Through Assyria's Eyes: Israel's Relationship with Judah Tammi J

Claremont Colleges Scholarship @ Claremont

CGU Faculty Publications and Research CGU Faculty Scholarship

1-1-2002 Through Assyria's Eyes: Israel's Relationship with Judah Tammi J. Schneider Claremont Graduate University

Recommended Citation The following appears in Expedition 44, no. 3 (2002) 9-15 and may be found at http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/Zine/ 44.3.shtml

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the CGU Faculty Scholarship at Scholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in CGU Faculty Publications and Research by an authorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contact [email protected]. he Hebrew Bible records the history of ancient Israel reign. In three different inscriptions, Shalmaneser III and Judah, relating that the two kingdoms were recounts that he received tribute from Tyre, Sidon, and united under Saul (ca. 1000 B.C.) Jehu, son of Omri, in his 18th year, tand became politically separate fol- usually figured as 841 B.C. Thus, Jehu, lowing Solomon’s death (ca. 935 B.C.). the next Israelite king to whom the The division continued until the Assyrians refer, appears in the same Assyrians, whose empire was expand- order as described in the Bible. But he ing during that period, exiled Israel is identified as ruling a place with a in the late eighth century B.C. different geographic name, Bit Omri But the goal of the Bible was not to (the house of Omri). record history, and the text does not One of Shalmaneser III’s final edi- shy away from theological explana- tions of annals, the Black Obelisk, tions for events. Given this problem- contains another reference to Jehu. In atic relationship between sacred the second row of figures from the interpretation and historical accura- top, Jehu is depicted with the caption, cy, historians welcomed the discovery “Tribute of Iaua (Jehu), son of Omri. of ancient Assyrian cuneiform docu- Silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden ments that refer to people and places beaker, golden goblets, pitchers of mentioned in the Bible. Discovered gold, lead, staves for the hand of the in the 19th century, these historical king, javelins, I received from him.”As records are now being used by schol- scholar Michele Marcus points out, ars to corroborate and augment the Jehu’s placement on this monument biblical text, especially the Bible’s indicates that his importance for the COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM “historical books” of Kings. This field © Assyrians stems from the fact that he is for comparison complements the from an area representing the farthest recent trend among biblical scholars reach of the Assyrian state. of using new interpretative method- through Along with the new name is a ologies and archaeology to question change in Israel’s relationship to some of the Bible’s historical claims. Assyria. When Ahab governed Israel it was active in a coalition of city-states ISRAEL BY ANY OTHER NAME assyria’s that militarily opposed Assyria. In the The one reference to Israel in the sur- later inscriptions, Jehu brought tribute viving Assyrian materials dates to to Shalmaneser III. In the final in- the reign of the Assyrian king eyes scription the position of Jehu is that of Shalmaneser III (858–824 B.C.). Ahab ruler of a region that functions as a of Israel is listed as part of a coalition secure border of Assyria. Thus, as the of 12 city-states — including Damas- israel’s Assyrians portrayed this relationship, cus, the Arabs, Byblos, and Egypt — the change in name is a shift in the that engaged Shalmaneser III in bat- nature of the relationship between tle in his sixth year. While the refer- relationship Israel and Assyria, from one of active ence to Ahab is the only mention hostility to one of subservience. of Israel in the Assyrian inscriptions, with judah The Bible makes no reference to that is not to say that Assyria did not Jehu’s relationship with Assyria, but have further contact with what the some elements in Jehu’s reign that are Hebrew Bible names Israel, only that the Assyrians never again used the term Israel in their inscriptions. Another TOP: Image of Assyrian king Shalmaneser III on the Black term for biblical Israel appears later in the same king’s Obelisk of Shalmaneser III found at Nimrud

by Tammi J. Schneider

WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 9 a LEFT: General timeline. The region of Israel, Judah, and TIMELINE There are many differing dates, some of the major cities, sur- especially for the kings of rounding nations, and tribal areas Year B.C. Assyria Israel Judah Israel and Judah. Here, Israelite Saul Saul and Judean kings are tied to despite devastating the cities of associated with different groups the Assyrian kings for 1000 Ashur-rabi II (1012–972) David (1005–965) David Bit Omri, he did not destroy of cities. The Assyrian sources comparative purposes. Tiglath-pilesar II (966–935) Solomon (968–928) Solomon Samaria, but Pekah, their king, are mute about why Judah paid was overthrown. Writing about tribute to Assyria and under 950 Jeroboam (928–907) Rehoboam (928–911) the author(s) of Kings may the inscriptions of Tiglath- what conditions. According to Abijam (911–908) not have wanted to dis- pilesar, Hayim Tadmor explains the Eponym Chronicle for the Adad-nirari II (911–891) Asa (908–867) credit Jehu — who bought that the main clause “they year 734 B.C., Tiglath-pilesar III Nadab (907–906) his security to the throne overthrew” is not preserved but went to Philistia. The texts from 900 Baasha (906–883) by becoming an Assyrian must have referred to the these years are rather mutilated, Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–884) Elah (883–882) vassal — by mentioning fall of Pekah. providing no details explaining Ashurnasirpal II (883–859) Zimri (882) this relationship. Without reference to Bit Assyria’s interest in the area. Omri (882–871) Jehoshaphat (870–846) Despite changes in Omri, Tiglath-pilesar III’s The Bible adds to the discus- Shalmaneser III (858–824) Ahab (873–852) Assyria and its relation- annals mention Menahem, sion, in 2 Kings 15:17, when 850 Ahaziah (852–851) Jehoram (851–843) ship with the region fol- King of Samaria, two times Menahem, son of Gadi, be- Jehoram (851–842) lowing Shalmaneser III’s between Rezin of Damascus comes king in Samaria. Line 19 Jehu (841–814) Ahaziah (843–842) death, Assyrian texts con- and Tuba’il of Tyre. The refer- states,“King Pul [Tiglath-pilesar Shamshi-Adad V (824–811) Jehoahaz (817–800) Athaliah (842–836) tinue to refer to Israel as ence on Stele III A further III’s nickname] of Assyria Adad-nirari III (810–783) Joash (836–798) Bit Omri until Israel’s defines all those listed on Stele invaded the land, and Menahem Amaziah (798–769) destruction. The Assyrian III A as kings of Hatti and the Aramaeans of the western gave Pul a thousand talents of silver that he might support 800 Jehoash (800–784) Azariah (785–733) king Adad-nirari III (810– seashore; Judah does not appear in these lists. him and strengthen his hold on the kingdom.” Shalmaneser IV (783–773) 783 B.C.) first introduces Possibly, Assyrian sources do not mention Menahem’s Ashur-dan III (772–755) Jeroboam II (789–748) Jotham (758–743) the name Samaria into the ENTER JUDAH son and successor Pekahiah because, “His [Pekahiah’s] Ashur-nirari V (755–745) picture. Samaria is likely When Tiglath-pilesar III does mention the land of Judah aide, Pekah son of Remaliah, conspired against him and 750 Zechariah (747) another reference to Israel in a tribute list, it is with very different contemporaries. struck him down in the royal palace in Samaria...” (2 Shallum (747) because it became the Summary Inscription 7 lists Jehoahaz of Judah between Kings 15:25). Pekah’s interaction with Tiglath-pilesar III Tiglath-pilesar III (745–727) Menahem (747–737) Jehoahaz (743–727) capital of Bit Omri/Israel Mitini of Ashkelon and Qaushmalaka of Edom. Earlier, is described in line 29:“In the days of King Pekah of Israel, Pekahiah (737–735) beginning in King Omri’s this inscription includes Menahem’s contemporaries, King Tiglath-pilesar of Assyria came and captured Ijob, Pekah (735–732) day (1 Kings 16:24). Adad- such as Hiram of Tyre, Kushtashpi of Kummuh, Urik of Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor-Gilead, Shalmaneser V (726–722) Hoshea (732–724) Hezekiah (727–698) nirari III notes that Que, and Ussame of Tabal, though neither Menahem, Map of the first millennium B.C. Ancient Near East, high- Sargon II (722–705) Fall of Samaria 722 Jehoash of Samaria (800– Samaria, or Bit Omri is mentioned. Another differ- lighting the heartland of Assyria Table 1. There are many differing dates, especially for the kings of Israel and Judah. Here Israelite 784 B.C.) paid him tri- ence between the lists may be in their dating. and Judean kings are tied to the Assyrian kings for comparative purposes. bute. The other kings who Mordechai Cogan and paid tribute to Assyria in Hayim Tadmor have mentioned in the Bible are relevant here. Jehu came to the same campaign were the kings of Damascus, noted that Tiglath-pilesar the throne in a bloody coup where he destroyed King Tyre, and Sidon. Here, the Bible is silent. III’s Summary Inscrip- Jehoram and the house of Ahab, the previous Israelite Tiglath-pilesar III (745–727 B.C.), who ushered in a tion 7 separates the states king (2 Kings 9:1–10, 20; 2 Kings 10). He even took new era of expansion for Assyria, is the next Assyrian into two groups: the Syro- revenge on the royal family of Judah, killing their King king to refer to Bit Omri, Samaria, and Judah. In two Anatolian kings who paid Ahaziah (2 Kings 9:27). Despite the severity of his coup, inscriptions, the name Bit Omri defines Aram’s bor- tribute in 738 B.C., and Jehu has a fairly good reputation in the biblical text, at ders. One of the inscriptions includes events in the the Syro-Palestinian kings least for a king of Israel (2 Kings 10:28–31), because he land of Bit Omri, but what occurred is lost in a break who paid on another rid Israel of the house of Ahab. The house of Ahab was in the text. The result of the action in the break is that occasion. Thus, accord- one of the most disliked by the biblical authors because Tiglath-pilesar III carries off Bit Omri’s people to ing to the Assyrians, Ahab married a foreign woman, Jezebel, the daughter of Assyria, which is confirmed by a third inscription. Samaria/Bit Omri and KRIEGER King Ethbaal of Sidon, and even built a temple to Baal Tiglath-pilesar III also states that someone killed . Judah are in different in Samaria (1 Kings 16:29–33). Perhaps because the Pekah, Bit Omri’s king, and installed Hoshea on Bit locales, paid tribute in

Assyrians are responsible for the destruction of Israel, Omri’s throne. Elsewhere Tiglath-pilesar III notes that WILLIAM H different years, and were

10 VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3 EXPEDITION WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 11 a LEFT: General timeline. The region of Israel, Judah, and TIMELINE There are many differing dates, some of the major cities, sur- especially for the kings of rounding nations, and tribal areas Year B.C. Assyria Israel Judah Israel and Judah. Here, Israelite Saul Saul and Judean kings are tied to despite devastating the cities of associated with different groups the Assyrian kings for 1000 Ashur-rabi II (1012–972) David (1005–965) David Bit Omri, he did not destroy of cities. The Assyrian sources comparative purposes. Tiglath-pilesar II (966–935) Solomon (968–928) Solomon Samaria, but Pekah, their king, are mute about why Judah paid was overthrown. Writing about tribute to Assyria and under 950 Jeroboam (928–907) Rehoboam (928–911) the author(s) of Kings may the inscriptions of Tiglath- what conditions. According to Abijam (911–908) not have wanted to dis- pilesar, Hayim Tadmor explains the Eponym Chronicle for the Adad-nirari II (911–891) Asa (908–867) credit Jehu — who bought that the main clause “they year 734 B.C., Tiglath-pilesar III Nadab (907–906) his security to the throne overthrew” is not preserved but went to Philistia. The texts from 900 Baasha (906–883) by becoming an Assyrian must have referred to the these years are rather mutilated, Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–884) Elah (883–882) vassal — by mentioning fall of Pekah. providing no details explaining Ashurnasirpal II (883–859) Zimri (882) this relationship. Without reference to Bit Assyria’s interest in the area. Omri (882–871) Jehoshaphat (870–846) Despite changes in Omri, Tiglath-pilesar III’s The Bible adds to the discus- Shalmaneser III (858–824) Ahab (873–852) Assyria and its relation- annals mention Menahem, sion, in 2 Kings 15:17, when 850 Ahaziah (852–851) Jehoram (851–843) ship with the region fol- King of Samaria, two times Menahem, son of Gadi, be- Jehoram (851–842) lowing Shalmaneser III’s between Rezin of Damascus comes king in Samaria. Line 19 Jehu (841–814) Ahaziah (843–842) death, Assyrian texts con- and Tuba’il of Tyre. The refer- states,“King Pul [Tiglath-pilesar Shamshi-Adad V (824–811) Jehoahaz (817–800) Athaliah (842–836) tinue to refer to Israel as ence on Stele III A further III’s nickname] of Assyria Adad-nirari III (810–783) Joash (836–798) Bit Omri until Israel’s defines all those listed on Stele invaded the land, and Menahem Amaziah (798–769) destruction. The Assyrian III A as kings of Hatti and the Aramaeans of the western gave Pul a thousand talents of silver that he might support 800 Jehoash (800–784) Azariah (785–733) king Adad-nirari III (810– seashore; Judah does not appear in these lists. him and strengthen his hold on the kingdom.” Shalmaneser IV (783–773) 783 B.C.) first introduces Possibly, Assyrian sources do not mention Menahem’s Ashur-dan III (772–755) Jeroboam II (789–748) Jotham (758–743) the name Samaria into the ENTER JUDAH son and successor Pekahiah because, “His [Pekahiah’s] Ashur-nirari V (755–745) picture. Samaria is likely When Tiglath-pilesar III does mention the land of Judah aide, Pekah son of Remaliah, conspired against him and 750 Zechariah (747) another reference to Israel in a tribute list, it is with very different contemporaries. struck him down in the royal palace in Samaria...” (2 Shallum (747) because it became the Summary Inscription 7 lists Jehoahaz of Judah between Kings 15:25). Pekah’s interaction with Tiglath-pilesar III Tiglath-pilesar III (745–727) Menahem (747–737) Jehoahaz (743–727) capital of Bit Omri/Israel Mitini of Ashkelon and Qaushmalaka of Edom. Earlier, is described in line 29:“In the days of King Pekah of Israel, Pekahiah (737–735) beginning in King Omri’s this inscription includes Menahem’s contemporaries, King Tiglath-pilesar of Assyria came and captured Ijob, Pekah (735–732) day (1 Kings 16:24). Adad- such as Hiram of Tyre, Kushtashpi of Kummuh, Urik of Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor-Gilead, Shalmaneser V (726–722) Hoshea (732–724) Hezekiah (727–698) nirari III notes that Que, and Ussame of Tabal, though neither Menahem, Map of the first millennium B.C. Ancient Near East, high- Sargon II (722–705) Fall of Samaria 722 Jehoash of Samaria (800– Samaria, or Bit Omri is mentioned. Another differ- lighting the heartland of Assyria Table 1. There are many differing dates, especially for the kings of Israel and Judah. Here Israelite 784 B.C.) paid him tri- ence between the lists may be in their dating. and Judean kings are tied to the Assyrian kings for comparative purposes. bute. The other kings who Mordechai Cogan and paid tribute to Assyria in Hayim Tadmor have mentioned in the Bible are relevant here. Jehu came to the same campaign were the kings of Damascus, noted that Tiglath-pilesar the throne in a bloody coup where he destroyed King Tyre, and Sidon. Here, the Bible is silent. III’s Summary Inscrip- Jehoram and the house of Ahab, the previous Israelite Tiglath-pilesar III (745–727 B.C.), who ushered in a tion 7 separates the states king (2 Kings 9:1–10, 20; 2 Kings 10). He even took new era of expansion for Assyria, is the next Assyrian into two groups: the Syro- revenge on the royal family of Judah, killing their King king to refer to Bit Omri, Samaria, and Judah. In two Anatolian kings who paid Ahaziah (2 Kings 9:27). Despite the severity of his coup, inscriptions, the name Bit Omri defines Aram’s bor- tribute in 738 B.C., and Jehu has a fairly good reputation in the biblical text, at ders. One of the inscriptions includes events in the the Syro-Palestinian kings least for a king of Israel (2 Kings 10:28–31), because he land of Bit Omri, but what occurred is lost in a break who paid on another rid Israel of the house of Ahab. The house of Ahab was in the text. The result of the action in the break is that occasion. Thus, accord- one of the most disliked by the biblical authors because Tiglath-pilesar III carries off Bit Omri’s people to ing to the Assyrians, Ahab married a foreign woman, Jezebel, the daughter of Assyria, which is confirmed by a third inscription. Samaria/Bit Omri and KRIEGER King Ethbaal of Sidon, and even built a temple to Baal Tiglath-pilesar III also states that someone killed . Judah are in different in Samaria (1 Kings 16:29–33). Perhaps because the Pekah, Bit Omri’s king, and installed Hoshea on Bit locales, paid tribute in

Assyrians are responsible for the destruction of Israel, Omri’s throne. Elsewhere Tiglath-pilesar III notes that WILLIAM H different years, and were

10 VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3 EXPEDITION WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 11 Galilee, the entire region of Naphtali, and he deported Judah went to Assyria for protection (2 Kings 16:7). quered Samaria, I River Gozan, and in the inhabitants to Assyria.” Line 30 agrees with Assyrian In verse 7, Ahaz writes to Tiglath-pilesar III referring led away as booty the towns of Media. inscriptions, adding, “Hoshea son of Elah conspired to himself as “your servant and your son.” Cogan 27,299 inhabitants. I Sargon II’s ac- against Pekah son of Remaliah, attacked him, and killed and Tadmor claim that this combination of terms formed from among count does not him. He succeeded him as king...” is unique in the Bible and is rarely attested in non- them a contingent differ considerably Other events in Pekah’s reign are relevant. In 2 Kings biblical historical documents. Moreover, the biblical of 50 chariots and from the report pro- 16:5, the king of Aram and King Pekah advanced on writer reveals that paying the Assyrians is viewed made remaining [in- vided in 2 Kings 17. Jerusalem in a battle and besieged Ahaz of Judah, and negatively by using the term sohad^ ¯ [bribe] for Ahaz’s habitants] assume According to Kings ˙ “Ahaz sent messengers to King Tiglath-pilesar III of payment to Tiglath-pilesar III. their positions. I 2, Shalmaneser was Assyria to say, ‘I am your servant and your son; come The Book of Kings gives Ahaz a negative evaluation, installed over them king of Assyria when and deliver me from the hands of the king of Aram and so it is fitting that the biblical writer would implicate him an officer and im- the siege of Samaria Jehu, son of Omri, bringing tribute from the hands of the king of Israel who are attacking in involving Assyria against Israel. The biblical text claims posed upon them toto ShalmaneserShalmaneser III,III, fromfrom thethe BlackBlack began but does not me.’” (2 Kings 16:7). According to the Bible, Ahaz went Ahaz passed his child through fire in an “abhorrent fash- the tribute of the Obelisk, with the caption “Tribute of mention who ruled to Damascus to meet the king of Assyria, who ion” (2 Kings 16:3) and removed fixtures from the tem- former king.” Sargon Jehu, son of Omri…” the city when it was COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM responded to his request by marching against ple in Jerusalem to pay his bribe (2 Kings 16:17). In this II’s annals add that © captured and its citi- Damascus, capturing it, and deporting its inhabitants. context scholars argue whether Judah’s plea brought the conquest of Samaria occurred “at the beginning of zens deported. The biblical text claims the reason for the Assyria to the region or whether Judah asked for Assyria’s my royal rule” and “I rebuilt the town better than it attack was that Samaria’s king, Hoshea, conspired with JUDAH AND ISRAEL BEYOND THE BIBLE help once the Assyrians were already there. But did Ahaz was before and settled therein people from countries “So, the king of Egypt,” and as a result ceased sending The Assyrian and biblical references agree pay the Assyrians to protect himself against Israel, which I myself had conquered.” tribute (2 Kings 17:4). that Tiglath-pilesar III campaigned in the as described in Kings, or was his payment part of Sargon II provides background history to the defeat of region of Israel and Judah. Tiglath-pilesar the tribute that the other states in his region Bit Omri: “Ia’ubidi from Hamath, a commoner without WHERE THEY DIFFER III knew the rulers of the surrounding offered under Tiglath-pilesar III’s threat of claim to the throne, a cursed Hittite, schemed to become The major difference between the biblical and the communities, and the Assyrian com- attack? Might the biblical author(s) portray king of Hamath, induced the cities Arvad, Simirra, Assyrian texts concerns who induced Israel to revolt. ments, preserved in the cuneiform the tribute as blame upon Ahaz for involving Damascus, and Samaria to desert me, made them collab- While the Bible states that Samaria’s king conspired tablets, conform generally to what the Judah with Assyria, thereby playing a role in orate and fitted out an army.” Sargon II’s capture of with So, the king of Egypt, in the Assyrian material, biblical text provides. According to the destruction of Israel, just as Jehu, in Samaria and Bit Omri was important enough that he the Aramaeans led Samaria’s ruler astray. Further- Assyrian records, Menahem paid a large reverse, was protected from this critique? brags about it in a paving inscription claiming,“Property more, beyond biblical and Assyrian sources, no sum to Tiglath-pilesar III. Biblical schol- Little information remains regarding of Sargon, conqueror of Samaria and the entire country Egyptian sources provide a candidate for a king So, ars Mordechai Cogan and Hayim Tiglath-pilesar III’s heir and successor, of Bit Omri.” though Egyptian rebels and Tadmor note that the amount Menahem Shalmaneser V (726–722 B.C.). The Bible Sargon II’s annals also note, auxiliary forces were defeated paid was identical to that paid by Hulli, notes that Hoshea, the king put on the throne “Upon a trust inspiring oracle by rebels from Gaza at the bat- king of Tabal, and Metenna, king of Tyre, of Samaria by Tiglath-pilesar III, revolted and given by my lord Ashur, I tle of Rafiah. both vassal kings who were usurpers, and that Shalmaneser besieged Samaria for three crushed the tribes of Tamud, Sargon II mentions Judah in their payments bought Assyrian support, years (2 Kings 17:4-6). Beyond the Bible the Ibadidi, Marsimanu, and Haiapa, two contexts. The first is an thereby legitimizing their rule. Thus the only other data regarding this incident is the Arabs who live far away in the inscription defining property Assyriological evidence supports the from the Babylonian Chronicle, a document desert and who know neither where he calls himself “the biblical contention that Menahem paid recording the reigns of the Babylonian kings, overseers nor officials and who subduer of the country Judah, tribute to Assyria to gain support for his including information about the relationship had not yet brought their tribute which is far away, the uprooter tenuous hold on the throne. between Babylonia and Assyria. The to any king. I deported their sur- of Hamath.” This inscription In contrast, Judah’s entrance into a Babylonian Chronicle comments only that vivors and settled them in couples Judah with the ruler tribute-bearing status with Assyria does “He [Shalmaneser V] demolished Samaria.” Samaria.” Sargon II deported the referred to as starting the trouble not have documented support beyond The next references to “Israel” date to inhabitants of Samaria and leading to Samaria/Bit Omri’s the Bible’s account. There are even hints the reign of Sargon II (722–705 B.C.), who brought captives from other destruction. The inscription does in the Bible that raise doubts about claims responsibility for the defeat and exile destroyed cities into Samaria. not relate Judah to Bit Omri, but the account’s authenticity. The biblical The Black Obelisk of Bit-Omri/Israel. In The passage from 2 Kings 17:6 to Hamath. explanation for why Assyria entered the of Shalmaneser III one text Sargon asserts, locates the “lost ten tribes” in The second reference to Judah area is that Israel attacked Judah, and from Nimrud “I besieged and con- Halah, at the river Habor, at the Assyrian king Tiglath-pilesar appears in a fragmentary prism IIIIII fromfrom NimrudNimrud COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM © ©

12 VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3 EXPEDITION WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 13 Galilee, the entire region of Naphtali, and he deported Judah went to Assyria for protection (2 Kings 16:7). quered Samaria, I River Gozan, and in the inhabitants to Assyria.” Line 30 agrees with Assyrian In verse 7, Ahaz writes to Tiglath-pilesar III referring led away as booty the towns of Media. inscriptions, adding, “Hoshea son of Elah conspired to himself as “your servant and your son.” Cogan 27,299 inhabitants. I Sargon II’s ac- against Pekah son of Remaliah, attacked him, and killed and Tadmor claim that this combination of terms formed from among count does not him. He succeeded him as king...” is unique in the Bible and is rarely attested in non- them a contingent differ considerably Other events in Pekah’s reign are relevant. In 2 Kings biblical historical documents. Moreover, the biblical of 50 chariots and from the report pro- 16:5, the king of Aram and King Pekah advanced on writer reveals that paying the Assyrians is viewed made remaining [in- vided in 2 Kings 17. Jerusalem in a battle and besieged Ahaz of Judah, and negatively by using the term sohad^ ¯ [bribe] for Ahaz’s habitants] assume According to Kings ˙ “Ahaz sent messengers to King Tiglath-pilesar III of payment to Tiglath-pilesar III. their positions. I 2, Shalmaneser was Assyria to say, ‘I am your servant and your son; come The Book of Kings gives Ahaz a negative evaluation, installed over them king of Assyria when and deliver me from the hands of the king of Aram and so it is fitting that the biblical writer would implicate him an officer and im- the siege of Samaria Jehu, son of Omri, bringing tribute from the hands of the king of Israel who are attacking in involving Assyria against Israel. The biblical text claims posed upon them toto ShalmaneserShalmaneser III,III, fromfrom thethe BlackBlack began but does not me.’” (2 Kings 16:7). According to the Bible, Ahaz went Ahaz passed his child through fire in an “abhorrent fash- the tribute of the Obelisk, with the caption “Tribute of mention who ruled to Damascus to meet the king of Assyria, who ion” (2 Kings 16:3) and removed fixtures from the tem- former king.” Sargon Jehu, son of Omri…” the city when it was COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM responded to his request by marching against ple in Jerusalem to pay his bribe (2 Kings 16:17). In this II’s annals add that © captured and its citi- Damascus, capturing it, and deporting its inhabitants. context scholars argue whether Judah’s plea brought the conquest of Samaria occurred “at the beginning of zens deported. The biblical text claims the reason for the Assyria to the region or whether Judah asked for Assyria’s my royal rule” and “I rebuilt the town better than it attack was that Samaria’s king, Hoshea, conspired with JUDAH AND ISRAEL BEYOND THE BIBLE help once the Assyrians were already there. But did Ahaz was before and settled therein people from countries “So, the king of Egypt,” and as a result ceased sending The Assyrian and biblical references agree pay the Assyrians to protect himself against Israel, which I myself had conquered.” tribute (2 Kings 17:4). that Tiglath-pilesar III campaigned in the as described in Kings, or was his payment part of Sargon II provides background history to the defeat of region of Israel and Judah. Tiglath-pilesar the tribute that the other states in his region Bit Omri: “Ia’ubidi from Hamath, a commoner without WHERE THEY DIFFER III knew the rulers of the surrounding offered under Tiglath-pilesar III’s threat of claim to the throne, a cursed Hittite, schemed to become The major difference between the biblical and the communities, and the Assyrian com- attack? Might the biblical author(s) portray king of Hamath, induced the cities Arvad, Simirra, Assyrian texts concerns who induced Israel to revolt. ments, preserved in the cuneiform the tribute as blame upon Ahaz for involving Damascus, and Samaria to desert me, made them collab- While the Bible states that Samaria’s king conspired tablets, conform generally to what the Judah with Assyria, thereby playing a role in orate and fitted out an army.” Sargon II’s capture of with So, the king of Egypt, in the Assyrian material, biblical text provides. According to the destruction of Israel, just as Jehu, in Samaria and Bit Omri was important enough that he the Aramaeans led Samaria’s ruler astray. Further- Assyrian records, Menahem paid a large reverse, was protected from this critique? brags about it in a paving inscription claiming,“Property more, beyond biblical and Assyrian sources, no sum to Tiglath-pilesar III. Biblical schol- Little information remains regarding of Sargon, conqueror of Samaria and the entire country Egyptian sources provide a candidate for a king So, ars Mordechai Cogan and Hayim Tiglath-pilesar III’s heir and successor, of Bit Omri.” though Egyptian rebels and Tadmor note that the amount Menahem Shalmaneser V (726–722 B.C.). The Bible Sargon II’s annals also note, auxiliary forces were defeated paid was identical to that paid by Hulli, notes that Hoshea, the king put on the throne “Upon a trust inspiring oracle by rebels from Gaza at the bat- king of Tabal, and Metenna, king of Tyre, of Samaria by Tiglath-pilesar III, revolted and given by my lord Ashur, I tle of Rafiah. both vassal kings who were usurpers, and that Shalmaneser besieged Samaria for three crushed the tribes of Tamud, Sargon II mentions Judah in their payments bought Assyrian support, years (2 Kings 17:4-6). Beyond the Bible the Ibadidi, Marsimanu, and Haiapa, two contexts. The first is an thereby legitimizing their rule. Thus the only other data regarding this incident is the Arabs who live far away in the inscription defining property Assyriological evidence supports the from the Babylonian Chronicle, a document desert and who know neither where he calls himself “the biblical contention that Menahem paid recording the reigns of the Babylonian kings, overseers nor officials and who subduer of the country Judah, tribute to Assyria to gain support for his including information about the relationship had not yet brought their tribute which is far away, the uprooter tenuous hold on the throne. between Babylonia and Assyria. The to any king. I deported their sur- of Hamath.” This inscription In contrast, Judah’s entrance into a Babylonian Chronicle comments only that vivors and settled them in couples Judah with the ruler tribute-bearing status with Assyria does “He [Shalmaneser V] demolished Samaria.” Samaria.” Sargon II deported the referred to as starting the trouble not have documented support beyond The next references to “Israel” date to inhabitants of Samaria and leading to Samaria/Bit Omri’s the Bible’s account. There are even hints the reign of Sargon II (722–705 B.C.), who brought captives from other destruction. The inscription does in the Bible that raise doubts about claims responsibility for the defeat and exile destroyed cities into Samaria. not relate Judah to Bit Omri, but the account’s authenticity. The biblical The Black Obelisk of Bit-Omri/Israel. In The passage from 2 Kings 17:6 to Hamath. explanation for why Assyria entered the of Shalmaneser III one text Sargon asserts, locates the “lost ten tribes” in The second reference to Judah area is that Israel attacked Judah, and from Nimrud “I besieged and con- Halah, at the river Habor, at the Assyrian king Tiglath-pilesar appears in a fragmentary prism IIIIII fromfrom NimrudNimrud COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM © ©

12 VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3 EXPEDITION WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 13 that describes Assyria’s TOP: Map of the first mil- of Hezekiah’s attempt to bring the northern remnant a suppression of a re- lennium Ancient Near East under his control. The Assyrian material, as indicated in FOR FURTHER READING showing the “lost 10 volt spearheaded by this article, adds a perspective to the ongoing discussion. tribes.” River Habor, Cogan, Mordechai, and H. Tadmor. 1988. II Kings: A Ashdod:“Together with Gozan, and Medes are The Assyrians may have destroyed ancient Israel, but the the rulers of Philistia, highlighted. There is no records they left behind may be the very texts that allow New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Judah, Edom, Moab scholarly consensus as to us to better understand who the people of Samaria/Bit New York: Doubleday. and those who live on the location of Halah; BOT- Omri/Israel were. TOM: Map of Israel, Judah, Cogan, Mordechai, and H. islands and bring trib- and their contemporaries Tadmor. 1994. “Supplementary ute...they sent countless AUTHOR’SNOTE Study F.” In The Inscriptions of evil lies to alienate subject groups and what To understand how the Assyr- Tiglath-Pilesar III King of (them) from me, and states were working to- ians viewed the relationship Assyria: Critical Edition, with sent bribes to Pir’u, gether against them. It is between Israel and Judah, Introduction, Translations, and king of Musru...” While Judah did not rebel, it is listed hard to imagine why they would try to avoid revealing a I have been scrutinizing the Commentary. Jerusalem: Israel with the areas in the south and east such as Philistia relationship between the two. The Assyrians infer a rela- Assyrian cuneiform texts — Academy of Sciences and Humanities. and Edom, not with the north and with Israel. Neither tionship between Israel/Bit Omri and the Aramaeans, something previously never inscription associates Judah in any way with Samaria/ and between Judah and the southern states. The other done. I am investigating how Marcus, Michele. 1987. Bit Omri/Israel. entities in the region opposed Assyria with Israel, so why they reported the relationship “Geography as an Organizing Judah is referred to by the subsequent Assyrian kings show those relationships and not one with Judah? between Israel and Judah by Principle in the Imperial Art of in association with the southern states of Philistia, Edom, A more shocking but probably better explanation reviewing, chronologically, ref- Shalmaneser III.”Iraq 49: 77-90. and Moab. Since Samaria/Bit Omri/Israel was destroyed, may be that there was no special relationship between erences to Israel and Judah in it is not surprising that the Assyrians do not discuss them Israel and Judah, or that the relationship recorded in the the Assyrian inscriptions. The Millard, Alan. 1994. “The further. Thus, the later references to Judah shed no Bible is more theological and ideological than historical results should add to the dis- Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire 910-612.” Helsinki: further light on the relationship between the two in the and was thus not discernible from the outside. This cussion of when and how the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus eyes of the Assyrians. option demands a more thorough investigation into the concept of unity between Israel Project, Department of Asian nature of the relationship between Israel and Judah and Judah was established. and African Studies, University DELINEATING A COMPARISON using archaeology, the Bible and other, extra-biblical, of Helsinki. A review of the Assyrian sources reveals that they saw texts. A ninth-century-B.C. inscription discovered at Tel Tammi J. Schneider received her no special connection between Israel and Judah. The Dan in Israel in 1993 contains a reference to Bit David doctorate in ancient history from Millard, Alan, and H. Tadmor. Assyrians group the two entities with different cities, (the house of David). The problem is that the context of the University of Pennsylvania. 1973. “Adad-nirari III in Syria: campaigns and situations. This the reference within the inscrip- She is associate professor of reli- Another Stela Fragment and the Dates of His Campaigns.” comparison of the biblical text tion is unclear because of breaks gion at Claremont Graduate Iraq 35:57-64. with the Assyrian accounts re- in the text. The inscription seems University teaching Hebrew veals that they differ most signif- to indicate that the House of Bible and ancient history. Most Pritchard, James. 1969. Ancient icantly around issues concerning David (not Judah) was connect- recently she published her book Near Eastern Texts Relating to who instigated revolts and the ed with Israel at some point. Judges in the Berit Olam series the Old Testament. Princeton: entry of Assyria into the region. With the growing body of published by Liturgical Press. She Princeton University Press. The main question is why the nonbiblical historical texts, such is the editor for the Ancient Near Assyrians would not reveal a as the Assyrian cuneiform East section of the journal Tadmor, Hayim 1994. The Assyrian king Sargon II in Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pilesar special connection between the tablets, there is scholarly consen- Religious Studies Review.She a relief from Khorsabad III King of Assyria: Critical COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM two when the Bible does? It is sus that not all biblical statements currently codirects the renewed © Edition, with Introduction, difficult to believe that the are grounded in history. Scholars archaeological excavations at Tel Translations and Commentary. Jerusalem: The Israel Assyrians did not know about are already questioning the el-Far’ah (South) in Israel. She is KRIEGER Academy of Sciences and Humanities. the relationship, since they were relationship between Israel and . a project director at the Institute engaged in the area for more Judah through internal biblical for Antiquity and Christianity Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures KRIEGER

. According to the Traditional Hebrew Text. Philadelphia: than 130 years before the evidence. Some posit that Israel WILLIAM H and serves on the board of : Jewish Publication Society, 1985. destruction of Israel. They knew and Judah were not joined until trustees for the American Schools Schneider at work at WILLIAM H about internal revolts of the after the exile of the north as part BOTTOM of Oriental Research. Tel el-Far’ah

14 VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3 EXPEDITION WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 15 that describes Assyria’s TOP: Map of the first mil- of Hezekiah’s attempt to bring the northern remnant a suppression of a re- lennium Ancient Near East under his control. The Assyrian material, as indicated in FOR FURTHER READING showing the “lost 10 volt spearheaded by this article, adds a perspective to the ongoing discussion. tribes.” River Habor, Cogan, Mordechai, and H. Tadmor. 1988. II Kings: A Ashdod:“Together with Gozan, and Medes are The Assyrians may have destroyed ancient Israel, but the the rulers of Philistia, highlighted. There is no records they left behind may be the very texts that allow New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Judah, Edom, Moab scholarly consensus as to us to better understand who the people of Samaria/Bit New York: Doubleday. and those who live on the location of Halah; BOT- Omri/Israel were. TOM: Map of Israel, Judah, Cogan, Mordechai, and H. islands and bring trib- and their contemporaries Tadmor. 1994. “Supplementary ute...they sent countless AUTHOR’SNOTE Study F.” In The Inscriptions of evil lies to alienate subject groups and what To understand how the Assyr- Tiglath-Pilesar III King of (them) from me, and states were working to- ians viewed the relationship Assyria: Critical Edition, with sent bribes to Pir’u, gether against them. It is between Israel and Judah, Introduction, Translations, and king of Musru...” While Judah did not rebel, it is listed hard to imagine why they would try to avoid revealing a I have been scrutinizing the Commentary. Jerusalem: Israel with the areas in the south and east such as Philistia relationship between the two. The Assyrians infer a rela- Assyrian cuneiform texts — Academy of Sciences and Humanities. and Edom, not with the north and with Israel. Neither tionship between Israel/Bit Omri and the Aramaeans, something previously never inscription associates Judah in any way with Samaria/ and between Judah and the southern states. The other done. I am investigating how Marcus, Michele. 1987. Bit Omri/Israel. entities in the region opposed Assyria with Israel, so why they reported the relationship “Geography as an Organizing Judah is referred to by the subsequent Assyrian kings show those relationships and not one with Judah? between Israel and Judah by Principle in the Imperial Art of in association with the southern states of Philistia, Edom, A more shocking but probably better explanation reviewing, chronologically, ref- Shalmaneser III.”Iraq 49: 77-90. and Moab. Since Samaria/Bit Omri/Israel was destroyed, may be that there was no special relationship between erences to Israel and Judah in it is not surprising that the Assyrians do not discuss them Israel and Judah, or that the relationship recorded in the the Assyrian inscriptions. The Millard, Alan. 1994. “The further. Thus, the later references to Judah shed no Bible is more theological and ideological than historical results should add to the dis- Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire 910-612.” Helsinki: further light on the relationship between the two in the and was thus not discernible from the outside. This cussion of when and how the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus eyes of the Assyrians. option demands a more thorough investigation into the concept of unity between Israel Project, Department of Asian nature of the relationship between Israel and Judah and Judah was established. and African Studies, University DELINEATING A COMPARISON using archaeology, the Bible and other, extra-biblical, of Helsinki. A review of the Assyrian sources reveals that they saw texts. A ninth-century-B.C. inscription discovered at Tel Tammi J. Schneider received her no special connection between Israel and Judah. The Dan in Israel in 1993 contains a reference to Bit David doctorate in ancient history from Millard, Alan, and H. Tadmor. Assyrians group the two entities with different cities, (the house of David). The problem is that the context of the University of Pennsylvania. 1973. “Adad-nirari III in Syria: campaigns and situations. This the reference within the inscrip- She is associate professor of reli- Another Stela Fragment and the Dates of His Campaigns.” comparison of the biblical text tion is unclear because of breaks gion at Claremont Graduate Iraq 35:57-64. with the Assyrian accounts re- in the text. The inscription seems University teaching Hebrew veals that they differ most signif- to indicate that the House of Bible and ancient history. Most Pritchard, James. 1969. Ancient icantly around issues concerning David (not Judah) was connect- recently she published her book Near Eastern Texts Relating to who instigated revolts and the ed with Israel at some point. Judges in the Berit Olam series the Old Testament. Princeton: entry of Assyria into the region. With the growing body of published by Liturgical Press. She Princeton University Press. The main question is why the nonbiblical historical texts, such is the editor for the Ancient Near Assyrians would not reveal a as the Assyrian cuneiform East section of the journal Tadmor, Hayim 1994. The Assyrian king Sargon II in Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pilesar special connection between the tablets, there is scholarly consen- Religious Studies Review.She a relief from Khorsabad III King of Assyria: Critical COPYRIGHT THE BRITISH MUSEUM two when the Bible does? It is sus that not all biblical statements currently codirects the renewed © Edition, with Introduction, difficult to believe that the are grounded in history. Scholars archaeological excavations at Tel Translations and Commentary. Jerusalem: The Israel Assyrians did not know about are already questioning the el-Far’ah (South) in Israel. She is KRIEGER Academy of Sciences and Humanities. the relationship, since they were relationship between Israel and . a project director at the Institute engaged in the area for more Judah through internal biblical for Antiquity and Christianity Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures KRIEGER

14 VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3 EXPEDITION WWW.MUSEUM.UPENN.EDU/PUBLICATIONS 15