Journal of Global Intelligence & Policy

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Volume 2, Issue 1

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Journal of Global Intelligence & Policy Volume 2, Issue 1

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TABLE OF CONTENT

POLARIZATION OF THE SRI LANKAN POLITY: AN ANALYSIS OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS (1982 – 2005) Yajni Warnapala and Zufni Yehiya ...... 1

THE POLICE PSYCHOLOGIST AS SERVICE PROVIDER Sloan T. Letman and Alison Duggins ...... 18

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Reza Shafiezadehgarousi ...... 22

ETHNOGRAPHY FOR CULTURAL BRIDGING: MUTUAL MENTORING IN DOCTORAL STUDY BETWEEN AN AMERICAN AND AN IRAQI AN ETHNOGRAPHIC CASE STUDY ON MUTUAL MENTORING ACROSS IRAQ AND THE US Ghada S. Mahdi and Larry K. Bright ...... 31

FROM WILLIAMS TO OBAMA: THE SOCIAL MARKETING OF NATIONAL UNITY Jennifer G. Bailey ...... 45

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

POLARIZATION OF THE SRI LANKAN POLITY: AN ANALYSIS OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS (1982 – 2005)

Yajni Warnapala and Zufni Yehiya Roger Williams University, USA and Tree Foundation, London

ABSTRACT Sri Lanka is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious developing country that has enjoyed continuous universal adult franchise since 1931. Under a new constitution enacted in 1978, Sri Lanka moved to a presidential system of government. Since 1982 five presidential elections were conducted. This paper analyzes voter behavior by looking at all the five presidential elections. This study shows that all the winners of the presidential elections (except in 2005) won them by appealing across racial and religious boundaries with a popular mandate. In 2005, there was a shift; the winner was able to secure victory by promoting a hard-line pro-Sinhala nationalistic platform. This signals a departure from the previous elections, as in the past it was understood that minority support is crucial to win the Presidency. The 2005 election sends a dangerous signal to a country that is ravaged by ethnic violence for over 20 years. Further, this study looks at the voter behavior in urban vs. rural areas. Similar to the red vs. blue states divide in the US, in Sri Lanka, there is a strong urban-rural division in voter behavior. Logistic regression was used to analyze the results of the elections.

Keywords: Sri Lanka, Presidential Elections, Logistic Regression, Minority Votes

INTRODUCTION Introduced in 1978, the second republican constitution of Sri Lanka changed the governmental structure to a Presidential system, replacing the ―British style‖ parliamentary form of government. This new constitution was a stark departure from its predecessor and followed the French model, where the president holds executive powers and is directly elected by the people. Under this new model, the president is the chief executive of the country, supreme commander of the military, head of the government and the head of state. He or she also has authority to appoint the Prime Minister, the Supreme Court, and the Cabinet and also has the power to convene, suspend and dissolve the parliament.

Prior to 1978, Sri Lanka enjoyed a fairly stable form of government, where there was a ceremonial president as the head of state and the head of the military. The Prime Minister was the head of the government. In the past the members of the parliament were elected by the ―first past the post‖ electoral system, the new constitution changed the method of election to Proportional Representation (PR) (Warnapala & Yehiya, 2005). Sri Lanka became the first democracy in the region to introduce a presidential form of government along with a PR system. Both were two alien concepts to the region and even after 25 years, no other country in the region has followed Sri Lanka‘s lead and changed their form of government.

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

Many observers believe that this system was introduced purely because of personal ambitions of J. R. Jayawardena (Moore, 1990: 381). Even though there was no public clamor for constitutional or electoral reforms, in 1977, the United National Party (UNP) led by J. R. Jayawardena came to power promising that he will change the constitution and move the country towards a presidential system of government. Jayawardena received a landslide victory with 5/6 seats in the parliament (Commissioner of Elections). Along with constitutional changes, Jayawardena also used his victory to steer the country away from the rigid state control economic model (Athulathmudali, 1984: 76-77). He also introduced much needed social and economic reforms and moved Sri Lanka‘s foreign policy away from the Soviet/Indian axis. On February 4, 1978, Jayawardena became the first executive president of the country.

Ethnicity is a vital aspect in Sri Lankan politics and it is impossible to separate ethnic politics from ―regular‖ political discourse. Therefore, it is not surprising that Sri Lanka is the home for one of world‘s longest and bloodiest civil wars. This conflict began in 1950s and took a violent turn in the 1980s. The two protagonists are the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. This crisis that has taken over 70,000 lives is based on ethnicity and not on religion (Reuters, 2008). The minority Tamils are demanding for a separate state called ―Eleam‖ in the north and east of the country based on some contested historical claims and alleged discrimination by successive Sinhala dominated governments (Gunasinghe, 1983; Manogaran, 1987; Wilson, 1988).

Ethnically the Sri Lankan population can be categorized into four distinct communities, Sinhalese (74%), Tamils (12.6%), Muslims (7.1%) and Indian Tamils (5.6%) (Statistical Pocketbook, 1989: 14)1. Religious composition of the country is 69.3% Buddhists, 15.5% Hindus, 7.6% Muslims and 7.5% Christians (including Catholics) (Statistical Pocketbook, 1989: 12). Sinhalese are predominately Buddhists and the Tamils and Indian Tamils are predominantly Hindus and all three ethnic groups have a small, but highly influential Catholic/Christian minority (Warnapala & Yehiya, 2005: 440).

In this study we analyzed the voter behavior in Sri Lanka via two lenses. Firstly, we analyzed each ethnic group‘s voter behavior in the five presidential elections. Did the winner appeal to all ethnic groups? Do you need the minority support to win the presidency? To what extent the cultural terrain needs to be understood to craft the campaign message? Secondly, we examined the rural-urban divide. Since 1982, all presidents have had a strong urban bias, but in 2005 this stranglehold was broken and a rural candidate was able to defeat an urban candidate.

THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORAL SYSTEM Sri Lanka elects its president every 6 years. Up to date there have being 5 elections (1982, 1988, 1994, 1999 & 2005). In the Sri Lankan presidential elections one unique feature is that the both the first and the second rounds are conducted simultaneously (Reilly, 2001: 117-119). In most countries where there is a presidential system (ex: France, Liberia, Peru, Haiti), if the winner of the first round does not get more than 50% of the vote, there is a second round between the two top candidates.

In order to reduce cost and time, Sri Lankans vote for their candidates based on their preferences, by marking 1, 2 and 3 (Reilly, 2001: 118). If the top candidate fails to get over 50% of the votes, all the other candidates are eliminated, except the second place candidate. Then second preferences of the eliminated candidates will get counted. If their second choices are for one of the top two candidates, the

1 Since 1989, the Tamil terrorists have not allowed the government to conduct census in their areas so we used 1989 census data.

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009 votes will get re-distributed. It is worth noting that up to date no election has gone to this second round counting and all the winners have won in the first round itself.

THE STUDY, METHODOLOGY AND DATA To examine Sri Lankan voter behavior, we selected Logistic Regression technique. Logistic Regression allows one to predict a discrete outcome from a set of variables that may be discrete. Generally the dependent or response variable is dichotomous, such as win/loss. When the dependent variable is dichotomous, then the dependent variable can take the value 1 with a probability of success p, and value 0 with the probability of 1-p. This type of variable is called a Bernoulli variable. Logistic Regression makes no assumption about the distribution of the independent variables. They do not have to be normally distributed, linearly related or of equal variance within each group. The relationship between the predictor and the response variables is not a linear function; instead, the logistic regression function is the logit transformation of p.

(constant+b x +b x +……..+b x ) (constant+b x +b x +……..+b x ) P = pi = e 1 1i 2 2i n ni /(1+ e 1 1i 2 2i n ni )

Where b = the coefficient of predictor variables. An alternative form of the logistic equation is given by: L = Log (pi/ (1-pi)) = constant + b1x1i + b2x2i +…………………. + bnxni

Furthermore, by multiplying the estimate, bi, by the variance of the dependent dichotomy, which is pi*(1 - pi), allows us to interpret the net effect of a dichotomous independent variable on the dependent variable‘s probability (Bohnstedt & Knoke, 1994: 343). The data for this study was taken from the Department of Elections‘ Web site. The web site had results of all the presidential and the parliamentary elections. The data on the distribution of ethnic groups in each polling division was directly obtained from the Department of Census and Statistics (un-published data). They are based on the 2001 census.

Prior to the introduction of the PR system, Sri Lanka had 160 electorates (polling divisions). Even after the PR system was abolished, political parties use these electorates as their organizing unit to appoint local party organizers and to set-up local political party branches. To this day unofficially this unit continues to function, and the Commissioner of Elections uses these units to announce election results. Therefore, for this study we decided to use these 160 polling divisions to observe the pattern of voter behavior2. By using the ethnic distribution data, we rank ordered the ethnic composition of each polling division according to the proportion of each ethnic group. Points were assigned in the following manner: 00.01% - 20.00% = 1; 20.01% - 40.00% = 2; 40.01% - 60.00% = 3; 60.01% - 80.00% = 4; and 80.01% - 100.00% = 5.

The logistic regression coefficient will show the change in the predicted log odds of win/loss for one unit change (20% increases in population) in the independent variable. We felt that a 20% interval is desirable, as it will keep provisions for population growth, migration and displacement of people due to the ethnic conflict and due to the devastating Tsunami of December 2004. Although the population distribution for each polling division would have changed between 1982 and 2005 (period of our study), the available data is reasonably sufficient to capture the ethnic composition of each polling division for the entire duration of our study. Validity of this assumption is consistent with the ethnic composition of the members of the parliament for each area during the period of our study (Goonerathne, W. G &

2 It is important to note that Sri Lanka does not have an Electoral College system that is similar to that of the US. Presidents are elected directly by the people; therefore it is technically possible for a candidate to win the presidency even by losing the majority of the 160 polling divisions.

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

Karunaratne, 1996; Commissioner of Elections, 2006). Therefore, utilizing the 2001 census data to analyze the ethnic composition does not distort the picture of the polling divisions.

We also categorized each of the 160 electorates according to the degree of urbanization3. In Sri Lanka, local government administration is divided according to the degree of urbanization and the size of the population it serves (Baxter et al, 2002: 350-351). In order to divide along the degree of urbanization, we categorized the 160 electorates into municipalities, urban councils or pradeshiya sabha (local councils). Out of 160 polling divisions, there were 24 municipalities and 34 urban councils and the remaining 102 were pradeshiya sabhas. We excluded the pradeshiya sabas from the urban model. We classified the urban council and the municipal councils in the following manner: Urban Councils (medium size cities) = 1, Municipal Councils (large metropolitan areas) = 2.

In the cases where local government councils and parliamentary polling divisions were not properly over lapping with each other, we aligned them according to the population centers. The data for categorizing a polling division whether it belongs to a municipality, urban council or a pradeshiya sabha was taken from the Commissioner of Elections. In the next section, we will examine each presidential election using logistic regression techniques. The results of our study revealed some interesting patterns that are not regularly taken into consideration in Sri Lankan electioneering.

1982 ELECTIONS Sri Lanka had its first presidential election in 1982. The election was between a hugely popular incumbent president (J. R. Jayawardena), supported by a strong government and against a very weak opposition. The main opposition leader and former Prime Minister Sirima Bandaranayake was prevented from contesting as she was found to be guilty of alleged corruption and abuse of power by a special presidential commission (De Silva & Wriggins, 1988). As a result she lost her civic rights for seven years, thus preventing her from running for the presidency.

No one was able to mount an effective challenge to Jayawardena and his well-run UNP‘s political machinery. For most political observers, the only opposition candidate worth observing was Rohana Wijeweera, the founder-leader of the People‘s Liberation Front (Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna) (JVP), a former Marxist terrorist group that had attempted to overthrow the government in 1971. Jayawardena released the JVP leadership from prison in 1977 under the condition that they would accept democratic principles. The JVP, as a political party deriving support from the younger and less formally educated rural youth has shown its ability to display some originality on its propaganda designed primarily to attract the socially-oppressed and the disillusioned (Warnapala, 2001). It is in this 1982 election that the JVP tested its political strength at the ballot boxes.

3 A. J. Wilson (1975) in Electoral Politics in an Emergent State: The Ceylon General Election of May 1970 categorizes the 145 electorates in to urban, rural and quasi-urban areas, based on multiple definitions such as local governmental classifications.

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Table 1: 1982 election results Candidate Party Votes % J.R. Jayawardene United National Party 3,450,811 52.91% H.S.R.B. Kobbekaduwa Sri Lanka Freedom Party 2,548,438 39.07% Rohana Wijeweera Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna 273,428 4.19% Kumar Ponnambalam Akila Illankai Thamil Congress 173,934 2.67% Colvin R. De Silva Lanka Samasamaja Party 58,531 0.88% Vasudeva Nanayakakra Nawa Sama Samaja Party 17,005 0.26%

Total Registered Voters 8,145,015 Total Polled 6,602,617 81.06% Total Valid Votes 6,441,667 Total Rejected Votes 80,470 No. needed for outright victory 3,261,073 No. of votes above the 50% mark 189,738 Date of Poll: Sept 20, 1982 No. of Polling Stations: 6985 Source: Election Commissioner

Ethnic Model -1982 When we carefully examined the 1982 election results, we made a few interesting observations. In 1982, Jayawardena won 133 polling divisions (83%, p = 0.863), including all 7 Muslim divisions and the only Indian Tamil majority polling division. The logistic regression model that was used to depict the results of the winner was: L = -0.952*Sinhala - 2.095*Tamil + 2.459*Muslim + 1.027*Indian-Tamil + 6.356. Thus the Sinhala and Tamil polling division coefficients were negative and the Muslim and Indian Tamil polling division coefficients were positive. Therefore Sinhala and Tamil polling divisions had decreased log odds of voting for Jayawardena, while Muslim or Indian Tamil polling divisions had increased log odds of voting for Jayawardena. The effect of the Sinhala polling division coefficient was - 11%. Similarly the effect of the Tamil polling division coefficient was -25%, the effect of the Muslim polling division coefficient was 29% and the effect of the Indian Tamil polling division coefficient was 12%. Thus Muslim and Indian Tamil polling divisions had increased probability of voting for Jayawardena by 29% and 12% relative to non Muslim and non Indian Tamil polling divisions.

This indicated that even though Jayawardena was able to secure votes from all segments of the country, he had more support from Muslims and Indian Tamils. This is consistent with UNP‘s philosophy and Jayawardena‘s voter base. Muslims community has traditionally supported the UNP and they directly benefited from UNP‘s economic policies. In the case of the Indian Tamils, the UNP managed to get the support of the main political party/trade union, the Ceylon Workers Congress (CWC). Its leader S. Thondaman was a member of the Jayawardena‘s cabinet (De Silva & Wriggins, 1988).

In the 1982 ethnic model the Sinhala and the Tamil polling division coefficients were negative. We argue that this is because the Tamil community‘s vote went to the Tamil candidate (Kumar Ponnambalam), who won 8 out of 25 Tamil majority electorates (Election Commissioner). The majority Sinhala vote was fragmented among the Sinhala or Marxist political parties and the main opposition

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

SLFP, which always had a strong Sinhala voter base. Therefore, Jayawardena having an 11% negative coefficient effect in the Sinhala electorates relative to non-Sinhala electorates is understandable.

Urban Model -1988 When we looked at the corresponding urban model, the logistic regression equation was as follows: L = 0.188*urban + 1.57. In this model the urban polling division coefficient was positive. Jayawardena won 86.2% (p = 0.862) of the urban polling divisions and the effect of the urban coefficient was 2%. According to this model an urban polling division had increased chance of voting for Jayawardena by 2% relative to a non-urban (rural) polling division. From this model we interpolated that a least urban polling division had an 85% chance of voting for Jayawardena.

Figure 1: More urban a polling division becomes Jayawardena‟s probability of winning increases.

1988 ELECTIONS Sri Lanka conducted its 2nd presidential election in 1988. UNP nominated Jayawardena‘s Prime Minister R. Premadasa. It was one of the most violent elections in Sri Lankan history (Baxter, et al, 2002: 345). SLFP nominated its leader Sirima Bandaranayake, who had re-gained her civic rights after a presidential pardon in January 1986. In Sinhala heartland the JVP control was strong and the JVP‘s boycott might have robbed in 1988 a Bandaranayake victory. Premadasa, with the help of the state machinery, cheating and his urban appeal scraped a narrow victory.

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Table 2: 1988 election results Candidate Party Votes % Ranasinghe Premadasa United National Party 2,569,199 50.43% Sirimavo Bandaranaike Sri Lanka Freedom Party 2,289,960 44.95% Osvin Abeygunasekara Sri Lanka Mahajana Pakshaya 235,719 4.63%

Total Registered Voters 9,375,742 Total Polled 5,186,223 55.32% Total Valid Votes 5,094,778 Total Rejected Votes 91,445 No. needed for outright victory 2,547,389 No. of votes above the 50% mark 21,810 Date of Poll: Dec. 19, 1988 No. of Polling Stations: 8060 Source: Election Commissioner

Ethnic Model - 1988 In 1988, Premadasa won 61.3% of the polling divisions (p = 0.613) and the logistic regression model for Premadasa was as follows: L = -0.856*Sinhala – 1.104*Tamil + 0.847*Indian-Tamil + 4.934. Thus the Sinhala and Tamil polling division coefficients were negative and the Indian Tamil polling division coefficient was positive. Therefore Sinhala and Tamil polling divisions had decreased log odds of voting for Premadasa, while Indian Tamil polling divisions had increased log odds of voting for Premadasa. In this case the effect of the Sinhala polling division coefficient was -20%. Similarly the effect of the Tamil polling division coefficient was -26% and the effect of the Indian Tamil polling division coefficient was 20%. Thus Indian Tamil polling divisions had increased chance of voting for Premadasa by 20% relative to non-Indian Tamil polling divisions. Also, Sinhala and Tamil polling divisions had decreased probability of voting for Premedasa by 20% and 26% relative to non Sinhala and non Tamil polling divisions. For the 1988 elections, the Muslim polling division‘s coefficient was dropped from the model because of its high significance.

Urban Model - 1988 In the 1988 urban model and the logistic regression equation was as follows :L = 0.887*urban - 0.887. Premedasa won 58.6% (p = 0.586) of the urban polling divisions and the urban coefficient was positive. Therefore effect of the urban coefficient was 21% .Thus in 1988 an urban polling division had increased chance of voting for Premadasa by 21% relative to a non urban (rural) polling division. From the above model we interpolated that a least urban polling division (rural) had a 50% chance of voting for Premadasa.

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

Figure 2: More urban a polling division becomes Premadasa‟s chance of winning increases.

It is apparent from our urban model that Premadasa got elected to the presidency due to his urban appeal. Premadasa was a ―cross-over‖ politician who represented the only Muslim majority Colombo electorate in the parliament. Born to a poor working class family, this self made populist was a street politician with a ―common man‖ appeal. On the May Day of 1992, Premadasa was murdered by a LTTE suicide bomber. Premadasa was succeeded by his Prime Minister D. B. Wijetunge. Wijetunge was able to control the lawlessness in the country.

1994 ELECTIONS By 1994, after 17 years of UNP rule, the country was fatigued with the UNP and the people were yearning for a change. Bandaranayake was replaced by her charismatic daughter Chandrika Bandaranayake Kumarathunga. She was able to shelf the old socialist philosophy and moved SLFP away from Sinhala nationalism. She had solid liberal credentials and promoted cultural pluralism. Kumaratunga was one of the few Sinhala politicians that took personal and political risks in meeting with the LTTE leadership in the 1980s. She spoke of national reconciliation and was very popular in the Tamil heartland. This was a mark departure for SLFP, as a party it had always portrayed itself as a Sinhala nationalist party.

In 1994, first the parliamentary elections were held. SLFP and its grand coalition the People‘s Alliance (PA) led by Kumaratunga, won with a narrow victory (113 vs. 112). With this razor thin majority Kumaratunga formed a coalition government with the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress (SLMC) and became the Prime Minister. Few months later the Presidential elections were conducted and the UNP nominated Gamini Dissanayake, a charismatic popular leader previously marginalized by Premadasa, who in turn had co-founded another political party. During the election campaign Dissanayake was killed by a LTTE suicide bomber. Dissanayake‘s candidacy was replaced by his widow, a political novice4.

4 Replacing the dead politician with the bereaving widow or a member of the family is a very common South Asian phenomenon.

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Table 3: 1994 election results Candidate Party Votes % Chandrika Kumarathunga People‘s Alliance 4,709,205 62.28% Nihal Galappaththi Sri Lanka Progressive Front 22,749 0.30% Srimathi Dissanayake United National Party 2,715,285 35.91% A.J. Ranasinghe Independent 22,752 0.30% Harischandra Wijethunga Sinhalye Mahasammatha Bhoomiputhra Pakshaya 32,651 0.43% Hudson Samarasinghe Independent 58,886 0.78%

Total Registered Voters 10,945,065 Total Polled 7,713,232 81.06% Total Valid Votes 7,561,526 Total Rejected Votes 151,706 No. needed for outright victory 3,780,763 No. of votes above the 50% mark 1,928,442 Date of Poll: Sept 11, 1994 No. of Polling Stations: 9580 Source: Election Commissioner

Dissanayake‘s widow was no match for Kumarathunga. Kumarathunga as the incumbent Prime Minister has already consolidated her power. In this environment Kumaratunga‘s victory was a certainty. Kumaratunga as predicted got a landslide victory. She won all but 1 polling division in the country. Therefore we could not use the logistic regression models to analyze the 1994 election, as the independent variable (win/loss) was not dichotomous in this case.

1999 ELECTIONS The main contenders for the 1999 elections were the incumbent President Kumarathunga and UNP‘s Ranil Wickramasinghe. Between 1994 and 1999, Kumarathunga continued UNP‘s neo-liberal economic policies, and bridged the gap between the UNP and the SLFP in economic policies and progress. As a result, the 1999 election was not a battle on bread and butter issues, but on how to handle to ethnic crisis (Jayasuriya, 2005). On the eve of the elections there was a Tamil Tiger suicide bomb attack. The target was Kumarathunga‘s last election rally. She survived the attack, but permanently lost sight in one eye. The public sympathy after the attack, the power of the incumbency, Wickramasinghe‘s lack of charisma, ensured a second term victory for Kumarathunga. The election was marred with violence and the international election observers found several election violations on both sides (Law and Society Trust, 2000; PAFREL, 1999).

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

Table 4: 1999 election results Candidate Party Votes % Abdul Rasool Sri Lanka Muslim Katchi 17,359 0.21% Alwis Weerakkody Premawardhana People‘s Freedom Front 3,983 0.05% Ariyawansha Dissanayaka Democratic United National Front 4,039 0.05% M. D. Nandana Gunathilaka Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna 344,173 4.08% Kamal Karunadasa People‘s Liberation Solidarity Front 11,333 0.13% Chandrika Kumaratunga People‘s Alliance 4,312,157 51.12% Tennyson Edirisuriya Independent 21,119 0.25% W. V. M. Ranjith Independent 27,052 0.32% Ranil Wickramasinghe United National Party 3,602,748 42.71% Rajiva Wijesinha Liberal Party 25,085 0.30% Vasudeva Nanayakkara Left and Democratic Alliance 23,668 0.28% Hudson Samarasinghe Independent 7,184 0.09% Harishchandra Wijayatunga Sinhalaye Mahasammatha Bhoomiputhra Pakshaya 35,854 0.43%

Total Registered Voters 11,779,200 Total Polled 8,635,290 Total Valid Votes 8,435,754 Total Rejected Votes 199536 No. needed for outright victory 4,217,877 No. of votes above the 50% mark 94,280 Date of Poll: Dec 21, 1999 No. of Polling Stations: 9912 Source: Election Commissioner

Ethnic Model - 1999 The SLFP led People‘s Alliance (PA) candidate Kumaratunga won 81.3% of the polling divisions (p = 0.813). The logistic regression model was :L = 1.196*Sinhala + 0.465*Tamil + 0.581*Muslim – 0.729*Indian Tamil -3.655. Thus in this election the Sinhala, Tamil and Muslim polling division coefficients were positive and the Indian Tamil polling division coefficient was negative. Therefore Sinhala, Muslim and Tamil polling divisions had increased log odds of voting for Kumaratunga, while Indian Tamil polling divisions had decreased log odds of voting for Kumaratunga. An Indian Tamil polling division had decreased chance of voting for Kumaratunga by 11% relative to a non-Indian Tamil polling division.

When we carefully examine Kumaratunga‘s victory, unlike Jayawardena or Premadasa, it is clear that she was able to get the support of the majority Sinhalese. While Jayawardena and Premadasa in the ethnic models had negative coefficients for the Sinhala and the Tamil polling divisions, Kumaratunga was had a positive coefficient in both elections in which she won the presidency. This goes to show SLFP‘s strong Sinhala voter base. It is apparent that Kumaratunga‘s attempt to ―secularize‖ the party had no significant impact at the ballot boxes. Extreme Sinhala voters had not alienated the party and had continued to support the SLFP, inspite the JVP putting forward a candidate with an ultra-Sinhala nationalistic platform. It seems Kumaratunga‘s popular appeal assisted the party from any backlash from the hard-line elements within the Sinhala voter base. To her credit, she moved the party away

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009 from communal politics. In the ethnic model, Kumaratunga also had a positive effect in the Muslim polling divisions. Even though traditionally Muslims have supported the UNP, Kumaratunga was able to get their votes in both elections. This is because she was able to get the support of the SLMC and its splinter groups. The only group that Kumaratunga was unable to get a positive coefficient in the ethnic model was in the case of the Indian Tamils. Indian Tamils are considered a ―bloc vote‖ led by their trade union the CWC. CWC aligned itself with the UNP in all the presidential elections.

Urban Model - 1999 For the 1999 elections, the logistic regression equation for the urban model was as follows: L = - 0.668*urban + 1.846. Even though Kumaratunga won 70.7% (p = 0.707) of the urban polling divisions, as the urban polling division‘s coefficient was negative, the effect of the urban coefficient was -14%. Thus an urban polling division had a decreased chance of voting for Kumaratunga by 14% relative to a non urban (rural) polling division. From this model we interpolated that a least urban polling division (ex: Deniyaya in the Matara district) had a 76% chance of voting for Kumaratunga.

Figure 3: More urban a polling division becomes, Kumaratunga‟s probability of winning slowly diminishes.

But more urban a polling division got the percentage of votes Kumaratunga received decreased. Therefore in comparison, in the urban model, Kumaratunga was not very successful. This showed that the SLFP is still very much a rural political party with a strong rural voter base, while the UNP is a strong urban party with a strong urban voter base.

ELECTIONS 2005 Next election was held in 2005. The run-up for this election was marred with controversies and legal battles. An ultra Sinhala-Buddhist party called Jathika Hela Urumaya (JHU) (National Heritage Party) went to court5. UNP again nominated Wickramasingha, who had led the UNP for over 10 electoral defeats (at national and local levels) (Jeyaraj, 2005). The SLFP led coalition UFPA (United Freedom

5 Kumaratunga alleges that it was her own Prime Minister Mahinda Rajapaksa who encouraged JHU to go to courts, as he was waiting for an opportunity to run for presidency and believed that he had a better chance of winning in 2005 and did not want to wait till 2006 to see Kumaratunga, plotting to give party‘s nomination to a candidate of her liking, such as her brother. JHU is an ultra Sinhala-Buddhist party; all its members in the parliament are Buddhist clergy.

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

People‘s Alliance) nominated Kumaratunga‘s Prime Minister Mahinda Rajapaksa. Although Rajapaksa came from a rural political dynasty, his image and approach was very much akin to Premadasa‘s image. During the campaign he portrayed himself as a down to earth, small town lawyer, with a Sinhala-Buddhist and a socialist political orientation. Rajapakshe was also considered as a non- intellectual and he even refused to debate Wickramasingha. On the other hand UNP‘s Wickramasingha was seen as non-charismatic, intellectual, aloof and elite. The contrasts were similar to what occurred in the US during the 2004 presidential elections, between George Bush and John Kerry: Kerry was the aloof, intellectual, aristocrat, while Bush was perceived as down to earth friendly, non-intellectual, evangelical Christian. During the campaign, most observers would agree that Kumaratunga was undercutting Rajapaksa‘s campaign to ensure a Wickramasingha victory (The Sunday Leader, 2005a; 2005b).

Table 5: 2005 election results Candidate Party Votes % Mahinda Rajapaksa United Freedom People‘s Alliance 4,887,152 50.29% Ranil Wickramasinghe United National Party 4,706,366 48.43% Siritunga Jayasuriya United Socialist Party 35,425 0.36% Ashoka Suraweera Jathika Sangwardhena Peramuna 31,238 0.32% Victor Hettigoda Eksath Lanka Podujana Pakshaya 14,458 0.15% Chamil Jayaneththi New Left Front 9,296 0.10% Aruna De Zoysa Ruhunu Janatha Party 7,685 0.08% Wimal Geeganage Sri Lanka National Front 6,639 0.07% Anura De Silva United Socialist Party 6,357 0.07% J.A. Ajith Kumara Democratic Unity Alliance 5,082 0.05% Wije Dias Socialist Equality Party 3,500 0.04% P. Nelson Perera Sri Lanka Progressive Front 2,525 0.03% Shantha Dharmadwaja United National Alternative Front 1,316 0.01%

Total Registered Voters 13,327,160 Total Polled 9,826,908 73.74% Total Valid Votes 9,717,039 Total Rejected Votes 109,869 No. needed for outright victory 4,858,520 No. of votes above the 50% mark 28,632 Date of Poll: Nov. 17, 2005 No. of Polling Stations: 10,486 Source: Election Commissioner

Ethnic Model - 2005 In a hard fought battle, SLFP‘s Mahinda Rajapaksa was the winner. In 2005, Rakapakse won 58.1% of the polling divisions (p = 0.581). The logistic regression model was: L = 2.754*Sinhala + 1.911*Tamil – 1.352*Muslim – 1.464*Indian Tamil - 11.461.Thus the Sinhala and Tamil polling division coefficients were positive and the Muslim and the Indian Tamil polling division coefficients were negative. Therefore a Sinhala or a Tamil polling division had increased log odds of voting for Rajapaksa, while an Indian Tamil or Muslim polling division had decreased log odds of voting for Rajapaksa. The effect of the

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Sinhala polling division coefficient was 67%. Similarly the effect of the Tamil polling division coefficient was 46%, the effect of the Muslim polling division coefficient was -33% and the effect of the Indian Tamil polling division coefficient was -36%. Obtaining a positive coefficient from the Tamil polling divisions warrants an explanation and it will be discussed later. Thus an Indian Tamil and Muslim polling divisions had decreased chance of voting for Rajapaksa by 36% and 33% respectively relative to non-Indian Tamil and non-Muslim polling divisions. While a Sinhala or a Tamil polling division had increased probability of voting for Rajapaksa by 67% and 46% relative to a non Sinhala and non Tamil polling division. Rajapakesha‘s election victory has created long term implications to Sri Lankan politics. He was able to break a cardinal rule in Sri Lankan presidential politics, i. e. that a serious candidate cannot win without minority support.

This sends out a dangerous message to the minorities. It says that Sri Lanka is no longer a pluralistic multi-cultural, multi-racial country, but a Sinhala-Buddhist country, and that minority voters do not count, thereby giving ammunition to the groups such as the LTTE to demand for a separate state. It is in this backdrop Rajapaksa was able to get a positive coefficient for Sinhala and the Tamil poling divisions. Obtaining a positive coefficient from the Tamil polling divisions warrants an explanation. Between 2002 and 2008 Sri Lankan government had a cease-fire agreement (CFA) with the LTTE. The Norwegians negotiated this ceasefire and until the end of the ceasefire, they served as the monitors and the intermediaries for the peace talks. It was assumed that the Tamils who live in the North and East would vote for Wickramasingha, as he was the architect of the CFA. Further, prior to the presidential elections, LTTE pledged that they will not interfere with the elections and would give the Tamil population a free hand in voting (The Sunday Leader, 2005c; The Global Information Gateway, 2005). But days before the elections, LTTE issued a decree, banning the Tamils living in the north and east from voting (Hindustan Times, 2005; Jayasinghe and Gunasekera, 2005; Rhode, 2005). As a result of this forced boycott, only .36% of the people voted in the Tamil heartland (Jaffna District), thus preventing over 700,000 from voting (Commissioner of Elections, 2006; European Union Report, 2006). Most of the polling divisions in the Northeast (Trincomalee District) and the East (Batticoloa & Digamadulla Districts), where the boycott could not be enforced were won by Wickramasingha. In the Vanni district where the boycott was semi successful, where only 26% voted, Wickramasingha won 2 out of 3 polling divisions. In the final tally, Rajapaksa got only 1.86% more than Wickramasingha and if not for the boycott, the outcome would have being vastly different. For most observers, the Rajapaksa victory was engineered by the LTTE, by casting the most important vote (the boycott). Wickramasingha, as the Prime Minister between 2002 and 2004, was able to turn the world opinion against the LTTE and push them towards a negotiated settlement.

Urban Model - 2005 In the analogues urban model, the logistic regression model was: L= -1.005*urban + 1.123. Rajapaksa won 60.3% (p = 0.603) of the urban polling divisions and as the urban polling coefficient was negative, the effect of the urban coefficient was -24%.Therefore an urban polling division had a decreased chance of voting for Rajapaksa by 24% relative to a non urban (rural) polling division. When we changed the logistic model into the analogous exponential model, the new model was: P = e-1.005urban+1.123/ (1+ e-1.005urban+1.123).

From this model we calculated that a least urban polling division had a 53% chance of voting for Rajapaksa.

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005)

Figure 4: More urban a polling division becomes, Rajapaksa‟s chance of winning steadily decreases.

It is clear from the figure that more urban a polling division become Rajapakse‘s percentage of votes decreased. It is not surprising that Rajapaksa‘s performance was weak in the urban areas. Urban polling divisions are UNP‘s traditional strong holds. In the 2005 election the tradition of urban/rural divide has continued. When we carefully dissected the five presidential elections, the results of this study exposed some facts that were clearly interesting. What is evident is that the Sri Lankan polity is gradually getting ―Balkanized‖ along ethnic, religious and regional lines. Today there are political parties that cater to all these groups. Jayawardena & Kumaratunga were able to appeal across ethnic and racial lines and also along the rural/urban divide. Even Premadasa, who campaigned during one of the most violent times was able to get more rural votes and had popular appeal across the spectrum. This characteristic faded in the 2005 elections. No major candidate could appeal to all groups.

The Sri Lankan urban/rural divide is similar to the red states/blue states divide in the US. UNP dominates the urban areas, while the SLFP dominates the rural Sinhala polling divisions. This urban/rural divide was breached in the 1982 (Jayawardena) and 1994 (Kumaratunga) elections. Both winners were able to encroach into each other‘s territory. It can be argued that this breach happened not because of the winning candidate, but because of the weakness of the losing candidate. In 1982 SLFP (Hector Kobbekaduwa) and in 1994 UNP (Srima Dissanayake) were weak opposition candidates, who did not appeal to their party or to their base; therefore, because of lack of choice, the public voted by default.

Now let‘s re-examine the 2005 elections and its future implications. Because Rajapaksa was able to win the presidency with a hard-line agenda, this will be seen in the future as the recipe for winning elections. Long-term implications of the Rajapaksa victory are profound, especially for the ethnic crisis that is engulfing the northeast region. During the campaign he pledged to change SLFP‘s stated policy of supporting a Federal solution for the ethnic problem and revert back to a unitary state (Mahinda Chintana, 2005: 32). He also said that he would cancel the post-tsunami aid-sharing program (P-TOM) with the LTTE (Daily Mirror, 2005); amend the CFA (Mahinda Chintana, 2005: 35) and replace Norway as the mediator.

Rajapaksa ran his campaign similar to a United States presidential candidate in the primary elections. In the US, during the primaries, ―playing to the base‖ is a standard practice, so the base will get motivated to vote. But during the presidential elections both major party candidates try to ―appeal to the

Y. Warnapala and Z. Yehiya Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009 middle.‖ In Sri Lanka, the opposite happened; ―playing to the base‖ was Rajapaksa‘s winning strategy, while Wickramasingha‘s ―appealing to the middle‖ back fired as he was seen as a ―dove‖ that would cave in to the LTTE. It is clear that Sri Lanka is a highly polarized country and the politicians are clearly exploiting these cleavages for their advantage. Until there is a national consensus on how to resolve the ethnic question, the crisis will continue with a military stalemate.

History is full of examples, where hard-line hawkish leaders made concessions to their opposing parties and their fellow citizens trusted the deals made by these leaders. Richard Nixon with China, Ronald Reagan with Soviet Union, Arieal Sharon on Gaza and Menachim Begin with Egypt are just few examples. Perhaps Rajapaksa with his ―hawkish‖ agenda can come out of this deadlock. However, there has to be a partner to negotiate. All the indications are that the Tamils have not produced one.

CONCLUDING REMARKS In conclusion, the presidential system of government has further polarized an already fragmented country. This system of government also introduced the possibility of co-habitation between an all- powerful president from one party and a legislature from a different party. Sri Lankan political culture does not allow for this kind of political co-habitation. From 2002 and 2004, there was a period of cohabitation, and the public did not see a level of ―check and balance‖ but saw constant ―check mate‖ between the president and the parliament.

The Presidential system has also created an ―imperial‖ presidency. It was President Jayawardena, who famously said that he had the power to do everything "other than making a man a woman, or vice versa" (Asian Human Rights Report, 2006). With this kind of an attitude towards the presidency by the architect of the presidential system, one might view suspiciously the reasons behind moving the country towards an all-powerful presidential system, while undermining the authority of the legislature. Further, Sri Lanka enjoyed a stable governmental structure for over 70 years and there was no real justification to consolidate power under one person.

The cease-fire which was in existence since 2002 was cancelled in early 2008. After the 2005 elections, the cease-fire was blatantly violated by both parties. Since November 2005 violence has steadily increased and within 6 months the death toll has exceeded 5000 (Reuters, 2008). Most of the blame for the escalation of violence lies directly at the feet of the LTTE. After conspiring to elect a hard-line Sinhala president (via an election boycott), LTTE has steadily increased their terror campaign. LTTE is currently banned in the European Union, the US, Canada, India and host of other countries. Within the UNP the failure at the elections have prompted calls for reforms. UNP wants to project that they too can cater to the needs of the majority Sinhalese and that they too prefer to distance themselves from the minorities. This phenomenon is similar to the debates within the Democratic Party in the US. The moderate Democrats are demanding that the party should appeal to the middle, while the left wing Democrats are pushing the interest of the minorities, such as Blacks, Hispanics, Unions & Women‘s groups. It is clear that the UNP is in danger of imploding, not because it went ―soft‖ on the ethnic issue, but because of lack of leadership.

As indicated at the beginning, the presidential system has contributed to further polarization in Sri Lankan politics. Once this system was seen as a system that can unify the nation, but today it has increasingly become a tool for divisive electoral politics. Because the 2005 election was won only with the Sinhala votes, Rajapaksa will not feel he represents the entire polity, and will not have any obligation to take in to consideration of minority interests in policy issues. Further, in the future

Polarization of the Sri Lankan Polity: An Analysis of Presidential Elections (1982 – 2005) presidential elections the candidates will not see a reason to cater to the needs of the minority and advocating a hard-line anti minority posture will be seen as the recipe for victory. This will send out a dangerous signal to the minorities, which in return will fuel further political alienation and resentment. Further research is needed on the efficacy of the presidential system in Sri Lankan politics and its long- term implications. There are several proposed constitutional amendments, among them are: revert back to the old ―British style‖ parliamentary system, reduce the power of the executive president, create multiple vice-presidents representing all the ethnic groups, etc. No clear alternative is in sight.

LIST OF REFERENCES Asian Human Rights Commission (2006) Press Release on Sri Lanka. Available: http://www.ahrchk.net/statements/ mainfile.php/2006statements/572/ Athulathmudali, Lalith. (1984) ‗The Elections of 1982‘ in James Manor (ed.) Sri Lanka in Change and Crisis, pp. 76-83. New York: St. Martin‘s Press. Baxter, Craig, et al (2002) Government and Politics in South Asia. (5th Edition). Westview Press, London. BBC News. (2005) ‗Sri Lanka PM 'seeks presidency‘. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia /4722369.stm Bohrnstedt, George W., Knoke, D. (1994) Statistics for Social Data Analysis. (3rd Edition). Illinois: F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. Commissioner of Elections. (2006) Results of Sri Lankan Elections: 1948 – 2005. Available at: http://www.slelections.gov.lk/index.html De Silva, H. L. (1989) Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord: An Appraisal, in Shelton Kodikara (ed), Indo-Sri Lanka Agreement of July 1987. Sri Lanka: Sridevi Printers. De Silva, K. M. & Wriggins, Howard. (1988) J.R. Jayewardene of Sri Lanka a Political Biography. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. European Union Report. (2006) The Final Report of the EU-EOM for the 2005 Presidential Elections. European Union. Available at: http://www.dellka.cec.eu.int/en/index.htm Goonerathne, W. G. & Karunaratne, R. S. (1996) Tenth Parliament. Sri Lanka: Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. Gunasekara, Tisaranee. (2005) ―The Victor, the Vanquished and the Tiger.‖ The Island. Available at: http://www.island.lk/2005/11/20/features1.html Gunasinhe, P. A. T. (1983) The Tamils of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: H. W. Cave & Co. Ltd. Hindustan Times. (2005) LTTE asks Tamils not to take interest in poll. The Hindustan Times. November 10, 2005. Available at: http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1542607,000500020002.htm Jayasuriya, L. (2005) Changing Face of Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka, (1994 – 2004). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Jeyaraj, D. B. S. (2005) Ranil must not bid farewell to politics at this time. Minority Matters. Available at: http://minormatters.blogspot.com/2005/11/ranil-must-not-bid-farewell-to.html. Law and Society Trust. (2000) Presidential Election 1999: People‘s Trust. Colombo: Law and Society Trust. Mahinda Chintana. (2005) Colombo: Print & Print Graphics. Manogaran, Chelvadurai (1987) Ethnic Conflict and Reconciliation in Sri Lanka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Mendis, Dulith. (2005) Janabala Meheyuma Final Day Attracts Massive Crowds to Colombo, Sri Lanka, Lanka Everything. Available at: http://lankaeverything.com/index.php?subpage=news&pid=20050 712123929.php&cat=archive

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Moore, M. (1990) Economic Liberalization vs. Political Pluralism in Sri Lanka. Modern Asian Studies. 24 (2): 341-383. PAFREL (Peoples Action for Free and Fair Elections). (1999) Voters Rights. Colombo: PAFREL. Reilly, Benjamin (2001) Democracy in Divided Societies: Electoral Engineering for Conflict Management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rhodes, Arthur. (2005) Sri Lanka's Presidential Election: The irony of the LTTE boycott. Asia Media. Available at: http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=33499 Samarakone, P. (1984) The Conduct of the Referendum. In James Manor (ed.). Sri Lanka in Change

and Crisis. New York: St. Martin‘s Press. Reuters News Agency (2006) Truce dead, Sri Lanka war set to escalate-experts. Jan 3, 2008. Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/featuredCrisis/idUSCOL273680 Statistical Pocketbook of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. (1989) Colombo: Department of Census and Statistics. The Daily Mirror. (2005) P-TOMS or Mahinda-TOMS, joint mechanism with LTTE essential. Available at http://www.dailymirror.lk/2005/10/19/front/1.asp The Global Information Gateway. (2005) Sri Lanka: Tamil Rebels to allow campaigning for Presidential Elections. Available at: http://www.adnki.com/index_2Level.php?cat=Politics&loid=8.0.222101744 &par=0 The Indo-Sri Lanka Accord. (1989) Indo-Sri Lanka Agreement of July 1987, in Shelton Kodikara (ed). Sri Lanka: Sridevi Printers. The Island (2005) SC Rules Presidential Poll in 2005. August 27, 2005. Available at http://www.island.lk /2005/08/27/ The Sunday Leader. (2005a) CBK-Mahinda in fierce clash. Available at: http://www.thesundayleader.lk /20051002/ news.htm#CBK The Sunday Leader. (2005b) Ranil takes moral high ground as SLFP and UNP get closer to a deal. Available at: http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20051016/politics.htm The Sunday Leader. (2005c) LTTE wants candidates to campaign in Vanni. Available at: http://www.the sundayleader.lk/ 20051030/news.htm#LTTE Warnapala, Yajni & Yehiya, Zufni. (2005) ‗Minority Electoral Politics: A Sri Lankan Case Study‘. Journal of Asian and African Studies. 40 (6): 439 – 462. Warnapala, W. A. Wiswa (2001) Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka: A study of the Parliamentary General Election of December 2001. Godage International Publishers (PVT) LTD Wickremasinghe, Nanda (2005) Factional infighting in Sri Lankan opposition following electoral defeat. World Socialist Web Site Available at: http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/dec2005/sril-d03.shtml Wilson, A. J. (1980) The Gaullist System in Asia: The Constitution of Sri Lanka, 1978. London: Macmillan Press. Wilson, A. J. (1975) Electoral Politics in an Emergent State: The Ceylon General Election of May 1970. London: Cambridge University Press.

The Police Psychologist as Service Provider

Sloan T. Letman and Alison Duggins American Intercontinental University, USA and St. Leo University, USA

ABSTRACT This paper will evaluate the need for a clinical psychologist for police departments. The evaluation will give the need to hire a full time clinical psychologist or just contract a clinical psychologist on need basis. The paper will analyze the need for the police psychologist to be not only just a counselor but to be an active partner in all aspects of the law enforcement establishment.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING Selecting police officers is a costly and time consuming process. Psychological testing and background checks are used to ―weed out‖ those who are not qualified to be police officers. (No Author, 2008) There are several psychological tests that are used. The first one is the ―Big Five Personality Trait Test‖. The Big Five are openness, conscientiousness, extrovertism, agreeableness, and neuroticism. This test is used in police departments to predict conflict and job related outcomes. (No Author, 2008) The clinical psychologist used for this type of testing is often contracted and not a member of the police department. Several police departments, for example, contract the tests and the personnel to administer the tests. Most states use an MPI test which is a Multi-Phase Personality Inventory Test. An MPI is a standardized exam consisting of 567 statements with which the test-taker is asked to agree or disagree. This type of test is becoming popular with police departments. (Kmblegal.com) This type of test is designed to aid in diagnosing clinical and mental disorders. This type of testing is popular in public safety jobs. MPI is the best psychological test with high results. Costs of psychological testing varying depending on the series of tests administer. MIP tests are extensive and can cost as low as $1000 to as much as $5000. (No Author, 2008)

Based on the needs of the local police department, a clinical psychologist will be contracted instead of being hired on a full time basis. As the law enforcement administrator, he or she should consider the relationship the clinical psychologist will have with the police department. The relationship can be an advantage or disadvantage for police. The main role the clinical psychologist is responsible for is for promotions, pre-employment, or fitness for duty evaluations. (Janik, 1994 pg. 24) Larger police departments will often hire the clinical psychologist as an employee, in order to tap into other resources. Those resources might be stress management, counseling for officers and their families, hostage and interrogation issues, criminal profiling, community organization, and countless other situations that might benefit the police in the long run. There are some departments which use consultant psychologists and full time psychologists. This helps keep complaints down and eliminates the conflict of interest problem. Some administrators do not want the same individual counseling the officer who may or may not be unfit for duty. The consultant may just do fitness for duty evaluations, while the full time psychologist will do all other remaining duties required. ―In any case, the relationship between an

S. T. Letman and A. Duggins Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009 agency and a police psychologist is most productive when it is based on good communication, trust, and confidence.‖ (Janik, 1994 pg. 24)

Often times a department will experience issues with a police officer. That officer might be suffering from a personal problem or work related problem affecting the job. There are various treatments that are used to help the officer. Those treatments can be counseling, psychological testing, and risk or non risk assessment. There are methods and procedures the psychologists are required to take when dealing with these issues. Number one is confidentiality. It is hard enough for individual officers to admit they have problems and not have the whole department know the officers personal issues. The major issue that the police seem to be having is domestic violence abuse situations and the excessive force problems resulting from these abusive situations. This is why there is a great deal of concern regarding the need for psychologists to help out with the problems of the police. The department does not want these officers out in the community with possible anger management problems. Many police officers are not too keen on the idea of dealing with a psychologist. This is due to the very nature of how the police system is set up.

Psychologists today are attempting to form new partnerships with law enforcement. (apa.org, 2002 pg. 1) In this country, there are over 18,000 police departments. Some employ only 10 officers. The resources and money to employ and contract a clinical psychologist are just not available for some departments. The one thing the clinical psychologist must understand to be successful is the police culture and sub-culture which also encompasses the officers dependents. Without this understanding, the psychologist most likely will not form strong partnerships that need to take place in order to be successful.

The duties the psychologist must provide will be individual, marital, and family psychotherapy to department personnel and their dependents. The psychologist will conduct psychological screening of law enforcement applicants; and selection of SWAT team, bomb squad, and hostage negotiators. The psychologist will also conduct training at the in service and academy levels on psychological issues (stress management, critical incident trauma, mental conditioning, dealing with the mentally ill, communication skills, supervision). (No Author, 2008) A typical budget for a contracted psychologist could be that the psychologist could be paid a flat fee of $3000 per month or $36000 per year. The contract would be typically a two year contract. The contract will have annual reviews of the psychologist. These annual reviews will assess the ability of the psychologist in the hiring of public safety and police employees. The hours the psychologist will perform are based on what the law enforcement administrator deems appropriate, but will be no less than 20 or no more than 40 hours per week. There will be room for adjustments on pay and hours depending the case load and urgency of each situation. (arcweb.sos.state.or.us, 1991)

THE CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST EVALUATION PROCESS Most agencies have policies of extensive testing and interviews when it comes to hiring applicants. With the help of the clinical psychologist, the agency takes what the clinical psychologist finds in regards to accepting or denying an applicant to be hired as a police officer. Each agencies policy is different when it comes to not hiring or hiring an applicant. After the applicant has gone through each step, there might be a situation that the psychologist feels the individual is not suited for the job. The psychologist must present the findings to the Chief of Police and Law Enforcement Administrator. Upon reviewing the findings, the policy will be as follows:

1. Chief of Police reads the recommendations.

The Police Psychologist as Service Provider

2. Law Enforcement Administrator reads the recommendation. 3. Both Chief of Police and Law Enforcement Administrator meet with applicant for an extensive interview and question meeting. 4. Psychologist meets with Chief of Police and Law Enforcement Administrator. 5. A decision is made to either hire or dismiss applicant.

This does not mean the psychologists‘ findings will be ignored. If anything, they will be taken seriously, especially if they do indicate high stress triggers, home life problems, financial problems, and lack of authority appreciation and understanding. Those indicators can be the reason for an applicant to not be hired due the effects those issues could have on the job.

There are certain and legal and ethical questions in regards to confidentiality that must be addressed. There must be privacy for each applicant in the pre selection process. Clinical psychologists fall under the ADA (Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990) which prohibits anyone from inquiring if the person has a disability during the pre-selection stage. (Super, 1994 Vol. 2) The policy of the agency is that every member of the police department needs to be able to get confidential counseling for personal and job related problems. Of course, there are different ways to counsel based on different problems. The main goal is privacy. The hardest thing is getting an officer to talk to the clinical psychologist. Some officers would rather talk to other officers. The problem with this is that there is no legal or ethical confidentiality with that behavior. The person cannot be held accountable. A clinical psychologist by law can be held accountable. Confidentiality is critical. The agency must tell officers that all counseling sessions will be confidential. The agency must maintain the confidentially it promises. There is a clause that must be addressed in the agency handbook and to officers; that any serious personal problem proven to be a criminal act or illegal to cause against another person will be cause for concern and brought to the attention of the Chief of Police. This is not a violation of the rule but a matter of public safety for the agency.

CONCLUSION This has been a brief explanation of why there is a need for clinical psychologist for a law enforcement agency as well as a review of the procedural aspects of the clinical psychologist evaluation process. With the rise of domestic violence and domestic abuse issues among our officers and litigation problems, there is a clear need for the services of a contractual or permanent clinical psychologist. With all of the problems occurring in our communities and throughout society in general, police agencies must perform at the highest level. There is no room for mistakes whether it is in the community or in the agency building. It is important that each officer understand the importance of a clinical psychologist.

The authors have encountered no biases in the conducting of this research or the development of the research design. This paper is phase 1 of an ongoing research project designed to fully explore the personal and psychological needs of police personnel and the community, and also to develop new perspectives on the psychological dimensions of police and community relations.

REFERENCES Eisenberg, R., and Katz, D.S., (1999) ―Hiring Minds Want to Know‖ Retrieved December 26, 2008 from www.sanjoseca.gov Janik, J., (1994) ―Desirable Qualifications in A Police Psychologist‖ Retrieved December 26, 2008 from Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, October 1994 Vol. 10 No. 2 from http://resources.metapress.com

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No Author, (2008) ―Using the Big Five Personality Traits to Predict Police Officer Performance‖, Retrieved December 26, 2008 from www.allaacademic.com No Author, (2008) ―Multiphase Personality Inventory‖ Retrieved December 27, 2008 from www.kmblegal.com No Author, (2008) ―Psychological Testing‖ Retrieved December 27, 2008 from www.samaritancounselingcenterwi.org No Author, (2008) ―Psychological Issues‖ Retrieved January 1, 2009 from www.criticalincident.com No Author, (1991) ―Requirements of Psychologists‖ Retrieved January 3, 2009 from www.arcweb.sos.state.or.us Super, J.T., (1994) ―Legal and Ethical Aspects of Clinical Psychologists‖ Retrieved January 5, 2009 from http:// resources.metapress.com

International Organizations and Human Resource Management

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Reza Shafiezadehgarousi Azad University, Iran

ABSTRACT In the paper, the author first presents various approaches to the management and recruitment of employees in subsidiaries that the company has established in different countries. Then, she turns her attention to the basic functions of international human resource management, among them recruitment and selection of new employees, development and training of employees, assessment of work efficiency, as well as remuneration of employees. As the expatriates are often given special attention by their work organizations, she concludes the paper with the description of the additional challenges occurring in the management of these employees.

Keywords: International Organization, Global Environment, Human Resource management

1. INTRODUCTION In Iran, we have organizations doing business successfully, not only in the domestic but also in the international environment. Lek, one of our two pharmaceutical companies; In those, as well as in similar organizations that function in the global environment, they can use different approaches to managing employees. How they find employees, pay, train, and promote them varies with culture. They usually attempt to treat their employees equitably, yet in a culturally appropriate manner.

When the organization sends its employees to some other country, it takes over the responsibilities besides the basic functions of human resource management. For example, the functions of staffing, training and development are especially emphasized in this organization. They do not deal merely with the selection of the best employees for work in foreign countries but also have to be aware of the needs of the whole family that will accompany the employee to the new cultural environment. A lot of individuals taking on international assignments are unsuccessful since their spouces or families can not adjust to their new surroundings. Hence, it is necessary to organize training in the foreign language for the employee and his family some months before departure. Everything necessary for the journey, including visas, have to be provided for on time. It is also necessary to prepare their residence in the new surroundings, as well as to assure health services and enrolment into schools for the children of the employees.

2. APPROACHES TO MANAGING AND STAFFING SUBSIDIARIES Companies can apply one of the three different approaches to managing and staffing their subsidiaries (Francesco, Gold, 2002):

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1. Ethnocentric. The home country practice prevails with this approach. Headquarters from the home country makes key decisions, employees from the home country hold important jobs, and the subsidiaries follow the home country resource management practice. 2. Polycentric. Each subsidiary manages on a local basis. A local employee heads a subsidiary because headquarters‘ managers are not considered to have adequate local knowledge. Subsidiaries usually develop human resource management practices locally. 3. Geocentric or global. The company that applies the global integrated business strategy manages and staffs employees on a global basis. For example, Electrolux (the vacuum cleaner company) has for many years attempted to recruit and develop a group of international managers from diverse countries. These people constitute a mobile base of managers who are used in a variety of facilities as the need arises.

In the ethnocentric approach, the cultural values and business practices of the home country are predominant. Headquarters develops a managing and staffing approach and consistently applies it throughout the world. Companies following the ethnocentric approach assume the home country approach is best and that employees from other parts of the world can and should follow it. Managers from headquarters develop practices and hold key positions in the subsidiaries to ensure consistency.

Advantages Disadvantages  Lower labor costs  Makes it difficult to balance local  Demonstrates trust in local citizenry demands and global priorities  Increases acceptance of the company by  Leads to postponement of difficult local the local community decisions until they are unavoidable,  Maximizes the number of options when they are more difficult, costly, and available in the local environment painful than they would have been if implemented earlier  Leads to recognition of the company as a legitimate participant in the local  May make it difficult to recruit qualified economy personnel  Effectively represents local  May reduce the amount of control considerations and constraints in the exercised by headquarters decision-making process Figure 1: Advantages and disadvantages of using local employees to staff international subsidiaries (Gomez-Mejia, Balkin, Cardy, 1995)

International Organizations and Human Resource Management

Advantages Disadvantages  Cultural similarity with parent company ensures  Creates problems of adaptability to foreign transfer of business/ management practices environment and culture  Permits closer control and coordination of  Increases the »foreigness« of the subsidiary international subsidiaries  May involve high transfer and salary costs  Gives employees a multinational orientation  May result in personal and family problems through experience at parent company  Leads to high failure rate  Establishes a pool of internationally experienced  Has disincentive effect on local-management executives morale and motivation  May be subject to local government restrictions Figure 2: Advantages and disadvantages of using expatriate employees to staff international subsidiaries (Gomez- Mejia, Balkin, Cardy, 1995)

The polycentric approach is in direct opposition. In the company that applies this approach, the assumption is that each country is different from all the others and that the subsidiaries in each country should develop locally appropriate practices under the supervision of local managers. With the geocentric approach, organizations try to combine the best from headquarters and the subsidiaries to develop consistent world-wide practices. Manager selection is based on competency rather than nationality.

As Figures 1 and 2 show, there are both advantages and disadvantages to using local nationals and expatriates in foreign subsidiaries.

Most companies use expatriates only for such key positions as senior managers, high-level professionals, and technical specialists. Since expatriates tend to be very costly, it makes little financial sense to hire expatriates for positions that can be competently filled by foreign nationals. In addition, many countries require that a certain percentage of the work force be local citizens, with exceptions usually made for upper management.

3. MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT International human resource management involves five functional areas we will discuss in detail in this section: 1. recruitment and selection, 2. development and training, 3. performance evaluation, 4. remuneration and 5. labor relations. Since expatriate employees are often treated differently than other employees, the problems arising with it will be presented in the next section.

3.1. Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection are the processes through which an organization takes in new members. Recruitment involves attracting a pool of qualified applicants for the positions available. Selection requires choosing from this pool the candidate whose qualifications most closely match the job requirements.

In companies that function in a global environment we have to distinguish different types of employees. Traditionally, they are classified as one of the three types:

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1. Parent country national. The employee‘s nationality is the same as the organization‘s. For example, a Iranian citizen working for a Iranian company in Turkey. 2. Host country national. The employee‘s nationality is the same as the location of the subsidiary. For example, a Turkish citizen working for a Iranian company in Turkey. 3. Third country national. The employee‘s nationality is neither that of the organization nor that of the location of the subsidiary. For example, an Indian citizen working for a Iranian company in Turkey.

Since staffing as the function of international human resource management becomes increasingly more complex, these classifications do not cover all employees (Briscoe, 2006). For example, within the European Union, citizens of member countries can work in other member countries without a work permit. Hence, how to classify a German citizen working for a French company in France is not clear.

Briefly, classification of employees might seem to us unimportant. However, such mode of thinking is not adequate since in many organizations an employee‘s classification is tied to remuneration, as well as benefits and opportunities for promotion.

In an international organization, the managing and staffing approach strongly affects the type of employee the company prefers. In a company with an ethnocentric approach, parent country nationals usually staff important positions at headquarters and subsidiaries. With a polycentric approach, host country nationals generally work in foreign subsidiaries while parent country nationals manage headquarters positions. An organization with a geocentric approach chooses the most suitable person for a position, regardless of type.

In its approach to recruitment and selection, an organization considers both headquarters‘ practices and those prevalent in the countries of its subsidiaries. Local culture always influences recruitment and selection practices, and in some countries, local laws require a specific approach. For example, in international manufacturing and processing facilities in Mexico, companies recruit with a sign announcing job openings outside the facility or by employees introducing family members who are looking for jobs. Another example is Hungary, where government attempts to combat unemployment have led to the requirement that an organization must get permission from the Ministry of Labor before hiring an expatriate.

In choosing the right candidate, a balance between internal corporate consistency and sensitivity to local labor practices is a goal. Different cultures emphasize different attributes in the selection process depending on whether they use achievement or ascribable criteria. When making a hiring decision, people in an achievement-oriented country consider skills, knowledge, and talents. Although ―connections‖ can help, companies generally only hire those with the required qualifications. In an ascribable culture, age, gender, and family background are important. An organization selects someone whose personal characteristics fit the job.

3.2. Development and Training The overall aim of the development function is to provide that adequately trained personnel in a company are capable to fulfil their goals, as well as to contribute to better performance and growth with their work (Armstrong, 1996). The development of employees can be treated as a special field of human resource management that includes planned individual learning, education, organization development, career development and training.

International Organizations and Human Resource Management

At the international level, human resource development professionals are responsible for: 1. training and development of employees located in subsidiaries around the world, 2. specialized training to prepare expatriates for assignments abroad, and 3. development of a special group of globally minded managers.

Creation and transfer of international human resource development programs may be carried out in two ways:

1. centralized and 2. decentralized.

With a centralized approach, training originates at the headquarters and corporate trainers travel to subsidiaries, often adapting to local situations. This fits the ethnocentric model. A geocentric approach is also centralized, but the training develops through input from both headquarters and subsidiaries staff. Trainers could be sent from various positions in either the headquarters or subsidiaries to any other location in the company.

In a decentralized approach, training is on a local basis, following a polycentric model. When training is decentralized, the cultural backgrounds of the trainers and trainees are usually similar. Local people develop training materials and techniques for use in their own area.

To maximize training effectiveness, it is important to consider how trainees learn most effectively. Cultural factors have a strong impact on training practices in different parts of the world. For example, in North America, where power distance is small, the relationship between the trainer and trainees tends toward equality. The trainer and trainees use first names, and the trainees feel free to challenge or question what the trainer says. In Malaysia, where power distance is large, a trainer receives greater respect. Students use his surname and title, and he is an expert that students rarely challenge.

As global competition increases, it is increasingly important for successful companies to have a group of managers with a global perspective. Companies must identify managers with global potential and provide them with various training and development opportunities. For example, having one or more international assignment(s), working on cross-national teams and projects, and learning other languages and cultures contribute to making a manager more globally minded. In addition, an organization should include not only parent country nationals, but also host country nationals and third country nationals in this group (Treven, 2001).

3.3. Performance Evaluation In companies, the performance evaluation is most frequently carried out for administration or development intentions (Cleveland and others, 1989). For administration purposes, performance evaluation is called for when the decisions on work conditions of employees, promotions, rewards and/or layoffs are in question. Development intention of performance evaluation is oriented to the improvement of the work performance of employees, as well as to the enhancement of their abilities on the ground of the adequate training program and advising employees regarding behavior in the work environment.

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In Western multinational companies, performance appraisals are usually done yearly and use a standarized evaluation form. Sometimes, the organization also requires supervisions to discuss the results of the appraisals with each employee.

Performance evaluation is challenging for any organization. At the international level, the complexity is greater because the organization must evaluate employees from different countries working in different subsidiaries. The need for consistency across subsidiaries for performance comparisons conflicts with the need to consider the cultural background of employees to make the evaluation meaningful. For example, in Mexico, an individual‘s public image is important, and public criticism of an employee might be justification for leaving a company. Consequently, the delivery of a balanced performance review, including both strengths and weaknesses, requires tact and delicacy.

As with other functions, the approach to performance evaluation depends on the organization‘s overall human resource management strategy. A company with an ethnocentric approach is likely to use the same performance evaluation process used at the headquarters for its subsidiaries. Some companies translate evaluation forms into local languages, whereas others use the original language everywhere. A company with a polycentric approach develops local procedures within each country. Finally, a company with a geocentric approach uses the same performance evaluation system worldwide, but it has universal applicability. Developing a global system is the most challenging.

3.4. Remuneration and Benefits Remuneration of employees has a key role in acquiring new employees and is important for employees as well as for the employers. Pay is the basic resource of living of the employees, while benefits cover better health care, the possibility of spending holidays in the company‘s holiday facilities at a favourable price and also other advantages. The decisions the employers make concerning remuneration are a factor that has an impact on the expenses of their company as well as on the ability of selling the products at a competitive price in the market (Treven, 1998). The decisions about remuneration may also enhance the ability of the employer to compete for employees on the labor market. The rewards he warrants make the standing personnel either want to keep their jobs or quit.

In developing an international system of compensation and benefits, an organization has two primary concerns. The first is comparability (Briscoe, 2006). A good compensation system assigns salaries to employees that are internally comparable and competitive within the marketplace. For example, the salary of a senior manager is usually higher than that of a supervisor, and each position should receive an amount within the local market range. The international organization must also consider the salaries of people who may transfer from other locations. The second major concern is cost. Organizations strive to minimize all expenses, and payroll is one of the largest.

Renumeration and benefits are closely tied to local labor market conditions, even when an organization takes an ethnocentric or geocentric approach. The availability of qualified local people to fill positions, prevailing wage rates, the use of expatriates, and local laws interact to influence the level of renumeration and benefits. For example, if there are few applicants available for positions, the renumeration for those positions generally increases. To reduce expenses, the international human resources manager might then consider bringing in an expatriate.

A company usually develops a policy, which could apply globally, to offer salaries and benefits representing a specific market level. For example, a large successful multinational company that

International Organizations and Human Resource Management emphasizes the quality of its products and employees could have a global policy to pay the highest wages everywhere it operates. Another company could offer top salaries in the country where it does research and development, yet pay average wages in the country where it manufactures.

3.5. Labor Relations The labor relations function identifies and defines the roles of management and workers in the workplace. The concept of labor relations varies greatly in different parts of the world. In the United States, for example, labor relations are often a formal relationship, sometimes antagonistic, between labor and management defined by a union contract. In Japan, the relationship between management and unions is cooperative, and management often appoints union leaders (Hodgetts, Luthans, 1994).

In many countries, the government regulates labor relations practices. Consequently, in this function, more than other human resources management functions, an organization may have to be polycentric. However, even though labor relations are local level issues, it is good corporate strategy to coordinate a labor relations policy across subsidiaries.

4. MANAGEMENT OF EXPATRIATES One of the most challenging tasks for any company operating internationally is to manage its expatriates. The statistics showing their efficiency on that matter are not encouraging. For example, the failure of U.S. expatriates (the percentage who return prematurely, without completing their assignment) is to be in the 20 – 40% range. In Japan, the failure rate is less than 5% for their expatriates. One of the reasons for the difference is that Japanese expatriates receive far more orientation and language instruction than U.S. expatriates do.

4.1. The Reasons for Expatriate Failure In international companies, it is important to understand the reasons behind expatriates‘ high failure rates so that preventive measures can be taken. Six factors account for most failures, although their relative importance varies by firm (Gomez-Mejia, Balkin, 1987). These are: career blockage, culture shock, lack of cross-cultural training, an overemphasis on technical qualifications, a tendency to use international assignments as a way to get rid of problem employees, and family problems.

4.2. Cross-Cultural Adjustment Expatriates and their families need time to become familiar with their new environment and to become comfortable living there. When they arrive, the newness of the experience is exciting. A few months later, when they have had more experience with the culture, expatriates might begin to feel frustrated or confused as they try to make sense of their new living situation. This feeling is ―culture shock.‖ As expatriates get comfortable and understand more about the culture, usually three to six months after arrival, the culture shock will wear off, and they will experience a more normal feeling (Adler, 2006).

4.3. Expatriate Reentry After the expatriate completes his assignment and returns home, he must adjust in the same way as when going abroad. The work, people, and general environment are no longer familiar. The expatriate and his company are usually unprepared to deal with this situation. The disorientation experienced by a returning expatriate is known as reverse culture shock.

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The expatriate gains valuable information and experience from an international assignment, but for many organizations this is lost because of the failure to manage expatriate reentry successfully. By one estimate, about 25 % of returning expatriates leave the company within a year after returning (Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall, 2004).

4.4. Selection Of Expatriates The choice of employee for an international assignment is a critical decision. Since most expatriates work under minimal supervision in a distant location, mistakes in selection are likely to go unnoticed until it is too late. To choose the best employee for the job, management should:

 emphasize cultural sensivity as a selection criterion  establish a selection board of expatriates  required previous international experience  explore the possibility of hiring foreign-born employees who can serve as ―expatriates‖ at a future date  screen candidates‘ spouses and families

A successful expatriate must be able to both do the job and handle a new cultural environment. Hence, the expatriate must do his job competently, learn to live comfortably in a new culture, and ensure that his family adapts as well.

4.5. Expatriate Training As mentioned earlier, expatriates are more successful when their organizations train them to prepare for their life and work abroad. Lack of training is a major cause of expatriate failure.

The most important aspect of expatriate training is cross-cultural training (CCT). Such training prepares an expatriate to live and work in a different culture because coping with a new environment is much more challenging than dealing with a new job. A variety of training methodologies is available for CCT. In Table 1, we outline some of the popular ones and give a brief description of each.

Table 1: Cross-Cultural Training Methods (Francesco, Gold, 2002) Explain the major aspects of the host country culture, including customs, Cultural Briefings traditions, everyday behaviors. Explain the history, geography, economy, politics and other general information Area Briefings about the host country and region. Portray a real life situation in business or personal life to illustrate some aspect of Cases living or working in the host culture. Allows the trainee to act out a situation that he or she might face in living or Role Playing working in the host country. Provides a written set of situations that the trainee might encounter in living or Culture Assimilator working in the host country. Provide an opportunity for the trainee to go to the host country or another Field Experiences unfamiliar culture to experience living and working there for a short time.

International Organizations and Human Resource Management

4.6. Expatriate Evaluation and Remuneration The performance evaluation of expatriate managers is particularly difficult. The job a person does abroad can include much more than what he does at home. A manager often steps into the role of counselor, trainer, troubleshooter, or diplomat, in addition to his assigned job responsibilities. With the need for adapting to a new culture, a different way of doing business, and often a new language, many factors influence expatriate performance.

An organization‘s general policy influences expatriate remuneration. Three common approaches are: a home-based policy, a host-based policy and a region-based policy (Dowling, Schuler, Welch, 1994). With a home-based policy, emloyees‘ remuneration follows the scale of their home countries. The host- based policy sets salaries at the level of the host country, with benefits usually tied to the home country. Finally, region determines the third approach. Remuneration for employees working outside their home countries reflects whether their relocation is within their home region or in another region. With this approach, an assignment closer to home (with the region) receives remuneration at a lower rate than one further away (outside the region).

5. CONCLUSIONS International human resource management focuses on the management of human resources on a global basis. An organization‘s strategy on globalization strongly affects the approach it takes to international human resource management. The approach to international human resource management in turn influences the implementation of the major international human resource management functions of recruitment and selection, development and training, performance evaluation, remuneration and benefits, and labor relations. Companies taking an ethnocentric approach attempt to impose their home country methods on their subsidiaries. The polycentric approach follows local practices. Finally, a geocentric or global approach develops practices for world-wide use.

REFERENCES: 1. Adler N.J., International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, South Western College Publishing, 2006. 2. Armstrong M., Personnel Management Practice, Kogan Page, 1996. 3. Black J.S.; Gregersen H.B.; Mendenhall M.E., Toward a Theoretical Framework of Repatriation Adjustment, Journal of International Business Studies, No. 23, 2004, pp. 737 – 760. 4. Briscoe D.R., International Human Resource Management, Prentice Hall, 2006. 5. Cleveland J.N.; Murphy K.R.; Williams R.E., Multiple Uses of Performance Appraisals: Prevalence and Correlates, Journal of Applied Psychology, No. 74, 2006, pp. 130 – 135. 6. Dowling P.J.; Schuler R.S.; Welch D.E., International Dimensions of Human Resource Management, Belmont, Wadsworth, 1994. 7. Francesco A.M.; Gold B.A., International Organizational Behavior, Prentice Hall, 2002. 8. Gomez – Mejia L. R.; Balkin D. B.; Cardy R. L., Managing Human Resources, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1995. 9. Gomez – Mejia L. R.; Balkin D. B., The determinants of managerial satisfaction with the expatriation and repatriation process, Journal of Management Development, No. 6, 1987, pp. 7 – 18. 10. Hodgetts R.M.; Luthans F., International Management, McGraw-Hill, 1994. 11. Treven S., Management človeških virov, Ljubljana, Gospodarski vestnik, 1998. 12. Treven S., Mednarodno organizacijsko vedenje, Ljubljana, Gospodarski vestnik, 2001.

G. S. Mahdi and L. K. Bright Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

ETHNOGRAPHY FOR CULTURAL BRIDGING: MUTUAL MENTORING IN DOCTORAL STUDY BETWEEN AN AMERICAN AND AN IRAQI AN ETHNOGRAPHIC CASE STUDY ON MUTUAL MENTORING ACROSS IRAQ AND THE US

Ghada S. Mahdi6 and Larry K. Bright7 The University of South Dakota, USA

ABSTRACT Learning with a trusted adult colleague from another culture produces opportunities for gaining insights and perceptions that are invaluable in bridging cultures and advancing epistemological knowledge. Current world stress regarding conflict in the Middle East can polarize both Americans and Iraqis in fear of each other. The opportunity for rich interaction between doctoral students and advisors from these cultures may be part of academic advising if adults are willing to suspend disbelief in each other and open their lives to sharing. This circumstance takes volition, courage, and commitment to learning different ways of viewing the world, of acquiring knowledge, and of making meaning. A result can be in epistemological expansion of understanding and knowing. Finding meaning in dialogue and shared intellectual and social experiences can bring people together to appreciate the human condition regardless of cultural differences. In the University of South Dakota Adult and Higher Education Program, an Iraqi doctoral student and an American higher education professor report the characteristics of their mutual mentoring experiences during 2008-2009. The ethnographic case study illustrates the consequences of the practice of unconditional positive regard, acceptance, and pursuit of higher level genuine and authentic communication as part of contemporary global adult learning theory which is appreciated by many Americans and Iraqis. This record of application of theory into doctoral advising demonstrates how transformation theory may be embraced to find meaning and perspective for understanding one‟s self—for both the advisor and the advisee, as both play reciprocal roles in the relationship. This kind of mutual mentoring may provide the lens through which each person filters, engages, and interprets the world.

Keywords: Across Cultural Advising, Mutual Mentoring, Adult Learning Theory Applications

INTRODUCTION Creativity and innovation among adults committed to intellectual advancement can be enhanced through conceptualizing academic advising as dialogue between mutual mentors. The case study reported here focuses on how this transformational theory of engaged adult learning was developed between an Iraqi and an American involved in the study of higher education. The writers found that their views on teaching and learning were not necessarily similar, but easily synthesized when there was sufficient time for communication and reflection.

6 Doctoral Candidate, Adult and Higher Education, Division of Educational Administration, The University of South Dakota, 225 Delzell Education, 605-677-5807. 7 Full Professor, Adult and Higher Education, Division of Educational Administration, The University of South Dakota, 225 Delzell Education, 605-677-5806.

Ethnography for Cultural Bridging: Mutual Mentoring in Doctoral Study Between an American and an Iraqi

TWO FACULTY WRITERS WITH ADULT EDUCATION BACKGROUNDS At the University of South Dakota, the writers found themselves with fate bringing them together across cultures. Who knows who may come through the doors of academe and with what motives, goals, and talents to share? The writers found immediate differences in gender and age, and they quickly realized that each brought some knowledge and experience to the potential for two people, one from the US Midwest and the other from Central Iraq, to become significant to each other in a constructivist learning environment. What has resulted is an exchange of traditions, fears, prejudices, stereotypes, and knowledge that has drawn the writers to become deep colleagues and friends who see the results of applying adult learning theory from both the West and Middle East.

Both faculty writers of this paper enjoyed sharing an awareness of the challenges of creating engaging dialogue to apply constructivism in their university teaching and some empathy with the professor in the recent award-winning movie The Visitor. This paper explores how adult learning theory has evolved in the writers‘ sharing cross-cultural experiences regarding college teaching and administration. Mahdi was educated in Baghdad in English language education and linguistics, and Bright was educated in California (a student of C.R. Rogers) and Montana. Both learned early in their educational service the importance of engaging the learner and the value of constructivist learning theory.

However, neither writer had experience in exchanging teaching practices across Western and Middle Eastern cultures. In addition, neither participant in this study was more than casually informed about religious, economic, or social differences in the context of Iraq compared to the US Midwest. It was with enthusiasm, volition, and some trepidation of the unknown that the two began to develop their relationship as Mahdi began her doctoral studies with Bright. It might be noteworthy that Bright was nearing the end of his professorial career and Mahdi anticipated forty more years of service.

The writers did have opportunities to observe each other‘s teaching in classes and had extended dialogue about the approaches to engaging students in dialogue to explore cultural issues related to both an Arabic language and culture elective course and a doctoral-level course in human resource administration in education.

BEGINNING WITH POWERFUL ADULT EDUCATION THEORY The purpose of examining other systems is not to replace the Western tradition but rather to expand our understanding of learning and knowing‖ (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 219). While US adult learning theory has been assumed to be learner-centered, deviating from lecture and recitation as the primary teacher-directed activity to dialogue and discussion in the production of knowledge, there are threads of constructivism to be found outside US presumption of having the most effective approach to adult education.

Will faculty and adult learners across cultures be able to suspend judgment to explore their knowledge and cultural similarities and differences? Will they allow the possibility of entering into a mutual mentoring state in which both allow each other to be in the process of becoming, in the Rogerian sense (Rogers, 1961)? Basic principles of adult learning for faculty and students in graduate programs can provide a guide for effective bridging of cultures, even between the US and Iraq. ―The tendency to view one‘s own cultural group as superior to others (Reagan, 2005, p. 4), and being ethnocentric, ―reinforces the marginalization and oppression of other systems of knowing.‖

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The awareness of the need for adults to be engaged in sharing really important aspects of life experiences abounds in the literature. However, when people may be conditioned by wars and conflicts to be afraid of each other, it may be difficult to establish the trust essential to exploring meaning and purposes of life. Dialogue and critical self-reflection are the key elements in the learning process. They represent a useful a way of bridging culture between students and faculty as well as the whole society. Through dialogic communication, students will explore issues of social identities, differences and inequalities. They would be able to build greater understanding, skills and values for living, learning and working in a multicultural society.

A number of writers have emphasized the importance of allowing for dialogue. English (2000), for example, defined dialogue as ―the interpersonal connections and interchanges among people that encourage and promote their spiritual development… Dialogue… recognizes the other as an extension of one‘s self‖ (p.34). Mezirow‘s perspective transformation theory is centered in meaning perspective to understand one‘s self. They are the lens through which each person filters, engages and interprets the world (Merriam and Cafarrella, p.320). Both Mahdi and Bright agreed that a primary factor in the building of their mutual understanding and respect for each other and their cultures was through extensions of themselves in dialogue, as English has mentioned above.

As educators, the writers have been committed to being international citizens, admitting that they need a continually expanding worldview and engaging dialogue about both overt and subtle differences and similarities in cultures. For Mezirow (2004), an attempt to better understand the world and also to learn negotiating to act on adult values, feelings and meanings, dialogue and discourse are important and integral to the transformative learning process. Knowles, Holton III and Swanson (2005, p.109) mentioned Lindeman‘s argument regarding the relationship between adult education and democratic philosophy. In the best adult class, shared learning is duplicated by shared authority and both the student‘s experience and the teacher‘s knowledge are exchangeable at par. Moreover, ―None but the humble become good teachers of adults (2005, p.109).

Tisdell, Hanley, and Taylor (2000) maintained that white supremacy from an intellectual community can promote narrow arrogance:

This old reality is based on white supremacy; it is based on a certain class position. If we are to be intellectually honest we have got to look at other ways of knowing, because they are as intrinsic or as necessary to the dominant culture as is Anglo-centric ways of knowing. If we are going to claim to be intellectuals, and boast that the academy is intellectually challenging, then we are going to have to address the true complexity of our culture-now that is an academic challenge! (p.138)

But, in recent periods of global awareness of the US 9/11 crisis and the characterization of the perpetrators as of Muslim background and possibly from the oil-rich Middle East, if not Iraq, how much have Western adult education scholars engaged with colleagues in Iraq to explore theory, experiences, and friendships? For US scholars in adult education applications to rely exclusively on Western theory during this period of global tension would be very short-sighted.

ETHNOGRAPHIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH As ethnographic phenomenological exploration, this study examines the common theoretical and practical andragogical grounds in teaching experiences of an Iraqi and a US adult education professor.

Ethnography for Cultural Bridging: Mutual Mentoring in Doctoral Study Between an American and an Iraqi

Narrative observations were the choice of this qualitative research to summarize the meaning the writers found in the use of adult learning theory which influenced their becoming part of a mutual cultural mentoring professional relationship of faculty seeking to improve their professional practices.

Social customs, beliefs, and cultural development, as well as educational processes, may be factors considered by educators interested in the exploration of theory and practice across cultures as parts of ethnographic and phenomenological research. This may involve the careful description of phenomena from the point of view of people experiencing the phenomena (Wiersma & Jurs, 2005).

Because ethnographic is phenomenological in nature, it takes on the characteristics of that approach to research. These characteristics the holistic and naturalistic nature of ethnographic research…. Essentially, the phenomenological approach is based on the concept that reality consists of the meaning of the experiences by those being studied. (Wiersma & Jurs, 2005, p. 243).

MAINSTREAM ADULT LEARNING THEORY BEYOND THE WEST The opportunity to explore how a US professor and an Iraqi professor (doctoral student) perceive the teaching and learning task, whose interests are being served, and how knowledge is valued poses a challenge for a dominant culture. Yet, the awareness of the need to consider how Non-Western scholars perceive and experience Western applications of learning theory may advance knowledge:

Such an awareness is often absent in Western education. In mainstream pedagogies we are taught to believe that the knowledge we consider official and valid has been produced in a neutral, noble, and altruistic manner. Such a view dismisses the cultural, and power-related dimensions of knowledge production. (Semali & Kincheloe, 1999, p. 34)

It could embarrass some Western educators, such as the American writer, to see how little the West seems to know about Arabic Iraqi Non-Western perspective on adult learning theory. Similarly, the Iraqi writer, while educated in the ―ways of teaching and research‖ of the West, was not informed about the epistemological foundations of Western adult learning theory.

What happens to both types of scholars when they are confronted with sharing their knowledge and experiences with each other? How can a collegial professional relationship be established to develop the level of trust and engagement that actually applies global learning theory on the essential nature of adults learning with each other to encourage the broadening of the knowledge bases of international teachers interested in practicing the best of theory?

Individuality, independence, and entrepreneurialism are characteristics of Americans which Middle Easterners, East Asians, and Africans see as overshadowing respect for collective wisdom, work projects, and respect for cultural traditions. Americans are often viewed as so individually motivated by money, power, creative achievement, and contempt for convention that people from other cultures fear not to be able to predict American behavior because it is difficult to trust that Americans can be trusted. In parts of the world with many traditional conventions about public and family discourse, it is difficult to confront American individuality and tastes.

A contemporary world test of cooperative adult learning theory may be in how the theory of respect among collaborating adults may work between peoples of peaceful intent. As the global tensions between West, East, and Middle East have continued, there have been some optimistic side effects of

G. S. Mahdi and L. K. Bright Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009 what has often been viewed as an insurmountable cultural obstacle from these parts of the world. How Moslems and Christians, Arab and English speakers, and female and male, and family members strive to understand the influences of culture on adult learning can be a side effect of mutual exploration of adult learning.

A CROSS-CULTURAL CASE STUDY IN THE MEANING OF ADULT LEARNING The intensity of global concerns about building peace and progress in the Middle East and volition to find good will in human similarities has motivated the development of this paper. The American writer had had international interests in bridging cultures across the US and the Asian East, and was a student of C.R. Rogers in 1971. The writer sought the opportunity to learn more about the conflict- habituated current Middle East, with its foundation in Mesopotamia as the cradle of civilization.

Both writers realized that their sharing ideas, teaching observations, and reflections broadened their knowledge and their depth of appreciation of the theories of writers such as Knowles, Mezirow, Rogers, Lindeman, and Brookfield. Following a brief overview of adult learning theories which have influenced both observers in this study, the writers describe how adult learning theory precepts effected their interpretation of the meaning of the assets that each of their cultures and educator experiences brought to their relationship as professors.

The writers observed that fear of being misunderstood required social interaction experiences which had a profoundly positive effect on development of trust. Exchanging meals with families in home settings, weekend shopping with families and holiday customs exchanges contributed to enrichment of the usual academic contact which was experienced at USD. Bright and his wife and aged mother live on a horse farm which provided rich opportunities of Mahdi, her husband, and two children to experience

The writers acknowledge that fear may be omnipresent in the world, and particularly in the US after the 9-11 destruction of the World Trade Towers, due to cultural clash between the Western and Arab culture and civilization. Cultural clash can be the result of cultural misunderstandings or misconceptions of each other‘s values, beliefs, attitudes, religion, and assumptions. Such fear would hinder the possibility of establishing a positive mutual learning environment.

Fear and distrust could prevent giving the chance of expressing oneself, of representing who she or he is really as a person regardless of race, religion, nationality or origin. However, the writers found in their initial relationship that fearful stereotypes which might abound in the press or movies between Iraqis and Americans were easily dismissed through dialogue. The writers sought to explore the meaning of the clash of cultures during times of contemporary upheaval and what this interpretation of meaning would mean to openness to engage in discussions of futures, hopes for children, and timing of return of normalcy to the Middle East, as well as economic recovery in the US.

The writers found that these questions required time for intense discussion of specific adult engagement learning theory, as well as broad exploration of economic, political, philosophical, and social factors that stretched their knowledge and educator purviews. The writers explored with each other how the concepts of Roger‘s unconditional positive regard might be operationalized when fear of war and death is omnipresent, and how much could Friere‘s critical consciousness be realized among adults who have been taught to regard each other with suspicion?

Ethnography for Cultural Bridging: Mutual Mentoring in Doctoral Study Between an American and an Iraqi

Adult educators, such as Dewey, Knowles, Mesirow, and Rogers were learner-centered and they also focused on the fact that adults have various experiences, are self-directed and independent, yet they are all different. Since facilitating adult learning is common for all adult educators, creating collaborative and interactive learning environment among adult learners is vitally important. From the outset, the writers realized that they were adult learners of equal status and validity of experiences as teachers.

The Iraqi writer believes that the importance of integrating adult education programs as an important component of the educational provision of Iraq. The development of professional knowledge and skills is necessary for the advancement of democratic education and personnel training essential for sustaining international cooperation and peace. The ultimate aim of all education is, first and potentially foremost, the development of each individual‘s knowledge, talents, character, and personality. There are many illiterate people across the world however, who do not have basic or adult education. Lack of knowledge and cultural sensitivity can lead to mistrust, misunderstandings and inability to cooperate or even negotiate with people of other cultures. A foreign language, such as Arabic, can expose Westerners to new ways of knowing and thinking, as well as to sharing with other adults.

There is nothing more reinforcing and validating than for one cultural group to realize that another is valued enough to inspire others to emulate through acquiring new communication media. In learning Arabic—even a limited vocabulary--US people show appreciation and value for Middle Eastern people. This mutual acceptance and mattering is an essential requisite for mutual adult learning. Americans who show respect for Arabs can have access to some of the values important to the Arabic people, such as honor, dignity, and hospitality which are highly significant and more important than assumed by negative Western stereotyping.

Hooks (1994) maintained that quality adult education in an inclusive practice of freedom:

To teach in a manner that respects and cares for the souls of our students is essential if we are to provide the necessary conditions where learning can most deeply and intimately begin…. Progressive, holistic education, "engaged pedagogy" is more demanding than conventional critical or feminist pedagogy. For, unlike these two teaching practices, it emphasizes well-being. That means that teachers must be actively involved committed to a process of self-actualization that promotes their own well-being if they are to teach in a manner that empowers students. (pp. 13-15)

VOLITION TO AGAIN BE IN A RECIPROCAL OPEN AND NEW RELATIONSHIP As the writers realized that they were ―assigned‖ to each other through the fate involved in applications and advisor selection, the question of what kind of relationship would evolve, what knowledge each had that could be shared, and what each might admit to not knowing about the other. If the relationship is based on both people being willing by interest and volition to believing that a positive phenomenon may be possible in reaching out to learning, then the process may be open and hopeful. If there is fear of being in a superficial, role-limited, and emotionally sterile relationship, there is less likelihood that the two adults can begin knowing each other with a blank slate and the option of unconditional positive regard.

Early in their relationship and observations, the writers, as adult educators, discovered that objective academic interaction was not what either preferred; instead, the two began to realize that a significant friendship was evolving as their efforts to understand each other‘s adult education knowledge were

G. S. Mahdi and L. K. Bright Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009 being studied. The sharing of basic concepts of adult learning, however, was essential to providing a foundation from which the trust sprung to explore cultural differences and similarities.

SUSPENDING DISBELIEF THAT DIFFERENCES WILL CAUSE HARM Given the history of world conflict and wars, it is unlikely that any two adults today will not have some elementary information or fears of anyone who is different. The fear of the unknown can have devastating effects on raising hopes of learning about something new. However, the person familiar with the positive relativist precepts of Knowles, Rogers, or Mezirow, needs to suspend disbelief that some bad could or might happen between people of different experiences and cultures. How much people can take each other at face value, even with knowledge of potential for misunderstanding and fear between peoples, is essential to suspending disbelief and allowing that a new relationship of significant mutual benefits may emerge.

MacKeracher (1996) considered the complex interaction of cognitive, affective, physical, social, and spiritual aspects of learning. He offered advice for both learners and facilitators for enhancing the learning activity. Learners, for example, should trust the process, be willing to take risks, and be open to new ideas and experiences (p. 234). Instructors should be reflective, passionate, responsive, and ―keep in mind that you are a model for learners whether you want to be or not‖ (p. 253). These dynamics have been a part of the relationship between the writers.

The writers agree that the basic premise of good teaching lies in providing an atmosphere which is conducive to learning and in which students learn efficiently. Effective teachers‘ task is not only assigning tasks but to help learners think critically and logically about things that really matter so that they come to sound conclusions.

A RELATIONSHIP TO ALLOW SIGNIFICANT PERSONAL LEARNING Since the writers were well aware of their assumed religious differences across Christianity and Islam. However, both were self-described moderates with humanistic and inclusive views. It may be noteworthy that the writers have discussed for hours many points of view regarding the importance of spirituality, but little on the value of proselyting about secular religious dogma. It is not that either are unaware of people who seem to thrive on finding divisions between these two world ideologies, but the writers have found unity in their belief that there is peace in spirituality and maybe more war to be found in promotion of differences in dogma.

Brookfield(1986) in his discussion of significant personal learning made the following statement:

The most effective facilitator is the one who can encourage adults to consider rationally and carefully perspectives and interpretations of the world that diverge from those they already hold, without making these adults feel they are being cajoled or threatened. Learners will be challenged to examine their previously held values, beliefs, and behaviors and will be challenged and will be confronted with those that they may want to consider. (p. 106)

The notion of spirituality and its place in adult lives and learning has captured the attention of adult educators. Rarely, however, are the body and spirit taken into account in discussions about learning (Merriam et al p.189). The whole person is made up of mind, body and spirit (ibid). Hooks (1994) pointed out, ―If we believe that our work is not merely to share information but to share in the intellectual

Ethnography for Cultural Bridging: Mutual Mentoring in Doctoral Study Between an American and an Iraqi and spiritual growth of our students,‖ then we must … provide the necessary conditions where learning can most deeply and intimately begin‖ (p.13).

Tisdell (2003) distinguished between religion and spirituality. He defined religion as the organized community of faith with written guidelines and codes of regulatory behavior. On the other hand, spirituality is the higher purpose personal belief and experience (p. 29). Additionally, spirituality is ―about how we construct meaning and what individually and communally how we experience and attend to honor as the sacred in our lives (ibid).‖ For Tisdell spirituality is about meaning-making, awareness, and honoring of wholeness and the interconnectedness of all things. Foehr (1997) addressed ― spirituality empowering forces or energies…having to do with creativity , imagination, inspiration, intuition, kinesthetic knowledge, felt sense, passion for knowing, the aha experience, archetypal energy, and the collective unconscious‖(pp.46-47).

Being the characteristic of mature adult thinking and the area that might enhance learning in adulthood, adults usually speak of wisdom as they face the many challenges of adult life. Mahdi and Bright acknowledge that a result of their applications of adult learning theory in their professional relationship has been characterized in its higher stages with the concept of grace. Mahdi maintains that in the new friendship of her family with Bright and his family, she has found a non-possessive, empowering, and validating wisdom and grace in which she is free to be the chooser. As Bright as exceeded age 65, he also acknowledged that a relationship of grace with an intellectual from Iraq has brought wisdom. A really significant new friend can make the whole world new.

Kramer and Baccelar (1994) referred to wisdom as the ability of thinking in a dialectical way. Becvar (2005) pointed out, ―Being wise has to do with higher awareness, one which allows us to acknowledge the many possible paradigms, worldviews, reality tunnels, epistemologies, each of which is plausible explanation of the way the world really is‖ (p. 29).

Sternberg (1996) found that laypersons( community volunteers and students) perceive the wise individuals to have the same analytic ability the intelligent person has besides having some sagacity or reasonableness that is not necessarily existent in the intelligent persons. He added the following insight:

He or she listens to others, knows how to weigh advice, and can deal with a variety of different kinds of people…The wise individual is especially well able to make clear, sensible, and fair judgments and is perceived to profit from the experiences of others and…learn from others‟ mistakes, as well as from his or her own. (p. 186)

Despite the different perspectives of wisdom viewed by Stenberg (1996) and Holliday and Chandler (1986), these scholars believed that significant knowledge can come for experience which allows wisdom to move away from traditionally held truth and to promote reflection and higher-level thinking.

In relation to grace and pedagogy, Graves (1997) described some of the qualities of grace. Graves spoke of grace as providing the perspectives ―to see ourselves in the larger context, not just as students and teachers but as individuals connected with each other and with the world beyond ourselves‖ (p. 18). Another virtue of grace as outlined by Graves is that it interrupts the expected and creates its own channel by penetrating through the boundaries of culture, language, race, social class, economic level, age, handicaps, intelligence level, geography and birth (ibid , p.19).

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Regardless of their differences, Maslow (1971) emphasized the need for teachers to treat their students with unconditional positive regard and provide them with the psychological freedom to exercise their creativity and realize their potential. On a more practical level, Maslow (1968) suggested that teachers should eliminate environmental obstacles that prevent students from engaging in self-initiated exploration and experimentation

Rogers (1969) advocated that a whole person needs to keep growing throughout life. Several factors must be satisfied for a person to reach their potentials. Just like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water, healthy personalities and relationships will not develop as they should without acceptance, authenticity, and empathy.

Rogers believed that in order to help another person effectively, there must first be total acceptance— unconditional positive regard. This kind of relationship can result from listening and sharing with openness and self-disclosure. The failure to appreciate the full value of another human being is due to restricting ourselves to a particular race or nationality. It is true that culture is now pervasive and ubiquitous and everyone talks about culture everywhere daily, in the mass media, politics, and business. Culture shock may affect nearly everyone who leaves his or her own culture and lives in a foreign culture for any length of time. Coming from a completely different culture, it is really such a refreshing experience for foreign students in the West to be totally accepted.

Given this notion of unconditional positive regard, students need to be positively regarded by their professors. When a person feels accepted for who they are without any labels or conditions, a relationship is established between the counselor and client. Such a relationship fosters trust and creates an environment that enables the client to grow because no one can grow personally if living in isolation. It is nourishing to be a significant other, to accept and to love the person for what he or she is. The Iraqi writer did not expect an American professor to act with unconditional positive regard, but this happened.

The American writer did not expect an Iraqi colleague to act with full acceptance and suspension of disbelief that the US was an over-bearing nation of bullies. Both writers gained insights into each other and themselves that was existentially affirming and joyful. Rogers (1969) maintained that in a troubled world, for people to find each other with the volition and knowledge to fully appreciate human diversity can be a deeply moving experience, and he maintained that great professors have to develop a respect for cultural diversity and to prevent creating barriers to the diversity of their students.

Faculty should accept students for who they are and for the strengths they have regardless of their social and cultural backgrounds. Students will then develop skills that foster building relationships among group members, extend their knowledge and increase their awareness of social diversity, inequalities and intolerance. Commitments to excellence in learning will motivate adult educators to pay more effort to teaching not only educational curricula and materials but everything that is beneficial to improve their personal character and enhance their position in the society as a whole.

MORE THAN IRAQI BELLY DANCERS AND US MOVIES WITH AK47S AND SEX Current news and television programs that aim to provide the West with entertaining blurbs of information about Arab culture and customs provide little education about the breadth and depth of the ancient culture of Mesopotamia, let alone the recent history of the people of Iraq and other regions of

Ethnography for Cultural Bridging: Mutual Mentoring in Doctoral Study Between an American and an Iraqi the Middle East. For Americans to have so little knowledge of geography to have little information about the proximity of Iraq to Russia or to Arabia or Israel may allow the West to associate Iraq with quaint rituals of dance or dress that hardly portray the fabric of the region of Iraq. This superficiality of American knowledge hurts the majority of the people of Iraq who are educated, sincere, and look toward a returning period of social and economic stability.

Freire (2000) acknowledged the fact that there will be no dialogue without love, humility, faith. Dialogue, with the four components of which it is made, becomes a horizontal and parallel relationship where the mutual trust between the dialoguers is the logical consequence. He declared that no dialogue can exist without the profound love for the world and for people. There will be no dialogue without humility. Freire asked how there can be a dialogue if the two dialoguers or one of them lack humility, project ignorance onto others and never perceive his/her own and if he/she is closed to the contribution of others.

Additionally, Friere viewed dialogue without faith in people as a humiliation that certainly collapses into paternalistic manipulation. The writers found that their respect and admiration for each other was growing as they observed each other‘s teaching and as they engaged in discussing the processes and effects of their instruction. The phenomenon of mutual mentoring evolved. The writers have found that for their increased learning curve about each others‘ cultures, stereotypes, and social behaviors, there had to be time, volition, and a love of both learning and people to sustain the initiative. Hellriegel and Slocum (2008) have conjectured that positive emotions such as trust, generosity, gratitude, and trust can be contagious. Love and appreciation for learning both personally and professionally are the most beneficial and valuable gifts teachers will give to their students. The writers have found that between friendly and patient adults, there can develop an openness which encourages human potentiality.

CONFRONTING HARMFUL, USELESS, AND INACCURATE US/IRAQI STEREOTYPES Faith in the potential for new relationships to become growth-producing requires honest admission and confrontation of harmful stereotyping. The writers had many opportunities to exchange their experiences with television news and entertainment programs that put both Americans and Middle Easterners in a negative light. Americans are not all fun-loving gangsters looking for drugs, a quick buck, and sensual pleasures; neither are Iraqis always somber, religiously intense, and dominant of suppressed women.

The writers sadly found that neither Iraqis nor Americans seemed to know much positive about each other‘s cultures. It was humbling for both writers to admit that they had less than specific information on how either culture lived, hoped, managed, or aspired. Globally popular American action movies frequently portray US people as seeking power, influence, and dominance. Sex, violence, and action movies can create an image of Americans that offends the educated and peace-loving people across the world. However, similarly, Americans who see Iraq only in news clips about bombings and strife may forget about the foundations of culture in Mesopotamia, the old Iraq.

The Iraqi writer‘s own experience in adjusting to living in the United States for the first time as an adult provided an example of Mezirow‘s perspective transformation. Critical self-reflection and dialogue are important in determining how to develop thinking patterns as adults. They allow for the acceptance of alternative truths or ways of thinking about the many contradictions and paradoxes that adults face in everyday life. Engaging in dialogues with professors and colleagues allow comparison of strongly held assumptions, beliefs and attitudes about culture.

G. S. Mahdi and L. K. Bright Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Mahdi has found that some Americans have very limited information about other cultures, languages and histories. For instance, Americans are not well-informed about the Middle East, or Iraq, in particular. Americans seem to enjoy educative and democratic learning environments in which democratic values are exemplified and democratic philosophies are prevalent. Discussions of these values give foreign students insight into how to understand Americans.

Students as human beings need to feel valued respected, treated with affection and love. For moments of spiritual learning to occur, there must be space in the learning environment which is safe, supportive, open and ―sacred‖ (Merriam et al p.205). Vella (2000) maintained that there could be three factors in spiritual space between genuine friends–dialogue, respect, and accountability. A spiritual friendship can allow for dialogue in a relationship without judgment. A highly competent teacher with the will to develop deeply significant friendships focused on sharing meaning can facilitate the design of learning experiences which challenge and enhance both of the people coming together in the relationship to learn.

Experiential learning allows adults to continue their growth and exploration. Regarding the importance of emotion in experiential learning, Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1996) recognized the great impact of the affective domain in providing the underlying foundation for all learning. They made the following statement about self-worth: In order for people to interpret experiences positively, and to learn affectively, they need to have confidence in their abilities, good self-esteem support from others and trust in others. In contrast, distorted learning can occur if a person is told he or she is not talented, or distressed learning can occur when we are forced to learn something. By being considerate, using democratic procedures whenever possible and maintaining open lines of communication, faculty and students could talk over their respective problems and resolve them in a friendly way. School is a place where there are self-respecting individuals. The greater the respect and attraction among faculty members and students, the greater is the influence, i.e., identifying with another person.

As an instance, if more care, respect and support are given by the teacher to students, the latter would have the strong feeling of identification for that teacher. So he/ she would have the ability to exert influence over students even outside classroom. This faculty member would have a major impact upon their student‘s personal and professional development. The graduate student rarely has a teacher who can influence her life in a positive way for a life time as she is really experiencing now in her current doctoral program.

Mahdi observed that it was very important to her personally that, in spite of her family‘s struggle to finally get to the US to study, her need to be with people who fostered optimism and confidence provided knowledge that led to her adjustment to US living. She has been proud and honored to see her advisor being unexpectedly kind, generous, thoughtful, and humble—all characteristics that from her cultural perspective denote reasons for trust. However, similarly, Bright also found unexpected depth and breadth of human characteristics in Mahdi that reinforced how much she was not only admirable, perceptive, and loyal, but also safe. That terrible threat of American wonder at the possibility of every Iraqi possibly being a terrorist hurt both Mahdi and Bright. However, it is impossible to hold such a hideous suspicion between people of substance, character, and trust.

There is a need for both teachers and students to understand that culture and society shape the adult learner and add to his or her individuality. Teachers need to be spiritually and culturally grounded in order to promote authenticity in students. Cross-cultural relationships allow us to be exposed to

Ethnography for Cultural Bridging: Mutual Mentoring in Doctoral Study Between an American and an Iraqi different ways of thinking and being in the world (Merriam et al., p. 141). We should keep in mind that stereotyping and prejudice play important roles in leading to mistaken expectations for individuals.

Bright suggested to Mahdi that Americans have limited exposure to real Iraqi culture. Their knowledge about the Iraqi way of life is generally limited because they are presented with one-dimensional negative stereotypes of Iraqi people through the news media which is basically due to 2003 war. Unfortunately, such false and superficial reflections and perspectives can lead to mistrust and miscommunication. Hellriegel and Slocum (2008) wrote, ―People are inaccurate in their perceptions of others. Misjudging the character, behavior, and ability of others could result in an inaccurate assessment of the person‘s worth value‖ (p. 79). People with unclear self-perceptions can be greatly subject to social influence.

Mahdi believed that possessing clear self-perceptions allowed Bright to view her as much as she did, and there is an urgent need to suspend judgment and show willingness to listen to a person with an attitude that this person has within himself/herself the ability to achieve their goals, wishes and desires in life. That is, all people have the internal resources required for personal growth. Mentoring is an activity that can promote spiritual development. Daloz (1999) argued in favor of mentoring that the mentor serves as guide, cheerleader, challenger, and supporter during the learning process. The teacher is the mentor who challenges students to examine their conceptions of self and the world and to formulate new, more developed perspectives. The relationship is also reciprocal and nurturing of both the mentor and the mentee.

Similarly, English, Fenwick and Parsons (2003) pointed out, ―Mentoring and coaching in adult education and human resource development settings is not about increasing the bottom line. It is about relationship, support, and increasing the human spirit.‖ This is not to say that the power dynamics of such a relationship be ignored; rather, it is a stance or reverence in which the ―spirituality of the relationship is the reciprocity that constitutes the relationship‖ (ibid).

Epistemological assumptions of Middle Easterners and Westerners may have more in common than may have been anticipated. The writers in this phenomenological inquiry have reinforced for each other that together in friendship the world can become a better place, and together they did find common appreciation for the importance of engaging each other in a trusting, open, culturally sensitive, and mutual mentoring professional relationship. Bell Hooks (1994) suggested that part of what we must do is to create a community in which we can practice engaged pedagogy by bringing our whole selves into the learning environment and examining how we engage with our educational practices, involving our ideas, passions, spirituality, and critical minds.

SUMMARY The transformation of society through education requires continuing advancement of knowledge across cultures. The West and East have strong foundations of assumptions and research on the effectiveness of education among adults who offer each other trust, respect, dignity, and rich communication of meanings in life. The potential is great for the US and Iraq to build common appreciation of the common humanity, shared volition to seek a better life, and the cultural traditions of each.

For mutual mentoring to occur, the following conditions are essential:

A. Using the Golden Rule: Treating others as we would like to be treated—If there is one best rule, this golden one is powerful.

G. S. Mahdi and L. K. Bright Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

B. Suspending Disbelief: When someone new is viewed with suspicion and fear, regular communication is stressed. Most people from different beginnings will not cause us harm. C. Practicing Unconditional Positive Regard: The dignity of human life and experience pervades all people. Until we have reason to restrict our positive regard, this view to find the best in others can build deep and reciprocal respect, admiration, and honorable affection. D. Giving Time for Experience: Sharing of our precious time in life, trading experiences can build a level of listening and sharing that allows opportunity for finding meaning in relationships. E. Seeking Common Humanity: Finding reasons for believing in the common humanity of all people and their challenges, purposes, and hopes can build bridges across cultures that result in one of the primary gifts of life— life-long friendships.

If there is suspension of disbelief that different cultures may not be easily bridged because of philosophical, religious, economic, or social differences, there may be opportunities for adults to come together to continue to learn from each other. Prejudice, fear, distrust, and indifference keep people apart and limit perception to provincial knowledge. Educators from both the West and East who seek opportunities to find meaningful relationships across traditional cultural barriers can find an expanding world of knowledge that encourages human inclusiveness, rather than elitism and exclusion. The writers have found meaning and purpose in foundational interpersonal approaches to trust, listen, share, and reflect. Together we can learn anew the importance of empathy and communication in establishing unconditional positive regard and shared purposes and projects for making a better global world.

REFERENCES Becvar, R.J.(2005). On wisdom and becoming wise. ReVision: A Journal of Consciousness and Transformations, 27(4), 28-32. Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Promoting reflection in learning: A model. In R. Edwards, A. Hanson, & P. Raggatt (Eds.). Boundaries of Adult Learning (pp. 32-56). New York: Routledge. Brookfield, S. D. 1986.Understanding and facilitating adult learning: A comprehensive analysis of principles and effective practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cervero R. M., Wilson A. L. and Associates. (2001). Power in Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. English,L.M.(2000). Spiritual dimensions of informal learning. In L.M. English & M.A.Gillen (EDs.), Addressing the spiritual dimensions of adult learning : What educators can do(pp.29-38). New Directions for Adult and continuing Education, No 85. San Fransisco:Jossy-Bass. Daloz ,L.A. (1999). Mentor: Guiding the journey of adult learners (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey– Bass. Fenwick, T. & English, L. & parsons J. (2001). Dimensions of spirituality: a framework for adult educators. In T. Nesbit (Ed.), Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Education (pp. 78-85). Quebec City: Laval University. Foehr. R. P. (1997). Writing the spirit: Interviews with John Bradshaw, Larry Dossey, M. D., and Thomas Moore. In R. P. Foehr & S.A. Schiller (Eds.), The Spiritual Side of Writing (pp. 44-68). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. Freire, P. (2004) Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary ed.), New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. Graves, R. L. (1997). Grace, in pedagogy. The spiritual side of writing. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, J. (2008). Organizational Behavior. Mason, OH: Southwest Cengage Learning. Holliday, S.G. , & Chandler, M.J.(1986). Wisdom: explorations in adult competence: Contributions to human development (Vol.17).Basel: Karger.

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Hooks, B. (1994) Teaching to Transgress. Education as the practice of freedom, London: Routledge. Kramer, D.A. & Baccelar , W.T. (1994). The educated adult in today‘s world: Wisdom and the mature learner. In J.D. Sinnott (Ed.), Interdisciplinary handbook of adult lifespan learning. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development, 6th Edition. Burlington, MA: Elsevier. MacKeracher, D. (1996). Making sense of adult learning. Toronto, Canada: Culture Concepts. Mazlow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Mazlow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper Collins. Merriam, S. Caffarella, R. & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood 3rd ed., San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S.B. & Caffarella, R.S. (1999). Learning in adulthood (2ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow & Associates, Learning as Transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp. 3-33). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J.(1996). Contemporary paradigms of learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 46(3), 158-172. Reagan, T. (2005). Non-western educational traditions: Indigenous approaches to educational thought and practice (3rd ed). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Rogers,C.R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist‘s view of psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers,C.R. (1969). Freedom to learn for the 80s. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Semali , L.M.& Kincheloe, J.L.(1999) Introduction: What is indigenous knowledge and why should we study it? In L.M.Semali &J.L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is indigenous knowledge? Voices from the academy (pp.3-57). New York: Falmer Press. Tisdell, E.J. (2003). Exploring spirituality and culture in adult and higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Tisdell, E. J.; Hanley, M. S.; and Taylor, E. W. (2000). Different perspectives on teaching for critical consciousness. In Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education. A. L. Wilson and E. R. Hayes (Eds.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Vella, J. (2000). A spirited epistemology: Honoring the adult learner as subject. In L. English & M. Gillen (Eds.), Addressing the spiritual dimensions of adult learning: What educators can do (pp. 7-16). New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 85. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wiersma, W. & Jurs, S.G. (2005). Research methods in education: An introduction. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Sternberg, R.J.(1996). Successful intelligence: How practical and creative intelligence determine success in life. New York: Simon & Shuster. Sternberg, R.J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R.J. (2005). Foolishness. In R.J. Stenberg 7 J. Jordan (Eds.), A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives (pp.331-352). Cambridge: Uk: Cambridge University Press.

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

FROM WILLIAMS TO OBAMA: THE SOCIAL MARKETING OF NATIONAL UNITY

Jennifer G. Bailey Bowie State University, USA

ABSTRACT ―From Williams to Obama—The Social Marketing of National Unity,‖ analyzes how two young political leaders, Eric Eustace Williams of Trinidad and Tobago and Barack Hussein Obama II of the United States of America, separated by half a century of socio-political change but faced by comparable odds of success, employed social marketing campaigns founded on the principle of national unity to galvanize target audiences into action, embrace change and achieve and sustain political leadership.

In January 1956, Eric Williams launched the People‟s National Movement (PNM) represented by a racially diverse group of talented colleagues. Williams captured the imagination of his people, led the PNM to political victory in September 1956, and propelled the historically divided multi-racial, multi- religious, British Colony of Trinidad & Tobago from colonialism to self government, independence and economic strength under the mantra ―All Ah We is One—We are all one people‖. Williams was democratically reelected as Prime Minister for five consecutive terms and died in office in 1981.

In 2007, Barack Obama announced his candidacy for the Presidency of the United States of America and captured the heartland state of Iowa with an unprecedented, multi-ethnic, Internet-driven, grassroots movement that stormed the country with a message of change, hope and national unity. Obama‟s memorable statement, ―There are no red states and blue states. We are the United States of America,‖ characterized his national unity campaign and ultimately led to his victory in 2008.

This study defines national unity and social marketing; provides a methodology for analyzing national unity as a product with a life cycle that can be socially marketed; examines statements made by Williams (1956-1972) and Obama (2004-2009) to communicate and sustain „national unity‟, champion political change and achieve cohesiveness and victory from a disparate electorate. Trinidad is described as a ‗test market‘ and the United States ―the product launch‖ for national unity. A prior study of Trinidad‟s national unity (Bailey, 2002) is referenced for perspective on how Trinidad‟s festivals and music provide a cultural context and choreography for Williams‟ unity theme.

Williams and Obama are analyzed as spokespersons for national unity. The study reviews their similarities and differences, successes and challenges and questions whether the Williams-Obama example of socially marketing national unity may be adapted by local spokespersons to foster peaceful change in geographies historically challenged by internal strife. Importantly, this study renews attention to Eric Eustace Williams the distinguished historian-statesman as a global model and advocate for peaceful social change.

Keywords: Social Marketing; National Unity; Eric Williams; Barack Obama; Social Networks; Product Life Cycle; TIDE Detergent.

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

INTRODUCTION

Prime Minister, Eric Williams (1911-1981) President, Barack Obama (1962- present)

Eric Eustace Williams (1911-1981) Half a century ago in 1948, a 39-year old Oxford University-educated black Trinidadian, Eric Eustace Williams returned to Trinidad, a British Crown Colony, as Deputy Secretary for Research at the Anglo- American Commission, later renamed the Caribbean Commission. Williams‘ prolific scholarly output at the Commission was coupled with a philosophically strained relationship. The Commission ended Williams‘ contract in June 1955. In his memoir, Inward Hunger (Williams, 1952), Williams preened: If the Commission could not work with him as a peer, they would have to deal with him as a head of state8. Williams launched the People‘s National Movement (PNM), Trinidad‘s first structured political party in January 1956, and the PNM contested and won the general election in September 1956.

Williams‘ notable educational pedigree, distinguished scholarship and publications are well-known throughout the Caribbean and in scholarly circles ranging from history to economics. The New York Times described Williams‘ Capitalism and Slavery (1944) as ―Years ahead of its time…this profound critique is still the foundation for studies of imperialism and economic development.‖9 Capitalism and Slavery, the book based on Williams‘ seminal and controversial doctoral dissertation, made the case that slavery, driven by capitalistic greed had ended only when it became clear to the colonial capitalists that it was no longer viable to sustain the past profitability of the sugar industry based on slavery10. This was a controversial position to have taken in the country that attributed its humanitarianism as the cause célèbre for ending slavery. Purportedly, the theme of Williams‘ doctoral thesis was recommended by his mentor and friend C.L.R. James11. Nevertheless, this seminal work reflected Williams‘ audacity, stamina and life-long dedication to overturning the old order of ‗things as they were‘.

8 Williams, Eric E., (1952), Inward Hunger, The Education of a Prime Minister, Trinidad Publishing Co., Port of Spain, Trinidad, p.117 9 New York Times, (2007) October 6, downloaded June 16, 2009 10 Williams, Eric, (1944), Capitalism and Slavery, The University of North Carolina Press, Raleigh, N.C., p. 54 11 Sealy, Theodore, (1991), Caribbean Leaders, Longwood Publishing, Port of Spain, Trinidad, p.192

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Williams may not be as well-known to lay audiences in the United States or other areas of the world and some background information is required. As a boy of 11 years of age, Williams won a scholarship to Queen Royal College (QRC), a leading Trinidad high school and at 18 won the prestigious Island Scholarship which enabled him to study at Oxford University, England. Here he earned an undergraduate degree and his doctorate, ranking first in his class.

The eldest of twelve children, Williams rose from humble beginnings in 1911 to become one of the Caribbean‘s greatest leaders12. As a child, Williams‘ father had said three things mattered in colonial Trinidad and Tobago, ―Color, money and education, in that order.‖13 With no control over the first two, Williams made education and scholarship his priority. ―I was never allowed to forget that I was the rising hope of my stern and unbending relatives‖14. As the eldest of 12 children, he bore the dual mantle of favored child--icon of responsibility and surrogate parent. He grew into manhood conditioned always to being the exemplar, the one committed to the welfare of others and willing to embrace their burdens (Williams 2006). Williams‘ will power, political acumen and genius for historical details made him a formidable opponent and accounted for numerous unprecedented social, economic and political achievements during his lifetime.

This paper cites 1956 as Eric Williams‘ launch of the “test market” for socially marketing national unity.

Barack Hussein Obama II (1962- present) Barack Obama burst onto the American national consciousness before most people could pronounce his name. The audacious philosophical concepts Obama cast out to the American people in his speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention emphasized hope, which he described as ―the bedrock of the nation.‖15 However, unity, also a theme of this address, became the mantra of Obama‘s presidential campaign from 2007-2008 with statements such as, ―There is not a liberal America and a conservative America. There is the United States of America,‖ that tested the country‘s capacity for boldness. According to Time Magazine, it worked. Obama‘s 2004 vision endeared him into the hearts of a broad spectrum of Americans. During the 2007- 2008 presidential campaign, supporters cited Obama‘s 2004 DNC speech as the defining moment when they decided to support him16 (Time 2006).

President Obama is a man of erudition and many cultures. In his youth, he lived in Hawaii and Indonesia. Later on, he visited Kenya and lived in California, Massachusetts and New York. He settled in the Midwest making Chicago, Illinois, his home and senatorial seat. Obama has authored two books which remain on the New York Times best seller list. Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1962 to Barack Obama Sr. of Kenya and Ann Dunham of Wichita, Kansas, his parents who were both students at the East-West Center of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, divorced when Obama was two years old, leaving Obama with an image of his father formed through stories told by his mother and her parents. In his book Dreams From My Father (1996), Obama recounts challenging years of self discovery when he first learned of racism at the prestigious Panuhou School in Hawaii, which he attended from fifth grade to graduation17.

12 Hackett, Jeff, Williams Remembered: The Man and the Myth, Trinidad and Tobago Express, March 26, 1998 13 Williams, Eric E., (1952), Inward Hunger, The Education of a Prime Minister, Trinidad Publishing Co. Port of Spain, p.26 14 Ibid, p.56 15 Olive, David, (2008) An American Story: The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, 2008 16 TIME Magazine, (2006), p. 65 17 Obama, Barack, (1995) Dreams From My Father, Cannongate Press, London, p. 98

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Through sports, the love of his grandparents and the caring philosophy instilled by his mother, Obama survived the passage of youth to develop an interest in political organizing and political science during his undergraduate years at Occidental College and Columbia University. Obama‘s prescient decision to serve as a community organizer at the Altgeld Gardens Housing Project on Chicago‘s South Side provided superb preparation for surmounting resistance from entrenched leaders, addressing apathy and taking hard-won and infrequent successes in stride. Obama became the first African American President of the Harvard Law Review, lectured at the University of Chicago‘s Law School, achieving the rank of Professor and served as Junior United States Senator from Illinois (January 2005-November 2008), having resigned in November 2008 after his election to the presidency18.

Compared to Williams, the review period for Obama‘s national unity campaign (2004-2009) is relatively short. Even so, Obama‘s target audiences have watched him grow and in a dynamic fashion appear to have grown with him. The genius of the Obama presidential campaign championed by the national unity theme has now entered the annals of marketing and management legend as a case study in bottom–up organizing, social marketing and social networking. Obama‘s intellectual capacity to absorb and distill vast amounts of information grew increasingly through the course of 2007as did his bountiful graces gleaned in part from years of service to others. The Obama campaign engineered this bounty to steadily build the early „growth phase‟ of his national unity product life cycle.

Particular characteristics (graces) that promoted Obama‘s early growth-cycle during his presidential campaign include: The ability to listen respectfully to others; a demonstrated ‗grace under pressure‘ personality epitomized in the sobriquet, “No Drama Obama;” an athletically fit physique; impeccable sartorial grooming; and a personal charm smelted by training, scholarship and personal sacrifice. Fortified by these graces, Barack Obama was a highly marketable package to the American voter by 2008. His attributes ‗played so well‘ with the media that opponents cried foul and demanded equal time. The Obama team powered up the social marketing campaign and drew upon its digital social networks, inserted innovative multi-media advertising with the foundation theme of national unity to significantly demolish historic barriers of race, age, gender, geography, political philosophies and smelt an all- embracing movement that drew in all comers.

This paper cites 2007 as Barack Obama‘s “product launch” for socially marketing national unity.

METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH Time Frame for Analysis This study will focus on the following time periods for each individual in the study:

Eric Williams (1955 to 1972), because June 22, 1955 marked Williams‘ public announcement of his intent to devote his life to the people of Trinidad and Tobago and the formal introduction of his national unity campaign; August 31, 1962 marks the attainment of Independence from Great Britain for Trinidad and Tobago and the continuation of the growth phase; by 1970-72 the maturity phase had transitioned to decline and Williams registered threats to national unity from the ‗Black Power‘ and ‗Indian Empowerment‘ movements.

18 Olive, David, (2008) An American Story: The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, 2008

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Barack Obama (2004 to 2009), because July 24, 2004, marked Obama‘s televised address at the Democratic National Convention‘s nomination of John Kerry as the party‘s presidential candidate. This brought national recognition to Obama through the potency of his national unity message; on February 10, 2007 Obama announced his U.S. presidential candidacy; on November 4, 2008, Obama won the presidential election by a substantial margin and on January 20, 2009 Barack Obama was sworn in as the 44th President of the United States with an inaugural address anchored in national unity.

Exclusive Focus on Trinidad The two-island nation of Trinidad & Tobago became a single political entity in 1889 under British rule. Their differences in size, natural resources and colonial history have resulted in distinctly different demographics in each island. Tobago‘s population of 65,000 is relatively homogenous – 98% African descent. In Trinidad, with a population of 1.3 million the variables of race, religion, culture, politics and economics intersect to form a distinct yet ―fragile and deeply held concept of national unity‖ (Bailey 2002), forged by Williams in 1956. Trinidad alone provides the context for the study of national unity addressed herein. Trinidad‘s demographics are discussed in greater detail later in this paper.

National Unity- A Product with a Life Cycle The social cause of ‗national unity‘ is analyzed as a product with a traditional lifecycle of introduction, growth, maturity and decline. This concept is central to the methodology used in this paper to analyze the Williams and Obama campaigns.

Defining National Unity National unity is defined as a dynamic concept reflected in a people‘s belief they are connected to something greater than the self. National unity transcends differences of race, creed, status or ability for the greater good of ‗oneness.‘ It is often expressed as ‗country first‘ through connection to others. National unity is manifested in formal documents such as a nation‘s constitution, national songs and celebrations that engender widespread participation and sustain credence for the concept, however tenuous it might be. The social cause of ‗national unity‘ as a product with a lifecycle of introduction, growth, maturity and decline is central to the methodology used in this paper to analyze the Williams and Obama campaigns.

Defining Social Marketing Phillip Kotler defines social marketing as ―the systematic application of marketing along with other concepts and techniques to achieve specific behavioral goals for a social good19. Additionally, Kotler and Andreasen (2002), indicate some marketing (social marketing) is conducted by non-profit or government organizations to directly address a social problem and to further a social cause20. These statements suggest marketing can be used to ―sell ideas, attitudes and behaviors.‖ Weinreich (2006) sees social marketing as ―differing from other areas of marketing only with respect to the objectives of marketers and their organization/s,‖ and states, ―Social Marketing seeks to influence social behaviors not to benefit the marketer, but to benefit the target audience and the general society.‖ 21

19 Kotler, Philip, (2006), Marketing Management, 12th Edition, Person/Prentice Hall, 2006, p.712 20 Ibid, p. 712. 21 Weinrich, Nedra Kline, ―What is Social Marketing?‖ Weinrich Communications 2006, www.socialmarketing.com, downloaded May 7, 2009

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Assimilating findings from the literature and having implemented a variety of social marketing campaigns in the corporate, academic and government sectors, the author defines social marketing as ―the ability to use the tools and creativity of commercial marketing to bring a worthy cause to the attention of society and change human behavior‖(Bailey 2008). This definition reflects some of the grittiness and grunge of the social marketing campaign as a real world societal contest choreographed through multimedia messaging, powered by social networks that create a dynamic social movement charged by the imagery of facts and mythology, symbolism and totems, music and lyrics, heroes and villains all competing with paid marketing messages in a limited air space to capture hearts and minds and change behavior (Bailey 2009).

Social Marketing by this definition is ―A dynamic multimedia engagement in defense of an important social cause, charged with dramatic messages, memorable slogans and vibrant imagery, social networks, people empowerment and propelled by totems, music, lyrics, heroes and villains and designed to change attitudes and influence behavior (Bailey 2009). Mythology22 and symbolism also play a vital role as strategic communications techniques employed to achieve behavioral change. This definition is applied to analyze the social marketing strategies Williams and Obama have used in their national unity campaigns.

The ‗Movement‘ in the Social Marketing Campaign The ‗Movement,‘ the grassroots collection of people, socially networked, organized and structured to achieve specified political outcomes formed the heart of the Williams and Obama campaigns. Theories of how social movements are formed and their stages of development foster understanding of the evolution of the ‗movement‘ in social marketing campaigns. The ‗movement‘ is effective in energizing different stages of the product life cycle over the life span of the product--the national unity campaign23.

The Williams-Obama social networks enrolled increasing numbers who formed and re-energized the ‗movement‘. The similarities and differences of the Williams-Obama social networks are viewed in the context of their innovativeness given historical timing and technological changes over the 50-year time span that separates Williams and Obama; their form and functions; their impact on target audiences and their embodiment of Marshall McLuhan‘s ―the medium is the message.‖24

The Relevance of Cultural Context in Sustaining National Unity The study of Trinidad‘s Carnival and its influence on sustaining national unity in Trinidad (Bailey 2002) is addressed to assess the potential of cultural expression (film, music, theatre, festivals, public communication) for sustaining national unity in the contexts of Trinidad, the United States and beyond.

Carnival, with its West African and French roots, has been celebrated in Trinidad since 1839 and has become increasingly inclusive over time. Celebrations are held annually and almost 90% of the population participates. Visually, it may be the largest testimony to human unity, beauty, and ebullience. The celebration is open to all, fully embracing and highly creative (New York Times 1987). Each year, many of the newly composed calypsos (local music) have themes celebrating Trinidad‘s national unity-- its racial and religious harmony. Some 200 songs on unity (brotherhood, harmony, peace, togetherness) have been composed for Trinidad‘s carnival celebrations since 1930 (Bailey 2002).

22 Cayla, J. and Arnould, E. (2008), ―A Cultural Approach to Branding in the Global Marketplace,‖ Journal of International Marketing, Volume 16, Number 4, p. 99 23 Smelser, Neil J., (1974) Theory of Collective Behavior, Princeton University Press, N.J. 24 McLuhan, M., (1967)The Medium is the Message, Gingko Press Inc., 1967

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In 2002, David Rudder‘s composition, „The Ganges and the Nile‟, seemed an unparalleled, symbolic expression of Trinidadian‘s commitment to national unity and inspired research and a survey among Trinidadians on the subject of national unity25. An expanded survey is underway in Trinidad in 2009 among a larger target audience to garner current data on how Trinidadians view national unity in 2009.

The Choreography of Social Marketing The social marketing choreography for national unity has the greatest resonance in a context where high levels of human despair and uncertainty are prevalent. This was the case in Trinidad (1955-56) and the United States (2007-2008). Williams and Obama used the message of ―national unity‖ as the foundation for their social marketing campaigns to influence the attitudes and behaviors of a diverse electorate and gain political ascendency and victory. Under review are numerous similarities between Williams and Obama that prepared them so well for the challenges they faced. It also points to contrasting strategies, styles and mannerisms demonstrated by both men which nevertheless led them to achieve similar outcomes.

The Test Market: This study contends that in 1956, Eric Williams launched the ―test market‖ for socially marketing national unity in Trinidad. Since the 1940s, Williams had been an advocate for unity. First, in the Caribbean region where he saw unity as a bulwark against the ‗divide and conquer‘ approach of colonialism which had left the colonies poor and disenfranchised. Williams‘ research, writing and public lectures expressed a lifetime commitment to unity, his central political theme for Trinidad. Williams recruited for his cabinet and the leadership of the People‘s National Movement (PNM), a multi-racial group of outstanding and experienced individuals thereby meeting his own preconditions for exhorting the nation to espouse unity and for launching his political campaign on the foundation of national unity.

The Product Launch: This study contends that in 2007 Barack Obama implemented the ―product launch‖ for socially marketing national unity in the United States. The product life cycle describes how Obama accomplished his goal starting in 2004 with the keynote address at the Democratic National Convention. Fifty years after Williams, Barack Obama also depended on a socially networked grassroots movement, digitally propelled and with representation in 50 states and five territories and from every spectrum of American society. Obama‘s skills in bringing people together honed over the years, established the „product launch‟ of national unity.

25 Rudder, David, (2002), The Ganges and the Nile, Downloaded from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BpTkS2uzsCg, on June 19, 2009

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

National Unity – A Product with a Life Cycle

Figure 1: The Life Cycle of a Product that is Marketed (Downloaded June 13, 2009 from http://tutor2u.net/business/marketing/products/lifecycle.asp)

Product: Anything that is capable of satisfying a consumer need. Products may be goods, (Cars, sewing machines, books), services (Financial, travel, hospitals) or causes (A Cure for Cancer, Eradicating Illiteracy, National Unity). Whether goods, services or causes, the traditional product life cycle reflects the stages of introduction, growth, maturity and decline presented in figure 1.26

Introduction Stage: Substantial research and product development costs are incurred to bring a product to the introduction stage. Fundraising has begun; a marketing plan has been developed, target audience/s identified, strategies and tactics as well as ways to measure success have been outlined and implemented; a timeline for the introduction and well defined success measures are developed; key message points are outlined and pertinent spokespersons identified.

Growth Stage: Increased output is invested to support the growth stage including: Financial resources to support events, speeches, travel, advertising, publicity, publications (Newspapers, pamphlets, Internet activity-Social networks such as Blogs, Twitter, My Space, broadcast messages to captive audiences); ‗Whistle Stop‘ tours and town hall meetings may have been planned to obtain massive exposure for the cause/product and to support and sustain the growth phase.

Maturity Stage: At this stage competition is most intense and efforts are increased to secure the ―market share‖ or share of audience attention as indicated by polling information. Product dominance is key, as expected in the commercial market; much of the return on investment is seen in the maturity stage. Product success is strong, the return on investments (ROI), made in the growth stage is evident. Care must be taken to manage the product carefully, to monitor costs; assess strategies and tactics and revise or strengthen winning strategies. From here, the product can take on new forms, expand to new markets gain additional attention and financial resources or the product may go into decline losing market share and financial viability.

26 Tutor2u, (2009), Downloaded June 13, 2009 from http://tutor2u.net/business/marketing/products/lifecycle.asp

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Decline Stage: The overall market is shrinking in the decline stage and so is the product‘s share of the market. Care must be taken to monitor costs, review measurement assessments to determine whether the product should stay in the market at a second tier status; whether new uses/audiences can be created; new users/audiences tapped; new resources identified to revive the product/cause; allow its continued decline; or withdraw it from the market.

Demographics of Trinidad 1955 In 1955, ethnic divisions in Trinidad were sharp as various groups jostled for superiority. In many cases, black Trinidadians and Indian Trinidadians could end up at the bottom of the heap. Williams inherited a country where, as an educated man of color, he very likely would not have been hired even at an entry level position in a privately owned bank or corporation. White creoles and foreign expatriates ran Trinidad and Tobago. In 1955, the total population of 720,800 was made up as follows (Ghany, 1996):

Figure 2: Ethnic Groups in Trinidad, 195527 Ethnic Groups in Trinidad, 1955 % of Population African descent 46.9% Indian descent 35.1% White 2.7% Chinese 1% Syrians .2% Mixed Population 14.1%

Figure 2 reflects how history and the sugar economy bestowed on Trinidad demographic diversity and a cornucopia of ethnicities and religions. Designations of racial groups as African, Chinese, White, Indian, Syrian, and Lebanese do not easily apply in Trinidad. Intermarriage and interbreeding have created a population where people readily let you know they are many parts of several heritages. Nevertheless, for the purpose of this study, national census data for 1955 are relied upon for the designations used (Census Bureau, 1955). African descent 47%; Indian (Muslims and Hindus) descent 35%; White colonials 2.7%; Chinese 1%; Syrians .2% and the mixed population 14%28.

As a British Colony, whites (British and French colonials) held the highest posts and appointments in public and private sectors including Governor, Presidents of banks and private corporations, heads of educational institutions, churches, civil service, hospitals, and police force. A strong and selective educational system produced an educated middle class from which the brightest attained mid level civil service positions and built up a solid middle class of ―Minor Brits‖ many of whom were black. In order to succeed ―Minor Brits‖ emulated the manners, speech and life style and educational aspirations of the British. British colonialism produced a genteel, well-educated and civil middle class many of whom pursued and received advanced degrees in the UK, USA and Canada and returned to Trinidad to work.

27 Ghany, Hamid, A. (1996) Kamala: A Lifetime of Politics, Religion and Culture, Publisher, Kamaluddin Mohammed, San Juan, Trinidad & Tobago, p. 599. 28 Ghany, Hamid, A. (1996), KAMAL: A Lifetime of Politics, Religion and Culture, Publisher, Kamaluddin Mohammed, San Juan, Trinidad & Tobago.

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

In 1955, a substantial portion of this educated middle class group was urban and of African descent and held mid to lower level jobs in the civil service including nurses, police officers, principals, teachers, and post masters. Trinidad‘s Indian (Hindu and Muslim) descent middle class was small and largely professional including physicians and attorneys. The majority of the population was rural and agricultural; Chinese were mainly shopkeepers in rural and urban settings. These are the groups Williams sought to unify as one people under the theme ―All Ah We Is One—we are all one people.‖ The challenge was not as easy at it might appear to be 50 years after the fact. The white ruling classes, the Roman Catholic Church and the major print media were opposed to Williams.

Williams‘ extensive accomplishments for Trinidad and Tobago were unlikely to occur without his driving force for national unity, his extraordinary intellect, knowledge of history, and Trinidad‘s harvest of ethnically diverse, well educated and politically active professionals from which Williams recruited his first cabinet. This team reflected an image of unity, diversity and professionalism unseen previously in Trinidad‘s politics. Among these founding members, Kamaluddin Mohammed, an elected local government official, religious and cultural leader in the Muslim community and a fervent advocate for unity between and among Muslims, Hindus and Christians played a pivotal role29.

Kamaluddin Mohammed worked alongside Williams to lead the PNM‘s powerful grassroots social movement, fostered widespread participation by Indian descent Trinidadians in the political process and fully supported Williams‘ quest for unity, equality and self determination. At 83, and the only founding member of the PNM still alive in 2009, Mohammed described the 1956 Whistle stop tours with Williams as follows, “We would charm the crowds, Williams as Nkrumah and I as Nehru and people loved it.” This partnership for unity was essential to the victories of Williams and the PNM in five successive elections (Jennifer Bailey‘s Interview with Kamaluddin Mohammed, June 17, 2009).

29 Ibid, p. 599

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Demographics of Voters in the United States 1988-2008 Figure 3: Demographic Composition of U.S. Voters, 1988-2008

(Pew Research Center, Downloaded 6/19/2009: http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1209/racial-ethnic-voters-presidential-election)

In 2008, 76% of U.S. voters were whites (Non-Hispanic whites). Obama needed to win the votes of a large proportion of white voters to be successful. Voters were also Republican and Democrat, young and old, male and female. Demographic and psychographic factors such as the National Despair Index (NDI), openness to change and views on leadership would also impact voting decisions.

Key Criteria for Spokespersons for the Social Marketing of National Unity Social cause advocates from Mahatma Gandhi (India), Nelson Mandela (South Africa), Martin Luther King Jr. (United States of America) and Ingrid Betancourt (Columbia), have met the following minimum criteria in order of priority. They have been: 1) Local; 2) Exemplary in their personal and professional lives; 3) Credible (believable, trustworthy), and 4) They characterize Servant Leadership (Greenfield, 1979), (they make the needs of the people the top priority). Williams and Obama reflect these bedrock characteristics of being local, exemplary, credible and servant leaders. Beyond these bedrock characteristics and notwithstanding the 50 years that separate the Williams and Obama campaigns, remarkable similarities connect Williams and Obama as political leaders and statesmen.

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Similarities: Black men of multi-ethnic lineage, superb educational backgrounds, simple beginnings, outstanding intellectual strengths, strong commitment to service and a vision that transcended obstacles Williams and Obama shared remarkable similarities that contributed to their life‘s mission:

 Outsiders: Williams and Obama did not represent the status quo; were not products of powerful leading families; heads of major corporations nor connected to influential interest groups. This ‗outsider‘ experience may have fostered empathy with the disenfranchised and their focus on equality and unity;

 Products of the Mainstream--they excelled in the mainstream: Williams (Queens Royal College, Oxford) and Obama (Harvard/Columbia) were educated and excelled in citadels of western thought and education. They served prominent institutions—Williams (Howard University and the Anglo-American Commission later Caribbean Commission); Obama (United States Senate, University of Chicago, Sidley Austin Law Firm).

 The Movement: Both Williams and Obama used the power of the ‗movement‘ to energize their campaign, to spread fervor and enthusiasm and to win. Williams‘ People‘s National Movement (PNM) was a structured, grassroots organization with sections for youth, women and men; members‘ fees provided financial support for the organization; a weekly newspaper, The Nation, delivered its own version of the news and educated its members; Obama‘s movement is a social network of Internet-connected people amplified as needed through face to face contact and small group sessions in communities and homes; the exponential reach of Obama‘s electronic network is in the multiple millions.

 They Are the Story: According to Cicero, the difference between a great politician and a mediocre one is the ability to deprive a big story of oxygen30. Williams and Obama deprived stories of oxygen by constantly being the story.

 Indefatigable: Williams held 176 meetings over two months in every corner of Trinidad and Tobago from July 1956 to September 23, 1956--one day prior to Election Day; Obama visited every state in the nation and five territories multiple times regardless of voting precedent—both were tireless in their effort to get their message to the people.

 A Life of service: From their youth, Williams and Obama were inspired (Williams by his father, Obama by his mother), to a life of service to others.

 Timing, History and a High National Despair Index (NDI) were on their side: The NDI (Bailey 2009), captures the impact of destabilizers (unemployment, high interest rates escalated gas prices, home foreclosures) on the society that cause elevated levels of public concern manifested in low approval ratings for elected official and those seeking to be elected. In Trinidad in 1955 and the U.S. in 2008, the NDI was sufficiently high to prompt the electorate to yearn for change from the status quo.

 Figure 4, below reflects the importance of these seven factors for Williams and Obama:

30 Alter, J., (2006) The Defining Moment, Simon& Schuster, NY.

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Figure 4: Timing, History and NDI—Similarities for Williams and Obama Williams/Timing Obama/Timing i. The timing of his political career and his message of i. In the 21st century, the U.S. population has evolved national unity had many advantages: Trinidad‘s voters had through significant generational changes in attitudes about felt powerless and outside the electoral process for years; race, gender, lifestyle; the use and prevalence of technology Williams‘ adult education lectures (1948-1956), had elevated in the Obama campaign influenced and found connections the political awareness of the electorate and the PNM party with younger voters in 2008; younger voters influenced their had energized the populace to want to vote; parents to respond to Obama‘s message; ii. PNM‘s social network of multiethnic spokespersons was ii. In the digital age, Obama‘s camp created social networks created through a well-designed party system and a via the Internet through a variety of media that reached movement that filled a national information vacuum for a people where they are/were regardless of time, space, large educated urban middle class and disenfranchised rural geography; fostered collaboration and interaction among citizens who wished to improve their lot in life. By recounting and by supporters to achieve major goals such as: Electoral historical injustices Williams established Colonialism as the success, new members, raising funds, get out the vote common villain and fostered collaboration and interaction (GOTV) programs etc. among party members to achieve major goals such as: Electoral success, increased membership, fees and fundraising to support party activities such as the newspaper, get out the vote programs (GOTV) etc. Williams/History Obama/History

The British colonial historical record in serving the people Calls for national unity have much precedent in U.S. history was so poor that it was their own undoing. Williams‘ could from George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, to Eisenhower; point to their failings such as: low wages, limited access to Obama invoked the names of national heroes (Lincoln and education, jobs, etc. to arouse enthusiasm for change. FDR) to rally the cause of unity.

Williams/National Despair Index (NDI) Obama/National Despair Index (NDI) The National Despair Index (NDI), created by Bailey (2009) American voters were very worried about: Rising captures the destabilizers in the economy and society that unemployment; bank failures, declining property values, high caused high levels of concern manifested in, among other interest rates that led to widespread home foreclosures; the things, a change in elected official; growing national deficit, two wars; national security; health care costs; social security crisis; and a bleak future31.

Eric Williams—The Social Marketing of National Unity Introduction and Growth Cycles of National Unity Tony Martin, in the introduction to the 2004 edition of The Economic Future of the Caribbean (Frazier, Williams, 2004), stated that the 1943 conference of the same name, organized jointly by Williams and Frazier, was ‗the early staging for William‘s political ambitions in Trinidad‘. In any case, as early as 1943, during his Howard University tenure and subsequently, while serving the Caribbean Commission, Williams engaged in pan-Caribbean (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Antigua, Jamaica) travel, scholarship, book publications and a series of lectures which elevated his visibility in the region. In 1954, Williams embarked on an ambitious, highly visible adult education agenda for Trinidad and delivered numerous lectures from September to November at the Public Library in Port-of-Spain stating, ―I decided on an intensification of the adult education campaign. I organized four different series of lectures.‖ Altogether, Williams delivered 28 lectures in Port-of-Spain and San Fernando, each on a different topic including the sugar industry, farming, Caribbean education and a Caribbean Federation32.

31 Olive, David, (2008) An American Story: The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, p. 354. 32 Williams, Eric E., (1952), Inward Hunger, The Education of a Prime Minister, Trinidad Publishing Co. Port of Spain, pp.113-114.

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Prior to entering politics in 1956, Williams‘ public image had been elevated through tireless efforts via multiple media. In a ‗popular campaign,‘ he contracted with the Trinidad Guardian, the major local newspaper and completed 40 articles in 1950; and through the Extramural Department of the University College of the West Indies (Now the University of the West Indies-UWI) Williams lectured in Port-of- Spain, Trinidad‘s capital and San Fernando, Trinidad‘s second largest city, located in the south33.

Eric Williams was the intellectual tour de force of his era. An anti-colonialist and self-government advocate he was an early proponent of regional economic unity for the entire Caribbean area from the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, to French Guyana and Suriname. Williams‘ knowledge of history was accompanied by streams of supportive evidence. This delighted supporters and intimidated opponents. His verbosity, wit, humdrum monotone coupled with a small stature, dark glasses, hearing aid and perpetual cigarette dangling from his lips compelled attention. His everyday discourse sounded like a university lecture. Williams‘ ninety-minute speeches on Marxism, its deceitful oppression of peasant classes and his vilifying of Western demagogues such as Trollope, Acton, Toynbee and Carlyle were delivered to enrapt audiences at a park in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, he re-named ―The University of Woodford Square.‖

Acklyn Lynch, one of the eager young cadres of teachers and intellectuals who crammed into the Public Library in Port-of Spain in 1955 to listen to Williams‘ lectures, described the heady excitement of those ―intellectually stimulating events as great educational experiences.‖34 Notwithstanding the complexity of the topics and content of his lectures, Williams, by his own account, directed his messages to ―the man in the street‖ in clear recognition of Cicero‘s ―He who controls the streets controls the law‖ (Harris, 2006). Williams took the ultimate political risk and did not talk down to his audience. His move was calculated to win cohesion among the populace against the British and the status quo (the common enemy), and foster a hankering for change. Williams harbored a genuine goal to elevate the nation from its downtrodden past and ―Forge one loyalty out of many, end the division and discord that characterized colonial rule and create equality of opportunity for all citizens‖ (Sutton 1981).

Williams mastered the introduction stage with his intense multi-year campaigns, rigid schedule and affiliations with teachers unions and historical societies. Cicero is supposed to have said, ―Some people think politics is a fight for justice. Politics is a profession‖ (Harris, 2006). Williams combined his fight for justice with professionalism and formed a disciplined organizational structure, the People‘s National Movement (PNM) as the foundation for the introduction phase of his campaign. On June 22, 1955, when Williams made public his political commitment to the people of Trinidad and Tobago at the ‗University of Woodford Square‘, 10, 000 persons turned out for the lecture that lasted five hours.

33 Williams, Eric E., (1952), Inward Hunger, The Education of a Prime Minister, Trinidad Publishing Co. Port of Spain, p.110 34 Interview with Acklyn Lynch by Jennifer Bailey, March 24, 2009, Washington D.C.

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On January 24, 1956, when Eric Williams officially announced the formation of the People‘s National Movement (PNM) and the plan to participate in the general election scheduled for September 24, 1956, the symbolism was potent. Williams stated in part, “The PNM is a nationalist party consciously dedicated to the promotion of a nationalist community. You are the symbol of the nationalist outlook and PNM recognizes neither racial differences nor sectarian differences, nor color differences nor class differences. PNM recognizes only the nation.‖(Williams 1952). The 12 founding PNM members were a multi-ethnic representation of the Trinidad population. The mantra of the PNM was unity and equality. The emblem of the movement was the balisier (a deep red local flower that grows in dense tropical forest) on a background flag of black, brown, yellow and white, symbolizing at one and the same time the movement‘s roots in the local environment, its repudiation of external domination and its interracial solidarity35. The protracted introduction phase had set the stage for a rapid spurt of growth and political excitement not previously experienced in Trinidad.

On September 24, 1956, the People‘s National Movement (PNM), won 13 of 24 contested seats in the general elections and Williams was elected the first Chief Minister of Trinidad and Tobago. He led the nation to independence from Great Britain in 1962 and through successive electoral victories served as Prime Minister until his death in 1981. By 1958 Williams had successfully negotiated with the United States to return to Trinidad and Tobago the U.S. Naval Bases at Chagaramus and Wallerfield. A life- long advocate for West Indian economic integration, by 1958 Williams had spearheaded the formation of a West Indies Federation of 10 nations. In 1962, when Jamaica voted to withdraw from the Federation, Williams (1962b) stated with characteristic, acerbic wit and irony, ―One from ten is nought,‖30 and withdrew Trinidad and Tobago, ending the short-lived federation and temporarily suspending his long-held vision for regional economic cooperation.

During 25 years of vibrant leadership Williams never stopped emphasizing national unity, equality and inter-racialism (racial unity). Focusing on the years 1955-1962 examples of Williams‘ leadership and ongoing call for national unity are provided in the maturity cycle.

The Maturity Cycle: Williams‘ Leadership and Legacy In the maturity cycle some of the novelty of the call for national unity can begin to wear off unless it is accompanied by a solid agenda to address issues and produce change that improves the lives of people. Spokespersons for national unity are obliged to use it as an anthem that tunes people in, touches emotions, sustains attention, fosters identification with a mutually beneficial goal, challenges the status quo and delivers results people can see, feel and touch.

The legacy of Williams‘ leadership of Trinidad and Tobago in the post-colonial era (1962-1972), is strong and life-changing and includes: Exponential economic growth; free education (Primary secondary and tertiary); an expanded educational system with hundreds of new schools; thousands of new homes; job opportunities; and improved roads, sewage systems, clean water and electricity to rural areas. Importantly, Williams moved Trinidad and Tobago from the centuries-old dependency on ‗sugar‘ to economic diversification including oil and petroleum products, natural gas, and steel. In the 21st century, Williams‘ legacy of economic diversification (technology and finance), is reflected in Vision 202036 Trinidad & Tobago‘s current strategic plan to become technological and financial leaders in the Caribbean and Latin America.

35 Williams, Eric E., (1952), Inward Hunger, The Education of a Prime Minister, Trinidad Publishing Co. Port of Spain, p.148. 36 Vision 2020 is the PNM‘s strategic plan achieve developed nation status by the year 2020

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

More than any other time in his public speaking, Williams‘ remarks at the first celebration of Trinidad and Tobago‘s Independence (August 31, 1962), were filled with passionate exhortations for a united path to nationhood. Williams referred to the red white and black colors of the national flag as representing the elements of earth, water and fire, and the past, present and future that inspire the nation as one united, free and dedicated people. The motto of the PNM is discipline, tolerance and production and the closing words of the national anthem are: ―Here every creed and race find an equal place and may God bless our nation.‖

On August 31, 1962, Williams‘ opened his stirring Independence Day address with the question: “What will you do with your independence...The first responsibility that devolves upon you is the protection and promotion of your democracy. Democracy means more, much more, than the right to vote and one vote for every man and every woman... Democracy means recognition of the rights of others. Democracy means equality of opportunity for all in education, in the public service, and in private employment--I repeat, and in private employment. Democracy means the protection of the weak against the strong. Democracy is but a hollow mockery if it is based on…showing intolerance to others because of considerations of race, color, creed, national origin, previous conditions of servitude or other irrationality…Our National Flag belongs to all our citizens. Our National Coat of Arms, with our National Birds inscribed therein, is the sacred thrust of our citizens. So it is today, please, I urge you, let it always be so. Let us always be able to say, with the Psalmist, behold, how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity” (Williams, 1962).

Williams was fortunate that the musical culture of Trinidad provided the sound track for his lyrical choreography of unity. During Williams' 25-year leadership at least 50 important songs of unity were composed and sung during Carnival celebrations and throughout the year. In a 2002 editorial, the independently owned Trinidad Guardian wrote, ―…It cannot be doubted that Trinidad and Tobago has enjoyed more congenial race relations than almost any other nation, whether in the region or beyond it.‖ The Guardian quoted from Eric Williams‘ speech at a youth rally on August 30th 1962, the eve of the first independence, ―Your rally here today is a good demonstration of our mixed society.‖ Always, it seemed, Williams sought opportunities to celebrate national unity and keep reminding the nation of each person‘s role in working to fulfill the vision of a unified Trinidad.

The Decline Cycle—of National Unity In the 1970s, Williams observed a beginning decline in interest in PNM activities by party members who formed PNM‘s social network. Williams correctly acknowledged that in the decade and a half since the founding of the People‘s National Movement (PNM), new social and environmental factors had emerged to compete for people‘s attention. People were better off economically and the despair of the 1950s had been left behind. Television was introduced and an increase in the standard of living gave people slightly more disposable income and a more diverse lifestyle. The population was more decentralized than in the 50s due to the rise of new housing in areas outside of the traditional town centers such as Port-of-Spain, Arima and Southern Trinidad.

The party had made no changes in its ‗modus operandum‘ to enable it to compete with these factors. Added to this was a decline in overall party membership and the aging of members. These are all classic characteristics of a mature product moving into a decline. They can be counteracted if new initiatives are implemented to halt or reverse the decline.

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Beginning in 1970 through 1972, two other factors posed considerable threats to Trinidad‘s national unity, the Black Power Movement, Indian Solidarity Movement and calls from some Indian leaders for voting along racial lines37. Improved economic conditions created an increasingly wealthy class among the two majority groups of Indian and African descent Trinidadians who sought to dissociate themselves from the less well off individuals within and outside their ethnic group. Additionally, many African descent Trinidadians had begun to slip into an underclass and were less politically active.

The Fragility of National Unity To understand the fragility of national unity in social marketing terms it must be viewed as a product with the four life cycle phases of growth, maturity and decline (Figure 1). This study contends the concept of national unity had its ‗test market‘ introduction in Trinidad in 1956, enjoyed a steady growth through 1962, reached maturity around 1969 and began to decline around 1970. This was followed in the mid 1970s through 2009 by increasingly discordant voices emanating from political leaders who emphasized differences that appeared to expedite the decline phase of the national unity life cycle.

A serious challenge to national unity in Trinidad is the lack of a structured opposition party with enduring roles, rules, processes, a committed mission and vision of its own. In its absence, various opposition factions have converged and disbanded distracting the public by the absence of unity rather than engaging them with a viable agenda. Mr. Basdeo Panday an opposition leader, former Prime Minister and veteran politician of 37 years says, ―… any party that chooses to represent only one group is doomed because the nation's plurality and diversity make it necessary for a government to include everyone.‖ (CBS News-In Depth October 30, 2007). Panday has not been able to form and lead the representative party he envisions. At elections scheduled for 2011, Trinidadians will register their views at the polling station as national unity continues to serve as central theme. In 2009, the writer conducted 400+ surveys on national unity in Trinidad to gather current data from Trinidadians. Preliminary data suggest some shifts in Trinidadian‘s perception of national unity in 2009. Details will be the subject of a future study.

Eric Williams died at 8:00 pm on Sunday, March 29, 1981. President Ellis Clarke presided over an orderly succession by George Chambers. Journalist Ramesh Deosoran who wrote frequently about Williams in the Trinidad & Tobago Express said, ―Williams offered a fascination we shall never forget.‖ Deosoran further stated he ―…doubts we are to draw serious lessons from his (Williams) political reign.‖38 It is not clear whether Deosoran implied there are no lessons to be drawn or that people might not know what lessons they can draw from Williams‘ 25-year legacy as a politician, historian and statesman. Deosoran‘s question is overshadowed by the widespread regard for Williams in the Caribbean, the academic community and the developing world as the man who ―Taught us to see that the history of any part of the Caribbean is the history of all of us (Lamming, 1965). Ken Boodhoo called Williams the anti colonial warrior and Caribbean nationalist in recognition of a lifelong focus on Caribbean unity and regional and economic integration for the West Indies. Selwyn Cudjoe (1993), states, ―…if Trinidad and Tobago is to go forward politically it must build and expand upon the political base that Williams laid.‖39 Lionel Seukeran, a prominent member of the opposition during Williams‘ tenure acknowledged the genius of Williams, ―…this brilliant son of the soil, for the sense of direction he gave us all and tireless service he rendered to the region. Never within a century will we be able to produce his equal.‖40

37 Ramdass, (1972), Trinidad and Tobago Express on line, http://www.trinidadandtobagonews.com/ Downloaded 06/06/09 38 Deosoran, R., (1981), Eric Williams: The Man, His Ideas and His Politics, Supersonic Printing C. Ltd., P.O.S., Trinidad (Back Cover) 39 Cudjoe, Selwyn, R., (1993), Eric E. Williams Speaks, Calaloux Publications, Wellesley. MA, p.32 40 Ibid, p.33

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Revitalizing the Decline Cycle A social cause or a socially marketed product such as national unity need not die with its originator. In the following summary of the life span of the TIDE brand one observes a product‘s ability to transcend time, overcome market threats and competition and thrive in its 6th decade.

A product or cause may be revitalized in its decline cycle if certain interventions stimulate a new growth period. Since laundry detergents comprise a category of products familiar to many consumers, it seems pertinent to briefly review the product life cycle of the TIDE brand manufactured by The Procter & Gamble Company and introduced to the U.S. market in 1946 in powder form, in a box with a large orange and yellow bull‘s eye design on the front. TIDE has been a market leader in the laundry detergent category for more than six decades and is still enjoying a sustained maturity phase, having buffeted and surmounted numerous competitive through innovative marketing that addressed and anticipated needs of its target audiences..

In 1946, most detergents came in one form and in one version—as a powder with a slight fragrance. A mature TIDE user may have observed several changes or upgrades in the TIDE brand over the years. Undoubtedly, such changes would have served to maintain TIDE‘s leadership in the laundry detergent category, to sustain profitability during its extensive maturity period and avert the decline phase. There may have been as many as 70+ improvements to TIDE including changes to packaging, cleaning ability and product form. In 2009, TIDE is available in numerous line extensions including diverse fragrances or unscented; combined with other P&G products such as Downy or Fabreze and available with or without bleach. In 2009, TIDE is mostly sold in liquid form, the packaging is typically a plastic jug and the classic bull‘s eye that symbolizes the historic brand identity is small yet indisputably present, symbolizing the thread connecting the brand‘s past, present and future. In 2009, people aged 25 or less, might well perceive TIDE as a brand new product yet for older users, TIDE embodies all the history and heritage of a brand that fosters loyalty and repeat purchases.

TIDE may be a useful blueprint for managing the product life cycle and averting decline of any good, service or cause, including national unity. Through ongoing environmental scanning product managers/leaders are expected to detect threats to a product early, and address them with appropriate interventions that spur growth, solidify maturity or avert decline.

A New Approach to the Product Life Cycle Model Figure 1 (Page 7): The Life Cycle of a Product that is Marketed (Traditional Model-Downloaded from tutor2U, June 24, 2009)

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

The Wave Product Life Cycle Model: The traditional product life cycle model (Figure 1), shows a steady upward curve from product introduction to the growth phase, a flattening during maturity followed by a steep downward decline. The idealized conceptual model in Figure 1 may not reflect actual market experience. Products more typically reflect the series of surges and dips represented in the ―Wave Product Life Cycle‖ (Figure 5), throughout the growth and maturity stages. Managers/Leaders are expected to anticipate and address surges and dips through strategic and tactical marketing interventions. The objective is to maintain the growth phase, sustain maturity through innovations that perpetuate product strength, foster customer loyalty, create an image of timelessness and avert decline. This uneven path of the wave product life cycle typifies most product lifecycles including TIDE, has characterized the Williams national unity life cycle. The Obama national unity product life cycle is already reflecting the wave pattern.

Because the product life cycle is dynamic, doing nothing is anathema and quickly results in decline. External threats from competing forces are inevitable and ongoing in social and commercial market places. Whether products are goods, services or causes spokespersons and campaign managers must unceasingly innovate to sustain growth, gain strength in maturity and avert decline.

Figure 5: Wave Product Life Cycle (Bailey 2009)—Seeks to avert the decline stage

Time Surge Surge Surge Dip Dip

Introduction Growth Maturity

Barack Obama—The Social Marketing of National Unity The Introduction Phase of National Unity As early as 2004, Obama began to share with the American public his personal story of cultural and ethnic diversity and his aspirations and dreams of a life that could only be constructed in America. Obama acknowledged the sacrifices of those who preceded him and tapped the familiar Horatio Alger myth, a mainstay of American politics and belief systems. In contrast, Obama also bonded with his American electorate by re-constructing a new America characterized by hope, change and unity.

Obama made a unified America synonymous with the specialness of America and, by extension, the specialness of all Americans. He embraced the most nostalgic and unifying of American constructs, The Constitution--a declaration made over two hundred years ago, "We hold these truths to be self- evident, that all men are created equal. That they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." This Obama stated, is the true genius of America, a faith in the simple dreams of its people, the insistence on small miracles.‖41

41 On line News Hour, NBC, July 27, 2004

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Obama‘s national unity campaign benefitted from its pervasive and dedicated use of the Internet combined with Obama‘s expert heritage as a community organizer. Obama overlooked no states or territories and had ―… more store front organizing offices than his rivals; had recruited more donors (1.5 million+) and volunteers and was the only candidate running a 55-state-and-territory campaign in search of every nominating delegate available. Obama raised more campaign funds than any presidential candidate in history. After his Iowa victory in 2008, he filled arenas from Alaska to South Carolina with 17,000+ ardent supporters of his message of hope, change and optimism (Olive, 2008).

Obama‘s Introduction Phase of National Unity (2004-2007) Devoted to a regular fitness regimen, strong sinewy and impeccable in appearance, it was already apparent in 2004 that Barack Obama had trained his body to carry the weight of his ambition. David Olive described Barack Obama as more influenced by ―…motivating people than by striking deals with power brokers.‖42 In retrospect, Obama‘s choice of community organizing over corporate work suggests an early preference to serve life rather than merely to win at life—a gift imparted by his mother who embedded in Obama, a moral code to help the disadvantaged. Obama‘s introduction to America was a hope-filled speech about an America whose foundation rested in the concept of national unity43.

American political audiences are heavily attracted to pathos, so Obama‘s introduction to America mixed with charm, humility, simplicity, a love for self deprecation and a tinge of the ‗underdog‘ philosophy was a recipe for success. A skinny kid with a funny name could relate to Americans from all walks of life. Obama wanted ―to eradicate the slander that a black youth with a book is acting white.‖ He was what Time (2008) magazine described as communitarian-―I am my brother‘s keeper; I am my sister‘s keeper.‖ Obama rebuked the ideologies on the right and the left. ―There‘s not a liberal America and a conservative America. There‘s the United States of America.‖

Statements about unity permeated Obama‘s 2004 address, ―Alongside our famous individualism there is another ingredient in the American saga, a belief that we are connected as one people. If there‘s a child on the south side of Chicago who can‘t read, that matters to me even if it is not my child.

E pluribus Unum--out of many one;" ―The pundits like to slice and dice our country into Red states and Blue states; Red states for Republicans, Blue states for Democrats. I‘ve got news for them too. We worship an awesome God in the blue states and we don‘t like federal agents poking around our libraries in the Red states…We are one people, all pledging allegiance to the stars and stripes, all of us defending the United States of America.‖44

Obama put Kenneth Burke‘s (1965) constructs of unification and identification in full play and engaged the audience in the traditional call and response of the African tradition yet the content of his endearing message established for white listeners that Obama was not from the old strident, divisive school of black politics. ―Do you believe in a politics of cynicism or a politics of hope?‖ ―Hope!‖ they shouted back. ―Hope,‖ he stated, ―is God‘s greatest gift to us, the bedrock of this nation; the belief in things not seen, the belief there are better days ahead.‖ Unity characterized the introduction and growth phases of Obama‘s public discourse and carried through in his political campaign and into his presidency. On July 25, 2004, the day after the DNC address, only a few Americans could accurately pronounce the name Barack Obama, yet ―Obama was the story.‖ His message had a significant impact that would continue to ignite fires throughout the early growth cycle of his social marketing campaign.

42 Olive, David, (2008) An American Story: The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, p. 13. 43 Olive, David, (2008) An American Story: The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, p. 13. 44 Olive, David, (2008) An American Story: The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, p. 103.

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Smart (2009) traces Obama‘s beneficent and unifying political philosophy to Pharaoh Narmer, 3100 BCE (Before the Common Era), and provides historical evidence to suggest Pharaoh Narmer ruled in accordance with the system of moral values based on Maat, defined as ―right‖ or ―order‖ or ―justice‖ or ―truth‖45. The concept of Maat carries essential elements President Obama may use as guiding forces to sustain the growth phase of national unity and to transcend the unprecedented domestic and external challenges he has inherited. Further explanation of Maat translates to the notion of natural law in Western Philosophy, essentially, ―the way things ought to be,‖ which seems to suggest a path out of the current difficulties to a brighter future for the United States of America as a ‗united nation‘46.

Obama‘s Early Growth Phase On February 10, 2007 when Obama announced his U.S. presidential candidacy at Springfield, Illinois, the reception was tepid. Hillary Clinton had been the pre-ordained Democratic nominee and this ripple in the water coming from a far lesser known entity met its share of skepticism. Obama announced three top campaign priorities: Ending U.S. involvement in Iraq; Universal Health Care; Energy Independence. The start of the growth phase appeared if not bleak, certainly daunting. A number of major strategies had to be interjected to energize Obama‘s campaign in the early growth phase.

Energizing the Growth Phase The major strategies that energized Obama‘s early growth stage included:

 Early endorsements from prominent opinion leaders with substantial influence on the U.S. electorate; Oprah Winfrey (A media mogul of incomparable influence); Maria Shriver; Senators Ted Kennedy and John Kerry; Caroline Kennedy; Ted Sorenson; Mayor Adrian Fenty of Washington D.C.;  Internet-driven social networks that attracted over 1.5 million volunteers and donors and a youth audience of first-time voters; the social networks touched millions more;  A grassroots movement that fanned out into all 55 states and territories with storefronts in every state—including states typically ignored by past presidential candidates;  A fundraising machine that drew multiple small donations from millions of new donors and furnished the Obama campaign with the largest financial support in presidential campaign history  The repetition of traditional American myths, symbols and totems to establish identification and common ground with a broad spectrum of voters; Veterans had Patton‘s Army; working women—Rosie the Riveter;  Shift in priorities to focus on U.S. Domestic issues (Unemployment, home foreclosures, bank closings) to foster empathy and address an elevated U.S. ―Despair Index‖ (Bailey 2009);  A cohesive, stable campaign run by experienced professionals  Sticking to the unity theme as the foundation message for bringing people together and sustaining their attention—regardless of distractions;  Powerful multimedia communications (Television programs, advertising) and family images to imprint Obama with an appropriate image of presidential stature;  Taking overseas trips to war zones (Iraq) and Western Europe to demonstrate his facility with foreign policy issues; announcing a Vice Presidential running mate with substantial foreign policy pedigree.

45 Smart, Ian and Smart, Isidore, IV, (2009), From Pharaoh Narmer to President Obama, Original World Press, College Park, MD. pp 1-2 46 Allen, James, P., Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs Ref. in Smart & Smart (2009), p. 10

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Sustaining the Growth Phase In the growth phase, it is very important to identify threats and address them early, efficiently and quickly. Obama‘s team worked diligently to avert threats such as ‗Inexperience with foreign policy‘ or extended media coverage of ‗race‘ which Obama worked hard to keep out of the discussion because of its potential to distract attention from the key message of national unity and later, domestic affairs. Obama‘s tactics to sustain the growth phase included:

 Focus on a common enemy: With the lowest approval ratings of any president since Andrew Jackson 1829-1837, President George W. Bush was seen by the public as responsible for the current economic recession and widespread domestic problems.  Continued use of multimedia communications (Television programs, advertising); meetings with corporate CEOs and family images to imprint Obama with an appropriate image of presidential stature  Direct Address on Race: Obama delivered one of the nation‘s most effective speeches on ‗race‘ after excerpts of racially charged comments made by his former Pastor, Reverend Jeremiah Wright, began circulating on the Internet. Obama elevated the topic of ―Race in America,‖ to a level of empathy and thoughtfulness that spiked his growth cycle upward at just the right time.  Respond immediately to external threats: Success in the growth phase required rigorous environmental scanning to detect and deflate threats (Sarah Palin‘s brief ascent in public opinion ratings went by without comment; claims of insufficient Foreign Affairs experience— were deflated by the choice of Vice Presidential candidate Senator Joseph Biden, former head of the Foreign Affairs Committee);  Reconcile with Rivals: Smooth reconciliation with Hillary Clinton, an archrival for the democratic nomination who commanded a substantial voting block of millions of loyal female voters. This peaceful and partly public truce showed both candidates at their best. Mrs. Clinton‘s stirring speech and her role in the delegate vote on the conference floor were conducted with dignity and respect and moved the growth phase continuously upward;  Endorsements by Former Secretary of State Colin Powell, and financial wizard and philanthropist, Warren Buffett, timed the week before the election, worked to bolster the get out the vote (GOTV) process.

The Maturity and Decline Stages of the National Unity Life Cycle Barack Obama is still in the growth phase with its surges and dips. As his ‗national unity‘ product approaches maturity in-depth and vigilant environmental scanning is required to re-invigorate growth through innovative interventions of the classical marketing plan. Such interventions may include multimedia messaging, social networking, mobilizing the grassroots movement, creating new messages and identifying new spokespersons to nurture the product in its mature stage to avert decline and stimulate renewal. Maturity need not inevitably lead to decline. At best, maturity, characterized by surges and dips, ebbs and flows can be as dynamic and progressive as the growth phase. In the mature stage, inaction is the only enemy.

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Social Marketing and U.S. Cultural Context Transformative changes in beliefs occur in cultural context and socio-political contexts. While Obama and Williams brought people together in the belief they are stronger in national unity—than by division, their approaches were militated by the cultural context which gave certain ‗permissions‘ and withheld others. In Williams‘ case, his rhetoric of national unity was duplicated, supported and satirized through artistic and cultural expression in calypso, the local music. Additionally, Trinidad‘s annual Carnival festival which brings together 90% of the population in some aspect of the celebration is, in the view of citizens, a statement of Trinidadian‘s collective expression of national unity.

In 2002, Bailey conducted research on Trinidad and Tobago and the concept of national unity as reflected through two sources: 1) The rhetoric of popular music--the calypso and; 2) Trinidad‘s annual Carnival festival.16 The 2002 study contended that Trinidad‘s popular music, the calypso, serves not just as the engine for unrestrained revelry and joviality for Carnival parties and the two-day festival. It is the uncontested source whereby the nation polices itself into conformity with Eric Williams‘ mandate of national unity expressed in ―All Ah We Is One.‖47

The 2002 study concluded the musical rhetoric of national unity pre-dated Williams and could be identified as early as the 1930s. The thematic vigor of national unity music was emboldened after 1956 by Williams‘ charge for ―oneness and national unity.‖ No fewer than 150 different calypsos with a theme of national unity were identified through the 2002 study. The writer inferred that many more exist and observed that the lyrics and music of calypsos merge with the day-to-day language of the people to continuously expand the local vocabulary. To complement this absorption of calypso lyrics into the local vernacular, new calypsos are played so often during their introductory period that many Trinidadians have memorized entire compositions. The referenced study (Bailey 2002) was inspired by the combination of the live rendition of the following calypso and the transformative experience of hearing thousands of people singing the following words in unison during a Carnival celebration:

“See how we moving, watch how we grooving See how we step in style. One lovely nation, under a groove The Ganges come meet the Nile” Differences, there will always be. So let you be you, and I'll be me. That's the damn ting self that makes it sweet. Brother bring your drum, leh we start to beat… So put up your hand if you understand… The Ganges has met the Nile”… (Rudder, 2002)48

47 Bailey, Jennifer G., Resplendent Vista: Trinidad Carnival and the Image of National Unity, Humanities Conference, University of the Virgin Islands (UVI), August 2002 48 Rudder, David, (2002), The Ganges and the Nile, Downloaded from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BpTkS2uzsCg, on June 19, 2009

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

Behavioral norms and expectations seek to conform to the spoken word, including musical lyrics. In the United States, the music of the civil rights era fueled civil disobedience and new progressive civil rights legislation; the music of the sixties and early seventies supported anti-war demonstrations, a breakdown in rigid social hierarchies and political action for peace over war. Albeit in a not so perfect way, music in Trinidad has defined the national unity theme. Trinidad‘s small population of 1.3 million is relatively complex and the dynamic influences of economics, political rhetoric and the National Despair Index (NDI) also impacts the society and its perception of national unity. On the subject of national unity as it is reflected in the Carnival celebration, 75% of survey respondents agreed that an atmosphere of relative harmony and unity can be sustained in a nation through joyful festivals such as Trinidad‘s annual Carnival which brings people together just to have fun (Bailey 2002).

The Obama campaign made excellent use of America‘s musical and cultural context by hosting a concert called, We Are One attended by an estimated 400,000 persons on January 18, 2009 at the Lincoln Memorial. This free concert featured performances by Pete Seeger, Bruce Springsteen, Beyoncé, Stevie Wonder, Mary J. Blige, Jon Bon Jovi, Garth Brooks, Sheryl Crow, Renée Fleming, Caleb Green, Josh Groban, Herbie Hancock, The reading of historical passages was done by Jack Black, Steve Carell, Rosario Dawson, Jamie Foxx, Tom Hanks and others.

We Are One provided product maximization at its best for Obama‘s national unity cause. The combination of art forms imprinted a lasting memory of the occasion and the cause of unity long after the event has ended. Pete Seeger‘s49 presence was iconic. An American hero in view of his life-long advocacy of unity, justice and equality Seeger, like Springsteen, Stevie Wonder and others brought positive symbolism to the Obama social marketing campaign for national unity.

In 2009, Obama‘s national unity campaign is in the infancy of its growth phase and experiencing dramatic surges and dips. Ongoing monitoring, environmental scanning and self analysis are essential to sustain future growth. This study suggests the newer U.S. campaign (Obama‘s) might draw upon learnings from Trinidad‘s original test market, on Williams‘ extended and hard won legacy and his enduring impact on the experience of national unity in Trinidad.

CONCLUSION This paper concludes by questioning the potential for socially marketing ‗national unity‘ in contexts where there has been long standing civic discord among citizens. Can a local person who is exemplary in character and professional acumen, highly credible and trustworthy and demonstrates ‗Servant Leader‖ characteristics become a spokesperson and advocate for social change? Importantly, if behavioral norms and expectations seek to conform to the spoken word in speech or song, is there potential for music and lyrics as cultural expression to play a central role in the social marketing of national unity? In other words, there should be more singing? American singer and composer, Pete Seeger points to the power of the song and the relationship between music and struggle for example, in contemporary American history.50

49 Seeger, an icon of American folk and liberation music composed and sang ―This land is your land.‖ 50 Pete Seeger interview on WETA-TV, August 15, 2009

J. G. Bailey Volume 2, Issue 1 - Summer 2009

Few culturally based communications strategies are transferrable without alteration, to a new and different context. Adapted models may be inspired by the Trinidad and U.S. initiatives for socially marketing national unity. National unity campaigns for good governance, building civil society and the cause of peace may be inspired by the epic examples of Williams and Obama particularly in places with a history of conflict and unrest. The past need not be the blue print for the future. President Barack Obama has advocated choosing "... hope over fear and unity of purpose over conflict and discord.‖51

This study has introduced many readers to the life of Eric Eustace Williams who served the nation of Trinidad and Tobago for 25 years using national unity as the foundation for his leadership. As a scholar, historian and statesman, Dr. Williams‘ contribution to Caribbean progress has been well documented. It is hoped that this introduction to his philosophy of national unity and transformational socio-economic programs will raise awareness of his role as a global model and advocate for peaceful social change, and for unity and equality that empowers the lives of people everywhere.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alter, J. (2006) The Defining Moment, Simon& Schuster, NY. Bailey, J. G. (2002, August) Resplendent Vista: Trinidad Carnival and the Image of National Unity, Humanities Conference, University of the Virgin Islands (UVI), August 2002. Bailey, J. G. (2008) The Social Marketing of Global Development for Educational, Agricultural and Environmental Awareness, Presentation to Africa Environment Watch, Bowie, Maryland, November 19, 2008. Bailey, J. G. (2009), From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity, Intellectbase International Consortium peer-reviewed conference proceedings, Volume 6, Nashville, TN, USA, May 27-29, 2009, pp. 236-240. Cayla, J. and Arnould, E. (2008), ―A Cultural Approach to Branding in the Global Marketplace,‖ Journal of International Marketing, Volume 16, Number 4, pp. 86-107 CBS News (2007) - In Depth October 27, 2007, downloaded June 16, 2009, http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/trinidad-tobago/opposition.html Census Bureau (1955), of Trinidad & Tobago Cudjoe, Selwyn, (1993), Eric Williams Speaks: Essays on Colonialism and Independence, Calaloux Publications, Wellesley, Mass. Frazier, E. Franklin, and Williams, E. E., (2004), The Economic Future of the Caribbean, The Majority Press, Dover, Mass. Deosoran, Ramesh, (1981), Eric Williams: The Man, His Ideas and His Politics, for Signum Publishing Company Limited, for Supersonic Printing Co. Ltd. P.O.S. Trinidad Ghany, Hamid, (1996), KAMAL: A Lifetime of Politics, Religion and Culture, Kamaluddin Mohammed, San Juan, Trinidad, West Indies. Hackett, Jeff, ―Williams Remembered: The Man and the Myth,‖ Trinidad Express, March 26, 1998 Harris, Robert, (2006), Imperium, (Attributed to Cicero), Simon & Schuster, New York Haywood, L. M. (1998), ―Eric Williams: The Howard Years: 1939-1948,‖ Caribbean Issues, Vol. VIII, No. 1, March, 1998. Interview with Acklyn Lynch by Jennifer Bailey, March 24, 2009, Washington, D.C. Interview with Kamaluddin Mohammed by Jennifer Bailey, June 17, 2009, Mohammedville, El Socorro, Trinidad Kotler, Philip, (2006), Marketing Management, 12th Edition, Pearson/Prentice Hall, New Jersey

51 President Barack Hussein Obama II, Inaugural Presidential Address, January 20, 2009, Downloaded from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/20/us/politics/20text-obama.html

From Williams to Obama--The Social Marketing of National Unity

―Mama dis is Mas: A Historical overview of Trinidad Carnival,‖ downloaded June 19, 2009, found at: http://www.nalis.gov.tt/carnival/carnival.htm Olive, David, (2008), An American Story, The Speeches of Barack Obama, ECW Press, Toronto, Canada. Obama, Barack, (1996) Dreams From My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance, Crown Publishers, A division of Random House; and (2004), by Three Rivers Press Obama, Barack, (2006) The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream, Crown Publishers, Division of Random House Inc., New York Sealy, Theodore, (1991), Caribbean Leaders, Longwood Publishing, Port of Spain, Trinidad Smart, Ian and Smart, Isidore, IV, (2009), From Pharaoh Narmer to President Obama, Original World Press, College Park, MD. Smelser, Neil, J., (1974), Theory of Collective Behavior, Princeton University Press, New Jersey Sullivan, A. E., (2008), ―We Were Right‖, Marketing News, December 15, 2008, pp 16-17. Sutton, Paul, K. (1981), Forged form the Love of Liberty, Selected Speeches of Dr. Eric Williams, Longman Caribbean TIME Magazine, Commemorative Publication (2006), Barack Obama, p. 65 Tutor2u, (Downloaded June 13, 2009 from http://tutor2u.net/business/marketing/products/lifecycle.asp) Weinrich, Nedra Kline, (2006), ―What is Social Marketing?‖ Weinrich Communications, www.socialmarketing.com downloaded May 7, 2009 Williams, Eric, Eustace, (1944), Capitalism and Slavery, The University of North Carolina Press, Raleigh, N.C. Williams, Eric, Eustace, (1952) and (2006), Inward Hunger: The Education of a Prime Minister, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, NJ. Williams, Eric (1962a), The History of the People of Trinidad and Tobago, PNM Publishing Co. Ltd. Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies Williams, Eric, (1962b), “First Independence Day Address”, broadcast to the nation on August 31, 1962, Trinidad and Tobago‘s Independence Day.

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