know that and topography of the sea-surface. that El Nifio affects agriculture in many mechanisms we need if we are to get The long-term goal is a comprehensive places, especially in the tropics. For where we want to be. For a good operational system for observing the example, El Nifio events have been picture of where we are generally, global oceans. It will have a full suite readers might find it useful to consult associated with drought" vearsI and low maize yields as far away from the of tropical moored buoys extending the second Adequacy Report on the into the lndian and Atlantic Oceans, Pacific as Zimbabwe. With improved Climate Observing System, produced plus a more dense network of drifting ocean information we can forecast the by GCOS (with the aid of GOOS) for buoys and ships making measurements, the UN Framework Convention on droughts more accurately, and farmers can adapt their planting strategies to plus subsurface Argo floats (of which Climate Change (see http://www.wmo. more later) and a suite of some 30 mitigate undesirable effects. ch/web/gcos/gcoshome. html). stations at which continuous measure- In summary, GOOS is: We know that El Nifio affects health in ments will be made over long periods A sustained, coordinated inter- many places, especially in the tropics. of time to detect global change. For example, El Nifio events are national system for gathering data To facilitate the making and processing about the oceans and seas of the Earth associated with more rain and hence more malaria in places like Colombia. of these measurements from the ocean, A system for processing the data to Because we can forecast the rains, and their conversion into useful enable the generation of beneficial health workers can allocate their products for governments, we need an products and services limited resources more effectively. institutional mechanism. This was The research and development upon created in 2001 and named the Joint Climate fluctuations like El Nifio events which such products and services WMO/IOC Technical Commission for also affect fisheries. One such event is depend for their improvement. Oceanography and Marine Meteorol- the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. One ogy. This body is generally referred to COOS is sometimes referred to as effect of the sudden warming in the as JCOMM. It: 'operational oceanography' (i.e. Pacific in the 1970s was a massive provides intergovernmental coordi- providing a day-to-day service) at the change in the fishery in the Gulf of nation, regulation and management of global scale. In fact, it involves system- Alaska - and lots more salmon. operational marine meteorology and atic and sustained observations, most of In the lndian Ocean, the lndian Ocean oceanography; which have dual purposes in meeting Decadal Oscillation affects rainfall. is the equivalent for the oceans of the needs of both the research and Warm waters off Kenya bring rains; operational communities. Indeed, the existing body for operational corresponding cold waters off Australia meteorology; many of the observing elements of bring droughts. The system switches * provides integrated operational GOOS are funded by research budgets, every decade or so, bringing cold water ocean observing system and data which evidently makes GOOS a quasi- and drought to Kenya and warm water management; operational animal at best. Given the and rain to Australia. clear need to involve researchers in 1 * provides new products and services, designing and improving the elements An improved observing system will and close interaction with the users to of GOOS, and the need for GOOS data help to make forecasts of these various ensure that the products are what they to answer many research questions, it climatic events more accurate. The want; observing system comprises measuring would appear counterproductive to * involves all maritime countries; and describe COOS as purely 'operational'. devices (satellites, planes, ships, buoys, 1 That being said, the message for floats, underwater devices, coastal is an implementation mechanism for funders is that GOOS will not work stations), which send their data through global COOS.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 An important contribution to JCOMM is Because the lines along which ships is a practical demonstration of real- the data collected by commercial collect subsurface data on temperature time, global ocean data assimilation for vessels. 6000 Voluntary Observing and salinity are confined to trade operational oceanography. GODAE Ships (VOS) are observing meteorology routes, we have very limited ability to will apply state-of-the-art ocean models and surface oceanography throughout observe beneath the ocean's surface. and assimilation methods to produce the year. 120 similar ships (Ships of Inevitably, there are large data gaps in short-range open-ocean forecasts, Opportunity or SOOP) are using the southern parts of the oceans, which along with boundary conditions for disposable bathythermographs to must be filled to improve forecasts. To coastal forecasts and initial conditions measure subsurface temperature and fill these gaps and improve our effec- for climate forecast models. It will also salinity; some are beginning to measure tiveness, we are developing a pro- provide global ocean analyses and re- also the partial pressure of CO, in the gramme for a fully global network of analyses to improve our understanding upper ocean. subsurface observations, and an of the oceans, of our assessments of the associated global project that will allow predictability of ocean systems, and of There are some 1400 surface drifting us to integrate space-based and ocean the design and effectiveness of the floats observing meteorology and data and assimilate them into numeri- global ocean observing system. surface oceanography; some 100s of cal models to improve our forecasts of fixed ocean buoys measuring meteor- weather and climate and ocean Outputs from the CODAE models are ological and oceanographic properties; conditions. freely accessible on the internet, for and around 300 sea-level stations example from the French MERCATOR managed for JCOMM through the The Argo project is seeding the ocean model (http://www.mercator.com.fr/en/), GLOSS programme. A substantial with 3000 profiling floats between where forecasts are available, for one number of satellites measure a wide 2003 and 2005. The floats will drift for week ahead, of sea-surface tempera- variety of oceanic and marine meteor- ten days at a time at 2000 m depth, ture, sea surface height (which tells us ological properties, and sea ice is then rise to the surface measuring about the currents), and salinity. monitored both by satellite and 'in the temperature and salinity. Using an field'. The various buoys and ships antenna on top, they will relay the data We now have a clear view of what the of opportunity are monitored from back to base via satellite. We already in situ observing system should look a JCOMM operations centre have around 800 Argo floats deployed, like over the next 10 years if it is to (JCOMMOPS)in Toulouse. Maps of and commitments for the full 3000. provide the most useful and accurate the distribution of each element of the (See Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No. 2.) forecasts of weather and climate. In observing system at any time are 2003 the system is around 45% available from JCOMMOPS via the The Argo data will be fed into the complete, so we are about half-way internet (http://www.icommops.or~. Global Ocean Data Assimilation there (see diagram below). Experiment (GODAE), whose objective

~~The ten-year plan for in situ observations (courtesy of NOAA)~~

~~2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Operational GPSIDORIS Tide gauges stations~~

~~Surface drifting bouys Number of buoys~~

~~Tropicalmooredbouys 77 77 79 79 83 87 90 94 99 99 99 1 Number of moorings~~

~~32 36 41 41 41 High resolution and frequently Ships of opportunity 23 24 26 26 29 I repeated lines occupied Argo floats 20 31 544 1000 2000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 Number of floats~~

~~Reference stations Number of flux moorings~~

~~Coastal moorings Moorings with climate sensors Number of flux sitesllines Ocean carbon network One inventory per 10 years~~

~~Dedicated ship time Days at sea (Noh contribution) Product evaluation and System evaluation feedback loops implemented~~

~~Total system System % complete~~

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 The other part of the ocean data tor wave forecasting. Scatterometers, like GOOS comes from outer space via NASA's QuikSCAT, can also be used to a~tual'im~lemen~ationbeing carried remote sensing instruments on satel- measure ocean surface winds. Syn- out by the individual nations participat- lites. These enable us to observe the thetic Aperture Radar also provides ing in the programme. All of these ocean's surface both globally and useful information on such phenomena observations are being made as part of synoptically for the first time. By 201 0, as coastal winds and sea ice, especially an overarching strategy, the Integrated we should have continuity in being useful to fishermen and navigators. Global Observing Strategy (IGOS), able to use remote sensing from Another biological application is which is basically a partnership satellites to measure currents, fresh mapping of chlorophyll from ocean between the space agencies, the UN water, ice surface temperature, ocean colour data. Knowing the temperature agencies, and international research imagery, littoral sediment transport, net and salinity as well as the chlorophyll organizations like the World Climate heat flux, net short-wave radiance, we can pinpoint areas that may be Research Program (WCRP), the Inter- ocean colour/chlorophyll, ocean wave susceptible to the formation of harmful national Geosphere-Biosphere Program characteristics, salinity, sea-ice age and algal blooms. (IGBP), and the lnternational Council edge motion, sea-surface height/ A useful guide to the ocean observa- for Science (ICSU). topography, sea-surface temperature, tions needed for understanding and In summary: we are establishing a sea-surface winds, surface wind stress, forecasting climate change is Observ- system; it integrates space and ocean suspended matter, and turbidity. Of ing the Oceans in the 2 1st Century by observations; it is nearly half-way to course, these observations all stop Chet Koblinsky and Neville Smith completion; it relies on free exchange more or less at the ocean's surface, (published in 2001 and obtainable from of key data; and it supports sustainable reminding us of the need for ocean the GODAE Office at the Australian development. We urge you to contrib- data from in situ programmes to make Bureau of Meteorology). ute and to benefit. products useful to decision makers and managers. The ocean observations carried out for climate purposes through GOOS are In conjunction with in situ measure- designed by the Ocean Observations Colin Summerhayes is Director of the ments, altimetry and scatterometry will Panel on Climate (OOPC), and form an GOOS Project Office, Intergovern- be used to map surface currents, and integral part of the Global Climate mental Oceanographic Commission, altimetric data will also be used for Observing System (GCOS). JCOMM is UNESCO, Paris, France.

UK SOLAS: Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere System In April, NERC Council agreed to fund the 5-year, f 11 M UK SOLAS thematic programme, as the UK contribution to the International SOLAS programme. NERC's Science & Innovation Strategy Board (SISB) made the award on the understanding that the programme will work closely with the evolving NERC QUEST programme (see below). The full UK SOLAS proposal can be downloaded from the NERC website: http://www.nerc.ac.uk/funding/thematics/solas but, in summary: 'The UK SOLAS project aims to advance our understanding of the mutual interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans, focussing on chemical exchanges which affect both ocean productivity and atmospheric composition and climate'. UK SOLAS aims to assemble interdisciplinary teams of atmospheric and marine scientists to work together within a single programme to tackle the following priority questions: What are the physical processes governing air-sea reactive trace gas and aerosol exchange, in addition to wind speed? What is the production rate for sea spray aerosol and what is the impact of sea spray on processes in the atmospheric boundary layer? * What biological and photochemical processes are involved in the ocean surface in the production and release of volatile compounds and how are these processes affected by inputs of iron and nitrogen? On release from the ocean, what transformations and transport occur in the atmosphere and how do they affect radiative properties, acidity, oxidizing capacity and stratospheric ozone. * What are the important physical and chemical processes leading to the formation and evolution of atmospheric aerosols and their impact on cloud formation? * How can this knowledge be integrated to the global scale that is relevant to climate? How can the improved process understanding be integrated into climate and other models? NERC are in the process of establishing a UK SOLAS Steering Committee, a Science Co-ordinator and the lnternational Project Office. Funding rounds are expected to take place in the latter part of 2003/early part of 2004. QUEST - Quantifying the Earth System To address future priorities, as identified in the document Science for a Sustainable Future (http://www.nerc.ac.ukl publications/strategicplan/), NERC has recognized that a co-ordinated 'Earth system' approach is required, and has initiated the Quantifying the Earth System (QUEST) programme. This programme has an initial core budget off 13M over 5 years. Its principal characteristics will include: strongly integrated modelling-observational-experimental approaches; an emphasis on quantification and predictability; strong partnerships with other programmes/organizations (including those involved with policy development) and an interface with the human dimension. Although QUEST is committed to an integrated carbon-climate programme as an initial focus, it will not be restricted to this science area. For more information, please see the NERC website: http://www.nerc.ac.uk/fundindthematics/auest/ A QUEST Town Meeting has been held and NERC's SISB has broadly endorsed its conclusions. NERC is also in the process of making a senior appointment for the strategic leadership of QUEST.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 11 However, the instability in lraq will not 'fish do not have specific regions of the only scare off passengers from the brain than enable them to feel pain or Queen Mary 2, it will also discourage fear', and that anyone (like me) who potential buyers of accommodation on supposes otherwise must be indulging Freedom Ship. As for the idea of in 'anthropomorphic speculation'. offshore 'cities', that's also likely to be Only now, in the early years of the 21 st There's a stymied by the economic downturn century, do we finally see accounts of consequent upon the lraq conflict. research indicating that fish possess Anyway, the concept itself is about as nerve receptors near their mouths crazy as the futuristic hallucinations of which 'respond to tissue-damaging those loonies in the 1960s (and stimuli' and which, when injected with probably in earlier decades too) who pain-inducing substances (like bee ...OMIHT envisaged establishing communities of venom), cause the fish to behave rather humans on the sea-bed - albeit only on like we so-called higher vertebrates do Offshore cities - a vision continental shelves, not on abyssal when stung. And if fish don't feel fear, of the future plains!! Whatever the answer to over- what makes them try to escape from population may ultimately be, it predators, including anglers? I reckon It was bound to happen. The pres- doesn't lie in the sea .. . that anglers' rationalisations are on a sures of population on both town and par with those of those hunting folk countryside have caused developers who claim that foxes enjoy being (in Europe at least) to view colonisa- Q: When is an island not chased by hounds. tion of the seas as an 'obvious' an island? solution to chronic overcrowding and soaring house prices. To coin a A: When the EU changes the Oh dear, what if martian phrase, they cannot be serious ... definition ice is dry ice? The vision is of 'affordable floating According to new criteria devised by EC statisticians, an island cannot have Beagle-2 is now well on its way to homes', with concrete (sic) tanks Mars. Five years in the making, this attached to the underside of each fewer than 50 permanent residents, cannot be attached to the mainland by brainchild of Colin Pillinger of our own property, allowing it to be moored in Open University will confirm whether estuaries and docklands ... oh yes, and a rigid structure (like a bridge), cannot be less than a kilometre from the or not Mars has water and will look for 'calm offshore locations'. That last bit signs of life there - albeit primitive has to be a joke, because storms can mainland, and cannot contain the capital of an EU state. How peculiar. bacterial life and quite possibly fossil strike anywhere, and when that bacterial life at that. happens there are no 'calm offshore On the one hand, Lundy Island in the locations'. One enthusiast for the Bristol Channel (population 18) can no But the big question is whether Mars scheme suggested that 'there is a longer be classified as such, while on really does have water, for if not, then romanticism attached to the water, the other, the bridges that link Anglesey the prospects for past or present life are and the idea of creating floating to mainland Wales, and Skye to bleak indeed. Conventional wisdom communities is very appealing, a mainland Scotland, exclude them from has it that many landforms on Mars natural extension from the popularity island status too. These interesting were carved by running water. But of narrowboats'. 'facts' appeared in newspapers early there's an alternative view, which arises from the fact that the martian atmos- Could the Freedom Ship project be a this year, generating a good deal of journalistic spleen. Few people noticed phere is dominated by CO, and doesn't better option? ~stimatedto cost getting contain a whole lot of water vapour. on for £ 10 billions, it would be a though, except for a few MPs, one of whom suggested that since the EU Added to which, the ice caps are both floating 25-storey city nearly a mile seasonally ephemeral and rather thin. long and capable of accommodating tends to give financial priorities to up to 80 000 permanent residents. It's island communities, they might be Both these facts, plus an alternative called Freedom Ship because it offers trying to cut back on possible future interpretation of the putatively water- 'freedom from living on landt. The expenditure in readiness for the huge eroded landforms, have led to an imagination boggles at the scale of this enlargement programme due in the 'outrageous' hypothesis that there's lots notion, but that is all that it's likely to next year or so. of CO, inside Mars, that it has erupted remain, if only because nobody will be At all events, except for the size of its at the surface from time to time, giving able to afford to build it. never mind population, Britain no longer qualifies rise to C0,-fluidised masses of boulders acquire any of the IUXU;~ apartments as an island according to the new and sand-sized debris, analogous to that require prospective residents to be definition, especially as the Channel pyroclastic (hot ash) flows and other multi-millionaires, paying big bucks for Tunnel is definitely a 'rigid structure'. dry debris flows on Earth, and that it is the privilege of living 'away from terra But Britain remains an EU state, and it these flows that carved out the martian firma'. does have a capital. What have 1 landforms. Cunard's new cruise liner Queen Mary missed? This alternative hypothesis first came to 2, built in France (St Nazaire) for a my attention towards the end of 2000 mere £500-odd millions and launched Well, what a surprise, fish (cf. Ocean Challenge, Vol. 10, No. 2), earlier this year, will eventually can feel pain and it reappeared in a Nature article in accommodate 2600 passengers, who For years if not centuries, anglers October 2001 (413, 664-66), accom- will need to pay a great deal less to 'get have claimed that a fish struggling panied by several strenuous counter- away from it all' than anyone buying an against the hook at the end of a arguments from the 'martian water' ' apartment on Freedom Ship and fishing line doesn't experience pain. community. I've seen no more articles committing themselves to live perma- Recently they have cited American about CO, versus water on the martian nently at sea. 1 research which purports to show that surface -which is not to say there

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 haven't been any. All the same, I do Beagle-2); but with all this effort to find authors - not to mention the publishers wonder just a little. The hype over both water and signs of life on Mars, - of a new book (from the Geological Beagle-2 has tended to overshadow could it have been deemed politically Society) entitled Volcano-Ice Interac- NASA's proposal to send a couple of expedient not to provide the outra- tion on Earth and Mars. landers to Mars (at a combined cost of geous C0,-hypothesis with the oxygen several hundred million dollars, as of publicity? Absence of water on Mars John Wright against a few tens of millions for would be jolly inconvenient for the

M Hierarchical Monitoring Methods for Tidal Flats 1\ ------There is a seemingly endless list of acronyms for European-funded projects, and one of the most recent is HlMOM (Contract No: EVK3-CT-2001-00052). HlMOM stands for Hierarchical Monitoring Methods and aims to develop a toolbox of techniques to monitor changes in estuarine mudflat ecosystems. The estuaries and coastal seas around Europe are of great commercial and ecological value, and have been exploited for centuries for transport, waste disposal, power generation, leisure amenities and fisheries, as well as being one of the most productive natural ecosystems on Earth. The major producers in estuaries are the micro- and macroalgae which form the basis of food webs that support vast numbers of invertebrates as well as fish and wading birds. 50% of the world's population now live within 60 km of the coast, and to assess the potential impact of such demographic pressure it is essential to first understand the dynamics and functioning of the ecosystem before assessing the impact of any change. HlMOM will create a Europe-wide assessment of the biological and physical dynamics within a range of estuaries by means of remote sensing as well as 'ground truthing'. The project provides a platform from which to test and develop methodologies, and the work will culminate in the production of a 'toolbox' of monitoring methods as well as the introduction of new instruments and techniques. The concept behind the HlMOM methodology is that it will form a hierarchy of techniques, and end-users can enter HlMOM at any one of five levels (see below) based upon both experience and finance. Further- more the socio-economic implications of changing management practices will be assessed so that cost benefit analyses can be conducted. At the end of the project, the findings (well as the HlMOM toolbox itself) will be presented to a a group of potential end-users, including environmental protection agencies, shellfish farmers, tourists, drilling companies and those involved in the fishing industry, as well as educational institutes.

The following institutions are working on the HlMOM project: Brockman Consultancy (Germany), University of St Andrews (UK), GKSS Forschungszentrum lnstitute of Hydrophysics (Germany), Netherlands lnstitute of Ecology (Netherlands), Environ- mental Research Institute, University College Cork (Ireland), University of Groningen (Netherlands), lnstituto de Oceanografia, Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal) and the National lnstitute for Coastal and Marine Management RlKZ (Netherlands).

Level Five Remote sensing supported by ground-based radiometric measurements and basic optical measurements + Secondary ground suite Level Four Ground-based radiometric measurements and basic optical measurements + Secondary ground suite Level Three Basic optical measurements (e.g. PAM Fluorescence) + Secondary ground suite Level Two Secondary ground measurements Extended protocal suite Pigments/bioassa y/lD/system diversity

Entry level: Primary ground measurement The HlMOM Hierarchy following basic protocol suite and requiring limited laboratory insfrastructure Further information and publicity materials are available from: Basic pigments/bioassay/simple ID M. Consalvey (mmor from http://www. brockmann-consult.de/himom

Ocean Challenge, ~ol.12, No.3 13 The EFMS Issue* of Ocean Challenge to ask: 'Does CO, cause pollution?' the sea are possible under the OSPAR contains an account of a carefully The obvious answer to this might Convention. It also suggests that planned experiment to release some appear to be 'yes', particularly given experiments like the Norwegian 5 tonnes of CO, at various depths in OSPARCOM's wide definition of pollu- proposal are legal. Problems might the water column off Norway. The ti0n.t But what of the fact that CO, arise if large-scale sequestration in following issue reported that environ- comprises 0.3% of the atmosphere, that ocean waters or under the sea-bed mental groups had managed to block the oceans already contain something were undertaken from vessels or the experiment, on the grounds that if it like 40 000 tonnes of the stuff (which is offshore installations. were successful it would facilitate the emitted to the atmosphere in regions of The Group of Jurists and Linguists were continued use of fossil fuels. It is likely upwelling andlor warming of the surface of necessity only concerned with that Greenpeace was the main instiga- ocean), that volcanoes emit CO, interpretation of the OSPAR Conven- tor of this action, and the principal continuously, and there is continual tion, and could not make any recom- reason for their objections was that leakage from underwater volcanoes? mendations on any other aspect putting CO, into the sea could ad- The best example of this last is the Loihi (ethical, practical, scientific) of 'CO, versely affect marine ecosystem and Seamount near Hawaii, which annually placement' in the oceans. The Group food-web relationships. As one delivers around 100 000 tonnes to the were at pains to make it clear that they commentator put it, Greenpeace could surrounding sea. were not making any judgements about have 'shot themselves in the foot', The Group of jurists and Linguists whether the activities under discussion because of course the experimental concluded that under Annex I of the were compatible with other pollution- results might have confirmed their Convention, it would be possible for related obligations of the Contracting fears, thereby demonstrating that CO, to be piped directly from a point Parties. Furthermore, they had only marine sequestration is nota good way source on land to the oceans, providing been asked to consider the implications of lowering CO, additions to the that the activity is strictly subject to of Annexes I to Ill, as the wide defini- authorisation/regulation by the compe- tion of 'pollution' made it likely that However, legal aspects of marine CO, tent authority (this would include these could be applicable. Neverthe- sequestration must also be considered, implementation of OSPARCOM rulings). less, Annex V, concerned with protec- and for European waters the relevant tion and conservation of ecosystems The Norwegian plan involved the legal code is set out in the 7992 OSPAR and biological diversity, could also be release into the sea of CO, from a Convention for the Protection of the argued to be relevant. container suspended from a ship. This Marine Environment of the North-East experiment therefore falls under the The report of the Group of jurists and Atlantic. The 'OSPAR' part of the name terms of Annex II. However, 'dumping' Linguists ended by stating that there reflects the fact that this convention is defined as 'deliberate disposal of needed to be more 'consideration' both arose out of the Oslo Convention of the legal position and 'the possible relating to dumping from ships and wastes or other matter from vessels or offshore installations' and as the experi- physical impacts of the placement of aircraft, and the Paris Convention ment would have involved 'placement CO, in the marine environment'. In relating to marine pollution from land- based sources, both of which came into of matter for a purpose other than mere fact, quite a bit of work is being done disposal', it would not have been on the latter, but it is not well known. force in the 1970s. The 'Contracting considered to be dumping. Parties' to the OSPAR Commission In Norway, the cancellation of the (OSPARCOM) are 15 European states On the other hand, if the experiment sequestration experiment was covered and the European Commission itself. had proved that ocean sequestration by radio and TV reports, and the was a viable option, under the terms of scientific and political communities Last year, prompted by the planned Norwegian C0,-sequestration experi- Annex II it could not be implemented in were well aware of it, but no serious the same fashion as in the experiment, political debate ensued. In Britain, the ment, the OSPAR Commission asked a i.e, the CO, could not be tranported in a body of experts known as the Group of topic of underground or under-sea Jurists and Linguists to explore the issue vessel, because dumping of waste from disposal of anthropogenic CO, seems of marine 'placement of CO,' in the a vessel is prohibited. Similarly, Annex to have received little or no publicity in Ill prohibits dumping from offshore context of OSPAR legislation. The the media. There has been a lot of Group made a preliminary report in installations (e.g. converted oil rigs). research into marine sequestration of June this year. Currently, disposal at sea of water and CO, (e.g. Science, 234 (1999), pp.943- CO, that occur in all oil and gas fields is 5) but where are the newspaper and The OSPAR Convention has five subject to strict authorisation and magazine articles and editorials, the Annexes, of which the first three refer regulation.- radio and TV documentaries? Could it explicitly to 'the prevention and elim- be that scientists have not done enough This preliminary assessment of the ination of pollution', from land-based to raise awareness of the issues, and applicability of OSPAR legislation to sources (Annex I), by dumping or make the science comprehensible and marine sequestration of 'O2 suggests incineration (Annex II),and from meaningful to public and politicians that proposals to collect and pump the offshore sources (Annex Ill). As a CO, from Europe's power stations into starting point, therefore, it is pertinent Eds +The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, The OSPAR website is: http:Nwww.osoar.olrr/ *The Ocean Challenge articles referred to here of substances or energy into the maritime area are: 'Ocean sequestration of CO,' by Helge which results, or is likely to result, in hazards to A useful website on the Climate Technology Drange et al., Vol. 12, No.1, pp.33-39; and 'CO, human health, harm to living resources and Initiative of the UN Framework Convention on sequestration experiment blocked' by Lars marine ecosystems, damage to amenities or Climate Change (and related topics) is: Golmen, Vo1.12, No.2, pp.5-6. interference with other legitimate uses of the sea. http://www.climatetech,net/linl

14 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 1 2, No.3 Stakeholders submerged? affected by man's activities and will affiliationsand our expertise, we have come under increasing pressure in the specific duties and responsibilities. Marine scientists should find the article future. The other 70% of the planet's Environmental NGOs have an impor- 'C0,sequestration experiment blocked' surface, the oceans, are less polluted, tant role to play in drawing the by Lars Golmen (Ocean Challenge, but are by no means pristine. The very attention of the public, politicians and Vol. 12, No. 2, p.5) extremely alarm- survival of our species in the long term industry to threats to the natural ing. Two NGOs (non-governmental may depend ultimately on whether we world. Governments have a duty to organizations) had apparently protested learn to use and manage the seas rather take these views, and others, into against the planned and licensed better than we have treated the land. account, to formulate policies based experimental release into Norwegian But we must not pretend that they are on the best available information, waters of just 5 tonnes of pure CO,, somehow disconnected from the rest of including the ethical and economic claiming that if it went ahead it might our world and therefore should be arguments, and to put them before the 'pave the way for future implementa- totally protected (even if this were public. Scientists have a responsibility tion of CO, ocean sequestration on a possible), for there can be no rational to provide the most accurate answers large scale, which may facilitate the or even ethical argument to do so. to difficult questions in their particular continued use of fossil fuels.' Sadly, fields of expertise, sometimes under- the Norwegian Ministry of Environ- Amongst our existing and continuing taking environmental experiments to ment gave in to the pressure and problems is that of preventing the do so. Whether these involve geneti- stopped the experiment. build-up of CO, in the atmosphere. cally manipulated crops, disease Hundreds of dedicated and inventive control or CO, experiments in the sea, Eight years ago, Greenpeace stopped scientists around the world are actively scientists must be prepared to defend Shell from sinking the Brent Spar in the investigating a whole plethora of their proposals against informed deep Atlantic since when (as predicted) possible solutions, including seques- opposition, and expect sometimes to no-one has dared mention the words tration (see Greenhouse Issues, in the lose the argument. But they should 'disposal' and 'deep-sea' in the same Further Reading). One of the many also protest loudly and publicly sentence. As a result of this latest possibilities is long-term storage in the against ill-informed decisions like the development, are we to understand deep ocean. The marine scientific cancellation of this experiment. that no-one will be able to carry out an community in university, government experiment in the ocean without the and, yes, commercial laboratories, For just as scientists per se are not express permission of the NGOs, collectively knows a great deal more qualified to adjudicate between the whose members generally know little about the seas than all the NGOs put ethical or economic arguments, NGOs or nothing about the environments they together. But it is humble enough to have no right to dictate what science are so concerned to protect? Along acknowledge that it cannot with should, or should not, be undertaken. with their pride in having saved the confidence predict the effects of a Furthermore, governments who allow oceans from the pin-prick effects of a number of potential anthropogenic them to do so are abdicating their 5-tonne CO, injection, are these NGO impacts on the marine environment, responsibilities in favour of those who members equally proud of having including the sequestration of CO,, by can simply shout loudest. The stimulated a decision possibly prejudi- extrapolation from the results of srnall- scientific community should point this cial to the interests of human society as scale tests typical of conventional out to them. Indeed, although few of a whole? For it is not too far-fetched to research. Instead, moderate to large- us could match Galileo's scientific suggest that the cancellation of this scale tests would be essential and, in acumen, we can all adhere to his experiment may have catastrophic some cases, even these could have principles of seeking after the truth in consequences far beyond those of effects that would make them unac- the face of ignorant, albeit powerful, wasting valuable research funds and ceptable by any standards (see Thiel et opposition. the time and efforts of the international a/. in the Further Reading). But this is group of scientists who had planned it not the case for CO, sequestration, and Tony Rice and Hjalmar Thiel carefully and responsibly. the proposed experiment could have (ex-SOC and ex-Hamburg) provided answers to important scien- We humans, including politicians, Further Reading scientists and NGOs, have manoeu- tific questions with absolutely no risk of any significant long-term damage to Greenhouse Issues is the newsletter of the vred ourselves into a terribly difficult IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme situation. Our increasing world the seas. And now it is cancelled, and can be obtained, free of charge, by population (about which none of the with the loss to society not only of emailing louise@iea~reen.demon.co.uk NGOs are protesting), and our similarly money, but also of a much more Thiel, H,et al. (1 998) Environmental risk increasing demand for energy, mean valuable commodity, knowledge! from large-scale ecological research in that despite all attempts to minimise the deep sea: a desk study. Marine As individual members of the public Science and Technology Contract No. the environmental effects, the terres- we are all, to use a modern jargon MAS2-CT94-0086 (ISBN 92-828- trial environment and the overlying term, 'stakeholders' in the natural 351 7-0) European Commission, atmosphere are already severely environment. But depending upon our Brussels, 21 Opp.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 15 Chris Cerman, Paul Tyler and Cwyn Criffiths In December 1997, one of us (Chris why we chose this area rather than Eventually, on Thursday 6 March, all G.) attended an annual meeting of the any other for such a trials cruise. was set and RV Atlantis, sailed with Deep Submergence Science commu- First, we wanted to test the ROV at the noon high-tide (Figure 2). Next nity in San Francisco, where the first close to full ocean depth but at morning, approximately mid-way to item of business was a letter from minimum cost to the taxpayer (i.e. the Bahamas, we hove to, and at Tony Blair, then recently elected using as little ship-time as possible). about 10 a.m. local time commenced Prime Minister, to President Bill Second, the trials needed to take a test-dip to approximately 100 m Clinton. The letter praised the team place as soon as possible after depth, just to check all systems were running the US ROV (remotely delivery of the finished vehicle functioning properly (Dive 001 on operated vehicle) Jason for their help (spring 2003) so that lsis could then Figure 1). After about an hour, with in conducting UK government be shipped to its new home in the everything working well, we could investigations into the wreck of the UK. Unlike the north-west Atlantic resist temptation no longer and Derbyshire, lying on the floor of the off New England at that time of year, decided to continue all the way to the north-west Pacific Ocean. Chris the Bahamas area offered good bottom. 30 minutes later, lsis made returned to the UK convinced that if operating weather, close to the USA, her first 'land-fallr at the bottom of the there was ever going to be a good but also in deep water and sheltered Atlantic in a respectable water depth time to propose acquisition of a deep- by islands from all directions. of 81 4 m. After a busy 45 minutes diving ROV for the UK marine An elegant solution, therefore, was to trialling thrusters, cameras and science community, that time had transfer all the lsis ROV components manipulators over a smooth, sandy now arrived. He set to work early the from the late-February snow-bound sea bed, it was time to return to the next year joining the project jointly dockside at WHO1 to Jacksonville, surface, and by 1 p.m. everything was led by Paul T, and Gwyn G. (both Florida, where the RV Atlantis was back on board. It was time to head also at SOC) which was ultimately just finishing a period of re-fit. After full-speed to the Bahamas - lsis Dive successful through the JIF (Joint a few days of activity we were ready 001 had been successfully com- lnfractruture Fund) scheme (see to sail. The full lsis svstem. including pleted! Ocean Challenge, Vol.11, No.3, p.11). shipboard control and workshop " 1 Early on 7 March we were approach- Some five years later, and after vans, winch and launch systems, ing the Tongue of the ~cean,'but learning far more than we ever takes up the equivalent of nine 20-ft before conducting any further lsis thought we would need to know containers. The full suite of the lsis dives it was important to generate a about the subtleties of fibre-optic system is much greater than the detailed bathymetric map so that we cables or the relative merits of Atlantis requires to operate her sister would know where we were going. different launch and recovery systems (or rather brother) ROV, Jason 11, but This was done using the shipboard (Paul and Chris were very pleased to the beauty of the lsis system is that, in swath bathymetry system and by have Gwyn around to 'translate' many future, it can be mobilised to be used 2 p.m. we were ready to get lsis back of the engineering issues) - our new from any sufficiently large ship of in the water. Figure 4 shows lsis 6500 m-rated ROV lsis finally set sail opportunity, anywhere in the world. being launched on Dive 002 off the on its maiden voyage. Bahamas. Over the next three days, lsis is a close copy of Jason I1 launched last year, and was also built Figure I The position of at the Woods Hole Oceanographic lsis dive areas. Institution in the USA. To give our The dashed line vehicle a thorough testing on this first is the Atlantis engineering and delivery trials cruise, cruise track, we took along not only our own five- and the white person UK ROV team* but also a box indicates the selection of key individuals from the location of Dives 002 to USA, led by Andy Bowen, the WHO1 004 off the ROV team leader. Further, so that we Bahamas (see were working from a ship where the Figure 3). personnel were already familiar with the ROV tasks we planned to under- take, we operated from the WHO1 ship RV Atlantis under the command of Captain Gary Chiljean. The area we had chosen to visit, on the basis of Paul Tyler's local knowledge, was an area termed the 'Tongue of the Ocean' near the Bahamas (Figures 1 and 3). You might wonder

*The Isis ROV team at SOC is: Pete Mason (Project Manager), Dave Edge (Deputy Project Manager), Dave Turner, Mike Bisset and Andy Cartney.

16 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 acoustic releases built into their design had failed, so these moorings were 'stuck' at the bottom of the Atlantic, at depths of 4900-5500 m. The lsis team's mission therefore, was to effect their release by attaching specially designed cutters to each of the remaining moorings, and so recover both the equipment and the stored data. That mission worked very much as planned, and all six sets of moorings were recovered safely. In early May, lsis arrived back in the UK where she is now installed in the new Deep Submergence Vehicles hangar alongside her autonomous counterpart, Autosub. lsis will be ready to start full scientific operations in spring 2004, immediately following com~letionof the three-vear Figure 2 The RVAtlantis at sea off the and SOC in the UK - agreement was cGmmis4ioning grant award irom JIF Bahamas in March, 2003. The darker quickly reached to bring the cruise to (2001-2004). As for any other ship- areas at the stern are all part of the lsis an abrupt end and, on 12 March, time application, the next deadline ROV system. Chris German and Paul Tyler disem- for a bid for a NERC grant to use the barked at Nassau, along with the ROV is 1 December 2003. We look lsis was deployed to maximum remainder of the scientific party that forward to seeing lsis back at the depths of 1930 m, 4330 m and 1037 we had taken to sea with us - quite bottom of the ocean, where she m respectively (Figure 3), for dives of content with what we had been ultimately belongs, at the earliest duration 9.5 hours, 10 hours and 7 achieved for starters! opportunity! hours. Regrettably, during the last of For Pete Mason and the rest of the these dives (Dive 004) a problem Enquiries concerning the use of the developed with the ship's bow ROV team, however, the time for relaxation had not yet arrived. They ROV should be directed to Pete thrusters compromising its ability to Mason, Email: [email protected] hold station and thus precluding any were to remain aboard the Atlantis for its transit to Grand Bahama further ROV dive operations. After cont. overleaf frantic negotiations between those of where, following essential ship us on the ship and key parties ashore repairs, they were joined by Gwyn - NSF and WHO1 in the USA, NERC Griffiths on an expedition to put lsis to immediate good use - helping Figure 4 The UK ROV lsis entering the WHO1 colleague Mike McCartney surface ocean off the Bahamas at the Figure 3 The location of Dives 002 to recover six deep-sea moorings, start of Dive 002, 8 March 2003. Three 004 in the 'Tongue of the Ocean'off the crucial to his two-year physical dives were conducted in this area before Bahamas (cf. Figure 1). oceanography investigation. The ship problems brought a premature end to the cruise.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 17 Specification of the lsis ROV Following the spirit of the JIF scheme, Box 1: General specification of the Isis ROV the general specification of the lsis ROV was based on that of an existing Parameter Specification design -the lason 11. All of the items Length 2.7 m listed in Box 1, except the tether Width 1.5 m management system (TMS), derive Height 2.0 m directly from lason 11. The decision to Overall weight ROV: 3000 kg in air use a TMS rather than the more TMS: 1000 kg in air straightforward streamlined weight used on lason was intended to provide Science payload On ROV: - 70 kg in front tray additional flexibility in operating the 22 kg in each of two motorised side-trays ROV close to the sea bed, and to On TMS: Two cameras, lights and altimeter simplify launch and recovery opera- Maximum working depth 6500 m (with safety factor of 1.5) tions: with the ROV latched into the TMS, only one package needs to be Vertical, lateral Not less than 2000 N bollard pull, handled at these critical times. In the and forward thrust provided by six 3.7 kW thrusters offshore industry, using a TMS in Speed, forward and lateral, Not less than 0.75 m s-' workclass ROVs is now common at 6500 m practice, but it is still relatively new to deep submergence science vehicles. Power This is partly because of the additional dynamic load problems caused by I using a TMS. I I The ROV is well provided with equipment for control, observation, manipu- Box 2: Installed systems on lsis lation and sampling. The key systems are listed in Box 2. Full use is made of Cameras High resolution colour (3-chip broadcast quality, 800 lines) the 2 Gbitss-' bandwidth of the optical Digital still (3.34 Megapixel) fibre cable for the transmission of video Low light (Monochrome ICCD) and still images, sonar data and control Wide dynamic range (Monochrome Pixelfly, 11 -bit dynamic range, 1 Megapixel) telemetry. The camera suite includes General (miniature colour and blw cameras for science and navigation) high resolution video and still formats which provide the definition needed for Pan and tilt unit (pan of + 165"; tilt off 75") quantitative scientific analysis as well Lights HMI (three circuits, 1200W total) as the quality material needed by Incandescent (five at 250 W each) broadcasters. A notable inclusion is Strobe (dual 600 J units) the Pixelfly monochrome camera. Its imaging sensor provides an I1-bit Scale (two-beam red laser) dynamic range needed to observe Manipulators detail within shadows. A separate fibre Two Kraft TeleRobotics 7-function, spatially coherent units is available for use with a ~j~hDefini- Attitude and heading tion TV camera. Although such a Octans fibre-optic gyrocompass and Crossbow three-component magnetometer camera will not be fitted as standard, the vehicle systems are designed with Pressure Paroscientific Digiquartz gauge HDTV in mind. Sonars Doppler Velocity Log (RD Instruments 1200 kHz navigator; > 30m range; The choice of manipulators was error < 0.22% distance travelled) difficult, While some vehicles carry an Forward-look sonar (Kongsberg Sirnrad SM2000 series; 200 kHz, 400 m range) agile (though complex) 7-function arm Profiling sonar (Kongsberg Simrad MS900 series; 675 kHz, 100 m range) and a more robust, simpler 5-function arm, we chose to equip the vehicle with two identical 7-function spatially coherent master-slave manipulators, in which the actual manipulator arms are With no active buoyancy control, the system, complete with its own cable, linked to miniature versions which are ROV needs to be deployed with winch and launch and recovery system. operated by someone at the surface. disposable ballast if the task includes As delivered, the storage drum holds This provides the dexterity needed for retrieving samples from the sea bed. 10000 m of 0.68-inch diameter cable, sampling operations in complex More complex tool sleds will be with three power conductors and three environments such as hydrothermal constructed in the future for other tasks. optical fibres. A traction winch vent fields. There are also opportunities to develop provides the motive power and an new tools, and to source tools already integral 'A' frame provides the means to Beneath the ROV itself, a tool sled can developed elsewhere, e.g. samplers deploy the vehicle over the side (or be fitted. The basic tool sled that comes that can keep the contents at the stern) of the ship. The penalty for this with the vehicle comprises a front pressure at which they were collected versatility is that the system is ex- motorised tray for storing tools and for during ascent. tremely bulky and weighs about 90 transporting samples. This tray is tonnes. supplemented by smaller motorised At the very outset lsis was envisaged as trays on the port and starboard sides. a fully transportable, self-contained

~~18 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 Colouring in the currents round South Africa and Madagascar Graham D. Quartly and Meric A. Srokosz~~

The ocean colour sensor SeaWiFS,* launched in August 1997, has been a great boon to those researching large-scale oceanic biological productivity. The sensor can detect variations in the colour of the water due to the presence of chlorophyll in phytoplankton, which essentially changes the water colour from blue to green. SeaWiFS has provided measurements of chlorophyll concentration over nearly all the world's oceans, and because of their association with fronts, eddies and regions of upwelling, these records of phytoplankton abundance reveal much about physical processes occurring within the ocean.

The long data record from SeaWiFS has Figure 1 The main oceanographic features in the engendered a number of studies of physical Agulhas Current system. Light shading indicates ocean processes. Here, we will describe a waters deeper than 3000m; dark shading indicates number of examples taken from the Agulhas those shallower than 1000m. The poleward-flowing Agulhas Current (AC) 'retroflects' (turns back) to the Current system around South Africa (Figure 1). south of South Africa forming the Agulhas Retro- Typically, the waters in this region show an flection (AR), and the resulting eastward-flowing annual cycle in the quantity of phytoplankton, Agulhas Return Current (ARC) has north-south with highest values around July and August meanders, partially forced by topography, such as the (Figure 2, overleaf). This so-called 'spring Agulhas Plateau at 26"E. The Antarctic Circumpolar Bottom Current (ACC) is much further south in this region. topography plays bloom' is triggered by the increase in light an important role levels and the enhanced stratification due to The East Madagascar Current (EMC) flows poleward along the coast of Madagascar and then, guided by in guiding ocean surface warming and the abeyance of storms. the bathymetry, flows round the southern tip of that currents around A secondary bloom occurs in the Madagascar island. South Africa and Basin to the east of Madagascar. This is due to Madagascar the seasonal deepening of the mixed layer coupled with strong eddy activity mixing up nutrients into the surface layer. Here, we are not concerned with the absolute values of chlorophyll concentration, but in the ability of chlorophyll to act as a tracer of water motion. Clearly, we are dealing with a non-conservative quantity: growth, mortality, and grazing by zooplankton all affect the abundance of phytoplankton present. Additionally, any processes that raise or lower the depth of the biota will affect the value in the surface layer that the satellite 'sees'. The sensor can only detect phytoplankton near the sea-surface. However, it is often valid to assume that the near-surface chlorophyll concentration is homogeneous 10" 20" 30" 40" 50"E within a given water body (for example, a current or an eddy), and so changes in chlorophyll concentration can be used to delineate the boundaries of features and enable their temporal evolution to be studied. *S~~WIFS= Sea-viewing Wide Field of View Sensor.

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 Observing upwelling The dynamics of the various upwelling regions Most of the waters in the Indian Ocean are are very different. Persistent upwelling had oligotrophic, that is, low in nutrients, and so already been noted in the Delagoa Bight, phytoplankton growth is limited by nutrient despite the frequent easterly onshore winds; supply. The major exceptions to this are in this implied that it was the alongshore current regions where subsurface nutrient-rich waters rather than the winds that was the motive force are being upwelled into the euphotic zone. The for the upwelling. The predominant winds most pronounced examples in our area of over Madagascar are also from the east, and interest are the Benguela Upwelling, the upwelling along the east coast of Madagascar Delagoa Bight, and regions to the south-east and can be explained in terms of the poleward flow In July and August, south of Madagascar, which all stand out as of the East Madagascar Current (EMC) together high plankton areas of high biological productivity (Figure 2). with the broadening of the shelf to the south of productivity These features continue to be noticeable in the Madagascar. ocean colour images even when the annual As the waters of the East Madagascar Current where cycle of phytoplankton concentration is at its are low in nutrients and thus in chloro~hvll. 8 2 fed by upwelling maximum. we may characterise the edge of this upwelling region by the contour corresponding to a chlorophyll concentration of 0.2 mg m-3. Little short-term variability (days to weeks) is observed in the boundary of the upwelling to the east of Madagascar (Figure 3), except during January-February (not shown). Neither is there much long-term variability, nor any clear seasonal signal. As the upwelling is predomi- nantly current-induced, this in turn suggests that there is little seasonality or shorter term variability in the flow of the EMC, in agreement with the limited in situ observations which have been made of the current. South of Madagascar the behaviour of the current is very different: here, the EMC is much less constrained and often lies much further offshore, and the winds, varying from south- Figure 2 Mean chlorophyll concentration for August easterly to north-easterly, make a variable (averaged over 1998 to 2001), showing high product- contribution to the upwelling. The productive ivity in the Benguela Upwelling region and the Agulhas upwelled shelf waters may at times be en- Current system, with much lower chlorophyll trained and advected westwards by the EMC, concentrations lthanl in the regions to the south or in the central lndian Ocean (top right). As well as high which is itself low in chlorophyll (Figure 4). productivity to the south of Madagascar, there is The picture is further complicated by the increased chlorophyll concentration year-round to the presence of eddies in this area (see below). north of Crozet Plateau, near 50°E, 44's. Ocean colour Imaging fronts images show Figure 3 Boundary of the upwelling region in late Fronts may also be marked by locally high that the extent 1998 for a series of six-da y composites. Numbers levels of phytoplankton, when the mixing of upwelling to correspond to Julian Day (230 = 18 Aug. etc.) and the south of between two adjacent water masses provides the contour represents 0.2mgm-3. North of 25.5'S the optimal ingredients for growth (nutrients, Madagascar is the boundary between upwelled waters and the East very variable, Madagascar Current (EMC on Figure 1) remains light, warmth, remnant plankton, and en- whereas that fixed, but south of that latitude, the boundary hanced mixing and upwelling) that neither to the east of changes much more rapidly (especially between water mass contains alone. A particular the island is days 266 and 290) in response to shifts in the path of example is the region just to the south of the more constant the EMC. Agulhas Return Current (Figure S), where there are three major fronts - th;so-called Agulhas Return Front, the Subtropical Front and the SubAntarctic Front - in close proximity. The latter front is associated with the eastward- flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which lies to the south of the Agulhas Return Current (Figure 1). In this frontal zone the phytoplankton distribution is extremely inhomogene- ous, with many small patches of enhanced productivity, some transitory, others longer lasting. The surface waters to the south are all richer in nutrients than the more northern waters, but the increased primary productivity lies mainly along the Subtropical Front. This is because the interaction of colder nutrient-rich waters with warmer, more stratified ones provides the right conditions (enhanced

~~20 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 1 2, No.3 mg m-3 The East Madagascar~~

Figure 4 Successive six-day composites from late 2000 for the region to the south of Madagascar, showing rapid evolution in patterns of chlorophyll concentration. The EMC, distinguished by water with low chlorophyll concentrations (and marked by an arrow in (a)), draws the productive upwelled waters south-westwards away from Madagscar. In successive pictures, this strand is seen to separate forming a 'blob' of high chlorophyll concentration water.

nutrient and light levels) for phytoplankton growth. This region of enhanced growth is The Subtropical bounded to the north by the Agulhas Return Figure 5 Chlorophyll concentrations for February Front (between 1999. The isotherms are from ATSR (Along-Track Front, which enables the front to be detected in the Agulhas Scanning Radiometer, a space-borne infrared sensor ocean colour imagery. Monitoring changes in Return Front and for sea-surface temperature). At this time of year, the this front using SeaWiFS gives results that agree the SubAntarctic 19"C, 75°C and 7 0°C isotherms typically correspond Front) is very well with satellite observations of changes to the positions of the Agulhas Return Front (marking highlighted in in sea surface temperature (ST), again demon- the position of the Agulhas Return Current), Sub- strating the close link between physical and tropical Front and the SubAntarctic Front. The highest Sea WlFs images by its high chlorophyll concentrations lie along the Subtropical biological processes. primary Front, especially where the strength of the front productivity Revealing eddies (inferred from the SST gradient) is greatest. The flow field associated with eddies can affect the amount of plankton growth because the dynamics associated with the eddies can bring space in radar altimeter data, thus confirming nutrients from deeper in the water column into the more indirect observation of their dynamics the euphotic zone. However, in the Agulhas using the chlorophyll patterns. The advantage of region, eddies are more commonly revealed by chlorophyll distributions over altimeter data is wrapping themselves in a 'Cloak of Visibility', that (in cloud-free conditions) they provide as they entrain chlorophyll-rich surface waters much higher resolution (1 km) observations of from upwelling regions (see Figure 6). From the features. Two cyclonic single images it is not always clear what the eddies off eddies' sense of rotation might be, but by south-western looking at a sequence of images (or better still, Madagascar are an animation of such a sequence) it is easy to Figure 6 Cyclonic (clockwise) eddies to the south- revealed by the west of Madagascar revealed by enhanced 'Cloak of deduce whether their sense of rotation is chlorophyll-rich waters. The high chlorophyll Visibility' cyclonic or anticyclonic. From the chlorophyll concentration waters had originated from coastal provided by patterns these particular eddies appear to be upwelling of nutrients, and were subsequently high-chlorophyll cyclonic. entrained around the eddies. coastal wafers It is not apparent whether the cyclonic eddies in Figure 6 form in the lee of Madagascar or have been generated elsewhere, and only become apparent when they entrain more productive waters. This acquired 'green mantle' provides a means of tracing the move- ment of the eddies. In an animation of the SeaWiFs data for this region, a number of such features can be discerned moving westwards or west-south-westwards towards the African coast and the Agulhas Current. This interpretation is consistent with the progression of anomalies in sea-surface height seen from

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 waves displace water to the north and south due to the geostrophic currents associated with the wave motion. Given their near-zonal propagation, the evolution of Rossby waves can be revealed by Hovmoller diagrams (longitude-time plots) at a given latitude. A portrayal of the absolute chlorophyll values (Figure 8(a)) mainly shows the strong annual cycle in chlorophyll concentration, with the westward-propagating Rossby waves only occasionally apparent. A filter can be applied to produce chlorophyll anomalies (values relative to local spatial mean); a Hovrnoller diagram of these anomalies (Figure 8(b)) reveals the Rossby waves much Two Of Figure 7 High-productivity waters off the coast of more clearly. In many locations the Rossby eddies Mozambique are dragged into mid-channel by wave phytoplankton signal is consistent with sweeping polewards southward-moving anticyclonic eddies; however the north-south displacements across a meridi- the coast Of cores of these two eddies continue to be marked by Mozambique low chlorophyll concentrations. onal gradient; that is, the chlorophyll concentration changes with latitude but is uniform in the east-west direction and this pattern is distorted by the wave motion and-so detected A different situation is found on the western by SeaWiFS. However, in the centre of the edge of the Mozambique Channel, where there South Indian Ocean gyre, Rossby waves are is a train of poleward-heading anticyclonic revealed by ocean colour in a region where eddies (see Figure 7). These reveal themselves there is no obvious latitudinal variation of by a scarcity of phytoplankton, for although chlorophyll concentration. Candidate explana- phytoplankton-rich waters are swept from the tions for a visible signatures involve either coast into the centre of the channel, they do not significant raising of the deep chlorophyll penetrate into the cores of the eddies. Exami- maximum, or real phytoplankton growth due to nation of a sequence of composite images upwelling of nutrient-rich water induced by the reveals about five of these southward-moving Rossby wave. A quantitative explanation of anticyclonic features per year, in agreement these moving waves of colour is a topic of with observations from current meter moorings current research. in the channel. Such techniques for tracking eddies have been used elsewhere; for example, rings (eddies) shed by the North Brazil Current have been Figure 8 Hovmoller diagrams showing chlorophyll tracked by high-chlorophyll waters entrained signature of Rossby waves at 32 "S in the lndian Ocean: note that time progresses up the diagrams. from the Amazonian outflow region (a) Absolute values of chlorophyll concentration. (6) Results after filtering to give anomalies with Colouring waves respect to a local spatial mean (expressed as Rossbv waves are im~ortantfor linking events fractional change in chlorophyll concentration). An in the'east and west bf an ocean basin, as example ~ossbywave trajectory has been marked on they are propagating disturbances their both plots to indicate the size and speed of the propagating features (many others can be seen). motion may also have weaker north-south Propagation speed is -70' in a year, corresponding to components). As they propagate, the Rossby -3 km da y-' .

~~Jan Filtered Sea WiFS data reveal the Jul passage of Rossby waves through Jan their effect on chlorophyll Jul concenfration Jan~~

~~Jul~~

~~Jan~~

~~Jul~~

~~Jan~~

~~50" 60" 70" 80" 90" 100" 50" 60" 70" 80" 90" 100" longitude (E) longitude (E) (b)~~

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 End of the rainbow One of the first papers detailing observations of The examples described in this article demon- Rossby waves using SeaWiFS. strate that a satellite sensor designed for one Fratantoni, D. M. and D. A. Glickson (2002) North purpose - ocean colour measurements of Brazil Current ring generation and evolution biological processes - can reveal much about observed with SeaWiFS. Journal of Physical physical processes. The technique exploits Oceanography, 32,1058-74. the intimate relationship between ocean Description of the use of SeaWiFS data to study biology and physics to enhance our under- physical processes associated with rings (eddies) standing of both. Through the ages, writers in another part of the ocean. have referred to the sea in poetic terms, with McGillicuddy, D. I., A. R. Robinson, D. A. Siegel, Homer's 'wine dark sea' in the Odyssey being H. W. Jannasch, R. Johnson, T. D. Dickey, J. one of the most evocative descriptions. McNeil, A. F. Michaels, and A. H. Knap (1998) SeaWiFS might not have shown the sea to be Influence of mesoscale eddies on new produc- 'wine dark', but through its spectrum of tion in the Sargasso Sea. Nature, 394, 263-6. colour measurements, it has illuminated some This paper discusses how eddies can impact the aspects of the endlessly fascinating oceans. nutrient supply to the euphotic zone and so change the productivity of surface waters. Acknowledgements Quartly G.D., P. Cipollini, D. Cromwell and P.G. We are very grateful to Orbimage for the Challenor (2003) Rossby waves: Synergy in development of such a high quality instru- action, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 361, 57-63. ment, to NASA Goddard Space Flight Centre Discusses the mechanisms whereby Rossby for the efficient distribution of data, and to waves might be seen in ocean colour data, and Rutherford Appleton Laboratory for the th ephase relationship found between the height precise SST data. and colour signatures of Rossby waves in the southern Indian Ocean. Further Reading (with annotations) Quartly G.D. and M.A. Srokosz (2003) Satellite The Agulhas Current system observations of the Agulhas Current System, Phil: Trans. Roy. Soc. A 361, 51-6. de Ruijter, W.P.M., H. Ridderinkhof, J.R.E. Shows the links between satellite observation of Lutjeharms, M.W. Schouten, and C. Veth (2002) SST and ocean colour for the Agulhas Return Observations of the flow in the Mozambique Current, and interannual variation in position of Channel. Geophysical Research Letters, 29 (lo), the meanders. 140: 1-4. DO1 10.1 0292001 GL013714. Paper shows the flow in the Mozambique Channel Uz, B. M., J. A. Yoder, and V. Osychny (2001) not to be a continuous southward current, but a Pumping of nutrients to ocean surface waters by series of anticyclonic eddies heading poleward. the action of propagating planetary waves. Nature, 409, 597-600. Holliday, N.P. and J.F. Read (1998) Surface oceanic Another paper showing that Rossby waves are fronts between Africa and Antarctica. Deep-Sea visible in ocean colour data. Research 1, 45, 21 7-38. More details of the structure of the Agulhas Return Weeks, S. J. and F. A. Shillington (1996) Front, the Subtropical Front and the Sub-Antarctic Phytoplankton pigment distribution and frontal Front. structure in the subtropical convergence region Lutjeharms, J. R. E. and E. Machu (2000) An south of Africa. Deep-Sea Research 1, 43, 739-8. upwelling cell inshore of the East Madagascar Study of CZCS-derived phytoplankton distribu- Current. Deep-Sea Research, 47, 2405-1 1 . tion in the region of the Agulhas Return Current The references herein for more on how upwelling in relation to SST fronts, and of the strong is induced by the passage of a boundary current interannual variations in phytoplankton abun- from a narrower to a wider shelf region. dance. Read, J. F., M. I. Lucas, S. E. Holley, and R. T. Pollard (2000) Phytoplankton, nutrients and hydrography in the frontal zone between the southwest Indian subtropical gyre and the Southern Ocean. Deep- Graham Quartly has research interests in Sea Research, 47, 2341-68. observing Rossby waves, measuring rainfall at Paper gives information about the nutrients in the sea with both satellite and in situ sensors, and region of the Agulhas Return Current, and the in all aspects of the Agulhas Current system. consequent increased chlorophyll levels along the interface of different water masses. Ridderinkhof, H. and W. P. M. de Ruijter (2002) Meric Srokosz has research interests in the Moored current observations in the Mozambique interaction of physical and biological processes Channel. Deep Sea Research 11, 50, 1933-55. in the upper ocean and the Agulhas Current Discusses in situ observations of anticyclonic system. He is the Science Co-ordinator of the eddies in the channel. NERC Rapid Climate Change thematic programme. Ocean physics studies using ocean colour da ta Cipollini, P., D. Cromwell, P. G. Challenor, and S. Both authors are oceanographers at the Raffaglio (2001) Rossby waves detected in global Southampton Oceanography Centre, ocean colour data. Geophysical Research Letters, Southampton SO14 3ZH. 28, 323-6.

~~Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 A case of waves versus iets Finlo Cattier and Mark hall~~

Sea lochs epitomise the wild and rugged landscape of the west coast of Scotland. These distinctive fjord-like systems are not simply beautiful reaches of water, they are the link between land and ocean and play significant economic and ecological roles. According The Clyde Sea to annual statistics, salmon farming in west coast lochs is a £1 50M industry, producing and Loch Etive represent two well over 100000 tonnes of fish and generating 10000 tonnes of waste. Consequently, extremes in the sea lochs are receiving increasing scientific, environmental and political attention, as spectrum of sea- people try to understand how they function, and the pressures upon them. loch morphology At Dunstaffnage, just north of Oban, the Labora- tory of the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) is ideally placed to unravel the processes that drive sea lochs. Indeed, 'Fjordic Systems' is one of the principal themes in SAMS's Northern Seas Programme (NSP), a five- year, NERC-funded science plan. The setting up of the NSP has coincided with the re-emergence of the Marine Physics Group at SAMS. Working with external partners, the group is addressing some of the questions surrounding the transfer of tidal energy through sea lochs. This is just one element of an observational programme aimed at understanding hydrographic phenomena from the coastal margin, across the shelf and into the deep ocean. Sea lochs and fjords are the archetypal manifes- tations of a glacially over-deepened landscape. Scotland has been shaped over the last 2 million years by successive ice sheets pushing west towards the north-east Atlantic. When the ice sheet from the last glacial period retreated some 10000 years ago, it exposed the highly indented coastline we see today. Topographically, sea lochs exhibit characteristic features, having one or more deep, semi- enclosed basins separated by relatively shallow sills, with the most seaward sill restricting

~~Figure I Map of western Scotland, showing the location of two contrasting sea lochs, the Clyde 8" W 7" 6" 5" 4" Sea and Loch Etive.~~

~~Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 exchange between coastal waters and the loch. an energy source (the barotropic tide), and the~~

Most receive hiahu levels of land run-off which efficiency by which energy is transferred from results in the formation of a fresh surface layer the tide to the wave is related to the relative that caps the underlying denser basin water. depths of the pycnocline and the sill. This combination of shallow sills and enhanced But this is just one possible scenario. If the stratification leads to isolation of the deep water barotropic tide is weak then internal wave from the generally well-mixed coastal water. formation at the sill is replaced by simple The diverse physiography of sea lochs results in advection of coastal water into the loch. At the a range of responses to natural forcing. The other extreme, highly energetic tides overwhelm principal sources of mechanical energy capable the tendency for internal wave formation, of stirring the waters in a sea loch are the tides creating instead an intense jet of water at the and the wind, and key processes include sill. Put simply, sea lochs will respond to advection across the sill(s), and vertical mixing barotropic tidal forcing with the formation of within the deep basin(s). A host of mechanisms either an internal wave or a jet. have been identified that may contribute to This classification of sea lochs or fjords into enhanced exchange and mixing within sea those showing wave-like or jet-like behaviour is lochs, and it is these mechanisms and their not new. During a survey of Norwegian fjords, relative magnitudes that are being investigated Anders Stigebrandt (see Further Reading), at SAMS. formulated the idea that they could be classified The dominating force in coastal oceanography according to whether a wave or a jet developed of the Scottish west coast is the semi-diurnal, at the sill. The distinction between the two barotropic* tide. Twice a day, the tidal wave classes lies in the ratio of the current speed over surges along the coast and through the sounds the sill to the propagation speed of any wave and channels, representing a massive through- that may form; this ratio is also known as the put of energy. Surface currents regularly exceed Froude Number, Fr (values typically between 0 six knots (- 3 ms-') in this region, with arguably and 2). Physically, the requirement for internal- the most dramatic manifestation of tidal power wave generation is that the maximum cross-sill being the great whirlpool in the Gulf of tidal current is less than the speed of the Corryvreckan. Propagation of tidal energy into internal wave it induces, i.e. that the Froude sea lochs is key to how they function, and many Number is less than one. In cases where the of the processes occurring in them, particularly Froude Number is greater than one, a jet will those related to mixing of waters within the form preferentially. loch. Over the last few years, in collaboration with How does a stratified sea loch respond to tidal the School of Ocean Sciences, University of forcing? The answer depends on three principal Wales Bangor, we have been investigating the factors: the power of the tide, the dimensions of physics of these wave and jet systems by making the sill, and the degree of stratification in the observations in two rather different sea lochs. basin. A stable column of water has a degree of The first of these, the Clyde Sea (Figure 1 and elasticity: if displaced vertically it will tend to heading photo), does not at first sight fit the oscillate. Sea lochs generally have a sharp description of a sea loch, but the outer part pycnocline which will support internal oscilla- forms a single, wide basin, separated from the tions, which then propagate through the loch as North Channel of the Irish Sea by an extensive internal gravity waves. The dimensions of the sill area with complex topography. By contrast, waves, their wavelength and speed, are deter- Loch Etive, branching off the Lynn of Lorn, is a mined in part by the degree of stratification. To very narrow, multi-basin loch with small, initiate and sustain these oscillations requires shallow sills and classic fjord bathymetry. The Clyde Sea and Loch Etive are, in effect, the * We refer to the tidal wave as the 'barotropic tide' extremes of a spectrum of possible fjordic as it affects,the whole water column uniformly, in morphology. contrast to tidally generated internal waves which may be set up on a particular density interface; these are often described as 'baroclinic tides', because here Figure 2 Tidally generated temperature oscillations isobars and isopycnals are not parallel, resulting in in the Clyde Sea observed from a SeaSoar survey. depth-varying currents. Three isotherms (8.5, 9.0 and 9.5 "C) are picked out with black lines. (For discussion, see overleaf.)

~~tidally geneiaied 20 infernal waves for most of the year~~

~~distance along transect (km)~~

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 these waters are almost continually stratified, the internal wave energy remains fairly constant throughout the year (see Further Reading). The fate of tidal energy transformed into internal waves at the sill is either via viscous dissipation to heat, or to increased potential energy of the water column, i.e. mixing up of deep, dense water into less dense overlying water. Roughly four-fifths of the energy is transferred to heat via the viscosity of water, but causes a negligible increase in temperature - consider trying to warm a bath by stirring it! The remaining fifth is available to vertically mix the water column. Rates of energy dissipation and mixing in the Clyde Sea have been esti- mated from the difference in baroclinic energy flux at sites close to and remote from the sill (see Further Reading). These measurements indicated that a significant proportion of the mixing occurs near the sill and at the sloping boundaries of the basin. Closer to Oban, field observations in the upper basin of Loch Etive (Figure 1) using SAMS's two research vessels, Calanus (Figure 3) and Seol Mara, have provided data on the formation of a tidal jet and the subsequent propagation of energy into the basin. At spring tides, current flow over the sill approaches twice the speed of likely wave propagation (- 1.5 m s-I). As shown in Figure 4, the result is that a pulse of water is Figure 3 The SAMS research vessel Calanus working in the beautiful upper basin of Loch Etive. injected into the upper basin during each flood tide. At its maximum flow, the jet extends 2 km (Photo courtesy of Highland Image) beyond the sill, becoming detached from the sea bed at a depth of 40 m. Below this, there is Froude Numbers for the Clyde Sea sill are a weak return flow from the basin towards the typically about 0.4, predisposing it to the sill. generation of internal waves. Indeed, observations from both moored arrays and ship surveys Jet conditions in the upper basin are not throughout the region have identified a clear sustainable throughout the entire flood tide. signature for an internal tide - internal waves of Variation in current speed during the flood tidal frequency. Perhaps the clearest picture of restricts the presence of the jet to short periods the internal tide can be seen in data obtained at peak flow. At other times during the flood, from SeaSoar, an undulating CTD unit (Figure 2, the response becomes similar to that of a 'wave- p.25). type fjord', with propagating oscillations ob- A sharp front at the sill separates the internal oscillations of the thermocline inside the basin Figure 4 A cartoon of a tidal jet crossing the sill and from the well-mixed water in the North Channel penetrating the upper basin of Loch Etive, based on data from a vessel-mounted ADCP. Note the of the Irish Sea. The internal wave field that is turbulence at the interface with the deeper return established propagates throughout the basin into flow. (velocities from left to right are shown as the upper reaches of the Clyde Sea. Because positive in the key.)

~~undulations in the stagnation Lee of the sill I During peak flood tide, water from the lower basin enters Loch Efive as a surface jef~~

500 I 000 distance (m) Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 served along the length of the loch. Inevitably, adjacent coastal waters, part of the much this bimodal behaviour must hold for all 'jet bigger oceanographic framework that links the fjords': as current speeds decrease after peak oceans, via shelf waters, to the coast. Finally, flood tides, the system becomes subcritical and at the oceanic scale, vertical mixing driven by reverts to a wave response. the very same processes seen in fjords, may well exert a controlling influence on the Associated with the jet are a number of proc- Meridional Overturning Circulation. Our esses that enhance mixing within the loch. On understanding of these global processes is the flood and the ebb, flow over the sill draws sparse, but there are analogous processes water from the upstream basin, from depths of occurring in sea lochs and fjords. We can use over 25 m, which is twice the depth of the sill. sea lochs as a laboratory for oceanic processes. This has the effect of squeezing the isopycnals together and so reducing the energy required Further Reading for vertical mixing. Further, in the lee of the Cottier, F.R., lnall M.E. and Griffiths, C. (2002) sill, there are undulations at the interface of the Seasonal variations in internal wave energy in a jet and the underlying water (Figure 4). As the Scottish sea loch. Ocean Dynamics (accepted). current changes, these undulations become Inall, M.E. and Rippeth, T.P. (2002) Dissipation of unstable and break like oversteepened surface tidal energy and associated mixing in a wide waves, causing intense, local mixing. How- fjord. Env Fluid Mechs 2, 21 9-40. ever, these processes are restricted to regions Inall, M.E., Cottier F.R, Griffiths, C, and Rippeth T.P. close to the sill, a small proportion of the total (2002) Sill dynamics and energy transformation in loch volume. Overall, Loch Etive experiences a jet fjord. Ocean Dynamics (accepted). relatively low rates of mixing, resulting in Munk W. and Wunsch C. (1998) Abyssal recipes II: stagnation of the deep water for periods of energetics of tidal and wind mixing. Deep-Sea months or even years. Research 45, 1977-201 0. Wave and jet responses to tidal forcing both Stigebrandt, A. (1999) Resistance to barotropic tidal produce conditions that enhance vertical flow in straits by baroclinic wave drag. 1. Phys mixing in sea lochs. In general, wave mixing is Oceanogr. 29, 191 -97. less intense but propagates over a greater area, Stigebrandt, A. and Aure, 1. (1989) Vertical mixing whilst jets seem to generate more efficient, in basin waters of fjords. 1. Phys Oceanogr. 19, localised mixing. Through vertical mixing, the 91 7-26. deep water gradually becomes less dense, preconditioning the system to convective Finlo is a Post-doc in the Marine Physics overturning or renewal by the intrusion of Cottier Group at SAMS." He is currently investigating denser coastal water that displaces the stagnant deep water. circulation and exchange in Arctic fjords, so combining two of his interests: sea-ice formation So where does this understanding of mixing and fjord oceanography. ultimately take us? At the local level, we can Mark lnall is Head of the Marine Physics Group use our knowledge of water renewal in these at SAMS. His interests encompass many of the often poorly oxygenated systems for economic/ exchange and mixing processes that occur in strategic purposes, environmental management stratified flows. The ohoto used (e.g. effluent discharge) or for interpreting in the article sediment, geochemical or biological distribu- Emails: [email protected]; mark.inallQsams.ac.uk heading is by tions and cycles within sea lochs. On a re- courtesy of gional scale, we can estimate the exchange *The Scottish Association for Marine Science, Dunstaffnage Linda Robb and modification of water in the lochs and Laboratory, Dunbeg, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA. (SAMS).

~~Ocean Challenge, Vol. 1 2, No.3 2 7 ~ookReviews~~

A cautionary tale science thriller, and even if it is only When the going gets tough ... one side of the story, it will send Killer Algae: The True Tale of a shivers down your spine to see just Life at the Limits: Organisms in Biological Invasion by Alexandre how successful authority can be at Extreme Environments by David A. Meinesz (translated by Daniel blocking bad news. Wharton (2002). Cambridge Univer- Simberloff) (1 999). University of Meanwhile, the alga continued to sity Press, 307pp. f18.95 (hardback Chicago Press, 360pp. f 10 ($1 6) spread, not only by sexual reproduc- ISBN 0-521-7821 2-0). (flexicover, ISBN 0-226-51923-6) and tion but asexually, as fragments People have always been fascinated f16 ($25) (hardcover, ISBN 0-226- broken off by storms were carried by 51 922-8). by organisms living in tough places. currents along the coast and took Oryx in the baking desert, foxes in root where they were deposited. The This the story of how a rampantly the polar wastes, microbes in hot dominant agent of dispersal was (and springs, plants on mountain tops, and invasive clone of the alga Caulerpa is) almost certainly humanity, as the taxifolia was accidentally introduced fish in the depths of the ocean, are all alga is picked up and dropped by the making a living in environments we into the Mediterranean, and then anchors of recreational boats. found its way to the seas off California humans would find impossible to Almost every new locality at which it survive without the benefits of and Japan. It is a tale of careful is found is an anchorage. In the scientific investigation, the results of technology. Because of this, we tend Mediterranean, it has now spread to to regard these environments as which were ruthlessly suppressed by waters off Spain, Italy, Croatia and influential authorities who saw the extreme. And in a literal sense they Tunisia; fish catches are tumbling are, in that they are habitats with findings not only as a attack on their and richly diverse areas of sea bed professionalism, but also as likely to characteristics at one end of the are being swamped by monocultures compromise a lucrative financial spectrum of variability found on of Caulerpa. investment. Earth; they represent the hottest, How then did Caulerpa make its driest, coldest, most saline or highest This male clone of Caulerpa first gigantic leaps from the Mediterra- pressure environments on the planet. appeared in the tropical aquarium in nean to Japan, Australia and Califor- When we think of extreme environ- Stuttgart. It flourished and its brilliant nia? The circumstantial evidence green colour superbly offset the ments, there is the implicit assump- points to a lucrative business set up tion that these are tough places to tropical fishes, so it was quickly to supply tropical aquaria. These passed round public aquaria. Within make a living. We humans would aquaria were established using certainly find it difficult to survive two years of its arrival at the Oceano- material supplied under a patent graphic Museum of Monaco, a small away from a moderately warm and accorded to Professor Jaubert at the patch was seen to be growing on the reasonably humid climate, but are Oceanographic Museum. At sea bed below one of the windows of these environments really difficult for Enoshima, Japan a rampant clone of the Museum. Six years later it was those organisms that have adapted Caulerpa appeared offshore soon found five kilometres along the coast. over evolutionary time to live there? after the aquarium had been estab- It was growing just as vigorously as it Perhaps it is more stressful to scratch lished. It had the unique genetic had in the aquarium and was out- a living at the edge of a viable range fingerprint of the Mediterranean than to live in the centre of a range to competing and excluding the strain - could there be any doubt as Posidonia seagrass, along with a rich which an organism is adapted? to its origin? Prince Khaled of Saudi and diverse fauna and flora - an Arabia arranged for his two luxury This question of what precisely ecological disaster in the making. yachts to be fitted with tropical constitutes an extreme environment In these days when biodiversity aquaria supplied from the iame has long perplexed ecologists, and it matters, one would have thought that source. He had these yachts re- provides the starting point for David alarm bells would have rung, and painted in San Diego, and in 2000 Wharton's book on life at the limits. immediate action would have been the rampant Mediterranean strain of His approach to answering the taken against the invader. Unfortu- Caulerpa was found there, dispersed question is to conceive of a multi- nately for our author (Meinesz), his over several hectares. A vast effort is dimensional space defined by all the conclusion that the original introduc- now being made to exterminate it. environmental variables that charac- tion had occurred from the Museum terise a habitat (temperature, humid- This is an excellent tale of scientific caused considerable upset amongst ity, light, pressure and so on), and investigation, but is also a cautionary the oceanographic panjandrums, populate this space with data for tale about the dirty tricks that may which earned him the antagonism of various habitats. The resulting cloud result when self-interested authorities some of the most powerful people in of points represents most habitats on find scientific results unpalatable. It the French oceanographic establish- Earth. Any points falling outside the should be compulsory reading for ment. There followed an extraordi- cloud - e.g. points representing the oceanographers and those run- nary succession of stalling tactics and ... high temperatures and pressures manipulation of funding procedures. ning aquaria. experienced by hyperthermophilic His publications were blocl

28 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 sions), is simply a definition of an The structure of the book is clear. Style is an intensely personal matter extreme environment as being at or Following the analysis of how we and whilst David Wharton's writing is near the edge of the normal range, as might define an extreme environment, refreshingly free of the prolix waffle neatly encapsulated in the title of the the core of the book deals in turn of many technical papers, I found the book. with a variety of extreme environ- clipped sentences somewhat trying to ments. This central section opens read. and the choice of illustrative The interesting ecological and with an overview chapter, and closes example occasionally banal. There evolutionary question is whether with a pair of summary and synthesis were a small number of scientific these environments are perceived as chapters, one looking at what light is slips but these were generally minor, tough or stressful by the organisms thrown by these studies on the and overall this book represents a that live there. Wharton examines a possibilities for extraterrestrial life, terrific attempt at pulling together series of extreme environments, and and a second on general principles, common themes from the many ways discusses how microbes, plants and including a return to the question of organisms have adapted to live in animals have evolved to cope with what constitutes an extreme environ- tough places. David Wharton has a them. There are chapters on living at ment. The initial overview chapter strong, wide-ranging grasp of the low humidity in deserts, at high was the one I found the least satisfac- biological issues involved and puts temperatures, at low temperatures, tory, in that it simply covered ground over his arguments with conviction and then, in less detail, on a variety that would be dealt with more and clarity. This is currently the best of other environmental stresses, thoroughly in subsequent chapters. book available on the subiect and it including high pressure, extreme pH, As such it fell between a simple makes a compelling case for the high osmotic strength, lack of oxygen introduction laying out the basic scientific importance, as well as the and elevated UV. These chapters mix themes, and a detailed analysis. The intrinsic intellectual interest, of how descriptions of the environmental final synthesis chapter was also a life has established itself anywhere variables with descriptions of the little disappointing in that the cover- there is liquid water. It has gone adaptations exhibited by organisms age of some important complex ideas straight onto the reading list for my living there. (such as the relationship between teaching. In using this approach, Wharton diversity and environment) was in emphasises the important distinction places simplistic and misleading, Andrew Clarke between resistance adaptations and though it does close with an interest- Biological Sciences capacity adaptations. Resistance ing" discussion of the evolutionarv British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge adaptations are those that allow an history of extreme environments and organism to survive intermittent their inhabitants. For marine ecolo- periods of extreme cold, drought or gists the main interest will be in Going down? other environmental challenge; they Chapter 1 (introduction), Chapter 5 include the production of stress (low temperature) and Chapter 6 proteins, antifreezes or cryoprotectant (which covers high pressure in the The Biology of the Deep Ocean by (chemicals used to protect cells deep sea). Peter Herring (2002). Oxford Univer- against low-temperature damage), as sity Press, 31 4pp. f 59.94 (hardback, The book is written for a non-special- well as the more extreme response of ISBN 0-1 9-854956-3) and £24.95 ist readership, and as someone who depressing metabolism to undetec- (flexicover, ISBN 0-1 9-854955-5). has spent his entire working life in table levels (cryptobiosis). Striking one extreme environment I am In the opening pages, the author tells examples of the latter include two perhaps not best able to judge its us that seas and oceans cover 71 % of groups of macroscopic organisms success here. Coverage is thorough Earth's surface and that 76% of the living in soil, an Antarctic nematode and the scholarship impressive, open ocean is more than 3 km deep. that can freeze solid (most organisms especially in the way the earlier He reveals that this vast three- that tolerate freezing only do so in the literature is covered. It is good for dimensional habitat forms, by vol- extracellular fluids) and certain students to be reminded that there ume, a staggering 99.5% of the tardigrades which can dry out com- was intelligent life before the start of available living space for life on our pletely and survive for years before electronic bibliographic databases! I planet. With incredible statistics like rehydrating and returning to life. thought I knew the low-temperature these, Peter Herring's Biology of the Resistance adaptations are therefore a literature fairly well, but I found Deep Ocean starts as it means to go temporary measure to allow an several new and unexpected gems in on, providing a wealth of fascinating organism to survive an environmental physical and biological facts and challenge, for during cryptobiosis the reading the accounts of early re- figures relating to the deep ocean organism cannot grow, move or search. Althoueh the lack of citation ecosystem and its inhabitants. reproduce. To complete its life-cycle in the text und&btedly makes it easier to read, I found the suggested the organism must be able to pursue The book begins with a neat overview further reading (grouped by chapter in all normal physiological processes of the aquatic realm, describing the an appendix) disappointing. Several under the circumstances of the remarkable properties of water and times I searched in vain for the source extreme environment, and this some of the challenges that marine of an interesting observation, and I requires what physiologists have animals face as a result of having to feel an opportunity has been lost to traditionally called capacity adapta- live in it. Aspects of the physics and provide a valuable combination of tions. In some ways we know less chemistry of oceans are, thankfully up-to-date specialist literature with about these than we do about the (for this particular biologist!), dealt important general references. This more spectacular examples of resist- with swiftly and concisely, before we would undoubtedly have increased ance adaptations, though in a physi- move on to a review of the various the value of the book by directing it ological or evolutionary context they ways and means of monitoring and to a wider audience. are perhaps more interesting. sampling the oceans. continued

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 There then follows a rather lengthy illustrations dotted throughout the Bangladesh (chapter on coastal discussion on the subjects of photo- text; some are excellent, others less population growth), but that probably synthesis and primary producers. The so. A couple of graphs and diagrams features on the website (available to author assures us at the start of the are printed with labels in almost subscribers only). illegibly tiny type and several of the chapter that this knowledge is an The authors seem to have a miscon- figures seem to have been miniatur- essential ~rereauisitefor a fuller ception similar to the one in Thurman ised purely in order to squeeze them understanding of the ecology of deep- and Burton (see next review), in that onto the bottom of a page. To my sea communities. This is, of course, they reckon the formation of calcium mind, this is a shame, as the excellent absolutely correct, but I must confess carbonate 'locks up' CO, from the text could, and should, have been that I did find myself skipping ahead atmosphere. It doesn't. Precipitation complemented by'equally excellent impatiently through the sections on of calcium carbonate is 'C0,-neutral', graphics. measurements, bacteria and viruses, removal of CO, from the atmosphere keen to get away from the surface and The book claims to be aimed at requires weathering of silicate rocks, into deeper waters. 'marine scientists, student and followed (or accompanied) by The next chapter is far more engag- professional' and in my opinion, it carbonate precipitation. pretty much hits the mark. I would ing, with a look at the deepest habitat On the other hand, though, the book imagine that marine science students, of all -the very bottom of the ocean. has some interesting information that in particular, will find its breadth and The majority of animals that live on was new to me. For example, I didn't depth of information invaluable. The the sea floor, thousands of metres know that the old name for orange Biology of the Deep Ocean has down, are obliged to eke out an roughy was 'slimehead', a name that certainly become an essential addi- existence on recycled remains falling was changed because it didn't work from surface waters. With survival at tion to my bookshelf and Professor well for marketing purposes - perhaps Herring will no doubt find himself these depths being largely dependent this is the same reason that the quoted in many a BBC television on a diet of 'faecal pellets, marine Patagonian toothfish was renamed snow and crustacean moults', this programme in future! Chilean sea-bass. Isn't it amazing chapter's descriptions of the somewhat a bit of marketing hype can do? what unusual lifestyles of such Penny Allen Both these species are now heavily benthic creatures make an intriguing BBC Natural History Unit overfished. read. Bristol A little frustratingly for the deep-sea enthusiast, we are then taken back to Introductory Oceanography (9th the surface again, this time for a look Spreading the word Edition) by Harold V. Thurman and at distribution patterns. However, the Elizabeth A. Burton (2001). Prentice reason for this diversion soon be- Issues in Oceanography by Daniel Hall Inc. 554pp. £31.99 (hard cover comes clear, as we learn much about C. Abel, Robert L. McConnell, and ISBN 0-1 3-857061 -2). the three-dikensional nature of the Eric Koepfler (2001). Prentice Hall This latest edition is not a whole lot oceans and the movements of water, Inc. 40pp. £9.99 (flexicover, ISBN O- different from the ~reviousone. the nutrients and animals across great 13-01 8603-1). eighth, which was'by ~hurman'onhis distances, both horizontal and This slender book, little more than a own. Having a co-author for this vertical. That somewhere in the pamphlet, is an introduction to the latest version of a book that's been region of 1O9 tonnes of animals main topics of concern to all marine going since the mid-1 970s has migrate vertically through the water scientists who care about the state of probably galvanised both authors to column at dawn and dusk each day is the oceans. As the authors state in change the format a bit. Chapter a sobering thought - and one which their preface, each chapter consists of titles differ slightly from those in the puts the daily rush-hour traffic in a brief introduction, the remainder of eighth edition, but remain recogniz- Bristol into perspective. the analysis being on the Companion able and are in much the same The next few chapters are devoted to Web Site, access to which is detailed sequence as before, though there has the amazingly varied and ingenious on the inside front cover. It is a low- been some re-arrangement of topics designs evolved by deep-sea inhabit- cost production, and while the cover and subheadings. A couple of new ants to cope with living in such an is quite colourful, all the illustrations chapters have appeared, one of extreme environment. There are fish in the book are black and white only. which, The Chemistry of Seawater with dislocating jaws and expandable (Chapter 7), touches on the topics of Topics include coastal population stomachs, fish with advanced 'mo- pH, acidity and (that dreaded con- growth, overfishing, bycatch tion-detection' systems, fish with cept) alkalinity, also the carbonic acid (focussing on turtles and dolphins), bizarre tubular eyes, and fish with system, and includes some diagrams endangered sharks, whales and coral elaborately-shaped, glowing lures. and profiles not seen in previous It's an absolutely fascinating read and reefs, ballast water and exotic spe- editions. cies, global warming, sea-level rise, is extremely comprehensive, with a estuaries, coastal dynamics, toxic There are a few glitches, such as the wealth of detail throughout. chemicals, not necessarily in that figure illustrating the CCD (Fig. 5.1 7), With a final chapter on deep-sea order. The whole approach is 'green' which perpetuates the idea that biodiversity and a useful appendix and praiseworthy on that count alone, carbonate dissolves en route to, outlining and describing the marine though some overlap of topics rather than at, the sea-bed - unless I phyla, this book provides a very couldn't be avoided, since human have been labouring under a miscon- thorough overview, not just of life in impacts are now global in scale. The ception for the last 30 years. The the deep ocean, but of marine book doesn't mention the recent authors appear neither to have ecosystems as a whole. For me, the discovery of toxic concentrations of recognized that seawater contains only disappointment relates to the arsenic being tapped in wells in negligible amounts of carbonic acid

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 (H,CO,), nor that precipitation of with the work of Nansen on the good material. It commences with a calcium carbonate in surface waters voyages of the Fram, and the math- short historical account of how wind involves the release of CO, to the ematical analysis of Ekman in the stress (or drag) has been measured atmosphere. early 20th century. However, the from the 1950s to the present day, book gives a modern view of the with brief accounts of all the major As usual with these updates that subject, based on the research efforts field experiments. It is a no-nonsense originate in the US, there are support- in the last 50 years, with a good approach, which gives the essentials ing slide sets, a CD, a website, number of the cited papers from the without exploring the difficulties of Instructorsr Manual, and test files, in last decade. We are told of the many measurement, which have bedevilled short all the paraphernalia of assess- working groups, under the auspices of the subject for the last 50 years. ment that accompany these introduc- the Scientific Committee on Ocean This is followed by sections on the tory texts. There are questions and Research (SCOR) which brings atmospheric and ocean boundary exercises at the end of each chapter, together the world's leading experts layer, ocean wave spectra, measure- but - as with all previous editions - on air-sea interaction, and there can no answers are provided, presumably ment of surface stress, and mecha- be no doubt of the credentials of the nisms for the exchange of momentum because the questions require stu- scientists who have contributed to dents to regurgitate what they've read between ocean and atmosphere. Each this work. (e.g. 'Explain why the polar nature of of these sections is prefaced by an the water molecule makes it an The editors have produced a well extremely helpful introduction. For effective solvent for ionic compunds', constructed book, in that it com- the most part, explanations start at the or: 'Describe the factors that control mences with a an overview of the beginning, reminding us, for example the amount of gas that dissolves in subject, which we are told, may be of the Ekman equations, and then water.'). accessible to a broad range of read- making good progress to the present. ers. I would have defined the range As well as the dynamics there is some A striking feature of this latest edition of readers less broadly, limiting it to discussion on processes such as is that exactly the same 'Issues in postgraduate researchers and profes- vertical convection, double diffusion Oceanography' as those reviewed sional scientists, because it is clear of heat and salt, and the effects of above are scattered between chapters that some prior 'conceptual under- rain on the surface layer. Perhaps throughout this book, albeit not in the standing of the subject is needed. surprisingly, the processes within the same order as in the other book, and This introductory overview is fol- surface skin (top 1 mm) were not somewhat abbreviated (though lowed bv Part 1. which is concerned discussed in any detail and only readers are then directed to the same with thelbasic &namics related to the mentioned in terms of their effect on website), and the illustrations are in wind stress over the ocean. Part 2 ocean waves. I wondered whether colour rather than in black and white. deals with uncertainties in paramet- this was one of those subjects that fell All in all, then, I shouldn't quibble erizing ocean drag, and describes through the cracks between the with this book, the illustrations are many issues that have been recog- authors' areas of expertise, and lovely (even if they are mostly US- nized as crucial for the understanding therefore was not addressed. of the physics. based) and the text is on the whole The more contentious material is to clear and informative, fine for the I enjoyed reading the overview as it be found in Part 2, in particular, first-year students at whom it is gives a good conceptual outline of discussion of the relationships aimed. Indeed, if the people who take the subject, illustrated by a few but between wind drag (stress) and our own third-level oceanography very clear figures, and without waves. Here there is a very nice course absorbed the level of under- overburdening the reader with too succinct section on the influence of standing that's in this book, they'd get much mathematics. The other swell on the wind drag, which is first class passes every time ... excellent feature of the overview is insightful but has a light touch. By that it gives an outline of the fluid contrast, the section on the depend- John Wright mechanics and doesn't assume too ence of wave age on drag is compre- The Open University much prior knowledge. In a similar hensive and thorough, but perhaps way, it covers the basics of ocean lacks insight into the processes. waves, including power spectra and Momentum and modelling .. . discussion of real ocean waves. It In conclusion, this is a very useful also considers the wind flow within book, which is aimed at the profes- Wind Stress over the Ocean edited the atmospheric boundary layer and sional scientist and postgraduate by Ian S.F. Jones and Yoshaiki Toba the relationship of the wind to the researcher. Many authors have (2001). Cambridge University Press, wind stress acting at the surface. contributed to the book, and as a 307pp. f50 (hard cover, ISBN 0-521- consequence there is inevitably some 66243-5). However, it was here that I found my unevenness in style. However the first disappointment, because there editors have worked hard to produce This book is edited by two of the was no discussion of the wind drift a well structured and readable leading researchers in the field of current, and its variation through the account of the subject, which opens momentum transfer between the upper ocean boundary layer; this was up this material to a much wider atmosphere and ocea? - an area of in contrast to a substantial discussion audience. For this alone much credit research of fundamental importance on ocean waves. Perhaps the authors should be given. to the understanding of the interac- felt that the science was not as well tion between our two fluid envelopes developed in this area, but it is Neil C. Wells (atmosphere and ocean), on time- disappointing not to have some School of Ocean and Earth Science scales from seconds to years. discussion of this topic. University of Southampton This is a subject with a history that Part 1 is to my mind the meat of the Southampton Oceanography Centre goes back to the late 19th century book, containing over 150 pages of

Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 Inverse Modelling of the Ocean the previous knowledge required, and I second chapter concentrates on and Atmosphere by Andrew F. indicates where material for presenta- inter~retationof the latter in terms of Bennett (2002). Cambridge Univer- tion as a lecture course can be found geometric and statistical properties, sity Press, 234pp. f50 ($80) (hard- on an ftp site. The author takes a and their relation to the perhaps more back, ISBN 0-521 -81 373-5). theoretical and philosophical stance familiar optimal interpolation rather than emphasizing purely method, for example. A topic of growing importance in practical forecasting problems, but in Chapters 3 and 4 implementation modelling nowadays is data assimila- implementation of the methods is by of the solution is discussed, and there tion, because of the increasing no means neglected. A holistic is consideration of methods of complexity of models and the approach to models and data is much accelerating the solution, and men- increasing availability of large appreciated -too often these are tion of the use of parallel computers. datasets. Although Andrew Bennett's treated in isolation. It has to be book is not specifically about data The problems of non-linear dynamics recognized that boundary and initial with the necessity for iterative assimilation it will be of great conditions are essential components solutions are highlighted, and the interest to workers in that field, as of models and observations, and derivation of the Kalman filter is well as to modellers in general. observations and models both contain introduced. In Chapter 5, real appli- errors of various sorts. The book addresses aspects of the cations in the ocean and atmosphere methodology in a rigorous way and Bennett's previous book on inverse are discussed. The book is rounded gives a good presentation of the methods, published in 1992, focussed off by a discussion of the specific philosophy and techniques of inverse on physical oceanography. This is by problems of regional (spatially modelling. The benefits of inverse (as no means simply a new edition of that limited) ocean models where the opposed to conventional 'forward' monograph but introduces new ideas problem is characteristically 'ill- modelling) are discussed in the and has a completely new layout, posed' because the boundary condi- preface. These include being able to with different emphasis and a differ- tions mav be over-s~ecified.The produce 'analysed' (by some optimal ent starting However, there is a content i; idiosync;atic rather than interpolation) fields of currents, similarity in the theory presented, and exhaustive. and the section headings winds etc., corrections of forcing, in the inclusion of challenging are provocitive and informal, withu boundary and initial conditions for exercises for the reader. use of notes to highlight key points. models, improvement of empirical Useful appendices include computa- One of this book's excellent new coefficients in models, and testing of tional exercises and expansion of features is a short description of the the models themselves. equations. contents of each cha~terbefore the The author has worked in this field main material, providing much useful There are some errors in the text for many years, and the book has philosophical insight. There are also (proof-reading rather than fundamen- been developed from material for some well-illustrated case studies, tal flaws). 1 noticed that some refer- lecture courses for summer schools including ones involving ocean tides, ences to work on ocean tides do not and is thus well-tested. The result is tropical cyclone-track prediction and appear in the text (at least not a very useful postgraduate textbook ENS0 prediction using a coupled necessarily on the pages mentioned) or reference book for modellers ocean-atmosphere model. A useful and there may be similar errors in working in the fields of oceano- data assimilation 'checklist' is given other areas, and some errors appear graphy and/or meteorology. It is in the Preamble. in equations. The ftp site mentioned perhaps rather specialized but is above also provides errata (some written is such a way as to provide The book starts with an introduction to variational assimilation, working mistakes in equations that I had good physical insight into the spotted plus more that I hadn't - mathematical formulations, which through the development using a so- called 'toy' linear ocean model as an perhaps some have still slipped will be useful for all modellers. The through the net). The presentation text does not attempt an exhaustive example. Concepts are introduced in a straightforward, logical, progressive style is rather patchy, probably due to coverage of every method used in the fact that the book evolved from data assimilation but concentrates way, taking every opportunity to draw wider lessons from the examples lecture notes, but overall this is a more on links between methods. very stimulating and educational For example, the author explains the used. Intuitive first choices such as for the weights used in the cost function read. 1 enjoyed it and recommend it relationship between various least- to anyone who would like to get a squares algorithms such as optimal are shown to lead to ill-posed problems, thus leading naturally to more glimpse of some unifying themes interpolation, Kalman filtering, behind modelling methodology. fixed-interval smoothing and sophisticated choices. The solution 'representers'. centres on use of the Green's function to derive the Euler-Lagrange equa- Judith Wolf The preface sets out clearly the focus tions and thus find a solution using Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory and limitations of the book, describes adjoint 'representer' functions. The Bidston Observatory, Birkenhead

~~Ocean Challenge, Vol. 12, No.3 OCEAN~~

~~The Magazine of the Challenger Society for Marine Science~~

SOME INFORMATION ABOUT THE CHALLENGER COUNCIL FOR THE CHALLENGER SOCIETY SOCIETY President The Society's objectives are: Richard Burt Chelsea Instruments Ltd To advance the study of Marine Science through research and education. Honorary Secretary Jane Read To disseminate knowledge of Marine Science with a Southampton Oceanography Centre view to encouraging a wider interest in the study of the seas and an awareness of the need for their Honorary Treasurer proper management. Nichola Lane To contribute to public debate on the development of Immediate Past-President Marine Science. John Shepherd Southampton Oceanography Centre The Society aims to achieve these objectives through a range of activities: Eric Achterberg Holding regular scientific meetings covering all Kenny Black aspects of Marine Science. Sarah Cornell Supporting specialist groups to provide a forum for Alan Elliott discussion. Hilary Kennedy Publication of a range of documents dealing with aspects of Marine Science and the programme of Julian Priddle meetings of the Society. Duncan Purdie Paul Ridout Membership provides the following benefits: William Wilson An opportunity to attend, at reduced rates, the biennial five-day UK Marine Science Conference and Editors, Challenger Wave a range of other scientific meetings supported by the Jon Copley and Louisa Watts Society. A monthly newsletter (The Challenger Wave) which Executive Secretary carries topical marine science news, and information Jenny Jones about jobs, conferences, meetings, courses and (For address see below left) seminars.

ADVICE TO AUTHORS Articles for Ocean Challenge can be on any aspect of oceanography. They should be written in an accessible style with a minimum of jargon The Challenger Society Website is and avoiding the use of references. If at all www.challenger-society.org.uk possible, they should be well illustrated (please supply clear artwork roughs or good-contrast black and white glossy prints). Copy may be sent MEMBERSHIP SUBSCRIPTIONS electronically. The subscription for 2003 costs f40 (£20.00 for students in the UK only). If you would like to join the For further information, please contact the Editor: Society or obtain further information, contact the Angela Colling, Department of Earth Sciences, Executive Secretary, Challenger Society for Marine The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Science, Room 251120, Southampton Oceanography Keynes, Bucks MK7 6AA, UK. Centre, Waterfront Campus, Empress Dock, Tel. +44-(0)1908-653647 Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK; Fax: +44(0)23-80- Fax: +44-(0)1908-655151 5961 49; Email: jxi8soc.soton.ac.uk Email: [email protected] CONTENTS News and Views The Maiden Voyage of UK ROV lsis Chris German, Paul Tyler and Sharks: Turning the Tide Kelvin Boot Gwyn Griffiths Global Observations for Climate A Plankton Guide to Ocean Physics: Colin Summerhayes ,.. Colouring in the Currents Round South Now, there's a funny thing ... Africa and Madagascar John Wright Graham D. Quartly and Meric A. Srokosz CO, Sequestration Experiment Revisited Tidal Response in Sea Lochs: a Case of Waves versus lets Letter to the Editor: Stakeholders Finlo Cottier aid Mark lnall Submerged? Book Reviews The Maritime Crossword Challenge

We hope you will enjoy our maritime crossword. Some of the clues are semi-cryptic, and all have a flavour of the ocean and/or marine science; a good many relate to stories that have appeared in Ocean Challenge. The first correct solution to be received by the Editor (address on inside back cover) will earn the sender a copy of A Century of Discovery: Antarctic Exploration and the Southern Ocean (more details opposite).

~~1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8~~

~~9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20~~

~~21 22 23 24 25~~

~~26 27 28~~

~~29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43~~

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~~55 56 57~~

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ACROSS 13. Purse-seine and gill are types of ––– (3) 1. Subject of a famous print by Hokusai (not a tsunami) (3, 5, 4) 14. Describes a situation where water has flooded in, 5. Melancholic friend of Darwin (and the new name for 5 perhaps over East Anglian tidal flats (5) Down) (7) 15 and 50 Down. Where she might spy sea shells (3-5) 9. Stands for a new Scottish seat of learning (3) 16. Missile named after a flying fish (6) 10. The cause of depressing weather (3) 17. City off which sailing events were held at the Seoul 12. Festival time of year, when the Earth is approaching its Olympics (5) closest to the Sun (8) 18. Used in taramasalata (3)

30 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 13, No. 3 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 13, No. 3 20. A horseshoe ––– is a very ancient animal. (4) DOWN 21. He fought with a warrior goddess over the Olympic city 1. For the last 30 years this has been sponsored by the (8) makers of Cutty Sark whisky (4, 5, 4) 24. Used by the navy, fishermen, whales and dolphins (5) 2. To ‘swallow the ––’ is to retire from seafaring (6) 26. Type of current often found where wave crests are at an 3. Bird of beauty and ill omen (9) angle to the beach (3) 4. The ––– Research Era might be just beginning (8) 28. Phytoplankton buried in sea-floor sediments eventually 5. An area of sea that’s the end of the land no longer (10) become this (3) 6. Sister ship of the Britannic (7) 29. Until recently, most current meters were of this type (6) 7. Porphyra, used in laver bread and sushi, is a – –– (3, 4) 32. Compass flower (4) 8. Light sailing vessel built and rigged for racing (5) 34. There are about 27 000 tonnes of this in seawater (4) 11. They sing in the sound channel (6) 35. Found in association with buckets (6) 12. A Red Sea ––– is full of brine (also archaic for ‘ocean’) (4) 37. Every ship should have one (with multiple lives, not multiple tails) (3) 19. Manifestation of vorticity (4) 38 and 44, plus 41 Down. Part of the cryosphere that shares 22. It operates Ariane and 47 Across (3) a name with a research vessel (3, 4, 3-5) 23. His searching Dad took a ride in the East Australian 40. Prefix often used in marine science, meaning ‘low’ (5) Current (4) 42. Jason sailed here in search of the Golden Fleece (5, 3) 25. Water carried in this may subsequently pass though the Bering Straits (6, 7) 44. See 38 Across. 27. Young of 35 Down (3) 47. Satellites (I and II) launched between 1991 and 1995 (3) 28. Type of spice for which the trademark is a sailing vessel 51. Part of an airborne droplet important for climate – or (but now with a new image) (3) perhaps some bubbly chocolate bars (5) 30. A small one (3) 52. Previously known as the Ellice Islands (6) 31. Food for 37 Across (3) 53. The –– fish is the longest bony fish in the sea (3) 33. Sailor’s mop (4) 54. Long lines have thousands of these (5) 34. Situation caused by the Earth turning (10) 55. Successor to the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) (3) 35. Harbour, crabeater and hooded are types of ––– (4) 56. A good sailor’s tale should do this (7) 36. Vessel for livestock, made of gopher wood and 300 57. Type of waves found downstream of islands (3) cubits long (3) 58. Wish you had a computer this good?? (3) 39. The lot of a little cabin boy (3, 6) 59. Land in Antarctica (and a Burgess anti-hero) (7) 41. See 38 Across 60. The British one is fast declining (7, 5) 43. Fish learn to do this together (6) 45. Management-speak for being part of the crew (7) 46. One of the first undulating underwater vehicles – sounds Please send your entries in to arrive by the like child’s play! (3-4) end of March. The solution will appear in 48. Mermaids’ pillows might be made of this, tho’ it’s a bit forthcoming issues of Challenger Wave and hard! (4) Ocean Challenge. 49. After ‘Sailing by’, the ––– – Kintyre often comes between Colwyn Bay and Cape Wrath (4, 2) 50. See 15 Across (5)

A Century of Discovery: Antarctic Exploration and the Southern Ocean edited by Gwyn Griffths and David W.H. Walton will be a well illustrated, peer-reviewed volume containing an eclectic range of articles on the history and development of ocean and polar science since the Discovery Expedition of 1901–04. These articles arise from the Symposium of the same name, held in 2004 (http://soc.soton.ac.uk/Discovery) They will be published in a special volume of Archives of Natural History (http://www.shnh.org/PUB_ANH_main.htm), planned for October 2005.

~~Ocean Challenge, Vol. 13, No. 3 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 13, No. 3 31 Book Review~~

Revolutions in the Earth: James Hutton only 70 years after Bishop Usher had Baxter describes the response of Hut- and the True Age of the World by asserted that the world was just 6000 ton’s contemporaries: as one might well Stephen Baxter (2003). Weidenfeld and years old, and this notion still pervaded imagine, as well as support he received Nicolson, 245pp. £16.99 (hard cover, society’s view of Earth history. Hutton a plethora of abuse; some contempo- (ISBN 0-297-82957-0). lived alongside many now famous raries seem to have gone to extraordi- Scottish scientists; indeed many of them nary lengths to try to destroy Hutton. It’s always the same … as soon as one were his friends – Erasmus Darwin, Hutton was not (for his day) a modern person writes a book on an interesting James Watt, Joseph Black and Adam scientist, nor a professional academic, subject, another one appears. So you Smith. Between them, these brilliant which is why his ideas may be seen as stand there in the bookshop for half- men would make spectacular contribu- all more the remarkable. Rocks, time, an-hour wondering which of the two tions not only to geology, but also agri- eternity – Hutton had most certainly hit might be the better. Deborah Cadbury, culture (another of Hutton’s passions), upon a new way to view geological his- for example, wrote a marvellous book philosophy, steam engines and military tory, a new view of Earth processes and called The Dinosaur Hunters (the story tactics. a new and contentious view of geologi- of Mary Anning, Gideon Mantell and Baxter attempts to provide an insight cal time. Richard Owen)* and about the same into Hutton the man, as well as to show Baxter’s description of Hutton gives me time Brook Hartzog released a similar his personal mental journey as his the feeling that Hutton was mid-way up book. And so it is again. Both Stephen geological ideas developed, and it is the first division whilst those around him Baxter and Jack Repcheck have written for this reason that I bought the book. played for Manchester United. Although the James Hutton story (Repcheck’s is Hutton trained originally as a medic, many were his friends, and although he the The Man Who Found Time: James eventually completing his education in was fired by a deep enthusiasm, Hutton Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Paris. It seems that at this time he began never really made it to the top. Like Antiquity). I bought the one by Baxter, to attend lectures and take an interest Gideon Mantell, he was up against the an ex-Cambridge mathematician but in the embryonic science of geology. establishment, but unlike Mantell he had now an author, interestingly, of mainly By the time he returned to Edinburgh, a good and life-long friend in John Play- science(-based) fiction. Hutton had lost interest in medicine and fair. But eventually it is Playfair, in his Rocks, time, eternity; these, together begun dabbling in chemistry, eventu- own biography of Hutton, who puts his with intellectual pursuit, farming and ally becoming a partner in a business finger on it in 1803: ‘[Hutton’s papers] the Scottish Enlightenment, are the making sal ammoniac, a salt used do not afford so much information as themes of the book. This is the little- for dyeing. Then, catastrophe struck; might be wished’. For all his efforts, known story of James Hutton, a man Hutton had to leave Edinburgh due to it seems that Hutton’s weakness was who laid the lowermost foundation severe personal circumstances – an that he was bloomin’ awful at writing stones of geological science as we know illegitimate child it would seem. He (although we must remember that geol- it today, and who established a frame- moved to Slighhouses in Berwickshire, ogy was a new science, so vocabulary work within which other scientists of a small farmstead where he worked was a problem). But perhaps that is a the day could develop their ideas about the land for some 20 years. It is here, useful way in which to view Hutton: an geology and natural history. So often while ploughing the harsh soils and intelligent man, and one with a practi- overlooked by us in favour of Charles realizing that soils are produced by cal knowledge of the Earth, an intiner- Lyell (who was born the same year that the weathering of rocks, that he began ant thinker, someone who came up Hutton died, 1726), Hutton was a self- to formulate his geological ideas. A with some profound ideas and made an taught farmer, a man with a medical bachelor, he read extensively and also outcrop near Edinburgh famous (Siccar training, and an enthusiastic geologist. took the opportunity to tour parts of the Point – well worth a visit), but one who Living as he did at the beginning of the country, often with his learned friends. was never able to successfully organize Enlightenment in Edinburgh, close to a Hutton returned to Edinburgh life in and communicate his ideas. time when there was brand new New- 1767, abuzz with his new theories of For these reasons alone, Hutton’s tonian physics, but only rudimentary the Earth. Yet it was to be 18 years impact, important as it is, has long since chemistry, biology or indeed geology, before he presented his theories to the been obscured by the fog of time. But Hutton occupies a period when there Royal Society of Edinburgh (of which he that, perhaps, that is why Baxter’s book was a founding member) and another was authentic thought and discussion is such a joy to read about the nature of the real world. nine before he put pen to paper and published his two-volume masterpiece Remember, too, that Hutton was born Kevin Black Theory of the Earth with Proofs and *The Dinosaur Hunters: A True Story of Principal Oceanographer, Illustrations, and thrillingly declared of Scientific Rivalry and the Discovery of the Partrac Ltd, Glasgow Prehistoric World by Deborah Cadbury, the Earth that ‘we find no vestige of a published by HarperCollins. beginning, no prospect of an end’.

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~~32 Ocean Challenge, Vol. 13, No. 3~~