71-7493

KIEFT, Lewis Dean, 1941- AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT ON COGNITIVE LEARNING WHEN A PSYCHOMOTOR TASK IS ANTICIPATED.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1970 Education, industrial

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT ON COGNITIVE LEARNING WHEN A PSYCHOMOTOR TASK IS ANTICIPATED

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Lewis Dean Kieft, B.S., M.A.

******

The Ohio State University

1970

Approved by

Adviser College of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sincere appreciation and thanks are expressed to

Dr. James J. Buffer for his time, advise, and assistance, and to Dr. Desmond L. Cook and Dr. James K. Duncan for their suggestions as members of the dissertation reading committee.

Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Peter Anderson

for his assistance in the statistical analysis of this investigation.

For their cooperation and assistance, the writer wishes to thank the staff and students of Dominion Junior

High School VITA

May 13, 1941... Born - Lansing, Michigan

1963...... B.S., Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan

1963-1965..... Active Duty, Officer in U.S. Army, Artillery

1965-196 7..... Research Assistant, Department of Industrial Education, Eastern Michigan University

1967...... M.A., Eastern Michigan University

1966-1967...... Teacher, Roosevelt High School, Ypsilanti, Michigan

1967-1969...... Research and Teaching Associate, Industrial Arts Curriculum Project, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio i 1969-1970..... Teacher, Dominion Junior High School, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Industrial Technology Education Professor James J. Buffer

Minor Fields: Curriculum and Instruction Professor James K. Duncan

Educational Development Professor Desmond L. Cook

Teacher Education Professor L.O. Andrews TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii

VITA...... iii

LIST OF TABLES...... vi

LIST OF FIGURES...... viii

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. 1

Introduction Background of the Problem Statement of the Problem Statement of the Hypotheses Assumptions Definition of Terms Significance of the Problem Summary and Organization of the Study

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 23

Problems in Educational Research Theories of Learning and Motivation Studies of Motivation for Educational Improvement Curriculum Changes in Industrial Arts

III. METHODOLOGY OF THE INVESTIGATION...... 69

Design of the Experiment Nature of the Experiment Development of the Primary Metals Processing Presentation Development of the Criterion Measure Chapter Page

Selection of the Sample Conducting the Experiment Administration of the Questionnaire Variables involved in the Experiment Summary

IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA...... 97

Treatment and Results of Achievement Data Conclusions Relating to Hypotheses Results of Questionnaire Data Discussion of the Results

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, and RECOMMENDATIONS...... 123

Summary of the Study Conclusions Limitations Recommendat ions

APPENDIX A Metal Processing Presentation...... 137

B Reading Assignment...... 146

C Construction Pattern Sheets...... 150

D Criterion Measure...... 153

E Questionnaire...... 161

F Individual Student Scores...... 163

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 172

v LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Design of the Study...... 16

2 Analysis of Criterion Measure for 7th Grade.... 79

3 Analysis of Criterion Measure for 8th Grade.... 80

4 Means and Standard Deviations of the Criterion Measure and Permanent Record Scores for 7th Grade Students...... 98

5 Means and Standard Deviations of the Criterion Measure and Permanent Record Scores for 8th Grade Groups...... 99

6 Analysis of Variance of Covariate Scores for 7th Grade Groups...... 101

7 Analysis of Variance of Covariate Scores for 8th Grade Groups...... 102

8 Analysis of Variance of Variate Scores for 7th Grade Groups...... 104

9 Analysis of Covariance of Variate Scores for 7th Grade Groups...... 105

10 Analysis of Variance of Variate Scores for 8th Grade Groups...... 106

11 Analysis of Covariance of Variate Scores for 8th Grade Groups...... 107

12 Adjusted Means of Variate Scores...... Ill

13 Comparison of Adjusted Means of 7th Grade Groups Using Studentized Range Statistic...... 112

vi Table Page

14 Comparison of Adjusted Means of 8th Grade Groups Using Studentized Range Statistic...... 113

15 Mean Scores from Questionnaire Representing Student Interest...... 117

vii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 First Order Matrix of Industrial Technology...... 53 s 2 Second Order Matrix of Industrial Technology Affecting Materials...... 56

3 Third Order Matrix of Industrial Technology Affecting Constructed Material... 57

4 A Conceptual Structure of the Knowledge Necessary to Understand American Industry... 63

5 Understanding of American Industry...... 64

6 American Industry Course Outline...... 67

7 The Experimental Design...... 71

viii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since the turn of this century, there has been a great expansion of man's knowledge in almost all fields of study.

With this expansion of knowledge and with our changing society, have come pressures on curriculum specialists to revise school curriculums that will meet the needs and de­ sires of students and the various segments of society. How­ ever, areas of study are becoming so numerous and so special­ ized that educators are faced with the problem of how to fit all of the appropriate subject matter into the students' program.

In many areas of study, efforts are presently being made by educators to determine the criteria for subject matter selection; to select and develop this content into teachable units; and to make available these units to the schools. However, continuous analysis and evaluation of selection criteria; lack of agreement concerning student and societal needs; and the discovery of new knowledge and concepts, will continue to bring about revisions and changes in the curriculum. Changes in the curriculum and units of

study will often necessitate changes in the methods of teaching and learning. It is this change— one of finding more efficient methods of teaching the vast amounts of

subject matter that students must learn— that this writer wishes to pursue further.

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM

In public schools today, students appear to be learning

complex concepts at a faster rate than educators envisioned

possible a number of years ago. This may be the result of

more efficient and effective instructional materials and

practices as well as the utilization of educational inno­

vations (e.g. educational television, teaching machines,

special classes for gifted and underachieving students,

etc.). This rate of learning will no doubt continue to

increase as man's knowledge regarding technical concepts

and the teaching-learning process increases. Students may

not successfully fulfill their roles in society if they

lack the motivation to adjust to the increased rate of

learning of the vast number of concepts which will be part

of the school curriculum.

Because of the continuous development of theories in

education, it is doubtful that an ideal method of learning will ever be accepted. However, new ideas, new theories of learning, and new classroom equipment will continue to be developed and tested to make the student's learning process as efficient as possible. One factor which needs consider­ ation when attempting to improve the learning process is the motivational drive of the student.

Motivating students to "want to learn" is a common and persistent problem in the education of most junior high school students. Much of the teacher's work centers around problems of motivation and "almost invariably the teacher who fails is the one who is unable to take proper account of motivational factors (Blair, Jones, & Simpson, 1962, p. 167)." "The success of a teacher is, to a very large extent, dependent upon his ability to motivate pupils effectively (Bernard, 1965, p. 238)." ---

The term "motivation" is defined for this investigation as a combination of forces or stimulations to action which arouse, direct, control, and sustain a student's behavior towards an objective. The motivations that underline this behavior are not single or simple, but are very complex. A discussion of some of the theories of motivation is provided in Chapter Two.

Several known methods of motivating students to learn include the use of praise, rewards, punishments, and compe­ tition, and arousing their curiousity and interest towards subject matter. No single method of motivation will work for all students, nor will it usually work all the time for the same student. The teacher must be constantly alert to the changing needs of the students and then must modify the methods of motivation to meet these changes. In fact, change itself is often a motivational factor. "People are motivated to participate in new activities that are differ­ ent from their previous experiences (Kuethe, 1962, p. 114)."

Students who are kept seated and concentrating on a single activity for long periods of time often become unmotivated and soon appear to be restless. A slight change in activity may bring back the previous interest of the students.

Accordingly, it is the responsibility of individual teachers to analyze their student and classroom environ­ ments and to select and use appropriate methods of motivation.

School policies and guidelines, time and resources avail­ able, and student-teacher relationships are all consider­ ations the teacher must take into account when using various motivational techniques.

Students may lack motivation because of any one of a number of reasons. Many students have experienced failure to some degree in previous classes where a concentrated mental effort was necessary. These failures leave the student with little desire to compete with high achieving students, especially in the academic classrooms where their

failures resulted. Suggestions by teachers, such as the need for vocational training and knowledge, usually have little motivational value for the junior high school student. Most of these students, especially the low- achieving student, are more concerned with fulfilling their immediate needs than in preparing themselves for an occupation or for their role in society. Even students who are motivated and academically successful are often un­ decided about their future occupational goals and desires.

They have been motivated by past success, parental pressures, interests and curiousities, or a number of other reasons for obtaining more immediate goals.

Those students who are the least successful and seem the least motivated are often placed in courses such as industrial arts, home economics, art, typing, etc., where they are expected to gain the previously elusive experiences of interests, enjoyment, and success (Strom, 1969, p. 53).

The main objectives of these courses are often to develop psychomotor skills with less emphasis on cognitive learning. 6

One reason why these courses are often more successful in motivating students is that they offer students the oppor­ tunity for interesting activities, manipulation of objects, and a greater freedom of movement not found in many other classrooms. These classrooms offer opportunity for activity, and research has indicated that activity in a classroom can be a very valuable motivational factor for both low and high achieving students.

There is considerable evidence to show that every child has a basic need for activity, which manifests itself in the form of curiousity, bodily movements exploration, games, and problem-solving. Of all human needs, there are perhaps none which are so directly applicable to motivation in school learning (Blair, et al.. 1965, p. 175).

Programs which incorporate motor activity...make it possible for the teacher to build other motivation more specific to schoolwork because the need for activity has been provided for (Morse, 1962, p. 291).

Students are interested in handling objects, perform­ ing experiments, and controlling the outcomes of a situation (Kuethe, 1962, P. 114).

Students in junior high school industrial arts classes often give indications of being highly interested in the atmosphere and activities of the classroom. Daily stu­ dent comments indicate that they can hardly wait to get started on their projects, are proud of their accomplishments, and do not want to stop working when their class period has ended. Often students are so enthused and work so fast in their laboratory activities that they do not take time to concentrate on what they are doing and consequently make many mistakes. Parental remarks often show that their childrens' highly motivational behavior is limited only to those classrooms which involve interesting psychomotor activities. From these anecdotal reports, it is concluded that methods of motivation are needed to motivate students to "want to learn" in the cognitive learning phases of the students' curriculum.

Low achieving students may benefit more from industrial arts courses than do high achieving students. In these * courses, low achieving students may for the first time discover opportunities to work at a task which is both interesting and challenging. Also, they may be more success­ ful in completing these psychomotor activities than in completing academic assignments. As a result, those stu­ dents who felt inferior in an academic classroom may begin to feel more confident in doing psychomotor activities in industrial arts (Buffer, 1969, p. 20). Unfortunately, their enthusiasm in industrial arts is too often limited just to psychomotor activities.

Another method of motivating students is through competition. Competition in the classroom may be a power- ful incentive to students under certain conditions but destructive under other conditions. When competing with others, the student wishes to win or do better than the others for personal gain or recognition. Often competition results unintentionally when teachers promise superior grades, provide recognition (such as placement on the honor roll), and other symbols of achievement.

Arguments can be found "for" and "against" the inten­ tional use of competition as a means of motivating students in the classroom. Those that advocate the development of competitive classroom situations indicate that society is very competitive and that children must learn to compete in order to survive. "Competition provides excellent opportunities for learning to adjust to social realities

(Bernard, 1965, p. 256)." "Some argue that since a person in our culture must function in a competitive environment, it would be unwise to shelter students from competition in school (Kuethe, 1962, p. 117)."

Research has indicated that competition properly introduced into the classroom can promote superior perfor­ mance of students, providing that the challenge stimulates greater individual productivity and leads him to overcome personal limitations and on to greater achievement. "Competition is necessary to provide the child with a basis

; for appraising his capabilities as background for realistic

goal setting (Mouly, 1968, p. 353)." Individual compe­

tition tends to be more effective in promoting learning

than is group rivalry.

Those who would not encourage the use of competitive

situations in order to motivate performance suggest that

several serious consequences may result from its improper

use. Students may easily confuse quantity with quality and

perform activities too quickly which result in many mistakes.

Students may also place too great an importance on the

extrinsic rewards offered rather than on the importance of

the learning itself. This often results in cheating. "An

undue emphasis on competition may prove a source of stress

for the student who regularly loses, or, it may also be

stressful for the overly anxious student who frequently

wins (Stephens, 1966, p. 393)."

As a result of societal or parental pressures, many

students perceive school as a competitive environment both

academically and socially. Consequently, because of many

frustrations and failures, low achieving students may avoid

competing in any way. Since society and those school

environments considered to be competitive are not likely to 10 be changed in the near future, it seems necessary to give

each student some chance at winning or achieving success.

There should be some degree of equality among the contests.

"It is not stimulating to either the winner or the loser to compete out of his class (Bernard, 1965, p. 256)."

Unfortunately, in most competitive situations, only a

few students can win or succeed and the success of these

students tend to hinder the other students' progress. This may result in high achieving students becoming somewhat bored with their continuous success and low achieving

students setting very low aspiration levels because they have no hope of winning. In some competitive situations, high achieving students have been found to purposely do poorly so that they will be more accepted by the group.

Although advantages and disadvantages exist in compe­ titive situations, "There can be little doubt that competi­ tion operates as one of the outstanding incentives in school learning (Blair, et a1., P. 200)."

Several other factors related to motivation of students may be relevant to this investigation. First, students must be in the proper mental and physical condition to be motivated to work on a task. Their basic or primary needs must already have been satisfied. A student who is sick, 11 hungry, tired, or very depressed, might have little interest

in an activity which was exciting to the rest of the class.

Also, "if motivation is excessive, frustration will result

from frequent failures; anxiety will increase and further

reduce the quality of performance (Kuethe, 1962, 102)." If

attempts at motivation are at the wrong time, students may

not become motivated. Promises of extrinsic incentives

often result in only temporary motivation for some and

frustration for others. Improper attempts at motivation may have a negative impact upon achievement and behavior.

The purpose of the previous discussions was to show

that junior high school students need to be motivated to

learn and may become motivated when presented with oppor­ tunity for manipulating objects and doing psychomotor activities which are interesting. The discussions also

indicated that students may be motivated when placed in an

individual competitive situation. It is suggested that these two methods of motivation used in combination may

result in a stronger motivational drive in students than

either method used singly.

In the past, industrial arts, as a junior high school

subject area, has not had a well-defined body of knowledge.

Concepts were selected to be taught in the laboratory which would reinforce selected practices in trades or crafts. A 12 major emphasis was placed on constructing student projects and little time was spent in cognitive learning. However, during the past decade many changes have been advocated for the junior high industrial arts curriculum. Several current curriculum projects (Industrial Arts Curriculum

Project, American Industry, Orchestrated System, etc.) have developed rationales or curriculum structures which intro­ duce a somewhat different body of knowledge to the students.

These new curriculums involve many more teacher presentations, student-teacher discussions, and homework reading assign­ ments than previously existed. Rather than selecting sub­ ject matter to reinforce laboratory experiences, these curriculum projects have selected a body of knowledge appropriate for junior high school students and then design­ ed laboratory experiences to reinforce this knowledge.

Many traditional industrial arts courses at the junior high school level, which were project oriented? highly interesting and motivating to most students? and included only occasional teacher presentations concerning the operation of tools and machinery in the laboratory, are expected to be replaced by the new curriculums. With the new curriculums emphasizing the cognitive learning of industrial technology, time allotted to psychomotor 13 activity in the classroom will be reduced. If psychomotor activity is reduced for the students, some of their moti­ vational drives may also be reduced. New methods of inte­

grating the new technology with previous classroom activities may need to be developed to "keep the student motivational

level high.

The value of psychomotor activities in the industrial arts classroom has not yet been determined. Frequently the major value was thought to be the reinforcing of major

concepts used in industry. However, Caley (1969) has indi­

cated that although laboratory activities do reinforce

some cognitive concepts, little is added to the students'

total learning in proportion to the time consumed by it. He

further suggests that the greatest benefits from laboratory activities seem to be the motivational aspects.

Several industrial arts studies (Caley, 1969; Koble,

1963; Weffenstattle, 1965; Freeman, 1965; Fowler, 1965; Hofer,

1963) have sought to determine various improvements in

student achievement in the laboratory through the manipu­

lation of textbook and workbook assignments, teaching aids,

lectures, discussions, and laboratory activities, but none have sought to determine the affect that motivation gained

from the laboratory activities actually has on the students'

learning process. 14

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As a result of curriculum changes, the time allotted for psychomotor activities in many junior high school industrial arts programs is expected to be reduced and more time allotted to cognitive learning activities related to industry. There is question as to whether this change will reduce the motivational level of the students and conse­ quently reduce the amount of learning that could take place.

Can motivational drives, developed from the students' de­ sire to participate in a psychomotor activity, be used to improve his cognitive learning rate? Specifically, this investigator is interested in determining if the motivation developed in the student is limited just to the psychomotor activities and/or competition he is involved in, or, if there can be a transfer of motivation to related cognitive tasks. This investigation is limited to learning experi­ ences involving industrial arts activities and subject matter, but could be expanded to include many other fields of study.

STATEMENT OF THE HYPOTHESES

An experimental design was used in a junior high school metals laboratory to provide evidence to test the following hypotheses.

1. Junior high school students who listen to a classroom presentation concerning the processing of metal will have a greater knowledge about the processing of metal than students who have not had the presentation. (H^:

P^ CM) Evidence of this hypothesis must be shown before the following two hypotheses can be tested.

See Table 1.

Students who are motivated by the anticipation of participating in a psychomotor activity will have a higher cognitive achievement than students who do not expect to participate. They will also have a higher cognitive achievement than students who did not receive a presentation concerning the processing of metal.

(Hl* pa ^

cm) See Table 1.

Students who are motivated by the anticipation of participating competitively in an interesting psychomotor activity will have a higher cognitive achievement than students who do not expect to compete. They will also have a higher cognitive achievement than students who did not anticipate an activity or those students who did not receive a presentation concerning the processing of metal. (Hi: PAC^> PA ), (Hi; PAC^> P) , (Hi: PAC^> CM)

See Table 1. 16

The null form of each of these hypotheses will be rejected if a difference is found at the .05 level of significance.

TABLE 1 DESIGN OF THE STUDY Motivational Criterion Treatment A Treatment C Presentation Measure Activity Competition Group CM X

Group P X X

Group Pa XX X

Group Pa c XX XX

ASSUMPTIONS

The following assumptions are made by this investigator regarding certain factors relating to this study.

1. Future trends in many junior high school industrial

arts curriculums will include an increase in the amount

of time allotted to non-psychomotor activities.

2. Psychomotor activities and competition can serve to

increase the level of interest and motivational drives

of the student.

3. When students (Group Pa ) become aware that they will

be participating in the psychomotor activity used in

this experiment, they will be motivated to a higher

degree than the students (Group P) who are not antici— pating this activity. (See Table 1)

4. When students (Group Pa c ) became aware of their partic­

ipation in the psychomotor activity used in this exper­

iment and their role as a team member in individual

competition, they will be motivated to a higher degree

than those students in either Group P or Group Pa .

(See Table 1)

5. This investigator can devise an instrument which will

adequately test the students' understanding of subject

matter in the presentation.

6. All but two of the confounding factors described by

Stanley and Campbell (1963) can be satisfactorily

controlled in this study. “Selection of respondents"

may be a confounding factor because students could not

be randomly placed into the various groups. Intact

classes were used.

"Reactive effects of experimental arrangements"

may also be a confounding factor. Although classroom

conditions are to be kept as normal as possible, certain

changes in daily routine will be made.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Cognitive Learning (Achievement) - Learning which involves

recall or recognition of knowledge or concepts and 18

the development of intellectual abilities and skills.

Criterion Measure - An instrument developed by this investi­

gator to determine the students understanding of the

concepts and information included in the Primary Metals

Presentation.

Primary Metals Presentation - A fifteen minute audio tape

recorded presentation developed by this writer for the

purpose of introducing students to selected basic

characteristics of metal and metal processing. A two

page reading assignment was also included.

Psychomotor Activity - That activity which involves some

muscular or motor skill, some manipulation of materials

and objects, or some act which requires a neuromuscular

coordination.

Traditional Industrial Arts Program - Industrial arts

programs which involve a major emphasis on project

construction and basic skill development rather than

on cognitive learning.

Group CM - That group of students who receive only the

criterion measure to determine how much the average

student previously knows about the information given

in the Metal Processing Presentation.

Group P - That group of students who received the Metal 19

Processing Presentation and the criterion measure.

Group PA - That group of students who was motivated to do

a psychomotor activity, received the Metal Processing

Presentation; was tested by the criterion measure;

and then completed the psychomotor activity.

Group P^c ~ That group of students who was motivated to

do the psychomotor activity involving competition;

received the Metal Processing Presentation; was tested

by the criterion measure; and then completed the

psychomotor activity.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM

It is expected that the industrial arts program in many junior high schools will be greatly changed during the next few years. Activities involving cognitive learning of industrial technology concepts will replace many of the presently existing laboratory psychomotor activities. How­ ever, if research correctly indicates that psychomotor activities do not substantially contribute or reinforce the students' cognitive learning, then what justifications exist for their inclusion in the curriculum? It is impor­ tant that industrial educators be aware of the contributions that psychomotor activities make to the students' education.

If only minor contributions are made, then perhaps psycho- 20 motor activities should cease to exist and the extra time appropriated to other portions of the program.

The total value of contributions made to a student's education by psychomotor activities may never be known.

However, it is believed by this investigator that the existence of some laboratory psychomotor activities can be justified on their "motivational" aspects alone. If psychomotor activities do motivate students to work harder and to concentrate greater at learning cognitive concepts; and if a significant increase in cognitive learning does take place when students are introduced to classroom activ­ ities and competition; then instruction in such areas as industrial arts may be greatly facilitated by carefully blending activities with cognitive learning. The newly developed industrial arts curriculums would benefit greatly because of the many opportunities which exist for the inclusion of a combination of related cognitive learning and psychomotor activities. Various activities and types of competition may also be incorporated into other types of classrooms where none previously existed. "Perhaps this is a clue— that we should relate (integrate and correlate) reading, math, and other school subjects to laboratory activities (Buffer, 1969, p. 20)." 21

SUMMARY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

Changes are being made in the junior high school industrial arts curriculum which involve the introduction of many more technical concepts than previously had been presented. Many schools which adopt the use of the new material previously placed a major emphasis on individual project construction and skill development. Student moti­ vation for this type of laboratory activity was usually high. With the adoption of the new curriculums, a larger portion of the students' time will be spent in reading, discussions, and receiving information from classroom presentations. It is possible that since the student's time spent on psychomotor activities is reduced, his moti­ vation may also be reduced.

Research has indicated that the existence of psycho­ motor activities in industrial arts cannot be justified solely on the basis of their efficiency in contributing to the student's cognitive learning. It is, therefore, the intention of this investigator to provide evidence that would indicate a justification of laboratory activities for their motivational value. Hopefully, this study will show that students will obtain a higher level of cognitive learning of related concepts as a direct results of their being motivated by anticipation of participating in a 22 related psychomotor activity.

Chapter Two contains a review of literature concerning motivation, the use of activity and competition as methods of motivation, and a discussion of previous research studies related to this study. Also included in this chapter is an introduction to several of the research projects which are influencing changes in the industrial arts curriculum.

Chapter Three describes the organization of the study and discusses the variables and problems involved in the research design and methodology.

Chapter Four includes the analysis of data and Chapter

Five includes a summary of the results, conclusions, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research in this area. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This review of literature consists of three general

sections which provide the reader with background infor­

mation relating to this study. The first section provides

a discussion of some of the problems involved in conducting

research on learning and motivation, and a review of some

of the early research studies and theories concerning

learning and motivation.

The second section provides a review of some of the

recent studies conducted in education on specific aspects

of motivation. The third section provides a discussion

concerning the innovative curriculums in industrial arts

and a brief description of two industrial arts curriculum

projects.

PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

An examination of the literature in education reveals

numerous reports of studies involving the tangible aspects

of test scores, grades, and other objective criteria which are used to explain the intangible and often unpredictable

learning behavior of students. Some educators feel that

23 24 much of the research previously conducted concerning the process of learning is almost useless in contributing to the formation of verifiable principles, laws, or concepts which could be used for the general improvement of educa­ tion. "A great deal of information concerning the learner has been accumulated, but much of it is tentative. About the only thing that is known for sure is that human vari­ ability does exist (Towers, et a l ., 1966, p. 254).*'

Other disciplines, such as medicine, chemistry, physics, geology, and biology, have conducted basic research studies using the scientific method of research to establish general principles from which propositions and relationships can be deduced. Experiments in this research have been carefully controlled and rigorously tested for statistical signifi­ cance. General "laws" and principles have been formulated and are used with confidence in these disciplines. Research in these areas during the past few years have provided a vast quantity of new concepts which have changed our society immensely.

However, the results of research in the area of learn­ ing has not been as successful. Because many of the vari­ ables concerning learning are intangible, few theories, even after continuous research, are considered by most educators 25

to be eternal verities. Consequently, improvements in

education as a result of research have not progressed as

rapidly as in the sciences. Research efforts in education

are often spent in duplication of previous research or in

conducting applied research which often makes no signifi­

cant contributions to the establishment of principles of

learning. Educators have not been able to build new con­

cepts upon previously established laws of learning. Lanke

(1955) has stated that:

if the research in the previous three years in medicine, agriculture, physics, and chemistry were to be wiped out, our life would be changed materially, but if research in the area of teacher personnel in the same three years were to vanish, educators, and education would continue much as usual (p. 192).

Part of the success of certain fields of study

have been due to advantages which have not existed in the

area of education. Explanations as to the lack of sub­

stantial success in educational research indicate that too

little money has been available to develop adequate research

studies in education and that educational research is much

younger than research in other areas. The most plausible

explanation calls attention to the great complexity of human behavior and the consequent difficulty of doing pro­ ductive research. Robert Ebel (1957) indicates that: 26

Controlled experiments on human behavior are difficult not only because of the great variety of factors that must be controlled, but also because human beings are involved. People are not always easy to manipulate...No experimental treatment that is or may be harmful or even disadvantageous is likely to be tolerated (p. 82).

Ebel and other researchers suggest that basic

research and the scientific method of research, which have

been successful for the sciences, can not be used effectively

in education because behavior is not a stable phenomenon

that can be isolated without distortion for scientific

study. "The very experiment designed to study it changes

it (Ebel, 1967, p. 82)." Behavior is inconsistent and

experiments conducted under identical conditions may pro­

vide different results. Eble (1967) states:

Basic research in education can promise very little improvement in the process of education now or in the foreseeable future...Basic research will seldom give us data on which to base the most important of educational decisions (p. 81).

Ebel suggests that in place of doing basic

research in education, the efforts of researchers should be directed toward applied research in education which would be designed to solve immediate practical problems. Contrary to this viewpoint, Cronbach (1966) has indicated that signi­

ficant improvement could come only out of deep understand­

ing of such basic elements of education as learning and 27

motivation. Unfortunately, educational research has not

been able to accomplish this task (p. 540).

These views indicate that not only has educational

research failed to provide professional educators with

immediate and useful basic concepts and principles for

improving the processes of education, but that there is

still disagreement as to how this task should be

accomplished.

Assuming that educational researchers can not make

adequate use of basic research to the same degree of

success that the sciences have, the application of research and the interpretation of results must be somewhat altered.

Included in the literature are vast numbers of articles

reporting the theories and ideas of educators as they

relate to almost every aspect of learning. Many of these theories have been substantially tested. In reporting these results, each author is seeking to contribute explan­ ations of aspects of learning for the purpose of educational improvement. Used singly, most theories of learning have little influence in explaining or changing the methods used in learning or teaching. However, when combined with similar theories, they may exert considerable influence on 28 curriculum specialists.

One concept which is continuously concluded as a major factor in student learning is motivation. "Almost without exception the motivation aspect is alluded to when explain­ ing under or overachievement (Ickes and Schell, 1967, p. 432)." "Motivation is important to learning (Johnson and Nelson, 1967, p. 631)."

The research concerning student motivation has often been typical of research on learning in general. Most of it has been of little significance in developing principles which can be applied in confidence to educational situ- ■ ations. "There are, however, conditions that tend to aid in increasing the level of motivation of students in the classroom. The literature on how to provide these condi­ tions is somewhat vague (Towers, el a t ., 1966, p. 269)."

Much of the research on motivation in education is concerned with specific problems in an area of study and is not generalizable to other curriculum areas.

THEORIES OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

The terms "motivation" and "learning" represent con­ cepts which are complex and not clearly understood by educators. For several decades, the learning process has been studied and researched, resulting in many different 29 theories of learning. At present, a vast amount of written material exists concerning the learning process.

Some of this information is accepted as being fact and

is used abundantly in the improvement of education. Much of the information is inconclusive and is being used only where educators believe in its value. It has not been accepted as fact because of the varying results of studies which have been conducted to examine it. There are also

some theories which have not been tested, but may in the

future become beneficial to students in the learning process.

The concepts of motivation and learning relate to the

individual's total behavior in society. Many of the pre­ vious theories of motivation and learning attempt to explain the individuals general behavior rather than the students specific behavior relating to academic studies. It becomes the educators task to examine these theories and to seek ways of applying them to educational situations.

Motivation, being only one contributing factor to learning, has not had the close examination by researchers or educators that the concept of learning has had. It has been only in recent years that textbooks and research studies concerning the motivation of students in academic settings have come into existence. Previous to this, most of the analysis of motivation had been performed for the purpose of determining reasons for the behavior of indi­ viduals. Motivation is a facet of modern advertising efforts to sell the goods produced by industry. Studies were conducted to determine what will motivate people to buy certain products. Motivation was also studied as a factor in explaining mans' social behavior. Researchers sought to determine how feelings such as love, hate, friend­ ship, etc., operate to motivate individuals to certain behavior. Undoubtedly, Sigmund Freud deserves credit for the modern thrust given to interest in motivational aspects of life (Murray, 1965, p. 367). After Freud developed theories which highlighted the motivational forces in human psychology, other individuals began to contribute motivational and learning theories. "Thorndike's law of effect was psychology's first effort to define the role of motivation in animal and human actions, and modern formulations cannot be understood without the backdrop of the law of effect (Murray, 1965, p. 377)." This "law of effect" stated that actions resulting in consequences which are pleasant, satisfying, or rewarding, will be retained or repeated, and those whose effects are unpleasant, unsatis­ fying or punishing, will not be repeated. This law. 31 although somewhat debated, has been accepted for appli­

cation to most situations involving the motivation of

students.

Thorndike was concerned with the association between

sense impressions and impulses to action. This association

came to be known as a "bond" or "connnection" and is con­

sidered to be the original stimulus-response theory of

learning. In these associations, trial-and-error learning

is involved and ideas of the individual do not usually

intervene in the behavior.

Thorndike also formulated two other major laws which directly affected the learning situation. The law of readiness stated the circumstances under which a learner tends to be satisfied or annoyed, and the law of exercise indicated that connections will be strengthened with practice. Thorndike's theories have had considerable influence on the development of present theories of learning and motivation.

Other authors, such as Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, and

Lewin developed explanations of motivation which supple­ mented Thorndike's theories. Guthrie's research indicated that learning could take place the first time an action was tried. Motivation could be intense enough that an action learned once could be repeated. Guthrie proposed 32

that motivation does not have to connect the following

response to preceding stimulus, as the law of effect

indicated (Murray, 1965, p. 378). Motivation is important

in learning because it determines what the individual may do.

Edward Tolman*s research indicated that motivation determines which features of the environment shall interest the learner and then arouses him to action. However, moti­ vation is not really a factor in the actual learning pro­ cess. Motivation is related to an individual's performance, but not to acquisition of concepts (Hilgard, 1956, p. 201).

Tolman's research with animals also indicated that moti­ vation had a confirming role. The reward confirmed or ♦ emphasized those responses of the learner which he had already performed or decided to use.

B.P. Skinner developed many ingenious experiments using animal subjects to formulate a theory of motivation based upon the responses. He rewarded his subjects for correct responses in predetermined rates. In these experi­ ments, motivation becomes reinforcement. From Skinner's work evolved teaching machines and programed instruction.

Physiological explanations of motivation were being developed into theories by other individuals at about the 33

same time that Thorndike, Guthrie, and Skinner were

developing their theories. In the 1920's, McDougall,

Cannon, and Bernard sought to explain motivation as the

homeostasis concept which involved the body's effort to

maintain a glandular or chemical balance.

Derived from the homeostasis theories were Murray's

"needs", a physiological explanation of motivation, Murray

proposed that men possessed a number of physical needs such

as hunger, thirst, love, achievement, security, and atten­

tion. When a need was unfulfilled or unsatisfied, man

tended toward behavior which would bring about their ful­

fillment. As a result of this explanation of motivation,

the "Thematic Appreception Test" and Edward's "Personal

Preference Schedule" were developed (Murray, 1965, p. 381).

The tendencies to behavior arising from the physio­

logical "needs" or "deficiences" were termed "drives". This

concept, the need-drive reduction pattern, developed into

the most popular paradigm for motivational research. In

this pattern, a need or deficiency will lead to actions

(drives) which will satisfy the need and quiet the drive.

A number of laboratory studies involving animals were

performed to develop this need-drive reduction cycle.

Animals would be deprived of food or drink for a given 34

period and then were required to successfully complete

certain tasks before receiving food or drink. The animals

were motivated to perform by their hunger. When they

learned the task required of them (requiring the drive),

they were fed and the motivational cycle was complete with

the reduction of the need.

The need-drive reduction theory has been prevalent in

many theories of learning and motivation. However, the

need-drive reduction theory in its application tends to be

more negative than positive. For example, the subject does

something to avoid a situation (Murray, 1965, p. 381).

Sheffields prepotent-response. Miller's stimulus-

intensity, and Spence's and Seward's two-factor theories

have also sought to explain motivation in learning. In

general, applications of these theories of motivation have

changed somewhat to suggest that motivation is not something which is added or manipulated from without, but that moti­

vation is positive by being internal or subject controlled.

Berlyn, Harlow, and Lewin have contributed research which indicated that curiousity and aspiration are indi­ vidual drives of motivation. Lewin sponsored research on

levels of aspiration and task-completion-tension which 35 suggested that subjective goals of the learner were impor­ tant in understanding and manipulating human motivation.

Cognitive learning is both activated and changed by aroused needs or tensions. Motivation is therefore of central importance to the learning process (Hilgard, 1956, p. 284).

A satisfactory psychological theory of motivation is almost certain to include some kind of ego reference, that is, some incorporation of the present activity within the larger goals, values, or ambitions of the learner. Lewin's motivational theories definitely take account of such problems (Hilgard, 1956, p. 285).

Lewin also demonstrated the dangerous side effects of punishment as a motivator. Most educators and re­ searchers view punishment as a motivator, but imply that caution is needed in using it. Punishment used to moti­ vate students could touch off incidental reactions which may cause the learner to end up rejecting all learning.

The tempo of research concerning motivation has picked up greatly during the past few years. The methods of research, the language, and the instrumentation have varied, but many of the previously established theories still persist. Skinner's reinforcement concept has been expanded to applications in communication arts, advertising, group dynamics, and counseling. Theories concerning the psychogenic need for achievement have been directed toward 36 academic achievement motivation.

New concepts regarding motivational behavior, which tends to support the positive approach and subject-con­ trolled theories of modern motivational research, are being discovered and analyzed further. Murray (1965) reports several investigations of motivational drives related to the brain stimulation of animals (p. 383). In these investigations, electrodes were implanted in the brains of animals, cats and rats, and the animal subject would apply a small electrical shock to their own brain.

Researchers have discovered a "pleasure center" in the animal brain which motivates animals with the implanted electrodes to stimulate themselves at a very high rate, enduring more pain than animals would ordinarily endure.

These brain stimulation studies have added new under­ standing of the brain as a center of motivation and sen­ sation as well as cognition.

A statement by Murray (1965) is used to describe the present status of theories of motivation affecting students.

The current motivational orientation admits that motivation in human subjects is more complex, more likely to be positive than negative, and the range of individual variation is greater than once supposed in an era which conceived of motivation as externally manipulated baits for responses (p. 383). 37

STUDIES OF MOTIVATION FOR EDUCATIONAL IMPROVEMENT

There are numerous studies reported in the literature of psychology and education in which certain aspects of motivation were researched and experimented with to provide new understandings about student behavior and to make improvements in the teaching-learning process. Many of these studies involved a sampling of less than one hundred students selected from specific curriculum areas, specific grade levels, and/or specific socio-economic groups. The results are, therefore, often limited in their direct application and generalization to other areas of the school curriculum. However, even though the results of many of these studies are limited in application, they may have implications for the design of applied research relating to other aspects of motivation and learning.

In the review of literature, this investigator found no studies which sought answers to a question similar to the one proposed in this study. However, several studies were reviewed which provided support to some of the assumptions made by this investigator and also provided guidelines for the design of this study. A brief review of several studies and the implications they have to this study are provided in the following paragraphes. The studies reviewed in this 38 section were selected for their contributions to a better understanding of motivation and interest in relationship to curriculum area, characteristics of the students, and variables described in this study.

One assumption made by this investigator is that moti­ vation, under certain conditions, can improve a student's cognitive learning. Although few educators would dispute this assumption, many would raise questions concerning it.

(e.g. What levels of motivation would produce the most significant results? What kinds of learning - recall, concept forming, problem solving, - are improved by an increase in the student's motivation? Will motivation improve physical skills and asthetic values? At what tasks must motivational drives be directed to improve cognitive learning?) Many questions could be raised and researched regarding this one assumption.

Although the review of the following two research studies do not provide answers to any of the specific ques­ tions asked in the previous paragraph, they do show evidence in support of the theory that under certain conditions, motivation can improve learning.

Ingle (1962) conducted research at Wayne State Univer­ sity for the purpose of investigating the effects of different 39 levels of motivation on incidental learning. The population consisted of 290 seventh grade students in ten different classes taught by five different teachers. Each class was randomly assigned to either a high or a low motivational treatment. The task was to memorize the poem "Old Iron­ sides" by Oliver Wendell Homes by studying six minutes a day for five days. After each session, the students were asked to write as much of the poem from memory as possible.

Students in the low motivated groups were asked to correct their own papers and then discard them. The papers of the students in the high motivated groups were scored and marked in the teacher's grade book. Students in the high motivated groups were also given praise and encouragement to do their best on the tests. On the fifth day, all students were tested for memory of the poem and for knowledge and under­ standing of the poem (incidental learning).

The results of Ingle's study indicated that students under conditions of high motivation do better on intentional tasks (learning the poem) than students under conditions of low motivation. They also did better on the incidential learning of knowledge and understanding of the. poem.

Ingle's study may have implications for this investi­ gator because the poem or intentional task could be compared 40 to the task of the psychomotor activity and the incidential

learning of knowledge and understandings related to the poem are similar to the learning of knowledge and concepts in the metal processing presentation. However, no mention was made in the report of the study concerning any attempt to determine differences of motivation between the high and low motivated groups.

Entin (1968) conducted research designed to investi­ gate the relationship between the theory of achievement motivation and performance on a simple and a complex task.

The theories of achievement motivation being investigated proposed that either performance on an achievement was uniformally ("monotonically") related to strength of tend­ ency (motivation) or that this relationship was "curvilinear" with the variance being contingent upon task complexity.

The curvilinear theory predicted that if motivation becomes too intense, performance efficiency will be reduced.

One hundred and sixty-nine seventh and eighth grade male students were used as subjects and were administered a social desirability scale, a test anxiety scale, and an achievement test in mathematics one week prior to the experi­ ment. The purpose of these tests was to determine prior student achievement and a measurement of extrinsic and 41

intrinsic motives toward achievement.

During the experiment, a test was administered con­

taining a simple and a complex task. The simple task

involved the addition of simple digit numbers. The complex

task was a three step problem. Half the subjects in each

class were led to believe the results of the test would be

available to their parents and teachers, while the others

were told the results would be confidential.

The results indicated that the relationship between

the performance on a task is not related in a linear form

to the strength of the motivation involved. Groups tending

to be the most highly motivated did not perform as well on

either the simple or complex tasks as did groups of inter­

mediate strength of motivation. However, Intin suggests

that the simple task may have been viewed as a complex task

by some students and therefore, could be a confounding

variable. This study lends support to the theory that too

much motivation or improper types of motivation may be a

deterrent to learning. The results of the following study

further illustrates this possibility.

Cummiskey (1963) conducted research to determine if the performance of children on complex perceptual-motor tasks is improved by imposed stimulation when motivation 42 toward the task is already high and knowledge of results

is available for the performer. Ninety boys (eleven to

fourteen years old) were assigned randomly to three treat­ ment groups. Two tasks were given each group. A physical education task involved the propelling of a volleyball at a target on a wall. A paper and pencil task involved the student in placing an X in certain positions on a page of random numbers. The treatment conditions involved verbal encouragement for one group, knowledge of results as indicated by a buzzer for the second group, and the control group which received no motivational instruction, encourage­ ment, or reinforcement.

The results of this study indicated that the two methods of motivating students were actually detrimental to their performance under these conditions. Both treat­ ments significantly hindered the performance of the high skill groups and showed indications of hinderance for the low and middle skill groups. These results imply that at times, certain methods of motivation not only do not improve the students performance, but hinder it. However, no re­ port was made of attempts to compare levels of motivation of the students. 43

Other assumptions made by this investigator were con­

cerned with the affect of manipulating extrinsic rein­

forcement contingencies (activity and competition in parti­

cular) on student performance. Several studies have been

conducted which provide implications for the use of these assumptions.

Sullivan, Baker, and Schutz (1967) conducted research to determine the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic rein­

forcement contingencies on learner performance. Seventy-

six Air Force R.O.T.C. cadets participated in the investi­ gation. Money represented the extrinsic motivation while knowledge of the results of student performance represented the intrinsic reinforcement. The results showed no signi­

ficant difference on a student performance measure (p. 165).

Caskey (1968) conducted research in physical education concerning the effects of motivation on the standing broad

jump performance of children. The problem involved the need to provide external incentives in eliciting the best efforts of adolescents in physical education. The results of the study indicated that physical activity in itself is motivating (p. 54). This conclusion, concerning the moti­ vational aspects of physical activity, lends support to 44 assumptions made by this investigator regarding industrial arts activities.

Many of the studies concerning the use of competition for educational improvement have been conducted in the curriculum area of physical education. Since psychomotor activities are common to both physical education and indus­ trial arts, research implications from one may be very appropriate to the other.

Wilkes (1965) was concerned with determining the affects of competition on learning fundamental physical education skills. Eighty-eight male college freshmen were randomly placed into four groups of twenty-two. Two groups were designated as high motor ability and two groups as low motor ability as a result of the Borrow Motor Ability Test. Each group then received basketball instruction for five weeks, with two of the groups receiving competitive drill. The

Johnson Basketball Skill Test was administered seven times during the experiment.

The results of this experiment indicated that competi­ tion does improve the development of basketball skills: that the greatest increase takes place during the first weeks of practice; and that the performance of higher motor ability students is affected greater by the competition than are the other groups. 45

All three of these results may have direct application to shill development in the industrial arts laboratory.

Many other research studies can contribute information valuable to the understanding of motivation and its rela­ tionship to skill development and learning. For example,

DeCharms and Carpenter (1968) conducted research that at­ tempted to discover whether certain aspects of motivation

could be measured in a population of culturally disadvan­ taged children. This information would be valuable in

developing curriculums appropriate to these children. The

results of this study indicated that the culturally dis­ advantaged students did not want to feel that their moti­ vation was manipulated. The motivated students liked to take personal responsibility for their actions and to be

in a position to act on their own (p. 31).

A major problem often confronting studies involving

factors of motivation is the measurement of, or determining the presence of, motivation. At present, no instrument or method is known to this investigator which can quickly and accurately determine the level and direction of motivation in a student. Several investigators, such as Forman (1964) who researched two ways of ascertaining motivation among junior high school students and Young (1969) who developed 46

an interest inventory to determine student interest in

various concepts of industry, have developed instruments or

methods of determining interest and motivation.

However, these instruments and/or methods usually have

application only to specific situations in education. Most

researchers must, therefore, depend upon the prior theories

of motivation, observations, and questioning techniques to

base their assumptions that motivation does or does not

exist.

One method of measuring motivation that this investi­

gator is aware of, is the Junior Index of Motivation (JIM

Scale) developed through research by Frymier at The Ohio

State University (Frymier, 1965, p. 568). This instrument

was developed by having a large number of students respond

to a number of statements regarding their personal interest

and desire to participate in certain activities. It was

found that highly motivated students would react to certain

statements in a different manner than low motivated students.

Although this instrument would be appropriate for use in

many studies, the time and inconvenience required for its administration would often prevent its use. Perhaps, as

Ickes (el at., 1967) has indicated in his general comments

concerning motivation, motivation may not lend itself to 47

quantification attempts.

CURRICULUM CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The purpose and design of this investigation is di­

rectly related to the innovative curriculums in junior high school industrial arts. It therefore seems appro­

priate to provide the reader with a brief description of the nature of these curriculums.

Since its inclusion in the public school curriculum, the area of industrial arts has had as one of its main objectives, the interpretation of industry. However, the content or the body of knowledge of industry has never been categorized or agreed upon by industrial educators.

Without the use of adequate guidelines, industrial arts courses have tended to focus on selected trades and crafts which seemingly represent industry. However, many vari­ ations have existed in both the selection of trades to be represented and in the content characterizing these trades.

As a consequence of this lack of curriculum structure, many junior high school industrial arts programs developed into a series of laboratory activities involving the construction of simple projects.

A research study conducted by Schmitt (1966) indicated that in the average industrial arts courses, seventy-five 48

percent of the student's time was spent on psychomotor

activities (p. 30). Student reading assignments, classroom

discussions, teacher presentations, and visual aids (films

and filmstrips) were uncommon in many of these classrooms.

Situations developed in many schools where processes and

equipment were being used which were outdated and no longer

being used by industry. Since the interest level of the

students was high because of the activities involved, few

industrial arts teachers sought to review and revise their

courses to keep up with the technological changes in

industry. As reported in the IACP rationale, "...it has become quite evident that many of the traditional approaches

to industrial arts education are incapable of providing

students with an adequate understanding of-the impact of

industry upon our man-made world and upon industrial personnel (Towers, et al., 1966, p. 1)

Similar gaps also existed between other curricular areas of education such as mathematics, science, and biology. However, during the 1950's, curriculum committees in these areas developed discipline-centered approaches that were organized around primary elements within the respective fields. These committees were actively discuss­ ing, planning, writing, and experimenting on more meaning­ 49

ful ways of presenting basic content. As a result of

funding from the National Science Foundation and other sources, such groups as the Physical Science Study Commit­ tee (PSSC), School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), the

Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), and the

Chemical Education Material Study (CHEM Study) were able to make valuable contributions to the improvement of their respective areas. Attention was focused on developing an understanding of concepts, ideas, and principle modes of inquiry.

By the early 1960's, similar trends were well underway in the field of industrial education. Concerned leaders in teacher-preparation institutions began to develop and exper­ iment with "innovative" plans and programs to modify the industrial arts curriculum to more accurately represent industry. This resulted in the formation of several major curriculum projects which received funding and support from federal, state, and local sources. Some of these efforts include the American Industry Project at Stout State Uni­ versity; the Functions of Industry at Wayne State Univer­ sity; the Galaxy Plan in the Detroit Public Schools; the

Industrial Arts Curriculum Project at The Ohio State Uni­ versity; the Industriology Project at the Wisconsin State 50

University; and the Partnership Vocational Project at

Central Michigan University. More than twenty-five other similar "innovative" programs have been identified, but most of these have not received as much publicity or funding.

Conclusions drawn from research by Cochran (1970) indi­ cate that the leaders of the seven projects previously mentioned are in agreement concerning certain statements regarding industrial arts. Several of these statements are as follows;

1. There are identifiable curriculum elements in

the field of industrial education that can be

structured into a curriculum framework.

2. In these seven "innovative" programs:

a) manipulative type activities are de­

emphasized while the application of

scientific principles have received

increased support.

b) Provisions for individual differences

is made through organization of activities

so that students can progress from a general

understanding of industry to more specific

tasks. 51 c) classification of instructional content

under such areas as "woodworking", "graphic

arts", and "metalworking", and the focus

on activities directed towards avocational

interests, are de-emphasized.

A brief review of two of the innovative industrial arts

curriculums may serve to acquaint the reader with the type of curriculum materials being introduced. To provide the reader with this insight, a brief description is provided of the American Industries Project and the Industrial Arts

Curriculum Project (IACP). Included in this description are

some of the assumptions about the nature of industrial arts; the classification system for ordering the elements of industry; and the educational package which resulted from the application of these assumptions and the structure of elements.

The Industrial Arts Curriculum Project. The industrial

Arts Curriculum Project (IACP) is a joint effort of the

Ohio State University and the University of Illinois to develop a rationale which will be used for the construction of a more adequate framework for the organized study of industry. This project is headquartered at the Ohio State

University and was funded by the United States Office of 52

Education. The project staff, consisting of professors and graduate research assistants, received guidance from a national advisory committee and from academic and

industrial consultants in giving structure to a body of knowledge which the project staff calls industrial technology.

The IACP staff made several assumptions about the nature of industrial arts:

1. Industrial arts is a study of industry.

2. Man is very curious about industry, its materials,

processes, organization, and services.

3. Industry is so vast a societal institution that it

is necessary, for instructional purposes, to

develop a system of basic principles, concepts, or

fundamental structure of the field.

4. Mans' knowledge about industry can be categorized

and ordered logically. (Towers, et al., 1966, p. 2)

Using these assumptions, the project staff identified five basic societal institutions, each one encompassing lesser order institutions. The basic societal institutions were identified as (1) familial, (2) religious, (3) economic,

(4) political, and (5) educational. Industry, being an economic activity, was defined as that institution which 53

substantially changes the form of materials to satisfy

man's material wants.

INDUSTRIAL MATERIAL GOODS

FIGURE 1

FIRST ORDER MATRIX OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

(Towers, Lux, and Ray, 1966, p. 158)

The overall classification of industrial elements consisted of a generalized structure of industrial tech­ nology and, at a more specialized level, substructures of construction technology and manufacturing technology. A three-dimensional matrix approach was used to help visualize the categories of elements fro each of these areas. The 5 4 advantage of using such a matrix is that elements can be viewed in the movement from the general to the specific.

Figure 1 represents the first-order matrix and indicates that industrial management practices, combined with industrial production practices, result in industrial material goods and affect humans and materials. This represents a very general classification of industrial concepts and processes.

Figure 2 represents a more specific second-order matrix which has been separated into manufactured and constructed industrial material goods which chiefly affect materials.

The third-order matrix shown in Figure 3 is expanded to show more specific elements involved in industrial technology.

The general structure of industrial technology was indicated by the use of the three-dimensional matrices.

However, as the analysis of material became more specific, it became obvious that space would not permit its complete graphic three-dimensional presentation. Therefore, an out­ line form was used to present successive orders of speci­ ficity. An example of this outline is shown below:

1. Preparing the Site

1.1 Clearing the Site 55

1.1.1 Providing temporary access and protection 1.1.1.1 Protecting personnel and property 1.1.1.1.1 Posting 1.1.1.1.2 Fencing 1.1.1.1.3 Banking 1.1.1.1.4 Ditching 1.1.1.1.5 Bracing and Shoring 1.1.1.1.6 Weather proofing 1.1.1.2 Laying roads and walkways 1.1.1.2.1 Grading 1.1.1.2.2 Bridging 1.1.1.2.3 Compacting 1.1.1.2.4 Surfacing 1.1.1.2.5 Rolling

1.1.2 Reducing Obstacles

1.1.2.1 Demolishing and Salvaging 1.1.2.1.1. Disassembling 1.1.2.1.2 Wrecking 1.1.2.1.3 Bulldozing 1.1.2.1.4 Cutting 1.1.2.1.5 Chaining 1.1.2.1.6 Blasting 1.1.2.1.7 Burning

(Towers, Lux, and Ray, 1966, p. 216)

The first part of this integrated two-year program is a comprehensive one year junior high school course in con­ struction technology called THE WORLD OF CONSTRUCTION. The second year course is called THE WORLD OF MANUFACTURING.

The construction course is divided into three major sections: an analysis of the managed-personnel-production system of construction; a synthesis of housing construction practices; and a synthesis of city and regional planning practices. INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION PRACTICES Pre-Processing Processing Post-Proces Post-Proces s ing Planning Twr, u, n a, 96 p 159) p. 1966, Ray, (Towers, and Lux, SECOND-ORDER MATRIX OP INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIAL OP MATRIX SECOND-ORDER Organizing Manufactured Constructed Manufactured INDUSTRIAL MATERIAL GOODS MATERIAL INDUSTRIAL in plant on site on in plant Controlling FIGURE 2 FIGURE AFFECTING MATERIALS AFFECTING

Matrix Order Third

ui INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION PRACTICES •ri eu 0 m to c &> H u ( 1 ) the project the setting goals setting & building the building the site the preparing the site the completing structure .V V .V SAMPLE THIRD-ORDER MATRIX OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIAL OF MATRIX THIRD-ORDER SAMPLE project

researching the researching

AFFECTING CONSTRUCTED MATERIAL CONSTRUCTED AFFECTING for industrial material goods material industrial ulig non-buildings buildings &

& designing the designing project CONSTRUCTED FIGURE 3 FIGURE proj ect engineering the engineering

(Towers, and Lux, a, 96 p 161) p. 1966, Ray,

•vj 58

This course is a total educational package, providing the

teacher with all that is needed to operate the program.

Included in the package are: textbooks, laboratory manuals,

a teacher's guide, achievement tests, course objectives,

daily behavioral objectives, time schedules, lectures,

demonstrations, discussion questions, procedures for labora­

tory management, safety precautions, lists of equipment,

tools, expendable materials, special materials, and visual aids and devices.

The textbook was written by experts in the field of

construction and consists of a number of readings which are assigned to students two or three times each week. It

is organized and illustrated to provide the student with a conceptual framework for understanding construction tech­ nology. Following is a list of titles of some of these readings:

Selecting a builder. Contracting, Estimating and Bidding, Scheduling, Working as a Contractor, Collective Bargaining, Hiring Construction Personnel, Training and Educating for Construction Working Conditions, Advancing in Construction, Optional, Construction Production Technology, 59

Getting Ready to Build, Clearning the Site, Locating the Structure, Earthmoving, Handling Grievances, Stabilizing Earth and Structures, Classifying Structures, Building Forms, Setting Reinforcement, Mixing Concrete, Placing and Finishing Concrete, Building Mass and Masonry Superstructures, Erecting Steel Frames,

These reading assignments follow closely to the struc­ tured outline of industry in both sequence and title. Al­ though a student workbook was developed and initially used, it was abandoned to avoid overburdening the student with homework.

The laboratory manual includes activities designed to reinforce the concepts in the readings and class discussions.

Each activity is carefully outlined for the students in­ cluding objectives, equipment, and procedures.

A teachers guide provides guidance to the teacher by indicating objectives, time schedules, equipment and sup­ plies, necessary safety precautions, a schedule and pro­ cedures for completing lectures, demonstrations, discussions, laboratory activities, reviews, tests, and homework assignments. 60

Although the time appropriated for laboratory activ­

ities is considerable, only a small portion of these

activities consist of psychomotor activities, A similar

educational package has been developed for the manufac­

turing portion of the industrial technology structure.

The American Industry Project. The American Industry

Project is an experiment to substitute a curriculum which

emphasizes understanding of the spectrum of American indus­

try for the conventional industrial arts courses which

often emphasized skill development. This project is located

at Stout State University in Menomonie, Wisconsin, and has

been supported since 1963 by grants from the Ford Founda­

tion and from the United States Office of Education

During the conception of this project, the staff came

to several conclusions concerning education and industrial

arts. It was first accepted that technology was now a

potent force in molding society. The problems of the

future are inseparable from industrialization and this

justifies the study of industry in the public schools. It was also concluded that one major difficulty facing indus­

trial.arts was the fragmented approach that was being used.

In many traditional industrial arts programs emphasis was 61

being placed on selected trades, occupations or material

areas, and on developing abilities to perform specific

operations. There was a lack of coherent structure repre­

sented in the content taught in the typical industrial arts

laboratory. The American Industries staff felt that to

make industrial arts truly a study of industry, a unifying

element was needed. This was to be a system of concepts

and subconcepts applicable to all industry. These concepts

would be common to a variety of industries.

Another consideration made by the staff was a state­

ment by the Educational Policies Commission in 1961. This

Commission indicated that the central purpose of education was the development of the rational powers of man. Using an interpretation of this statement and the previous con­

clusions concerning industrial arts, two broad objectives were derived:

1. To develop an understanding of those concepts

which directly apply to industry,

2. To develop the ability to solve problems related

to industry. (Face, Flug, Swanson, 1967, p. 60).

Industry was defined as a complex of organizations that utilizes the basic resources of men, materials, 62 machines, and money to produce goods or provide services to meet the needs of man (Face, et a 1 ., 1967, p. 64). The structure of industry was conceived as consisting of sev­ eral major areas, each of which is further subdivided into still smaller elements. Figure 4 indicates the structure of industry indicating the thirteen major concepts. Five concepts which represent the environment of American indus­ try were also identified as government, private property, resources, competition, and public interest. Simpler concepts of industry, such as extruding, destructive testing, hardness, fastening, were identified and categor­ ized into one of the major concepts in the structure of industry.

By studying unifying concepts of industry that have an application to many areas of industry, the student will no longer be learning special skills applicable to only one area. Business and industry should be able to make better use of individuals trained in this program because of their wider range of understandings regarding industry. As an example of this emphasis on concepts rather than on skills, the American Industry Project would emphasize adhesion rather than soldering, mechanical linkage rather than bolting, and cohesion rather than welding. Emphasis 63

GOVERNMENT

COMMUNICATION TRANSPORTATION ENERGY

FINANCE PROCESSES

AMERICAN MATERIALS PROPERTY

INDUSTRY

PRODUCTION RESEARCH

MANAGEMENT PROCUREMENT

MARKETING RELATIONSHIPS

FIGURE 4 A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF THE KNOWLEDGES NECESSARY TO UNDERSTAND AMERICAN INDUSTRY (Gebhart, 1968, p. 4) 64 would be placed on material rather than fibers, energy rather than fuels, and transportation rather than routing.

Understandings of such concepts derived from this structure would be universally applicable in any specific industry which encompasses them. It is this commonality of the concept, which makes the conceptual approach valuable as a means of developing American Industry as a replacement for industrial arts (Face, Plug, Swanson, 1967, p. 65).

Level III

CURRICULUM Level II

Level I

FIGURE 5

Understanding of American Industry

(Face, Flug, pamphlet) 65

The conceptual framework of industry developed by the

American Industry Project staff is to be applicable to

several levels of the secondary curriculum. Figure 5

indicates three levels of course objectives in the curricu­

lum. Level I represents the first year of study and was designed for eighth grade students. Level II represents the second year and was designed for tenth grade students.

Level III represents the third year and twelth grade stu­ dents. Levels I and II are also being field tested on a semester basis.

To implement these concepts of industry into the industrial arts curriculum, a group of ten teachers were chosen to refine the preliminary structure of concepts, to develop teaching-learning units, and to test this mater­ ial in their classrooms. After the conceptual model for each basic area of study had been completed, taxonomically structured behavioral objectives and a course outline were prepared. An educational package was developed for Level

I and is presently in the process of being field tested.

This package included the instructor's guide containing lesson plans and student activity sheets, and the student text which provided information related to the units of 66

instruction. Also provided were instructional media such

as films, filmstrips, models, bulletin board displays, and

overhead transparencies.

Specific skills are introduced into the classroom as

they become necessary in the activities designed for the

development of the concept. Examples of some activities

used in Level I include: field trips, planning for and

mass producing a product, posing and solving labor-manage-

ment problems through arbitration, establishing a small

enterprise, conducting research on a product, planning and

making jigs and fixtures, inspecting the products, selling

the products, conducting hiring interviews, and writing

final reports indicating profit or loss of the company.No

attempts were made to duplicate the tools and machines of

industry, but facilities are utilized to develop under­

standings of concepts.

The instructor's guide serves as the focal point for all course materials. It provides the teacher with a

guideline in identifying a consistent course pattern? it

identifies supplemental readings; it provides suggestions

for student activities; and combines suitable media with prescribed lessons. An example of the American Industry

Course Outline for Level I is shown in Figure 6. While 67

LEVEL I - AMERICAN INDUSTRY COURSE OUTLINE

Units and Features Unit Theme

Unit I Industry Today -Let's analyze industry. 1. Introduction to American industry 2. Resources of industry 3. The environment of industry 4. Basic parts of industry

Unit II The Evolution of Industry -The needs of man and why he 1. The needs of man progressed. 2. A search for greater productivity 3. Some effects of man's quest for productivity

Unit III Organizing an Enterprise -Let's start a business. 1. Communication 2. Research 3. Management 4. Finance 5. Property 6. Energy

Unit IV Operating an Enterprise -Let's produce using modern 1. Relationships production 2. Procurement methods. 3. Materials 4. Processes 5. Production

Unit V Distributing Products and -Why does a Services product sell?

1. Marketing 2. Transportation

(Gebhart, 1968, p. 20) FIGURE 6 68 progressing through these units the student becomes in­ volved in greater depths of understanding and learning by becoming involved in simulated industrial activities.

SUMMARY

The first section of this chapter indicates that basic research on various aspects of education is often difficult to design and control because of the complexity of human behavior. Because of this, much of the research conducted has not contributed to the development of principles of learning upon which an educational system can be based.

This review of literature revealed that some of the early theories of educational investigators contributed much to the present status of education. However, a con- sierable number of newer theories have supplemented or replaced these original theories. Much of the present research concerning motivation involves applied research, conducted to solve specific problems related to a partic­ ular classroom situation or group of students. Several of these studies were briefly described to indicate the various aspects of motivation being researched.

The final section describes some of the curriculum changes that are taking place in industrial arts which have caused some concern for motivating the students involved. CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY OF THE INVESTIGATION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with the details of the experiment used in this investi­ gation. This chapter describes the design of the experiment; the nature of the treatments; and the methods used in developing the presentation, the laboratory psychom'otor activities, and the criterion measure. The selection of the sample, the variables involved in the experiment, and the administration of the motivational treatments are also discussed in detail.

DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT

This experiment was designed for the purpose of comparing the cognitive achievement of students who had been motivated before hearing a classroom presentation with the achievement of students who received the same presenta­ tion without having been motivated. The design involved four major groups which were designated as CM, P, PA , and PAC*

Group CM received only the criterion measure. This group was used to determine how 'knowledgeable junior high

69 70

school students are concerning the facts and concepts in

the Primary Metals Presentation. It was expected that

the students taking this criterion measure could score

one fourth of the answers correctly by guessing and could

answer several other questions from knowledge obtained

from previous educational experiences.

Group P received the Primary Metals Presentation and was then immediately administered the criterion measure.

The purpose of this group was to determine a level of

cognitive learning which would result when students were

given a presentation and immediately tested without being highly motivated.

Group PA received Treatment A, the presentation, the

criterion m'easure, and then completed the psychomotor activity. The purpose of Treatment A was to motivate

students by having them anticipate taking part in a spe­ cific psychomotor task. To determine if a student's moti­ vation to accomplish a psychomotor task can be applied to a related cognitive learning task, measurement of the cogni­ tive learning rather than the performance of the psycho­ motor activity had to be accomplished.

Group Pa c received the Treatment AC, the Primary Metals

Presentation, the criterion measure, and the laboratory 71 THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

-y r Nine available classes j i

Introductions to daily Group CM Group P Group PA Grou p PAC activities, (1-5 minutes)

Motivational Treatment Treatment treatments, A AC (5-7 minutes) I Reading Reading Reading (3 Minutes) Assign. Assign. Assign,

\ , Presenta­ Presenta­ Presenta­f (15 minutes) tion tion tion I Criterion Criterion CriterionI Criterion (20 minutes) measure measure measure measure

Psycho­ Psycho­ (35 minutes) motor motor activity activity

(2 minutes) Question­ Question­ Question­ Total time available naire naire naire 80 minutes

Data from Standardized {Treatment of Data| Testing £ COMPARISON: COMPARISON: COMPARISON: Groups CM & P Groups CM & PA Groups CM & PAC

COMPARISON: COMPARISON: COMPARISON: Groups PA & P Groups P & PAC Groups PA & PAC

FIGURE 7 72 activity involving the activity and competition. The purpose of this group was to increase the student moti­ vation for accomplishing the anticipated psychomotor task.

Figure 7 shows that this experimental design can be divided into eight major steps.

1. Selection of the sample.

2. Introduction of activities to each group.

3. Motivational treatment administered to Groups

PA and PAC.

4. Presentation of the content material by means of

the reading assignment and the audio tape

recording.

5. Cognitive learning is measured by a criterion

measure.

6. Groups PA and PAC complete the laboratory

psychomotor activities.

7. The questionnaire is administered.

8. The data is analyzed.

The time sequence for this experimental design is also shown in Figure 7 on the previous page. This schedule is appropriate for both seventh and eighth grade groups. A similar chart is presented in Table 1 on page 16. The 73

total time availabe for each group was two full periods

(80 minutes).

NATURE OF THE EXPERIMENT

This study might be suitable and have application to

any one of a number of curriculum areas (mathematics,

science, home-economics, art, etc,,) at the junior high

school level. However, this investigator was presently

interested only in its application to industrial arts and

therefore, selected materials and activities related to

this subject area. This experiment also has application

to any one of the various areas of study in industrial arts (woodworking, metalworking, graphic arts, power mechanics, etc.) commonly offered at the junior high

school level. However, content materials and activities were selected from the area of metalworking because this area of the industrial arts curriculum was more suitable to this investigator's background and present occupation as a metalworking teacher. Another reason for this selec­ tion was that much of the new industrial arts curriculum materials involved concepts related to metalworking in industry rather than to graphic arts or power mechanics.

The experiment was designed so that the information pre- 74 sented and the activities completed would be appropriate for students in a beginning metalworking course.

The methods of motivation (motivational treatments) were selected because of their adaptation for use in a typical junior high school industrial arts laboratory.

Other motivation, such as offering prizes or monetary rewards for student accomplishments, might produce a higher degree of motivation in students, but are unlikely to be used by teachers even if these methods proved to be highly effective.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIMARY METALS PROCESSING PRESENTATION

The purpose of this presentation was to provide a body of knowledge similar to the new industrial arts curri­ culum material which could be used to determine a level of cognitive learning for each of the groups involved. This material was also selected for its appropriateness to the students involved in the study.

A daily lesson presentation was selected from the

IACP's manufacturing textbook (described in Chapter Two) which seemed to meet both of the above criteria. Because the selected students had no prior experience in metal­ working, portions of this reading assignement were deter­ 75 mined to be inappropriate for study at that time and were deleted from the reading.

A review of the introductory chapters of several text­ books in the area of metalworking revealed that several concepts relating to metal processing which were not in­ cluded in the IACP's daily lesson presentation were appro­ priate for study by the selected groups of students. These concepts, which were considered by this investigator to be appropriate for use with the students involved, were reworded and included in the oral presentation. The presentation was then refined and taped for use in the experiment. (See Appendix A).

The introduction to the presentation consisted of a familiar portion of the music from the movie "2001, A Space

Odyssey". This music was entitled "Also Sprach Zarathustra" and composed by Richard Strauss. The purpose of this one minute musical introduction was to get the attention and interest of the students. Most of the students were famil­ iar with this music and listened intently.

Used in conjunction with the recording was a two page reading assignment including some of the same concepts given in the oral presentation. (See Appendix B for a sample of the reading assignment. This was developed by selecting a number of concepts from the presentation considered to be

more interesting and appropriate to the students. A

section in the reading material was provided for students

to take notes during the oral presentation. However,

students were not allowed to use these notes while complet­

ing the criterion measure. After the experiment, their

papers were examined to determine the quantity of notes

taken. It was thought that various quantities of notes

might be used to indicate levels of motivation and student

achievement. However, the students' methods of taking

notes were too erratic to come to any valuable conclusions. .

The reading level of the material involved was not

considered to be a confounding factor in this study for

two reasons. First, the students were actually involved

in reading only a small portion of the materials - the two page reading assignment and the test questions. Second, the daily lesson and textbook material were previously written and refined for use with students in this age group.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRITERION MEASURE

A criterion measure was developed by this investigator to measure the students' understanding and recall of con­ cepts given in the metals presentation. The first task 77

Was to determine the type and length of measuring instru­ ment to be used. Based upon recommendations from authors of measurement and evaluation textbooks (Downie, 1967;

Ebel, 1965; Norman, 1965), it was determined that a multiple choice test involving one correct answer and three distractors would be most appropriate for this measurement.

The Primary Metals Presentation was next analyzed to determine and isolate the major concepts in each paragraph.

Approximately sixty major concepts were identified, of which forty-five were selected for testing purposes. When several similar concepts existed in a paragraph, only one was randomly selected for use in testing. One multiple choice test item was written for each of these forty-five concepts. These items were then revised and five items deleted, resulting in forty remaining items. The follow­ ing criteria were used in developing each item:

1. Each item consisted of a stem (or a complete

question), three distractors, and one correct

answer.

2. Each distractor was written so that some

students would select it as the correct answer.

3. All questions involved the students in recall of 78

specific information rather than in problem

solving.

4. Questions involving "negatives" were avoided.

The forty item criterion measure was then reviewed by three experienced industrial arts educators. Their con­ structive criticisms and suggestions relating to the appro- priatness and clarity of items; length of test; item con­ struction and distractor selections, were used in making revisions. The test was reviewed and duplicated for pilot testing. Four junior high school classes were randomly selected to take the pilot test. Classes of industrial arts students were selected from the same school where the experiment was to be conducted. Sixty-three students were involved. Conditions were kept as normal as possible.

Students read the information sheet, heard the pre­ sentation, and were immediately administered the criterion measure. (See Table 2 and Table 3 on the following page for the results of this analysis.) Because of the small number of students and the small number of test items in­ volved, an acceptable test reliability level had previously been established at .70 (Garrett, 1965, p. 240). Test items having a discriminating power index smaller than .20 were 79

TABLE 2

ANALYSIS OF CRITERION MEASURE FOR 7th GRADE

A. Number of Students Taking Test = 33 B. Number of Items in Test = 40 C. Range = 22 (Maximum = 30, Minimum = 8) D. Mean Test Score = 16.79 E. Median = 16 F. Mode = 15 G. Standard Deviation = 5.40 H. Skewness =0.68 I. Kurtosis = -0.14 J. Group Statistics: Percent Number Mean Score Students Students Total 100.00 33 16.788 Upper 27.27 9 24.000 Lower 30.30 10 11.100 K. Reliability Estimates Kuder-Richardson 20 = 0.731 Kuder-Richardson 21 = 0.683

L. Item Analysis (Item Difficulty Distribution) Range Number of Items Percentage of items .81-1.00 2 5 .61-.80 22 55 .41-.60 10 25 .21-.40 3 7 .00-.20 3 7 Mean Item Difficulty = .580 M. Item Discrimination Distribution Range Number of Items Percentage of items .81-1.00 0 0 .61-.80 5 13 .41-.60 10 25 .21-.40 12 30 .00-.20 11 27 Below .00 2 5 Mean Item Discrimination = .322 80

TABLE 3 ANALYSIS OF CRITERION MEASURE FOR 8TH GRADE A. Number of Students Talcing Test = 30 B. Number of Items in Test = 40 C. Range = 2 9 (Maximum = 37, Minimum = 8 ) D. Mean Test Score = 23.83 E. Median = 23 F. Mode = 16 G. Standard Deviation = 7.10 H. Skewness = -0.16 I. Kurtosis = -0.75 J. Group Statistics: Percent Number Mean Students Studentrs Score Total 100.00 30 23.833 Upper 30.00 9 32.000 Lower 30.00 9 15.333 K. Reliability Estimates Kuder-Richardson 20 = 0.857 Kuder-Richardson 21 = 0.830 L. Item Analysis (Item Difficulty Distribution) Range Number of Items Percentage of Items 81-1.00 0 0 61-.80 5 13 41-.60 15 38 21-.40 11 27 00-.20 9 22 Mean Item Difficulty = .404 M. Item Discrimination Distribution Range Number of Items Percentage of Items 81-1.00 0 0 61-.80 8 20 41-.60 17 42 21-.40 9 22 00-.20 5 13 Mean Item Discrimination = .417 81

revised or discarded (Ebel, 1965, p. 364; Ahmann, 1962,

p. 314),

Of considerable importance to this experiment was the

reliability of this instrument. The analysis of data

indicated that the reliability estimates of this instru­

ments were somewhat higher for the eighth grade than for

the seventh grade.

Reliability Estimates 7th 8th.

Kuder-Richardson 20 - 0.731 0.857 Kuder-Richardson 21 - 0.683 0.830

After five items were removed because of low discrimin­

ating indexes and several more were revised slightly, this

criterion measure was accepted as a reliable means of meas­

uring junior high school students' level of knowledge con­

cerning concepts from the Metal Processing Presentation.

Tests were duplicated by the electrostatic process. A copy

of this instrument is included in Appendix D.

SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE

Although a number of junior high schools were avail­

able for use in this study, it was felt that there could be better control over confounding variables by conducting

the experiment in the school where this investigator was presently teaching. The school involved was Dominion 82

Junior High School, an upper-middle socio-economic level

school in the Columbus, Ohio, public school system. Per­

mission was granted from the Columbus School Board and from

the principal of Dominion to conduct the proposed experiment.

Because of the nature of the psychomotor activities

involved and because of the relevance to the materials in

the presentation, industrial arts classes were determined

to be most suitable for this experiment. Nine classes of

seventh grade students and nine classes of eighth grade

students were enrolled in the industrial arts curriculum

during the experimental period. Seventh graders were

required to take industrial arts while eighth graders took

industrial arts as an elective. This investigator was

presently concerned with the application of this study to

industrial arts students rather than to junior high school

students in general. Therefore, those eighth graders who

did not have an opportunity to be selected to participate in

this experiment did not affect the results of this study.

Students from any of the industrial arts classes would have been suitable for selection to participate in this

experiment. However, since it would have been impossible

in this situation to randomly assign students to the various groups, it was necessary to use intact classes of students 83 who were presently enrolled in the industrial arts curri­ culum. Students had been placed in each of these classes by a computerized scheduling procedure during the previous summer. Since three of the possible nine industrial arts classes would be enrolled in the metals course at any given time, it was decided to use those three classes to re­ present Groups P, PAC, and PA.

To avoid student knowledge and anticipation of certain phases of the experiment, classes were assigned to represent the various groups in sequence of their weekly schedule.

The first class to meet during the week was selected as

Group P; the second group was selected as Group PA; and the third class was selected as Group PAC. i All students enrolled in industrial arts at this junior high school rotate every twelve weeks through the areas of metalworking, woodworking, and graphic arts. The students involved in this experiment (with the exception of those students in Group CM receiving only the criterion measure) were entering the area of study of metalworking for their first or second day. Therefore, they had no previous expec­ tations concerning learning activities in the laboratory other than what they may have heard from other students. 84

Students receiving only the criterion measure were presently enrolled in a graphic arts course and had pre­ viously completed the twelve week metalworking course.

Since the presentation and questions on the criterion measure did not pertain to any of the information taught

in the previous metals course, it is not expected that this difference between the two groups would affect the results of the study. The criterion measure was being administered to Group CM during the time Group P was receiving the presentation and criterion measure.

This entire experiment was conducted at both the seventh and eighth grade levels. The purpose of this replication was to add credibility to .the results of the study and/or to determine if differences in levels of motivation existed between the two grade levels. The total number of cases in the seventh grade was 67. The total number of cases in the eighth grade was 62. These numbers represented a sufficient number of cases to give statistical signifi­ cance to the study (Ferguson, 1966, Chapter Four). In actuality, the total "N" (number of cases) for each grade level should be four rather than 67 and 62 because intact classes were assigned to treatments rather than students. 85

However, because of the impracticability of using an N of

4 in the analysis of data, this investigator used the N's

of 67 and 62 and cautions the reader that the lack of

random assignment may be a confounding factor to consider

in the interpretation of the results.

Two groups of students previously designated by school

officials as "slow-learners", were not involved in this

experiment. However, because the possibility of differences

in mean achievement still existed among the various groups

of students, a method was necessary to statistically equate the various groups for purposes of this study. To accom­ plish this, it was first necessary to make an examination

of selected permanent record scores for each student in­ volved. Test scores obtained for seventh grade students represented their recent performance on the Reading Com­ prehension Subtest of the California Comprehensive Test of

Basic Skills. The scores obtained for eighth grade students represented their recent performance on the language subtest of the California Test of Mental Maturity (Short Form).

Four factors measured by this subtest were logical reason­ ing, numerical reasoning, verbal comprehension, and memory.

The selection of these particular scores for the 86 purpose of equating students in this study was based on recommendations from testing personnel in the Columbus school system. Both tests were developed by the California

Test Bureau. Individual scores are shown in Appendix F and the mean raw score and standard deviation for each group is shown in Chapter Four, Tables 4 and 5.

Students, for whom these scores were not available, took part in the experiment but were not included in the data analysis. Also, several students were present during only a portion of the experiment and were therefore excluded.

CONDUCTING THE EXPERIMENT

Care was taken to keep all conditions during the exper­ iment as constant and as normal as possible. Interferences from outside the classroom were partially controlled by keeping classroom doors closed and by restricting the en­ trance of other students. All presentations, demonstrations, laboratory activities, and test administrations were con­ ducted by this investigator. Each procedure was pre­ planned with answers to anticipated questions prepared in advance. No interruptions were observed which might have have affected the results of this study.

Groups receiving only the criterion measure were told that their assistance was needed in determining how much

knowledge junior high school students already possessed

concerning primary metal processing. It was indicated

that this information would be necessary in developing

content for future metalworking courses in industrial arts.

Directions for taking the test were given and the test was

administered under close supervision.

The presentation, treatments, and criterion measure

were administered to the remaining groups of students as

part of their regular classroom subject matter. Students in

Group P were introduced to the type and importance of the

information in the presentation; were given the presentation

and were administered the criterion measure. The taped

presentation was interrupted at two pre-determined times to

allow the investigator to ask a question concerning infor­

mation which had just been presented. The two questions

asked were the same for all groups involved. A student was

then randomly selected to answer the question. The purpose

of this procedure was to stimulate interest and to keep

students alert. The time schedule for the administration of the entire experiment to Group P was as follows: 88

Time (Minutes) 1 - Introduction to the Presentation, 5 - Students reading assignment (2 pages), 15 - Recorded Presentation, 20-25 - Criterion Measure Administered, 21-46 minutes total

Students in Group PA were oriented to the experiment through the introduction and then were administered Moti­ vational Treatment A. Treatment A, given prior to the presentation, involved the following procedures to estab­ lish and "pre-set" interest and motivation in the students to want to participate in the psychomotor laboratory activity,

1. Each student received metal cut to the correct

dimensions. Seventh graders received one piece

of hot-rolled bandiron having the dimensions

1/8" X 1/2" X 1'. Each eighth grader received

two pieces of 24 gauge sheetmetal with the

dimensions 1" X 2".

2. Each student received a drawing of the shape of

the finished metal project. (See Appendix C).

3. Each student observed a demonstration showing

how the metal was to be fastened or shaped.

4. Each student was told what the finished project

might represent and why it might be necessary to

construct. 89

5. General questions were asked to individuals in

the class to stimulate interest, (e.g. Do you

think you can make a twist in this piece of metal

to match the shape of the metal shown on the

pattern sheet?)

6. Seventh grade students were told they would

participate in the activity of bending the piece

of bandiron to the proper shape immediately

after hearing the presentation and after answer-

. ing some questions about what they had learned

from the presentation. Eighth graders were told

they would be soldering two pieces of sheetmetal

together after the presentation and criterion

measure.

7. Students were aware that they must complete the

activity in a given time and that the better

projects would be recognized by this investigator.

All students were told that the results of the test and the psychomotor activity would not affect their regular class grade because they had not had adequate time to practice the laboratory activity or to study for the test.

The purpose of this was to eliminate any motivational aspects often associated with grades. 90

Students in Group PAC received the same introduction

and treatment as Group PA with the exception that the

factor of competition was introduced into the activity.

During the motivational treatment, students in this group were paired according to previous grades in industrial arts

classes and also placed on either Team I or Team II. It was explained that each student would be timed in his

efforts to construct or shape the object more accurately

(according to the pattern sheet) than the student paired with him. This investigator would then judge the finished

objects as soon as the students had completed and award one

point to the team represented by the winning student. A

demonstration was given by this investigator to indicate

the proper techniques in shaping and constructing the ob­

ject. Score keepers, timers, and starters were sleeted

from the group. The observable behavior of these students

indicated a higher level of interest and motivation during

the treatment and the activity than was indicated by

students in Group PA.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Although the assumption was made that the students

in Groups PA and PAC would be motivated by the anticipation 91

of their participation in an activity and in competition, this investigator felt the necessity to provide some indi­ cation that these students were more highly motivated than the students in the other groups. From the review of liter­ ature, it was concluded that no instrument was available which could quickly and easily determine a students level of motivation. It was therefore necessary for this investi­ gator to devise some means of determining levels of student motivation.

To accomplish this, a questionnaire was developed and administered to each of the groups that received the pres­ entation (See Appendix E). Guidelines for the development of this questionnaire were obtained from Ebel (1965, p. 459) and Nunnally (1959, p. 321). The purpose of the question­ naire was to determine if there was some variation in inter­ est levels and in desires to participate in similar activi­ ties among the various groups of students involved in the experiment. It was assumed that those students who indi­ cated they had enjoyed the activities and would be inter­ ested in participating again, would be more highly motivated than those students who indicated they had not enjoyed the activities and did not want to participate again. 92

Immediately after each group had completed the last

phase of the experiment, the questionnaire was completed

by each student. They were ashed to carefully decide how

they felt about each question and then to mark the appro­

priate place which would indicate their feelings. They were told not to place their names on the questionnaires.

A discussion of the results of the questionnaire is pro­ vided in Chapter Four.

VARIABLES INVOLVED IN THE EXPERIMENT

Independent Variables. The independent variables

(manipulated variables) were the two methods of motivating the students. The independent variable for Group PA was

Treatment A - the method of motivating students to antici­ pate participating in an activity. The independent vari­ able for Group PAC was Treatment AC - the method of moti­ vating students to anticipate being in competition while participating in a psychomotor activity. The activity itself was not a variable because it took place after the criterion measure had been administered, and therefore, could not influence the outcome of the student scores.

Controlled Variables. To increase the internal validity of this experiment, attention was given to control 93

certain variables. First, the procedures and time limita­

tions for the administration of the presentation and the

criterion measure were made as similar as possible for

each group involved. Although the introductions to the

experiment were somewhat different due to the different

tasks involved, care was taken to avoid introducing factors which might affect the results. Attention was given to

the control of the students' behavior by keeping student

talking and disruptions to a minimum. Attention was also

given to the importance of the sequence of treatments and

to the attributes of the sample, both of which have already been discussed in this chapter.

Dependent Variable. The dependent variable was the

students' performance on the criterion measure test.

Confounding or Extraneous Variables. This investigator was aware of several extraneous variables which may have had some affect upon the results of this study. First, all

groups did not participate in the experiment during the

same time of the week or even during the same time of the day. Some groups received the treatment in the morning during the early part of the week, while other groups re­ ceived the treatment in the afternoon during the latter part of the week. At the junior high school level. 94 different times of the week often have an observable affect upon student motivation. However, this factor would have been difficult or impossible to control without introducing other extraneous variables into the study.

The attitude of certain students in the class may have some affect on the classroom atmosphere, which could affect the interest and motivational level of the entire class.

For example, if several serious-minded students seemed interested in the class activities by asking relevant ques­ tions and taking notes, the motivational level of many of the other students in the class may be increased. However, if several students indicate their lack of interest by engaging in disruptive behavior, the level of interest and motivation for other students in the class may be diminished.

It would be difficult to control student attitudes in such a situation. However, observations of student attitudes may be made for later consideration as possible confounding variables when interpretating the results of the study.

Another possible confounding variable relates to the type of measurement made by the criterion measure. The scores obtained in this experiment may not have represented interval (equal units) measurements which are required when using the analysis of variance test of significance. Al­ though each correct answer made by the student increased his raw score by one unit, there was no assurance that students with equal raw scores would have an equal amount of knowledge pertaining to the material in the presentation.

Although a careful analysis of the items in the criterion measure was made, the differences among the item difficulty indexes and the differences among the item discrimination indexes suggest that all items are not comparable units and therefore, might have some influence on the results of this experiment.

SUMMARY

Chapter Three provides a rationale for and description of the procedures used to develop and administer the instru­ ments used in this experiment. The purpose of this experi­ ment was to determine if students who were interested in and motivated to participate in a psychomotor activity, would achieve a higher degree of cognitive learning during this period of motivation than students who did not antici­ pate any activity. To determine this, several tasks were completed. The experiment was designed to involve four groups of students at both the seventh and eighth grade levels. Two of these groups were motivated by having the students anticipate taking part in a psychomotor activity.

One of these groups was anticipating being in competition. Instruments which were developed for the experiment

included a fifteen minute audio taped presentation con­

cerning metal processing; a two page student reading assign­

ment containing information similar to that in the pres­

entation; a thirty-five item multiple choice criterion

measure; and a brief questionnaire designed to indicate

levels of student motivation. Chapter Three also provided a description of the variables involved in this experiment. CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

In Chapter Three, a criterion measure was described which was administered to a sample of students for the purpose of providing evidence to support the hypotheses

stated on page 14. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the statistical treatments performed on the data obtained from the experiment and to provide a discussion of the results in reference to the hypotheses.

Data obtained from the administration of the student questionnaire is also presented and discussed.

TREATMENT AND RESULTS OF ACHIEVEMENT DATA

It was stated in Chapter Three that four classes of seventh grade students and four classes of eighth grade students were selected to participate in this experiment.

Each class represented one of four groups - CM, P, PA, or

PAC. Chapter Three also provided a description of selected permanent recrod scores regarding student reading and recall ability which were obtained to determine if an initial difference existed among the means of these scores for each

97 TABLE 4.

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE CRITERION MEASURE AND PERMANENT RECORD SCORES FOR 7TH GRADE GROUPS

GROUPS OBSERVATIONS VARIATE COVARIATE (Criterion Measure) (Permanent Record)

Raw Scores Raw Scores CM 16 MEAN 14.063 30.938 SD 3.276 6.104

P 14 MEAN 16.143 27.786 SD 4.737 5.713

PA 20 MEAN 20.100 34.700 SD 5.077 5.777

PAC 17 MEAN 21.118 34.588 SD 5.999 8.132

Complete Factorial With No Missing Cells

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State university. TABLE 5

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE CRITERION MEASURE AND PERMANENT RECORD SCORES FOR 8TH GRADE GROUPS

GROUPS OBSERVATIONS VARIATE COVARIATE (Criterion Measure) (Permanent Record)

Raw Scores Raw Scores CM 17 MEAN 13.000 42.882 SD 2.550 8.866

P 18 MEAN 21.167 42.889 SD 6.290 7.970

PA 14 MEAN 20.500 44.500 SD 4.053 5.893

PAC 13 MEAN 18.615 39.692 SD 5.059 7.227

Complete Factorial with no Cells Missing

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State University. 100 group. Individual permanent record scores are shown in

Appendix F. The mean score and the standard deviation of the permanent record raw scores for each group is shown in

Tables 4 and 5. Also shown in these tables are the means and standard deviations of the criterion measure raw scores

for each group.

The permanent record scores represented a reading comprehension score for the seventh grade and a comprehen­ sive score of several academic factors for the eighth grade.

These scores, although subject to question as to their appropriatness, were accepted by this investigator as being the most accurate measure available of the students present reading and recall abilities. For future reference, the permanent record raw scores (the uncontrolled variable) will be termed the covariate and the criterion measure raw scores will be termed the variate.

Since students had not been randomly assigned to each group and since observation of the means of the permanent record scores for each group indicated some differences, it was necessary to determine if these differences were significant.

The analysis of variance and the F-test were used to determine if a significant difference existed among these groups at the .05 level of confidence. The analysis of TABLE 6

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF COVARIATE SCORES FOR 7TH GRADE GROUPS

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F P Less than Variation Squares Freedom Square Ratio

WITHIN CELLS 2675.61 63 42.47 e

BETWEEN CELLS 519.17 3 173.96 4.075 0.01

Value of F needed for significance at .05 level of confidence = 2.75

Value of F needed for significance at .01 level of confidence = 4.10 (Downie and Heath, 1965, p. 304)

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State University. 101 TABLE 7

ANALYSIS OP VARIANCE OP COVARIATE SCORES FOR 8TH GRADE GROUPS

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F P Less than variance Squares Freedom Square Ratio

WITHIN CELLS 3415.81 58 58.893

BETWEEN CELLS 163.28 3 54.43 0.924 0.435

Value of F needed for significance at .05 level of confidence = 2.75

Value of F needed for significance at .01 level of confidence = 4.10 (Downie and Heath, 1965, p. 304)

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State University. 102 103

variance is an efficient method of determining if a signi­

ficant difference exists among groups, but does not indicate

where the differences exists. However, for this study, it

was necessary only to determine if a difference did exist.

The null hypothesis regarding the covariate raw scores

stated that no significant differences existed among the

means of the four groups at either grade' level.

The results of the analysis of variance for the seventh

grade is shown in Table 6 and for the eighth grade in Table

7. The mean squares are obtained by dividing the sum of

squares by the corresponding degrees of freedom. The F-ratio

is obtained by dividing the mean square for between treat­

ments by the mean square for within treatments. If the com­

puted F-ratio is larger than the appropriate F value obtain­

ed from F value tables (usually located in the appendix of

statistical reference books), then the null hypothesis is

rejected.

The analysis of variance of the covariate scores for the seventh grade groups indicated that there was a signi­

ficant difference among the groups at the .05 level of con­

fidence and very close to a significant difference at the .01 level. The analysis of the eighth grade covariate scores indicated that there was no significant difference among the groups at either the .05 or .01 levels of confidence. TABLE 8.

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF VARIATE SCORES FOR 7TH GRADE GROUPS

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F P Less than Variation Squares Freedom Square Ratio

WITHIN CELLS 1518.21 63 24.10

BETWEEN CELLS 549.25 3 183.09 7.60 0.001

Value of F needed for significance at .05 level of confidence =2.75

Value of F needed for singificance at .01 level of confidence = 4.10

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State university. TABLE 9.

ANALYSIS OP COVARIANCE OF VARIATE SCORES FOR 7TH GRADE GROUPS

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F P Less than Variation Squares Freedom Square Ratio

WITHIN CELLS 1116.37 62 18.01

REGRESSION 401.85 1 401.85 22.32 0 . 0 0 1

BETWEEN CELLS 282.03 3 94.01 5.22 0.003

ESTIMATES ADJUSTED FOR 1 COVARIATE RAW REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS

COVARIATE WITHIN CELLS

2 0 .388 Value of F needed for significance at .05 level of confidence =* 2.76

Value of F needed for significance at . 0 1 level of confidence =* 4.13 (Downie and Heath, 1965, p. 304)

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, Tha Ohio State University. 105

\ TABLE 10.

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF VARIATE SCORES FOR 8TH GRADE GROUPS

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F P Less than Variation Squares Freedom Square Ratio

WITHIN CELLS 1297.08 58 22.36

BETWEEN CELLS 694.29 3 231.43 10.35 0 . 0 0 1

Value of F needed for significance at .05 level of confidence = 2.76

Value of F needed for significance at .0 1 level of confidence = 4.1-3

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State University. 106 TABLE 11.

ANALYSIS OP COVARIANCE OF VARIATE SCORES FOR 8TH GRADE GROUPS

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F P Less than Variation Squares Freedom Square Ratio

WITHIN CELLS 817.20 57 14.34

REGRESSION 479.87 1 479.87 33.471 0.001

BETWEEN CELLS 690.08 3 230.03 16.04 0.001

ESTIMATES ADJUSTED FOR 1 COVARIATE RAW REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS

COVARIATE WITHIN CELLS

2 0.375

Value of F needed for significance at .05 level of confidence = 2.75

Value of F needed for significance at .0 1 level of confidence = 4.10 (Dovmie and Heath, 1965, p. 304)

Note: Data obtained through use of computer program in Mathematics Laboratory, The Ohio State University. 107 108 As a result of the analysis of variance of the covariate

scores, it was determined that the criterion measure scores

of the seventh grade should be analysed using the analysis

of covariance test of significance and the eighth grade

scores should be analyzed by use of the analysis of

variance test of significance. However, since the

possibility did exist that the covariate did not signi­

ficantly affect the seventh grade variate and/or did

affect the eighth grade variate, an analysis of variance

and an analysis of covariance was computed on the variate means and reported for both grade levels. The results of

these analyses are shown in Tables 8 , 9, 10, and 11.

The analysis of covariance was selected for use because

it would test the significance of differences among means which may have been influenced by one or more uncontrolled variables. In this study, differences in reading or recall ability were found to exist among the seventh grade groups, and therefore, it was necessary to make adjustments on the analysis of the variate scores to compensate for these differences.

The analysis of covariance adjusts the means for the effect of the uncontrolled variable and makes the necessary modifications in sampling error. The corrected sampling 109

error is used to test for the significance of differences

among the adjusted means (Downie and Heath, 1965, p. 186).

The adjustments made by the use of analysis of covariance

usually involves a form of regression analysis to indicate

the average affect of an increase in the covariate upon

the variate. The reader is reminded of the reasons dis­

cussed in Chapter Three, page 84, for using an "N" of 67

and 62 rather than an N of 4. An indepth explanation of the

use of the single-factor analysis of covariance is provided

in Chapter Eleven of Winer's textbook (1962, p. 380).

Since the analysis of variance of the covariate means

did not indicate a significant difference among eighth

grade groups, it was not necessary to use the analysis of

covariance to test the significance of the means of the

variate scores. However, when the data tested by the analysis of variance was compared with the same data tested by the analysis of covariance, the results were similar.

Both results indicated that there was a significant differ­

ence among the means of the variate scores. The computations necessary for these analyses were made by a computer pro­ gram written by personnel of the Mathematics Laboratory at the Ohio State University. 110

Studentized Range Comparison of Means. Although the analysis of covariance may indicate a significant difference among adjusted means, it does not indicate between which means this difference exists. Since this analysis did indicate a significant difference at the .01 level, further computations were necessary to determine where the differ­ ence existed. The method used in this study to locate this difference was the Studentized Range Statistic which is applicable to data tested for significance by both the analysis of variance and the analysis of covariance. This statistic is shown in the following standard form:

q = (T largest - T smallest)

MS error"

This statistic is the difference between the largest and smallest treatment means (the range of the treatment means) divided by the square root of the quantity mean- square experimental error over n. To compare K means (K =

4,3, or 2 for this study), the studentized range statistic is modified to the following form:

qfc v =~Vn* ( ^ m a x -^u*min) “V MS where n* is the smaller of n max and n min and v represents Ill the degrees of freedom for MS. To determine if a signi­

ficant difference exists between various groups, the

adjusted mean must be computed for each group in the

following manner:

u'i = Y -£x where is an estimate of the population linear- regression

coefficient found "WITHIN CELLS" in Tables 9 and 11. The

adjusted mean for each group is shown in Table 12.

TABLE 12.

ADJUSTED MEANS OF VARIATE SCORES

7TH GRADE 8TH GRADE

j? = .388 ~ WITHIN CELLS - ? = .375

Ml = 2.059 u^ =-3.020

U 2 = 5.364 U 2 = 5.084

U 3 = 6.636 U 3 = 3.813

u4 = 7.698 u4 = 3.731

Using the modified studentized range statistic and the adjusted means, the groups were compared to determine where significant differences existed. The results of these computations are shown in Table 13 and Table 14. 112 TABLE 13.

COMPARISON OF ADJUSTED MEANS OF 7TH GRADE GROUPS USING STUDENTIZED RANGE STATISTIC

Comparison of Groups CM, P, q4 ^ = "Vl6 (U4 - ui) _ „ PA, and PAC ' — ^MS At .01 level of significance, q = 4.60 with 4 groups and 63 degrees of freedom. Results is significant at the . 0 1 level. Comparison of GroupsPAC P, PA, <1 3'63 = ~Vl4 w(u4 - ujg) = 1.17 At .05 level of significance, q = 3.40 with 3 groups and 63 degrees of freedom. Results is not significant at the .05 level.

Comparison of Groups P and 32,63 = ^ 4 " ^2* = 2 26

P A C '

At .05 level of significance, q = 2.83 with 2 groups and 63 degrees of freedom. Results is not significant at the .05 level.

Comparison of __ Groups P, and Cm 3 2 , 6 3 “ ”^1 4 6*2 “ = 2.95 w

At .05 level of significance, q = 2.83 with 2 groups and 63 degrees of freedom. Results is significant at .05 level.

Comparison of Groups PA and g2,63 = ^ 4 ” **3 ^ PAC ' ~ 1.03 ~Vm s ~ At .05 level of significance, q = 2.83 with 2 groups and 63 degrees of freedom. Results is not significant at the .05 level. 113

TABLE 14.

COMPARISON OP ADJUSTED MEANS OP 8 TH GRADE GROUP ______USING STUDENTIZED RANGE STATISTIC______Comparison of Groups CM, P, q4 58 =1/13 (CL - = 7.71 PA, and PAC ' ------1/msT At .01 level of significance, q = 4.60 with 4 groups and 58 degrees of freedom. Results is significant at the . 0 1 level.

Comparison of Groups CM and P q2 gg = ~VlT (u2 - vi^) = 8.89 __ At .01 level of significance, q = 3.76 with 2 groups and 57 degrees of freedom. Results is significant at the . 0 1 level.

Comparison of Groups P, PA, <23 * 5 8 = ""^13 (iL - 'u',) = 1.28 and PAC — VMS At .05 level of significance, q = 3.40 with 3 groups and 58 degrees of freedom. Results is not significant at .05 level.

Comparison of Groups P jand PAC q^ 5Q = l/l3 (u^ - u“4) = 1.28

1/MS At .05 level of significance, q = 2.83 with 2 groups and 58 degrees of freedom. Results is not significant at the .05 level.

The studentized range statistic was also applied to the eighth grade variate means tested by the analysis of variance. The results of the comparison of groups, in terms of significant differences, was identical to the results shown in table 14. 114

From observation of adjusted mean scores, differences between other combinations of groups P, PA, and PAC are obviously non-significant. For a more detailed explanation of the statistics used in the analysis of this experiment, see Winer's textbook (1962, p. 77 and p. 580).

CONCLUSIONS RELATING TO HYPOTHESES

As a result of the analysis of data, the following conclusions are drawn relating to the null form of each of the hypotheses stated in Chapter One.

Null Hypothesis One. There is no significant differ­ ence of accumulated knowledge, as measured by a criterion measure, between junior high school students who listen to a classroom presentation concerning the processing of metal and students who have not received the presentation. (Hq : CM=P).

The results of this experiment did indicate a statis­ tical difference between these two groups at the . 01 level of confidence for both 7th and 8 th grade students. There­ fore, the null hypothesis must be rejected and the alternate hypothesis (His P) CM) accepted.

Null Hypothesis Two. There is no significant differ­ ence in cognitive achievement as measured by a criterion measure between students who are motivated by the antici­ pation of participating in a psychomotor activity and 115 students who do not expect to participate. (Hq : P = PA)

The results of this experiment did not indicate a statistical difference between these groups at the .05 level of confidence for either the 7th or 8 th grade groups.

Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted for both grade levels.

Null Hypothesis Three. There is no significant differ­ ence in cognitive achievement as measured by a criterion measure between students who are motivated by the antici­ pation of psychomotor activity and have received a metal processing presentation and students who are not antici­ pating any activity and have not received the presentation.

(H0 : CM = PA)

The results of this experiment did indicate a statis­ tical difference between these groups at the .01 level of confidence for both the 7th and 8th grade students. There­ fore, the null hypothesis must be rejected and the alternate hypothesis (Hi: PA^ CM) accepted.

Null Hypothesis Four. There is no significant differ­ ence in cognitive achievement as measured by a criterion measure between students who are motivated by the antici­ pation of participating competitively in psychomotor activ­ ity and students who expect to participate in noncompeti­ tive psychomotor activity. (H0 : PA = PAC) 116

The results of this experiment did not indicate a

statistical difference at the .05 level of confidence between these groups for either the 7th or 8 th grade.

Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted for both grade

levels.

Null Hypothesis Five. There is no significant differ­

ence in cognitive achievement as measured by a criterion measure between students who are motivated by the antici­ pation of participating competitively in psychomotor activ­ ity and students who do not expect to participate in an activity. (Ho: P = PAC)

The results of this experiment did not indicate a statistical difference between these groups at the .05 level of confidence for either 7th or 8 th grade groups. There­

fore, the null hypothesis is accepted for both grade levels.

Null Hypothesis Six. There is no significant differ­ ence in cognitive achievement as measured by a criterion measure between students who are motivated by the antici­ pation of participating competitively in psychomotor activ­ ity and have received a metal processing presentation and students who are not anticipating any activity and have not received the presentation. (H0 : CM = PAC).

The results of this experiment did indicate a statis­ tical difference between these groups at the .01 level 117 for both the 7th and 8 th grade groups. Therefore, the null hypothesis must be rejected and the alternate hypo*- thesis (H^: PAC CM) accepted.

RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA

The development and administration of the questionnaire was discussed in Chapter Three. This questionnaire was used to determine a level of interest of the various groups involved in the experiment. The assumption was made that a high level of interest would represent a high level of motivation. Students were asked to place a mark along a continuum indicating their interest in the activities in which they were previously involved. The means for each group was computed and the results are shown in Table 15.

TABLE 15.

MEAN SCORES PROM QUESTIONNAIRE REPRESENTING STUDENT INTEREST

1. Question: Did you find the metal processing presentation interesting?

Results of Scale 0-5 (0 representing a "NO" answer) Group 7th Grade Covariate 8 th Grade Covariate Mean Mean P 3.58 27.79 2.72 42.88 PA 3.55 34.70 3.34 44.50 PAC 3.10 34.59 2.92 39.69 118

2. Question: If the test was not included, would you like to hear another presentation about a different area of metalworking? Results of Scale 0-5 (0 representing a "NO" answer)

Group 7th Grade Covariate 8 th Grade Covariate Mean Mean P 1.58 27.79 1.50 42.88 PA 3.50 34.70 3.12 44.50 PAC 3.00 34.59 2.14 39.69

Question : If the test was not included, would you like to hear another presentation and take part in another classroom metalworking activity? Results of Scale 0-*5 (0 representing a "NO" answer)

Group 7th Grade Covariate 8 th Grade Covariate Mean Mean PA 2.85 34.70 3.08 44.50 PAC 3.40 34.59 2.64 39.69

Covariate mean raw scores are also provided in Table 15 to allow the reader to compare differences among the covar­ iate means with differences among the interest level means.

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

Analysis of the Variate Scores. The analysis of variance and covariance tests of significance and the studentized range statistic indicated that there is a significant increase in cognitive learning when both 7th and 8 th grade students were given an oral presentation concerning primary metal processing. This difference was 119 expected by the investigator since the presentation was developed for the purpose of providing students with an opportunity to learn this specific body of knowledge. If the difference between groups CMand P had not been signi­ ficant, this investigator would have concluded that the presentation had little affect on the student's cognitive learning and therefore, a comparison could not have been made on the various groups as measured by the criterion measure.

Although this experiment failed to provide evidence which would indicate that the motivational treatments in­ volved have a significant affect on cognitive learning, a noticeable affect was observed on both of the grade levels involved. The observed results at the 7th grade level indicated a slight increase in cognitive achieve­ ment for the group anticipating the activity and a greater increase for the group anticipating competitive activity.

These results were hypothesized by the investigator. How­ ever, these increases in cognitive achievement were not great enough to be significant at the .05 level of confidence.

The results of applying the studentized range 120

statistic to the eighth grade variate means indicated a

decrease in cognitive learning for groups PA and PAC when

compared to Group P. This was an opposite results from

the slight increase in learning for the similar groups

at the seventh grade level and was unexpected by this

investigator. It seems improbable that the same methods

of motivation would produce an increase in cognitive

learning at the seventh grade level and a decrease in

cognitive learning at the eighth grade level.

A number of possible explanations exist for the some­

what erratic results of this experiment. These results

may be due to the sample selection or to uncontrolled

variables relating to various aspects of motivation and

learning which were not anticipated and/or observed. For

example, even though the criterion measure scores were

adjusted for academic ability, they were not adjusted for

a general level of motivation regarding learning activities.

The motivational treatements administered in this experi­

ment may have affected high-achieving and low-achieving

students in a different manner. If low-achieving students were not originally motivated to a similar degree, then the

adjustments made to account for academic ability differences 121

may not have equated the groups. No attempt was made to

accurately determine levels of motivation because of the

lack of an efficient and convenient measuring instrument.

Having a greater number of students in each group

and assigning students randomly to each group would most

likely have influenced the results of this study. With a

small sample, individual students can affect the classroom atmosphere, which could affect the results of the study.

Also, individual scores have a greater influence on the group mean if the sample is small.

Discussion of the Questionnaire Results. The results of the questionnaire did not provide the expected indi­

cation that students in the groups receiving the psycho­ motor activities would be more interested in the presenta­ tion and in repeating similar psychomotor tasks than students in the other groups. From observation of the means of each group, the level of interest seemed to be more highly correlated with the academic ability of stu­ dents in the group than with the treatments and a ctivities involved. Those groups which tended to have a high mean

for academic ability, as indicated by their permanent record scores, seemed to be more interested in the class activities regardless of the motivational treatments. It 122

also appears that "Competition" did not increase student

interest or motivation (See Table 15).

The assumption that a high level of interest indi­

cates a high level of motivation may be incorrect. It was

found that a few students indicated on the questionnaire

that they were very interested in the presentation and psychomotor activities, but did not want to participate

in any similar activities. However, these responses could be a result of a lach of sincerity in completing the questionnaire or as a result of a low motivational drive towards participating in any school activities.

A further discussion concerning the results of this experiment is provided in the following chapter as they relate to the conclusions and recommendations. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter provides the reader with a summary of the design of the study, the development and administra­ tion of the instruments used in the experiment, and the analysis of data. Conclusions and limitations are.dis­ cussed for the purpose of interpreting the results of the experiment. Recommendations are made which will hope­ fully benefit future investigators conducting research on similar apsects of motivation.

SUMMARY OF THE STUDY

Motivation, with all of its ramifications, is a complex condition for learning which educators still do not clearly understand. Student motivation is considered to be an important part of the learning process and most teachers strive to motivate their students by praising or punishing, by giving rewards such as grades, by involving students in activity and/or competition, or by a number of other methods of motivation.

123 124

Certain subject areas in the school curriculum tend

to create more student interest than others. For a number

of years, industrial arts courses have been popular with

students, partly because of the opportunity to participate

in psychomotor activities. Some students who have been

highly motivated in the industrial arts laboratory, have

been bored or unmotivated in their academically oriented

classrooms of mathematics, English, or history. It is

assumed from an analysis of the literature, that certain

psychomotor activities used in a junior high school class will tend to motivate the students involved. However, it

is not known if these students are motivated to participate

in only the psychomotor activities they are interested in, or if this student motivation could also be directed by the teacher to participate in cognitive tasks as well.

During the past decade, a number of industrial arts curriculum development projects have been concentrating on improving the industrial arts curriculum at the junior high school level. Drastic curriculum changes are expected to take place. One change which is expected is the amount of classroom time spent in psychomotor activities by the student. In many present industrial arts programs, students 125 spend the majority of the class period participating in the construction of projects, an activity which apparently has helped to keep the interest level of most students high.

Many of the new curriculums place an emphasis on activities such as classroom discussions, reading assignments, teacher presentations, and solving problems related to the manage­ ment of industry. It is questionable as to whether the students' interest will remain as high for the new indus­ trial arts curriculum activities as has been the case for the present programs. It is also questioned as to whether motivational drives developed by students to participate in a psychomotor activity could be used by the teacher to improve the attitude and interest of the students towards participating in non-psychomotor activities in the classroom.

The purpose of this study was to determine if students in industrial arts, who anticipated a psychomotor activity, would achieve a higher degree of learning related concepts than students who did not anticipate any activity.

Review of Literature. The review of literature was made for the purpose of becoming acquainted with previous research studies concerning motivation and learning, theories of motivation and learning, and curriculum trends in indus­ trial arts, which would assist this investigator in concept­ ualizing and designing this experiment. 126

No research studies were found which attempted to

provide evidence of the validity of hypotheses similar to

those in this study. Although many studies of motivation

are directed towards one particular grade level and subject

area, they may provide implications for other related

research in education.

The literature also indicated that much of the experi­

mental research in education is difficult to design and

control because of the changing attitudes and behavior of

the individuals involved. Manipulation of students for

research purposes often introduces confounding variables.

For these reasons, it has been difficult for concepts in

education to be varified.

Publications from several industrial arts curriculum

projects were useful in helping this investigator develop

instructional materials and instruments for this experiment which would be similar to those used in the new industrial arts curriculums.

Methodology of the Investigation. Chapter Three des­

cribed the design of the experiment, the selection of the

sample, the development of materials and instruments used in the experiment, and the procedures used in the adminis­ tration of treatments and instruments to the various groups. 127

The experimental design involved four groups of 7th grade students and four groups of 8th grade students. One industrial arts class was selected to represent each group.

The entire experiment was conducted by this investigator in the metalworking laboratory at Dominion Junior High School,

Columbus, Ohio. The groups for each grade level were designated CM, P, PA, and PAC.

Group CM received only a criterion measure developed for the purpose of measuring the knowledge or cognitive learning of students regarding the concepts presented in a fifteen minute oral presentation concerning primary metal processing. The presentation also included a two page reading assignment concerning some of the concepts in the oral presentation. Group P received the oral presentation and was immediately administered the criterion measure to determine the cognitive learning that had taken place.

Groups PA and PAC were given motivational treatments prior to receiving the presentation for the purpose of increasing their interest to participate in the psychomotor activity.

It was hypothesized that students who anticipated partici­ pating in a psychomotor activity would have a higher level of interest and motivation which would result in an increase in learning concepts in the presentation. Students in 128 these groups were also administered the criterion measure

immediately after receiving the presentation and prior to completing the anticipated laboratory activity.

The presentation consisted of a twelve minute lecture and a two page reading assignment. The lecture and reading assignment concerned the discovery and processing of metal used in industry and were developed from a daily reading assignment located in the IACP's manufacturing textbook.

The reading assignment consisted of selected concepts from the presentation.

The motivational treatments consisted of an introduc­ tion to the psychomotor activities, a demonstration by the investigator, the selection of students to act as timers and starters, and providing each student with a project pattern sheet and a piece of metal.

The criterion measure consisted of thirty-five multiple choice questions concerning major concepts in the presenta­ tion. This instrument was accepted as being valid and reliable after it had been reviewed by several experienced industrial arts educators, and revisions made based upon an item analysis of the pilot test.

A questionnaire, consisting of three questions, was 129

administered to each group after the students had conclud­

ed the experimental activities. The purpose of this

questionnaire was to provide some indication of the levels

of interest and motivation regarding the experimental activities for the students in each group.

Analysis of the data and results. The purpose of this investigation was to provide evidence that the selected treatments would motivate students to obtain a higher level of cognitive learning during the presentation. Hypotheses were stated which proposed that students in the groups receiving the motivational treatments would show a signifi­ cantly higher level of cognitive achievement as measured by the criterion measure. The null hypotheses were re­ jected if a statistically significant difference was found at the .05 level of confidence.

Since the students were not randomly selected for each group (intact classes were used), permanent record scores relating to the present reading and recall ability of each student, were obtained for the purpose of equating the groups statistically. An analysis of variance was performed on the covariate scores and a significant difference among the groups was found to exist for the seventh grade, but 130

not for the eighth grade. An analysis of variance and an

analysis of covariance with one covariate was computed for

the variate scores of the four groups and a significant

difference among variate means was found to exist at both

grade levels. A Studentized Range Statistic was used to

determine where this difference existed. It was found

that the significant difference existed between Group CM

and each of the other three groups. The groups receiving

the presentation did significantly better on the criterion measure than the groups that did not receive the presenta­ tion. However, no statistically significant difference in ' achievement performance was found between any combination of the other groups.

The results of the questionnaire indicated that the

interest level of the students tended to correlate more highly with the academic ability of the students rather than with the type of activity anticipated in the laboratory.

CONCLUSIONS

Based upon the results of the analysis of the data obtained in the investigation, the following conclusions are made:

1. Students receiving an audio-taped presentation 131

concerning primary metal processing will perform

significantly better on a criterion measure of

threse metal processing concepts, than students

who have not received the presentation. It is

conceivable that students with similar character­

istics receiving other concepts of industry through

such a presentation would also perform signifi­

cantly better.

2. The two methods of motivation used in this

experiment are not effective in increasing the

students interest to significantly increase his

cognitive learning of concepts in the presentation.

However, it may be incorrect to assume that

student motivation to participate in a psychomotor

activity will not under some conditions, increase

the cognitive learning of students concerning

related concepts. This investigator feels that

the results of this study may have been influenced

by the limitations of the study and the confounding

variable involved.

LIMITATIONS

The conclusions of this investigation are limited 132

in that they can be generalized only to students in

schools comparative to that of Dominion Junior High School;

to students displaying characteristics similar to those

in the sample; and under learning conditions comparable

to those described in this study.

Only two methods of motivation were used in this

experiment and the experiment was performed in only one

subject area of industrial arts. The results can actually

be generalized only to the use of these two methods of

motivation in the area of metalworking.

Only one psychomotor activity was involved for each

grade level. Perhaps different activities would have brought about different results.

This study was limited by sample size and methods of

sample selection. However, these limitations are often

inherent in educational studies.

Other possible limiting factors of this study are that the conclusions are based on the results of only one experiment; that the time of student involvement in the cognitive learning process was relatively short; and that only one aspect of learning (recall of concepts) was measured. Students were not given time to study the 133

concepts involved in the presentation and this may have affected the performance of slow-learning students.

Conclusions cannot be made concerning the levels of interest or motivation of the various groups because of the lack of accurate measuring devices.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations are presented in this section which related to the improvement of the design of this study and which may assist investigators in analyzing further the type of problems dealt with in this investigation.

Replication of this study using the same type of materials and procedures with a similar sample of students would not be justified because of the limitations and uncontrolled variables which would be involved. However, further research is recommended concerning the hypotheses of this study and the nature of motivation and its affect on learning. Specific recommendations are as follows:

1. Additional research should be performed on the

problem described in this study using larger

groups of students representing a number of

different schools; using a variety of psychomotor

activities and related presentations of concepts; and providing more opportunity for students to

concentrate on the concepts in the presentation.

Several presentations and appropriate criterion

measures should be administered to th© classes

prior to the actual experiment. This would

allow students to become familiar with the

presentation and reading assignment as a method

of instruction and would also provide a more

accurate means of equating the groups of students

based on their cognitive learning abilities.

Visual aids incorporated in the presentation

should be beneficial to the students. Consider­

ation should also be given to the retention of

concepts by testing students immediately after

the presentation and also after a given length

of time (possibly three or six weeks).

Continuing efforts must also be made to determine

methods of recognizing and measuring levels of

interest and motivation. Without reliable methods

available, teachers and educators are at a loss

in determining if students are really motivated and ready to learn. Since the results of this type of research is

vital to curriculum development and revision,

it would be important that research be conducted

to determine if levels of motivation are higher

for project-oriented industrial arts courses than

for courses in the new curriculums. However, this

research can not be conducted until after several

of the new curriculums have been established in the schools.

Since interest in learning and motivation for

learning are recognized as highly important func­ tions in all subject areas, it is recommended that investigations be developed in other areas to determine if psychomotor activities can be introduced into the program to increase the student's cognitive learning.

The assumptions made for this study concerning the affects of activities and competition on student interest and motivation were made from the review of literature. However, basic research still seems necessary to determine how psychomotor activity and competition affect motivational 136

drives, especially in relationship to the many

different attitudes and feelings of students,

6, Research is also needed to determine the relation­

ship between general levels of motivation re- ,

garding learning activities and motivational drives

resulting from specific instances.

It is realized that some of the research recommended at this time would be difficult to conduct because of the

lack of experimental environments, lack of control of all variables, and lack of accurate measuring instruments. APPENDIX 138 PRIMARY METAL PROCESSING

This is the age of metals. Our civilization is influenced greatly by the abundance and variety of metals which are used in the manufacture of thousands of useful items. Many of these items such as cars, stoves, tele­ visions, and toasters, are used to make our lives more comfortable and more relaxing. Other metal objects are used to make mans' work easier, such as machines and appliances. But metals have also brought to the world considerable insecurity and sorrow because of the tre­ mendous destructive forces they make possible. Metals are an important part of warfare. For example, uranium is used as the terrible destructive force in the atomic bomb.

"Our future progress in industry and science, in trans­ portation and in space travel will be greatly influenced by the metals that we have available."

Although metal objects are very common in our lives today, man has not always had the use of them. In the stone age, about 6,000 years ago, man did not know about the many different metals that existed in the form of ore in the ground just below his feet. It is believed that the earth's surface is made up of about 8 % aluminum, 5 percent iron,

4 percent calcium, and large amounts of many other metals. 139 The center of the earth is suppose to contain large quanti­

ties of iron, lead, mercury, and gold, but we may never

know this for sure.

The first metal objects that man used were probably

small fragments of meterorites which were almost entirely

iron. Man found that these pieces of material could be beaten into the shape he wanted without them spliting or breaking like other stones did . Later, iron in the earth was probably discovered by accident. It is thought that at

sometime a group of men built a campfire in an area where the ground was rich in iron ore. The fire melted some of the iron ore and the following morning they found a lump of hard material much like the meterorites. Prom then on, men got their iron for their tools and weapons by building

fires and melting the iron ore. Later, copper was dis­ covered in Egypt about 5,000 years ago. Bronze was devel­ oped about 3,500 years ago. These processes for obtaining metal were slow and crude, and it has only been within recent times that man has gained a great knowledge about metals and how they should be processed to become most use­ ful to us. The purpose of this presentation is to describe to you how metal ore is processed by ore refining; converted into pure metal and then transformed into various types of standard stock. 140 Chemists have shown that all materials are made up of

elements. There are about one hundred different elements, but most of these elements in nature are found in combin­ ations. However, metals are most useful to industry as pure or nearly pure elements, and therefore, they often must be separated to form pure metals. Although there are more than 70 metallic elements, only nine are processed in large quantities for use by themselves or as the principal metal in an alloy. An "alloy" is a useful metal which is formed when two or more pure metals are combined.

All metals are divided into two major groups. One group called "Ferrous metals" contains a large percentage of iron. The other group, called "Nonferrous metals", contains little or no iron. Some of the common ferrous metals include wrought iron, galvanized steel, tin plate, carbon steels, expanded metal, and alloy steels. Alloy steels are made by adding such elements as Chromium to increase its resistance to wear; Nickel to increase its resistance to corrosion; or Tungsten to increase its strength and toughness.

All nonferrous metals can be classified as a Base Metal such as copper, lead, tin, zinc, or aluminum; as an Alloy 141

such as brass, bronze, nickel, or silver, or as a Precious

metal such as sterling silver, gold, and platinum.

Most pure metals produced today come from metal ores.

These are mixtures of metals with other elements such as

oxygen or sulphur. Copper is found in nature combined with

sulphur. Iron ores containing iron oxide have special

names such as "hematite", "limonite", or "taconite". A

handful of almost any common dirt or clay contains a large

percentage of aluminum. Seawater often contains magnesium.

The industries which do the first processing of

natural materials are called the "primary" industries. The

primary industries convert raw materials into standard

metal stock and then send this stock to manufactures. The manufactures process the stock further to make finished products to sell to the public.

Standard metal stock has standard dimensions, such as

its cross sections, thicknesses, and lengths. It also may be shaped into sheets, strips, plates, bars, rods, wire, tubes, pipes, or rails. All of the metals used in this

shop are standard stock. For example, the size of this piece of band iron is 1/8" thick, 1/2" wide, and all similar pieces will have these exact sizes. This piece of 20 gauge

sheet metal will be the same thickness at both ends. 142

Steel, when rolled into a flat shape with a thickness

greater than V ' , is called plate metal. Flat stock that

is thinner than is generally classified as sheet metal.

Material over 12 inches wide is called sheet metal and

anything less than 12 inches is called strip metal. Most

bar stock can be purchased in standard lengths from 10

to 24 feet.

Most metal ores are obtained by mining, usually in

large open-pit operations. Some immediate refining of the

ore may be necessary to remove unwanted minerals called

"gangue". Most ores after extraction and their first

refining consist of metal oxides which is a combination

of the metal and an oxygen compound. As an example, copper

ore occurs as copper sulphide which is refined by roasting to produce coper oxide. Sulphuric acid is an important by-product of this roasting process.

Other raw materials are usually needed for the refining processes. Aluminum and sometimes copper are refined by a process called electrolysis which requires large amounts of electrical energy. About 90% of all metal produced (ton­ nage wise) is either iron or steel. This requires large amounts of coal, limestone, water, and oxygen.

To produce iron or steel, metal oxide is usually 143 converted to pure metal in a blast furnance by a chemical process called "reducing". In this process, ore, coal, and limestone are introduced into the top of a tall round stack which is sometimes nearly 100 feet high. Air for burning the coal is blown into the stack near the bottom at nearly 300 miles per hour. This makes the coal burn better. The intense heat forces a separation of the iron from the iron oxide. The molten iron then trickles down into a pool at the bottom of the furnance where temperatures may reach 3000 degrees F. The limestone melts and forms a slag on the surface of the metal. Many impurities from the metal are dissolved in the limestone. From this process the metal becomes quite pure.

As iron comes from the blast furnance, it contains carbon and silicon in dissolved form. It is allowed to solidify (harden) into "pigs". The iron may be used in this form to make castings of cast iron, gray iron, or malleable iron. If the iron is allowed to cool very slowly, it will not be as hard or as brittle as if it had been cooled very quickly. However, iron that contains very much carbon is too brittle to be formed by forging, or rolling. The unwanted carbon and silicon may be removed from iron in a large furnance and the product resulting is called "steel". Most steel is then cast into ingots. 144

Ingots of steel or other metal are made into standard stock. Hot rolling is done by passing a red-hot ingot between rollers, set closer together than the thickness of the ingot. After passing between several sets of rollers, the ingot is called a slab. Slabs are further rolled to make plate and sheet metal.

Some metals can be shaped by extruding. The hot metal is forced through a shaped hole, called a “die" in much the same manner as tooth paste is squeezed from a tube. This process is most important for aluminum and copper. Sheet steel is finished by cold rolling, which produces better furface finish and dimensional accuracy than hot rolling. The cold rolled steel in our shop is more brittle because of its higher carbon content and it is harder to bend than the hot rolled steel. Most of the cold rolled steel can be identified by its dull gray or shinny color and its sharp edges. Hot rolled metals are identified by the black protective coating on their exterior. Often steel sheets and bars will be plated with zinc, aluminum, or lead for corrosion protection.

While there are still some unskilled jobs in the primary metal industries, the majority are at the semi­ skilled, skilled, or professional level. At the semi- skilled level are maintenance men, machine operators, and

inspectors. Skilled jobs include rolling-mill operators, laboratory technicians, and toolmakers. The professions are represented by chemists, metallurgists, and engineers.

The metalworking industries employ a greater number of workers than any other industry. Perhaps you will someday be working in some type of metalworking industry. In industrial arts metalworking, you will do work similar to some of the work done by the skilled and semi-skilled workers in these industries. By doing these activities, you may be able to become better acquainted with the kinds of occupations which will be available to you after you finish your education. APPENDIX 147

PRIMARY METAL PROCESSING Information Sheet

The purpose of this presentation is to help you

understand how ore is removed from the ground and processed

for use in making products. . The following paragraphs indi­

cate some of the more important terms and concepts used in

primary metal processing.

All metals are divided into two major groups - ferrous metals, which contain a large percentage of iron; and non-

ferrous metals, which contain little or no iron. Although there are more than seventy different metallic elements, only nine of these are processed in large quantities. Most of these nine metals are used as the principal metal in an alloy. Alloys are useful metals which are formed when two or more different metals are combined.

The industries which do the first processing of natural materials are called the "primary" industries. Some pri­ mary industries use a blast furnance to produce iron or steel by a chemical process called "reducing". An example of how this burning process takes place is shown in Fig. 1 on the following page. In this process, coal, ore, and limestone are introduced into the top of a tall round stack i-riS® ■8'A* 148 ° ^ J q

400

1200

3000 Cold Air

Slag

Molten iron

Blast Furnance in Operation 149 while hot air is blown in from the bottom. The heat from the burning coal melts the iron which then trickles down to the bottom of the stack. The impurities from the metal are dissolved by the limestone. The metal is then made into standard metal stock which has standard dimensions such as its thickness or length. Flat stock that is thinner than 1/4" is generally classified as sheetmetal.

One method of forming another type of standard stock is by "extruding”. In this process, hot metal, such as copper or aluminum is forced through a shaped hole called a die. If the molten metal is cooled quickly, it will become harder and more brittle than if it had been cooled slowly.

The following presentation will help you understand some of these processes better. You may take notes about this information if you desire.

NOTES APPENDIX 151

7th Grade

Students were to twist and bend their piece of metal to the shape indicated on this sheet. 152 8th Grade

You will each be receiving two pieces of metal similar to the ones shown below.

You will be soldering them together as shown below.

Emphasis should be on: 1 . attaching the two pieces in the correct position, making the soldering look as neat as possible, and making the joint as strong as possible. APPENDIX 154

PRIMARY METAL PROCESSING

DIRECTIONS:

1. The items on this test are multiple choice items designed to see how much you remember from the presentation that you have just heard. Your score on this test will in no way affect your grade in this class.

2. At the top of your answer sheet PRINT your name and your grade level. Do not write on the test booklet.

3. Read each question carefully. When you have chosen the answer which you think is correct, BLACKEN the appropriate blank neatly and fully on the answer sheet. Use ONLY a No. 2 pencil. If you change your mind about an answer, erase your first mark completely and make a new one.

4. Be sure you have answered all questions on the test. Your score will be determined by the number of items you have answered correctly.

5. When you finish the test, sit quietly and wait until your answer sheet and test booklet are collected.

Good luck. 155

1. This presentation suggested that probably the first metal that man used was

A. iron from the earth. B. steel from the earth. C. steel from small meterorites. D. iron from small meterorites.

2. Iron that contains a lot of carbon is usually very

A. easy to bend. B. lightweight. C. brittle. D. malleable (easy to pound).

3. A type of metal which could be easily bent into various shapes would be

A. hot-rolled metal. B. a very brittle metal. C. a very shinny metal. D. a dull gray metal with sharp edges.

4. A toolmaker working in a large manufacturing plant would most likely be

A. skilled. B. unskilled. C. semi-skilled. D. a professional.

5. If a man wanted to buy 10 pieces of metal which were exactly the same size, the store clerk would most likely sell him

A. band iron. B. scrap metal stock. C. standard metal stock. D. sheet metal stock.

6. Chemists have discovered that there are about one hundred different

A. types of iron ores. B. types of standard stock. C. elements in nature. D. metals used in industry. 156 7. When a useful metal is formed by combining two or more pure metals, the new metal is called

A. an element. B. standard stock. C. metal ore. D. an alloy.

8. A steel mill would st likely add nickle to steel for the purpose of

A. increasing its resistance to corrosion. B. increasing its resistance to wear. C. increasing its strength and toughness. D. changing it from an ore to an alloy steel.

9. "Hematite," "Limonite," and "Taconite," are special names for

A. copper ores containing copper oxide. B. iron ores containing iron oxide. C. aluminum ore containing aluminum oxide. D. seawater containing magnesium.

10. Iron may be used to make castings of cast iron or gray iron when it is in the form of

A. sheets. B. ingots. C. "pigs". D. strips.

11. Aluminum refining requires large amounts of

A. water. B. coal. C. electricity. D. limestone.

12. Bar stock could be purchased in the common standard length of

A . 2 feet. B. 4 feet. C. 8 feet. D. 12 feet. 157 13. An important by-product in the refining of copper ore is

A. silicon. B. aluminum. C. oxygen. D. sulphuric acid.

14. What type of metal was. first discovered in Egypt about 5,000 years ago?

A. Bronze. B. Copper. C. Iron. D. Steel.

15. Temperatures at the bottom of a blast furnance producing steel are about

A. 300 degrees F. B. 1,000 degrees F. C. 3,000 degrees F. D. 6,000 degrees F.

16. The center of the earth is suppose to contain large quantities of

A. iron and steel. B. lead and gold. C. mercury and bronze. D. chromium and nickel.

17. A large steel mill would most likely be producing

A. ferrous metals. B. nonferrous base metals. C. tungsten and zinc alloys. D. precious metals.

18. If a red hot piece of iron were placed in cold water, the metal would probably

A. increase in size. B. become very soft and easy to bend. C. become very hard and brittle. D. change to a nonferrous type metal. 158 19. What two types of metals account for about 90% of the tonnage of all metals produced in the United States?

A. brass and aluminum. B. steel and brass. C. copper and iron. D. steel and iron.

20. Sterling silver would be considered to be a

A. ferrous alloy. B. ferrous iron oxide. C. nonferrous base metal. D. nonferrous precious metal.

21. Industries that do the first processing of natural materials are called

A. natural industries. B. first industries. C. primary industries. D. metal industries.

22. The piece of metal that you see on the chalk board would be best described as

A. standard stock. B. nonferrous metal. C. precious metal. D. bar stock.

23. Various metals have always existed on earth in the form of

A. alloys. B. limestone. C. ore. D. standard stock.

24. Lead, tin, and aluminum are classified as

A. alloys. B. ores. C. galvanized metals. D. base metals. 159 25. A workman who is shaping metal by an extruding process would most likely be

A. forcing hot metal through a die. B. removing metal by dr&wfiling. C. melting metal to form ingots. D. bending metal around a pattern.

26. In most blast furnances, air used for burning the coal enters the stack through the

A. top. B. middle. C. bottom. D. main vents.

27. Two metals which together make up about 13% of the earth's surface are

A. iron and calcium. B. aluminum and iron. C. iron and steel. D. lead and coal.

28. in a blast furnance, impurities are removed from the iron by the use of

A. gases. B. hot air. C. coal. D. limestone.

29. When steel is rolled into a flat shape, with a thickness greater than V', it is called

A. bar metal. B. sheet metal. C. strip metal. D. plate metal.

30. Metal is most useful to industries in the form of

A. pure elements. B. ores. C. oxides. D. band iron. 160 31. Metal oxide is usually converted to pure metal by a chemical process called

A. refining. B. reducing. C. roasting. D. molding.

32. After passing a red hot ingot between several sets of rollers, the ingot is called a

A. strip. B. sheet. C. bar. D. slab.

33. One type of metal which has been used in the past as a destructive force in the atom bomb is

A. uranium. B. cobalt. C. taconite. D. tungsten.

34. In the United States, how many different metallic elements are produced in large quantities for sale?

A. Nine. B. Fifteen. C. Seventy. D. One hundred.

35. When carbon and silicon are removed from iron in a large furnance, the resulting product is called

A. hemalite. B. cast iron. C. iron oxide. D. steel. APPENDIX METAL PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE

DIRECTIONS - Do not place your name on this paper. Answer each question carefully and honestly by placing an "X" along the line above your answer.

1. Did you find the Metal Processing Presentation interesting? I_____ I______I______I_____ I_____ I YES SOMEWHAT NO

2. If the test was not included, would you like to listen to another presentation about a different area of metalworking?

YES MAYBE NO

3. If the test was not included, would you like to listen to another presentation and take part in another metal working activity in the classroom?

YES MAYBE NO APPENDIX 164

7TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORES GROUP CM

Student Code Criterion CRT 7 Reading Number Measure score Comprehens ion

001 13 38

002 16 34

003 21 44 '

004 14 37

005 08 24

006 13 32

007 15 31

008 15 30

009 12 20

010 11 23

Oil 12 30

012 15 29

013 17 32

014 14 29

015 19 36

016 10 26 165

7TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORES GROUP P

Student Code Criterion CRT 7 Reading Number Measure Score Comprehens ion

017 15 24

018 17 30

019 17 31

020 09 18

021 13 30

022 11 30

023 18 24

024 17 27

025 14 16

026 17 35

027 12 31

028 28 36

029 22 30

030 17 27 166

7TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORE GROUP PA

Student Code Criterion CRT 7 Reading Number Measure Score Comprehens ion

031 16 38

032 19 34

033 18 33

034 22 26

035 27 40

036 13 32

037 14 28

038 13 41

039 21 30

040 34 43

041 15 24

042 20 38

043 18 31

044 25 39

045 22 40

046 23 36

047 19 25

048 22 37

049 23 40

050 18 39 167

7TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORE GROUP PAC

Student Code Criterion CRT 7 Reading Number Measure Score Compr ehens ion

051 17 38

052 27 39

053 20 38

054 14 31

055 30 43

056 25 39

057 32 40

058 21 39

059 21 36

060 26 31

061 25 28

062 18 35

063 11 26

064 17 37

065 16 38

066 25 39

067 14 08 168

8TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORES GROUP CM • Student Code Criterion CMM Lang. Number Measure Score Score

101 09 28

102 10 28

103 16 39

104 11 40

105 13 46

106 14 48

107 12 49

108 13 50

109 12 30

110 18 53

111 14 53

112 12 40

113 16 51

114 12 50

115 17 48

116 10 33.

117 12 45 169

8TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORES GROUP P

Student Code Criterion CMM Lang. Number Measure Score Score

118 21 42

119 16 30

120 29 48

121 32 56

122 19 43

123 21 35

124 25 34

125 23 39

126 28 53

127 18 39

128 26 49

129 09 34

130 26 50

131 12 43

132 12 33

133 18 40

134 21 51

135 25 53 170

8TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORE GROUP PA

Student Code Criterion CMM. Lang. Number Measure Score Score

136 19 44

137 20 46

138 16 45

139 31 53

140 26 51

141 19 52

142 19 38

143 20 32

144 23 47

145 19 48

146 17 39

147 18 45

148 23 39

149 17 44 171

8TH GRADE INDIVIDUAL RAW SCORES GROUP PAC

Student Code Criterion CMM Lang. Number Measure Score Score

150 23 50

151 17 42

152 21 45

153 22 36

154 16 41

155 17 38

156 20 50

157 11 35

158 13 28

159 13 28

160 28 47

161 25 40

162 16 36 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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