Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook for the Lower Mississippi River Valley Contents Benefits of Habitat Management

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Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook for the Lower Mississippi River Valley Contents Benefits of Habitat Management ...... 6 Waterfowl ...... 6 Landowner and Landscape ...... 6 Assistance to Landowners ...... 7 Waterfowl Feeding Habits ...... 7 Waterfowl Habitat Complexes ...... 8 Site Selection ...... 8 Open Lands ...... 8 Habitat Development ...... 8 Levee Construction ...... 9 Water Control Structures ...... 9 Habitat Management ...... 10 Harvested Fields ...... 10 Moist-Soil Wetlands ...... 11 Agricultural Plantings ...... 13 Forested Lands ...... 15 Habitat Development ...... 15 Forest Habitat Management ...... 15 Water Management ...... 16 Wood Duck and Beaver Pond Management ...... 16 Levee Construction ...... 17 Water-Control Structures ...... 17 Nuisance Plant and Animal Management ...... 18 Aquatic Rodent Control ...... 18 Weed Management in Waterfowl Management Areas ...... 18 Application Methods and Calibration ...... 18 Herbicide Recommendations ...... 19 Recommendations and Restrictions for Commonly Used Herbicides in Waterfowl Habitat Management ...... 21 Selected References ...... 23 Appendix ...... 24 To sustain waterfowl populations at levels of the 1970s, as prescribed by the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (1986), private landowners must continue to provide habitat for wetland wildlife. Private landowners oversee the majority of wetlands remaining in the United States, so their cooperation is essential to any major conservation effort to restore and sustain waterfowl populations in the Mississippi Flyway. Many groups have worked together since the 1980s to develop waterfowl habitat on private lands. Much progress has been made, and this publication helps guide continuing efforts. This publication is for private landowners in the Lower Mississippi Flyway who want to improve their lands for waterfowl. It is a reference landowners can use for information about particular aspects of waterfowl management. For example, the publication answers questions such as these:

• How does managing my land benefit waterfowl?

• Who is available to help me manage my land for waterfowl?

• How do I manage soil, water, and plants to improve my land as water - fowl habitat?

Figure 1. The Lower Mississippi River Valley Alluvial Plain (the Delta) Knowledge is the showing remaining forested areas as of 1992. Map provided by the Lower Mississippi River Valley Joint Venture, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Serv- first requirement ice, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

for success in any The Mississippi Alluvial Valley (MAV) or Delta was created by flooding of the Mississippi River, which drains 41 percent of the venture. This is land mass of the continental United States. The Delta extends 500 miles from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to southern Louisiana, especially true when and it comprises more than 24 million acres in seven states. The Delta ranges from 20 to 80 miles wide and once contained the managing waterfowl largest spread of forested wetlands in the United States. Large-scale land clearing of seasonally flooded wetlands did on private lands. not occur in the Delta until the 1960s, and about one-third of the original wetland acreage was converted to farmland from 1950 to 1976. By 1991, only 4.9 million acres (20 percent) of forested wetlands remained, mostly in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Missis- sippi. The Delta is one of the most productive agricultural re- gions in the world because of its fertile soils, subtropical climate, abundant rainfall, and long growing season. The Mississippi Fly- way is frequently referred to as the “mallard flyway,” because hundreds of thousands to more than a million mallards typically winter in the Delta. The majority of these mallards are produced in the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta,

4 Manitoba, and the prairie-pothole region tinued flooding and food availability in agri- port to purchase and manage extensive and upper midwest of the United States. cultural and natural wetlands in the Delta. waterfowl habitat on public lands in the Mallards fly along two major migration In the 1980s, populations of several wa- Delta. This dilemma and research indicat- corridors in the Mississippi Flyway to terfowl species, including mallards, de- ing that mallards and likely other water- reach important wintering grounds in the clined because of extensive and long-term fowl species use private land in the Delta Delta states of Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, drought on the breeding grounds and loss in proportion to its availability (more than Mississippi, Louisiana, Missouri, and Ten- and degradation of habitat throughout 90 percent in private ownership) under- nessee. Historically, mallards wintering in North American flyways. In the Delta, score the need to manage private lands for the Delta depended primarily on acorns changing bottomland hardwood systems migrating and wintering waterfowl and and other natural seeds and aquatic inver- to croplands and other land uses and flood provide management information for tebrates found in extensive hardwood bot- control projects have decreased waterfowl landowners. tomlands to meet their nutritional needs. habitat. Public wildlife management areas As red oak, acorn-producing forests were and refuges continue to cleared, mallards began feeding in crop- provide an important lands, especially soybean and rice fields. “safety net” of habitat for Although mallards have adapted their waterfowl, especially dur- feeding and other behaviors to the loss of ing winter-drought peri- more than 80 percent of the forested wet- ods. But federal and state lands in the Delta, their physiological con- wildlife conservation dition and winter survival and perhaps agencies don’t have ade- even spring reproduction depend upon con- quate funding nor sup-

In the Delta, changing bottomland hardwood systems to croplands and other land uses and flood control projects have decreased waterfowl habitat.

Figure 2. The migration route, known as the Mississippi Flyway, used by waterfowl to reach the Lower Mississippi River Valley (the Delta) and other areas along the Gulf of Mexico coast. From the North American Flyway Directory, 1996, U.S. Department of Interior, Fish & Wildlife Service. 5 Benefits of Habitat aged flooding of agricultural lands outside the growing season can greatly reduce ero- Ma nagement sion. For example, research conducted by Waterfowl survival Waterfowl Mississippi State University (MSU) in the Frequency and intensity of precipita- Delta of Mississippi revealed that rice and body condition tion generally increase in the Delta in win- fields disked after harvest and left to drain ter. When private lands flood, waterfowl during winter lost nearly one-half ton of tend to increase spread from refuges and other public lands soil and organic matter per acre compared and use newly flooded agricultural land to only about 30 pounds per acre for har- when extensive and wetlands. There they feed on waste vested rice fields left in standing stubble agricultural seeds, natural seeds and tu- and allowed to flood during winter. flooding occurs bers, and aquatic invertebrates. Waterfowl When you operate water control struc- and other wetland-dependent wildlife ben- tures to provide winter wetlands for water- in winter. efit when this additional wetland habitat fowl, soil and organics settle out, clearing and resources become available on man- water through the settling process and re- aged private lands. Waterfowl survival leasing “clean” water when you drain fields. and body condition tend to increase when Also, surface water in agricultural fields extensive flooding occurs in winter. Birds can percolate through soil and help returning to the breeding grounds in an recharge aquifers. Impounded and winter- improved condition may have increased flooded croplands help ease flooding dur- reproductive potential and increased ing wet winters. You can improve soil production. Managing private lands for texture when you incorporate crop stubble migrating and wintering waterfowl is criti- into the soil by light disking or rolling fol- cal to sustaining viable and harvestable lowed by flooding fields in winter. Winter populations of waterfowl. flooding also increases soil moisture, en- hances seed germination in spring, and Landowner and Landscape lets young plants establish stronger root Landowners are increasingly aware systems. that wise stewardship of natural resources Waterfowl eat seeds, roots, and foliage is in their best economic interests. Here’s of many agricultural pest plants, including what protecting and restoring seasonal or red rice and various grasses. Ducks and permanent wetlands can do: geese eat about 10 percent of their body • Decrease soil erosion; weight daily in plant matter. Research indi- • Enhance soil tilth and moisture cates that large seeds with fairly thin seed retention; coats (such as red rice) generally do not pass through the digestive system of water- • Enhance ground-water stores; fowl. Also, research by MSU scientists has • Decrease winter weeds, crop pests revealed that rice fields left in standing (such as red rice), and later crop- stubble after harvest instead of being production costs; disked can reduce red rice infestations in • Lessen rice straw and other crop production fields. In fields with standing residues; stubble and “red rice,” red rice seed on the ground may germinate among the stubble • Improve quality of discharge during fall but then die after freezing waters; temperatures. In contrast, disking can • Improve water management bury red rice seed and keep it viable for capabilities; later germination. • Provide food and habitat for water- If you winter flood rice and other crop- fowl and other wetland wildlife; lands, you may not have to “burn down” early season weeds with herbicides before • Provide valuable recreational planting. MSU researchers found you can opportunities; and reduce weed-control costs by flooding rice • Generate on-site and local revenues. production fields during winter months. Although soil loss from fall-tilled crop- You reduce planting costs this way because lands in the Delta averages 3 to 4 tons per typical “winter weeds” do not grow on acre per year (based on estimates from the flooded landscapes. So, less land prepara- USDA, Agricultural Research Service), man- tion is required in spring. Many farmers

6 find they can use no-till or reduced-till planting during the following crop year, decreasing equipment use and fuel, labor, MSU researchers and herbicide costs. Landowners also can benefit by mar- found you can reduce keting hunting and other recreational activities (such as bird watching). Addi- weed-control costs tionally, landowners and local economies Feeding can gain valuable public relations benefits from allowing outdoor activities on pri- by flooding rice vate lands. production fields Assistance during winter to Landowners As part of a national cooperative effort to months. restore continental waterfowl populations, public and private conservation agencies and organizations have implemented private lands programs in several states in the Waterfowl Feeding Delta region. These partners provide Habits Rising wildlife management technical assistance Ducks in the Mississippi Flyway fall into and infrastructure for developing wet- Figure 3. Dabbling Ducks. lands for wildlife. In some cases, where po- two major groups: 1) dabbling and perch- tential benefits to waterfowl are great and ing ducks and 2) diving ducks. Dabblers resources permit, an organization or and perching ducks (mallard, gadwall, agency may provide incentives to blue-winged and American green-winged landowners willing to provide habitat for teals, northern pintail, American wigeon, waterfowl. northern shoveler, wood duck, and others) can walk well on land. They “tip-up” or dabble along the water surface to feed rather than dive, and they can fly up from land or water. Their feeding habitats in Contacts for waterfowl the Delta primarily include flooded (6 to 12 conservation assistance inches deep) agricultural lands and natu- on private lands: ral wetlands (such as hardwood bottomlands and moist-soil wetlands). They feed Delta Wildlife on agricultural seeds (such as rice, soybean, corn, and milo), natural seeds, and other parts of a variety of native plants Ducks Unlimited (see Appendix and the “Wetland Manage- Feeding ment for Waterfowl Handbook” in the ref- Mississippi Department of erences section of this publication or at Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks http://www.ms.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ NRCS%20Wetland%20Mgt%20for%20 Mississippi State University Waterfowl.pdf) and aquatic invertebrates College of Forest Resources (such as snails, scuds, crayfish, isopods, and and insects). Some species of dabbling Extension Service ducks, such as the gadwall and American Rising wigeon, feed heavily on aquatic vegetation. United States Fish and Wildlife Services Diving ducks (such as lesser scaup, Figure 4. Diving Ducks. ring-necked duck, bufflehead, canvasback, USDA Natural Resources redhead, goldeneye, hooded mergansers, and ruddy duck) cannot walk well on land. Conservation Services They dive to feed and run along the surface of the water to get airborne. Some species Wildlife Mississippi may congregate in large flocks and frequent lakes, rivers, coastal estuaries, reser-

7 voirs, and aquaculture ponds. Diving Waterfowl Habitat Site Selection ducks eat a variety of aquatic invertebrates, plant seeds, and tubers but only Complexes Poorly drained areas are usually chosen for rarely agricultural seeds. Lesser scaup, Waterfowl use and need different habitats developing wintering waterfowl habitats. goldeneye, ruddy ducks, bufflehead, and and foods in winter and before spring mi- Consider factors such as long-term land mergansers feed primarily on animal mat- gration. Habitat complexes (several habi- use objectives, soil type, flooding fre- ter (mollusks, crustaceans, fish), while can- tat types close together) provide more quency, accessibility, and freedom from dis- vasbacks, redheads, and ring-necked ducks suitable habitat than single habitats. MSU turbances, when selecting an area for eat aquatic plant parts. researchers found that the largest groups development. It is especially important to Private landowners in the Delta usu- of mallards and other dabbling ducks determine long-term objectives for your ally do not develop waterfowl habitat (more than 100 birds) in the Delta were property, because you should not develop specifically for diving ducks because large, associated with large tracts of flooded an area you can’t flood frequently or that deep impoundments are required. Winter- cropland (50 percent), natural emergent you may convert to an alternative use in ing diving ducks frequently use complexes wetland (such as 15 to 20 percent moist the near future. of catfish and bait-fish ponds, though. Also, soil), forested/scrub-shrub wetland (20 per- Give special attention to the soil type many projects developed for dabbling cent), and permanent wetlands (such as 10 in any area you are considering for devel- ducks often have deep areas that are suit- to 20 percent catfish ponds). opment into waterfowl habitat. Clay soils, able habitat for diving ducks. Food availability, habitat diversity, and commonly found at lower elevations in the Four migratory species of geese winter sanctuary are keys to retaining waterfowl Delta, are best suited for constructing lev- in the Delta: Canada, white-fronted (speck- in an area during winter. Frequent distur- ees because they tend to seal quickly when lebelly), snow, and Ross’s geese. In the bance reduces waterfowl use. Usually you flooded. Soil surveys of each county are 1990s, rapidly growing and spreading pop- should try to maintain at least 20 to 25 per- available at your USDA Service Center. ulations of these species, especially snow cent of managed waterfowl habitat as These surveys indicate soil types and pro- geese, have resulted in great abundances of sanctuary. Restricting the number of days vide other valuable information on pro- these birds in the Delta in winter. Also, lo- and hours of the day the areas are hunted posed sites. Consult private and public cally established populations of Canada also may decrease disturbance. Such man- conservation agencies or organizations for geese live year round in the Delta and else- agement options let waterfowl use sites help in developing managed wetlands. where in the Southeast. Geese eat plant and prevent areas from being “shot out.” When selecting a site for development, parts, such as seeds of waste wheat, rice, Some insightful managers do not let water- choose areas subject to regular, shallow and corn, natural seeds, tubers, green fowl hunting begin until an hour or so flooding during the winter. Do not develop browse, and roots. Favored foraging areas after sunrise so waterfowl can feed in sites prone to deep flooding or flooding for of all species of geese are harvested and un- habitats managed specifically for water- a long time, because they will not produce harvested croplands, cool-season grass fowl. Even ATV and other vehicle traffic waterfowl foods reliably, and maintenance fields (such as winter wheat), and moist- along roads and levees next to managed to repair levee damage may be costly. Habi- soil areas. habitats should be avoided to minimize tat sites should be accessible by farm equip- disturbances. ment so you can produce food for wildlife, repair damaged levees, and maintain water 10 to 20% permanent water control structures and levees. Areas away (catﬁsh ponds, sloughs, lakes) from actively traveled roads are preferred for development, and you will generally find it easier to control. Marginal agricultural lands, crop production fields, and forested wetlands are often suited for development as seasonally flooded waterfowl 20% forested wetland habitat. (willows, hardwoods) 50% ﬂooded croplands (corn, rice, milo) Open Lands Habitat Development Developing waterfowl habitat usually doesn’t conflict with USDA program regulations. But agricultural and other lands 20% moist-soil wetland may contain wetlands protected under (natural grasses, sedges, millet) wetland conservation provisions of the Food Security Act, often called Swamp- buster. The USDA National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) will help you Figure 5. Mallards and other dabbling ducks are found in Delta landscapes containing mixtures of habitats.

8 determine if any Swampbuster or Clean the base of the levee to prevent sloughing Water Act (CWA) permitting issues apply. or caving of material away from the levee. You will also be referred to the U.S. Army “When site condi- The side slopes of the borrow area should Corps of Engineers (COE) district office if be no steeper than the slopes of the levee you need a CWA 404 permit. Many agri- tions are good, trac- for easier maintenance. Wide and shallow cultural activities are exempt from permit borrow areas are much easier to drain and requirements. Cost-share for waterfowl tors pulling dirt pans are less likely to attract burrowing animals habitat development and enhancement on such as beavers, nutria, and muskrats. agricultural lands is often available generally are the Levees with 4:1 slopes or flatter (side through USDA conservation programs. slope of levee extends 4 feet for each foot of Contact your USDA Service Center for most economical way drop in levee height) are recommended to more information. NOTE: Waterfowl habi- provide safe operating conditions for tat development by private landowners to build levees, and grass-cutting and maintenance equipment. normally does not require wetland permits The top width or crown of the levee should or affect participation in USDA programs. you can minimize be at least 10 feet wide for maintenance But always check with the FSA, NRCS, and equipment. Levees impounding more than COE district offices before starting any ac- borrow areas.” 3 acres of water should have at least a 2- tivities within an existing wetland to en- foot freeboard (the height of levee above sure you comply with federal regulations, highest planned water level). In most especially if you intend to do any earth- cases, you should build an emergency spill- moving work or clearing. tired backhoes, motor graders, terrace way at one end of the most downstream plows, self-propelled scrapers, and dirt levee to reduce damage from overflow. Do Levee Construction pans pulled by tractors. When site condi- not build the spillway in the levee. Instead, On lands not already leveled and sur- tions are good, tractors pulling dirt pans rounded by levees, construction of low lev- dig it in the existing ground (at least 25 feet generally are the most economical way to wide and 1 foot below settled height of the ees is often necessary to create seasonal build levees, and you can minimize borrow wetlands for waterfowl and other wildlife. levee) where the slope of the ground is as areas. You can level adjacent fields by mov- flat as possible (5 percent or less is pre- Before you move any soil to construct a ing soil from higher elevations to form the new levee, either disk or strip the vegeta- ferred). Cover spillways with deep-rooted levee or grade borrow areas to drain to ex- vegetation or rock riprap to prevent ero- tion from the right-of-way to assure the isting ditches or pipes. Also, loaded dirt new levee will form a tight seal with the sion. Also seed levees with dense sod-form- pans provide excellent soil compaction ing grasses you can regularly mow to soil already there. Also remove all woody when you put soil in 6- to 8-inch lifts. vegetation in the right-of-way. Apply the prevent willows and other trees from be- You can build small levees with any of coming established. Never let trees estab- same treatment to borrow areas if they are the equipment mentioned above. You can not within the right-of-way. If water is lish on levees, because the trees weaken build medium-sized levees with bulldozers, levees and can cause breaching. Contact standing on the right-of-way, drain it so trackhoes, or terrace-building machines. equipment can operate efficiently. Next, your NRCS office for assistance when con- Include a heavy disk or sheepsfoot roller structing levees and spillways. put fill material in lifts approximately 6 to for compaction. After the fill material has 8 inches thick and compact it by running dried, bulldoze the levee for final shaping. Water Control Structures over the entire surface with the earth mov- You can use this method for small- to Flashboard risers made from steel or corru- ing equipment. Continue this process until medium-sized levees, but operating costs gated metal are commonly used to manage you reach the levee height you want. Build generally prohibit its use on larger projects. water levels on fields by installing or re- the levee 5 to10 percent higher than design If soil is borrowed next to levees during moving boards. Although water control height to make up for settlement. You can construction, the borrow areas should be structures fabricated from steel pipe are use various equipment to construct levees: situated no closer than 10 feet away from generally more expensive than corrugated bulldozers, draglines, trackhoes, rubber- metal, they last a long time and are less

Figure 6. Cross section on an impoundment levee with a 4:1 slope used to hold water on areas managed for waterfowl.

9 Figure 7. Half-round flashboard riser used to control water levels in open wetlands. likely to be damaged by farming or mainte- habitat for wintering waterfowl, and crop MSU researchers have determined that nance equipment. Another advantage of lands are one of the most prevalent land more than 70 percent of the waste rice using the steel pipe is that you don’t need a uses in the Lower Mississippi Flyway. But, from harvest operations decomposes, ger- concrete base to anchor the riser. Water waste agricultural seeds (such as those ac- minates, or is eaten by birds and rodents control structures fabricated from corru- cidentally lost during harvest) potentially after harvest between early fall and early gated aluminum pipe or corrugated steel available for waterfowl have declined sig- winter. Clearly, availability of waste agri- pipe with a protective polymer coating nificantly since the 1980s. Recent esti- cultural seeds for wintering waterfowl is (you have to be careful not to damage the mates by the Waterfowl Working Group of markedly less nowadays. Nevertheless, har- coating during installation) also have a the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture vested croplands provide important habi- long life expectancy. Flashboard risers are of the North American Waterfowl Manage- tat for migrating and wintering waterfowl generally preferred to other types of water ment Plan indicated that harvested soy- if the fields are not disked after harvesting control structures because they are self- bean fields contain about 50 lbs/acre of and are shallowly flooded during winter (6 regulating when you know the correct waste seed, rice fields about 70 lbs/acre, to 18 inches). elevation of the boards in the control struc- and corn and milo fields about 130 lbs/acre. ture. One more choice of materials for pipes and flashboard risers is HDPE (high- density polyethylene) pipe. Except for a steel pipe and flashboard riser combina- SELECTED SPECIFICATIONS FOR STRAIGHT-PIPE WATER CONTROL tion, all these structures must be anchored STRUCTURES EQUIPPED WITH SLOTTED-BOARD RISERS* (usually in concrete) to prevent flotation. Drainage Areas (0.0 foot head) Riser Specifications Full-round risers are an alternative to Round Pipe Half-round Riser Box Riser flashboard risers and are generally pre- diameter 4 inches/24 hr 6 inches/24 hr diameter L x W ferred in locations where beavers are a (inches) (acres) (acres) (inches) (inches) problem. The initial cost of full-round ris- 12 12 8 18 9 x 18 ers is greater than flashboard risers, but these structures are equipped with fea- 15 21 14 24 12 x 24 tures to prevent beavers from entering the 18 34 23 30 15 x 30 pipe or getting to the boards in the riser. 21 49 33 36 18 x 36 For more information on full-round risers and their benefits, refer to Water Control 24 68 46 42 21 x 42 Structures in the Forested Lands section of 30 119 80 54 27 x 54 this publication on page 15. 36 190 127 66 33 x 66

Habitat Management EXAMPLE: A 12-inch-diameter pipe with an 18-inch half-round riser drains 4 inches of water in 24 hours from a 12-acre field. You can also use schedule 80 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) water control structures (pipe drops) Harvested Fields equipped with a drainage valve to control water levels. PVC pipe is widely available, requires little mainte- Winter flooded croplands, both harvested nance, and can be put together on the construction site. But it is easily damaged by farming equipment or fire. and not, can provide important forage and *Reprinted from the USDA NRCS, Grade Stabilization Structure Design, Data Sheet MS-Eng-410AA (Delta).

10 deep to provide habitat for early migrants such as blue- winged teal, shorebirds, Two of the most and other waterbirds. Waterfowl benefit most important things to when you gradually increase flooding rather than consider when manag- covering management areas quickly and coming moist-soil units are pletely. By increasing water levels slowly, you the timing of the flood new areas, and more food becomes available to annual drawdown and waterfowl. This helps save food during winter and the number of years Moist-soil wetland provides a range of water depths that attract a variety of waterfowl. You can plant since soil disturbance Rice fields are especially important to tall and robust grain crops (corn or milo) in (such as disking). waterfowl. Harvested rice fields are among areas where water will be deeper. Flood the most economical areas to manage for fields from late October to mid-November, waterfowl, because often you can repair ex- and maintain them at least until early isting levees after harvest and shallowly March the next year. Gradually drain man- tion from grasses and sedges is generally flood the rice stubble to create waterfowl aged areas in the spring to concentrate greater when moist-soil units are drained habitat. In many areas, farmers have in- aquatic invertebrates and make in early to mid-growing season. Early sea- stalled permanent levees that let rice fields it easier for foraging by ducks and other son drawdowns occur within the first 45 be flooded again after harvest. MSU scien- waterbirds. days of the growing season, midseason tists have determined that the most waste Moist-Soil Wetlands within the second 45 days, and late-season rice in late autumn was in fields left in Although croplands are important forag- drawdowns during the remainder of the standing stubble, followed by burned, ing habitats for waterfowl, agricultural growing season at specific locales. To get a mowed, rolled, or disked stubble. The scien- seeds do not provide a nutritionally com- diversity of habitats for waterfowl and tists also found on a large rice production plete diet for waterfowl. Managed moist- other wetland wildlife, try to develop a farm near Stuttgart, Arkansas, that mal- soil areas are natural wetlands with a wide complex of multiple units that enable vari- lard and other dabbling duck use was variety of plant species but are usually ous drawdown dates and rates, intervals greatest in rice paddies burned or rolled dominated by grasses and sedges that pro- between soil disturbance, and habitat ma- after harvest and flooded in winter, and duce lots of seeds and tubers. Also, moist- nipulations (such as mowing, burning, and duck use was least in paddies containing soil wetlands harbor diverse aquatic disking). Research has shown that wet- standing stubble. The scientists recom- invertebrate communities. MSU scientists lands with a 50:50 interspersion of vegeta- mended leaving stubble or burning fields determined that managed moist-soil areas tion to water (“hemi-marshes”) are to save waste rice and create a mix of stub- in the MAV average more than 12 times attractive to waterfowl and other birds on ble and water after flooding. Also, research greater duck foraging potential (such as in- both breeding and wintering grounds. So, indicates waterfowl feeding in rice fields dexed by duck use days) than harvested autumn mowing or light disking of dense also reduces red rice and other weeds the rice fields in this region. Managed moist- moist-soil vegetation to create a “hemi- next production cycle. soil areas can provide rich and complete marsh” after flooding may help attract wa- Agricultural seeds decompose at differ- foraging habitats and cover for waterfowl terfowl, especially in early winter before ent rates when flooded. Milo and corn and can make up for the lack of waste agri- vegetation naturally topples. Manipulat- kept above water and rice either above or cultural seeds nowadays. Also, moist-soil ing natural vegetation is legal and does not below water persist well during winter wetlands are fairly economical to establish create a “baited” site, but a “baited” site is compared to soybeans, which break down and manage because plant communities created by manipulating crops in the year rapidly when they absorb water. Also, soy- emerge from natural “seed banks,” and of planting. If earlier planted vegetation beans contain a biochemical that inhibits other typical costs of crop production are “volunteers” (such as naturalized vegeta- use of protein by waterfowl, and the greatly reduced or gone (such as irrigation, tion) in later growing seasons, as millets needed energy ducks get from soybeans is herbicide, fertilizer, and the like). and rice sometimes do, it is legal to manip- lower than other agricultural seeds and Two of the most important things to ulate this naturalized vegetation if no many other natural seeds and tubers. Ide- consider when managing moist-soil units planting was done within the naturalized ally, 10 percent of the waterfowl manage- are the timing of the annual drawdown vegetation in the current year. ment area should be flooded from mid- to and the number of years since soil distur- late August to late September 2 to 6 inches bance (such as disking). Total seed produc-

11 To produce the most seed, keep native stands of moist-soil plants the next year. with desirable plants. Several small (1/4 to plant communities in an early successional Disk as early as possible in spring for seeds 1/2 acre) patches of coffeeweed comprising stage, that is, plants dominated by seed- to germinate and plants to grow. But if less than 10 percent of the total area to be and tuber-producing annual grasses and moist-soil units stay wet and a tractor flooded actually can be beneficial because sedges and not perennials, such as rushes, can’t get to them until late summer or fall, they provide cover for waterfowl and cattails, and woody vegetation. The per- MSU scientists have shown that soil distur- hunters. If coffeeweed or other potential centage of nonfood-producing-plant bance at this time prepares the site and nuisance plants invade 50 percent or more species generally tends to increase in each promotes moist-soil vegetation next grow- of a management area, control them with consecutive year when you don’t disturb ing season. Sometimes deep disking or herbicides or by mowing and flooding the an area. Soil disturbance greatly affects the plowing is needed to bring deeply buried stubble. Chemical control is better if lots of response of native plants to different man- seeds and tubers near the surface to pro- desirable grasses and sedges are already on agement techniques. Generally, you need mote germination and growth. the area. Controlling undesirable plants to disk moist-soil units every 1 to 3 years to Inspect areas managed for native by disking, mowing, herbicides, or flood- control perennial forbs, trees and shrubs, plants or agricultural crops weekly. Nui- ing takes only about one-third as much and other unwanted vegetation. Fre- sance plants, such as cocklebur, sicklepod, fuel as conventional row cropping for do- quently, entire fields or parts of them that morning glory, coffeeweed (Sesbania), and mestic small grains. are cropped in one year produce excellent vines, can quickly germinate and compete

ACTIVITY SCHEDULE FOR MANAGING MOIST-SOIL AREAS FOR WATERFOWL

Activity Timing Management Recommendations

Early season drawdown First 45 days after last killing frost. Slow drainage (decrease water levels in 6-inch increments every 2 to 4 weeks until area is drained); permits wildlife to use food resources and young wood ducks to fledge.

Midseason drawdown 46 to 90 days after last killing frost. Slow drainage as described above.

Late-season drawdown More than 91 days after last killing frost. Slow drainage as described above.

Vegetation monitoring About 14 days after drawdown. Monitor the occurrence of cocklebur, coffeeweed, and woody plants every 14 days, and implement control when these species cover more than 50 percent of the ground.

Weed control After monitoring and as needed. After cocklebur, coffeeweed, and other broadleaves have emerged, control with an appropriate selective broadleaf herbicide (see Table on page 19 for specific herbicide recommendations).

Fertilization (not required) When desirable grassy-weedy 75 to 100 pounds of urea/acre; or for plants are 2 to 6 inches high. maximum seed production, conduct a soil test and follow recommendations.

Flooding August 15 to September 30. Shallowly flood (2 to 6 inches) 10 percent of the total managed area to provide habitat for early migrants, such as blue-winged teal. September 30 to November 15. Increase water levels slowly until entire area is flooded by November 15.

December to Early January. Some managers save several moist-soil areas for flooding in December through January when more waterfowl are present.

12 ity that agricultural seeds will be available when When rice plants are 6 inches tall, you can waterfowl arrive in early winter, because some shallowly flood (2 to 4 inches) to keep down weed crop loss is likely to occur in summer-fall by black- growth. Rice survives and forms seeds under birds, deer, hogs, raccoon, and/or coyotes. As said moist-soil conditions. These moist-soil conditions before, it is illegal to manipulate in any way (such also will promote growth of native vegetation. as disk, roll, bush-hog, burn) planted crops in the Some managers refer to a mixture of rice and year of planting. For example, you may have a moist-soil vegetation as “dirty rice.” This mixture dense stand of rice or some other crop in front of a does provide excellent foraging habitat for water- duck blind and you want to create an opening to fowl. Varieties of rice are available that you can set decoys for waterfowl hunting. If the crop is ma- plant in the Delta in early spring (April) and har- nipulated in any way in the year of planting, you vest in August. This may allow enough time for Japanese Millet have created a baited site and are subject to a “bait- the rice to produce a second seed head (or ratoon ing” violation. Clearly, landowners and lessees crop) for wintering waterfowl to use. Results from should contact law enforcement personnel to an- USGS and MSU scientists indicate that irrigation swer specific questions about baiting. after the first harvest is critical for ratooning. You You can broadcast browntop or Japanese mil- cannot manipulate ratoon crops in hunted areas, lets (12 to 25 lbs/acre) directly on a well-prepared because this is baiting. Although rice is an excel- seedbed and harrow to assure good germination. lent food for waterfowl, blackbirds also exploit rice Because millets are in the grass family, they are and can deplete a field of rice before waterfowl hardy plants and normally require little care. have a chance. Japanese millets are adapted to the heavy, wet Corn and milo also are excellent crops for wa- soils commonly found in the Delta. Although terfowl because they are high in energy. Although Japanese millets cannot establish themselves on a corn and milo do best on well-drained loam or flooded seedbed, they will tolerate several inches light-clay soils, you can grow them on moderately Browntop Millet of flooding after they reach about 4 inches tall. drained soils. Early drawdowns (during the first 45 You can direct seed Japanese millets on mud flats, days of the growing season) are necessary when such as in drained management units or beaver planting corn because of its long maturation pe- ponds. Browntop millet is better suited for drier riod, intolerance of heat and drought, and suscep- sites. tibility to insect and other pests. However, You can also mow millet before they produce varieties called “tropical corn” are readily available seed heads to set back their date of maturity. This and adapted to late- and warm-season planting. strategy is valuable when you have to plant millets Plant or drill corn in rows about 36 inches apart, early (as in May-June) to take advantage of soil with about 8 to 10 inches between plants (about moisture. If you mow millet to set back its matu- 18,000 to 20,000 seeds/acre), on well-prepared rity date, leave 6- to 12-inch stubble to provide seedbeds, or broadcast and cover it with 1 inch of enough “green stem” for plant regrowth. Control topsoil. You can apply a preemergent herbicide or heavy infestations of armyworms and other pests apply herbicide to glyphosate-resistant corn after Grassy Corn in crop fields with appropriate insecticides. plants are about 10 inches tall. Then you can halt Agricultural Plantings See your county Extension agent for insecticide later herbicide use to allow grasses and other de- You can also plant fields or food information. sirable moist-soil vegetation to grow with the corn. plots with agricultural seeds such Rice also is an excellent crop to plant and en- This combination of corn and moist-soil grasses, as Japanese millet (Chiwapa mil- rich waterfowl foraging habitats: often termed “grassy corn,” provides high energy let), browntop millet, corn, milo, • It is a wetland grass adapted to clay soils and (“hot”) grain, natural seeds, and aquatic inverte- and rice. These plants typically flooding; brates after flooding. produce lots of seeds for water- • It produces hundreds, possibly thousands, of A particularly good waterfowl foraging habitat fowl. Landowners considering pounds of seed per acre; and and hunting area is 18 or more rows of “grassy planting agricultural crops in wa- • Its seeds persist well when flooded during the corn” adjacent to natural moist-soil vegetation terfowl management areas winter. where “grassy corn” was grown the previous year. Annual rotation of “grassy corn” and moist-soil should consult Extension offices Rice seed planted for waterfowl does not have to patches is an excellent strategy to provide a diver- or farm cooperatives to deter- be certified or treated with a fungicide, but we rec- sity of “hot” and natural foods in managed habitat mine the best planting date and ommend treated seed to prevent decomposition and hunting units. You can produce “grassy milo” strategies for specific geographic during the cool, moist, spring planting period. To similarly to “grassy corn” by widely spacing planted locations and soil and water prevent straight heading (blank seed heads) and rows of milo to let sunlight promote grass cover be- conditions. ensure best seed production, plant rice where you tween rows. Also, if you harvest milo by early Au- In establishing food plots, re- can irrigate by pumping or where you can catch gust, a ratoon milo crop may be produced from cut member to plant large enough rain and runoff. Sheath blight is the common stubble. areas (at least 10 to 20 acres, for cause of blank seed heads in rice, so be sure to use example) to increase the probabil- blight-resistant varieties and fungicides for control. 13 ACTIVITY SCHEDULE FOR PRODUCING AND MANAGING SMALL GRAINS FOR WATERFOWL

Activity Timing Management Recommendations

Spring drainage About 2 weeks before planting dates Hold water on cropland until near planting time to control weeds recommended by Extension and to encourage use of food bywaterfowl and other wildlife. for crop grown. Ground preparation 14 days or more after drawdown. Disk as needed to prepare a seedbed or use “burn down” herbicides and plant using no- or reduced-till. Planting After seedbed preparation or best Recommended seeding rates: planting dates in your area; consult • rice – 90 lb/acre your Extension agent. • Japanese and browntop millet - 12 to 25 lb/acre • corn – 18,000 kernels/acre Fertilization Consult Extension agent for dates to apply. For best results, soil test and follow recommendations. General applications: • rice – up to 180 lb/acre of nitrogen and up to 40 lb/acre of phosphorus and potassium. If you apply a blend, use 20-10-10 at a rate of 800 lb/acre. For rice, divide the nitrogen into two applications – one pre flood, one midseason. • millets – up to 60 lb/acre of nitrogen and up to 40lb/acre of phosphorus and potassium. If you apply a blend, use 300 lb/acre of 20-10-10 or 450 lb/acre of 13-13-13. • corn – up to 200 lb/acre of nitrogen and up to 60 lb/acre or phosphorus and potassium. Apply one third of the nitrogen and all of the phosphorus and potassium at planting. Apply the remaining nitrogen at six-leaf stage. If you apply a blend, use 400 lb/acre of 13- 13-13 and 350 lb/acre of 34-0-0 at six-leaf stage. Or apply 800 lb/acre of 20-10-10 all at once. Weed control Early part of growing season. Selectively treat areas with herbicides, bushhog, or disk when infestation levels of cocklebur, coffeeweed, or other undesirable broadleaved plants cover more than 25 percent of the ground. Review the “Herbicide Recommendations” section for a more thorough review of this topic. Be sure to read and follow all the labeled instructions when applying herbicides. Flooding May to June. For rice production, flood rice when plants are 5 to 6 inches tall, and keep 2 to 4 inches of water throughout the growing season. August 15 to September 30. Shallow flood (2 to 6 inches) 10 percent of the total managed area to provide habitat for early migrants, such as blue-winged teal. November 15 to January 1. Increase water levels gradually to flood entire management area between November 15 and early January.

14 Forested Lands Engineers to determine if you need a sec- created, these openings typically are main- tion 404 permit to begin construction in tained as hunting sites by regular mowing Habitat Development your wetland areas. or disking to limit woody regeneration. Forested and other wetlands with woody Forest Habitat Management If mast-producing red oaks are scarce plants meet special habitat needs for wa- Waterfowl management plans for GTRs within lowland forests, managers may terfowl that wetlands with herbaceous should maintain or increase the number plant red oak seedlings adapted to the site vegetation or flooded croplands don’t pro- and quality of red oaks (such as water, wil- conditions to increase availability of mast- vide. Woody habitats produce nutritious low and Nuttall) in the stand and encour- bearing trees. You may have to inject mid- plant and animal foods for waterfowl and age crown development that increases and under-story trees to make sure there is provide them with roosting and loafing acorn (mast) production. Selectively apply- enough sunlight for seedling establish- sites, cover from predators and bad ing herbicides by injection (known as ment and growth. Plant Japanese or weather, and isolation for courtship and “hack and squirt”) to remove some non- browntop millets in areas open to sunlight pair bonding. mast-producing tree species can be used to to supplement natural food availability in Two broad categories of forested wet- alter stand composition and release mast- forested wetlands. Because of the potential lands are frequently managed as water- producing species, possibly increasing value of timber involved, it is always advis- fowl habitat: 1) greentree reservoirs (GTR), acorn production and availability for able to use a professional forester before which are tracts of bottomland hardwood ducks and other wildlife. managing lowland forests. forest that can be flooded in winter by Creating small openings of three acres Based on estimates by the Lower Mis- pumping or gravity flowing water or by or less in forested wetlands can provide sissippi Valley Joint Venture, average acorn natural flooding, and 2) bald cypress- entry points into these wetlands for water- production in red oak stands (about 110 tupelo brakes, other swamp-tree brakes fowl and enhance hunting opportunities. lbs/acre) is similar to estimated availability (such as willow, green ash, and red maple), These openings can be created by conven- of waste seeds remaining in harvested rice, shrub-scrub sloughs (buttonbush, privet), tional timber harvest or by using a small soybean, corn, and grain sorghum fields in and beaver ponds. MSU scientists discov- bulldozer-like implement (such as skid- late fall (about 100 lbs/acre). Research indi- ered the greatest densities of mallards and steer loader) with mulching head. This de- cates that mallard ducks stop feeding in other dabbling ducks were associated with vice has been used effectively in Delta rice fields when waste rice declines to landscape complexes of several habitats, forests to fell and mulch densely over- about 45 lbs/acre. If this “giving-up” thresh- including about 20 percent forested or grown areas (with trees up to 6 inches in old for waterfowl feeding is similar for bot- scrub-shrub wetlands. diameter), understory trees and scrub- tomland hardwood forests, there may be a Regarding GTRs, they may not be shrub (such as green ash, red maple, privet, fairly small foraging “buffer” in these habi- needed in lowland forested areas that swamp elms), and create individual open- tats. But oaks with a diameter at breast flood naturally every year or frequently. ings or reduce dense understory to estab- height of 14 to 30 inches can produce lots of If you are considering construction of a lish a more open “park-like” habitat. Once acorns. So, you need to keep a basal area of GTR, you should contact the Army Corps of 40 to 80 square feet of desirable species per

Figure 8. Full-round flashboard riser used to control water levels in forested welands or other areas where beavers may cause problems..

15 acre. Also, try to keep a good age-class dis- tions. You must use herbicides approved tribution (seedlings, young trees, and ma- for aquatic application in these wetlands. ture timber) of a variety of oaks to ensure Don’t flood hardwood Research has revealed that wood duck continued mast production. Also keep duckling survival tends to be greatest in large trees with cavities at a rate of one forests until their leaves scrub-shrub wetlands, perhaps because cavity per acre for cavity-nesting wildlife. predation on ducklings is less in these wet- Water Management change color in the fall. lands. You can put wood duck boxes in Prolonged annual flooding of bottomland scrub-shrub wetlands to enhance produc- hardwood forests in winter and into Also, drain GTRs in tion of wood ducks and other cavity-nest- spring often causes changes in the forest ing birds. But don’t put wood duck boxes type. In such stands regeneration by desir- winter before tree in or around water bodies you manage for able mast-producing oaks is generally re- largemouth bass, because these aquatic duced, and mature trees may be replaced buds begin to swell. predators eat ducklings. For further infor- by more water-tolerant species such as wil- mation on managing for wood duck pro- low, bald cypress, green ash, red maple, duction, see “Wood Duck Broods in Dixie: water locust, and overcup oak. Although Striving To Survive Early in Life” at ing depths accordingly instead of flooding http://fwrc.msstate.edu/pubs/ducklings.pdf. permanent timber damage may occur deep enough for hunters operating boats within 1 to 2 years when forests remain Beavers can provide waterfowl habitat and motors. in areas where landowners are willing to flooded after trees leaf out in the spring, Wooded brakes and shrub-scrub you may not see it for 4 to 5 years. manage them and tolerate some damage sloughs that are permanently flooded pro- from their activities. Beaver ponds provide Don’t flood hardwood forests until duce less food for waterfowl than GTRs. their leaves change color in the fall. Some nest sites (in cavities of live and dead trees), When these flooded habitats naturally dry brood habitat, and roosting cover for wood managers flood GTRs in late summer with or are drained in the summer (mid-June to water drained from rice fields and other ducks and other cavity-adapted birds and early July), they can produce good natural wildlife. Permanently flooded beaver harvested croplands. But we strongly ad- waterfowl food plants such as grasses, vise against flooding GTRs while trees are ponds frequently do not provide abundant sedges, smartweeds, and duck potato. You food for waterfowl. If you are willing to photosynthesizing, because flooding can also can seed mudflats of these drawn- halt this process, harm forest health, and manage water levels by breaking dams down wetlands with commercially avail- and installing water-management devices, eventually cause trees to die. able millets. Also, GTRs should be drained in winter you can improve beaver pond wetlands for before tree buds begin to swell. A general Wood Duck and waterfowl. guideline for the Mississippi Delta and Beaver Pond Management In July to early August, you can break neighboring states is that dormancy for In flooded areas with dense stands of beaver dams where the water is deepest bottomland hardwoods is mid November scrub-shrub thickets or robust emergent and install a three-log drain or Clemson through February, so managers should plants, you can increase waterfowl use by beaver pond leveler to manage water lev- strive to have GTRs drained by late Febru- using chemicals to create small openings (1 els. Then you can drain beaver ponds and ary to avoid timber damage and enhance acre or larger) and “hemi-marsh” condi- let mud flats vegetate naturally or plant regeneration of desirable tree species. GTRs should not be flooded more often than every other year or every two years. If red oak and other desirable hardwood seedlings regenerate from acorns or other seeds, GTRs should remain unflooded for at least 2 years to let the seedlings grow higher than typical flooding within the GTR. It is important for seedlings not to be flooded outside the winter dormancy period to prevent killing seedlings. When you do flood GTRs, do it gradually to imi- tate natural, local water flow patterns. Don’t flood GTRs deeply. Suitable foraging depths for mallards and wood ducks are less than 18 inches and preferably 4 to 12 inches. Consider the depth a duck can forage, given the distance between its bill and its feet when tipping up, and gauge flood- Figure 9. Three-log drain used to help control water levels in beaver ponds. Reprinted from Arner et al (1966).

16 with Japanese millet. Although Japanese tant to be sure the soil beneath the levee are equipped with a solid steel lid with an millet will not establish itself in standing can support the additional weight of new access door. Inlet and outlet pipes should water, good stands often result when soil is fill material. If the area beneath the new sit below ground level so the pipe is not ex- moist during the growing season. levee is soft or has a high organic content, posed until most or all of the water is Check drains in beaver ponds fre- you may have to excavate some of the exist- drained from the impoundment. Some- quently during the growing season to be ing soil and backfill the area with suitable times beaver deterrent pits are dug at the sure they are not plugged and water is ac- material before building the new levee. pipe inlet. These pits are excavated 2 to 3 cumulating and overtopping desired vege- Many times suitable borrow material is feet beneath the pipe inlet. Despite all tation. You can let beavers rebuild dams in not readily available in forested areas, mak- these safeguards, beaver activity around October through November to create win- ing it necessary to transport off-site mate- the structure will usually require periodic ter wetlands. rial to lessen project impacts. For more maintenance. The inlet pipe should be Levee Construction information on levees, refer to Levee Con- where you can reach it by hand or with a Developing habitat for waterfowl in struction in the Open Lands section of this backhoe or similar equipment to remove forested wetlands poses unique challenges. publication. beaver debris. Habitat development in forested areas is Water-Control Structures generally much more costly and complex Because water control structures in than developing in croplands or open wet- forested wetlands are subject to damage lands. If not planned, constructed, and from beavers, control structures should be managed properly, these projects often made from steel pipe. We recommend a hurt forest stand health and vigor. full-round riser equipped with an intake The first step is to get a 404 permit trash rack to prevent beavers from impact- from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (con- ing the inside the water control structure tact your NRCS office for help) before con- with mud and debris. You can also install structing waterfowl habitat projects in trash racks on the outlet end of pipes to forested wetland areas. Site conditions prevent beavers from getting to the riser typically are much more challenging in structure. But you have to check these these habitats because of wet conditions racks often to be sure debris does not col- and the presence of standing timber. As lect on the inside and restrict water flow with levee construction in any type of through the pipe. habitat, remove all vegetation and woody Beavers are attracted to the sound and material from the levee right-of-way before sight of running water. To reduce the noise placing any fill material. Next, it is impor- created by water running, full-round risers

Beaver ponds can be managed for wood duck habitat with proper water control.

Figure 10. Clemson beaver pond leveler used for controlling water levels in beaver ponds.

17 Nuisance Plant and servation agency for proper permitting tant factor is presence or absence of water. when removing otters. Taking otters may If there is water or if you are applying in a Animal Management require a permit outside of trapping sea- drained wetland, you are required to use Aquatic Rodent Control son, and it does require a trapping herbicides with aquatic labels. An aquatic Aquatic rodent control is often a necessary permit/license during the open trapping label means you can use the product in part of waterfowl habitat management to season. standing water at the recommended label reduce damage to levees and lessen main- Two other aquatic rodents cause simi- rates. Still another concern with use of her- tenance to water control structures. lar problems: nutria and muskrat. Nutria bicides is the possible effect on desirable Beavers can dam almost any water sys- and muskrat can burrow into levees and vegetation and nontarget plants and ani- tem, including road culverts, bridges, and will eat lots of plants intended for water- mals through spray drift or volatilization spillways. Beaver dens may be in river and fowl if population levels get too high. You of the herbicide. Clearly, if you have any stream banks, pond banks, and levees. can trap for both these animals with body doubts regarding spraying herbicides, con- When constructing dens, beavers also dig gripping traps or snares. Because these an- tact the herbicide company representative tunnels. This weakens levees and eventu- imals are smaller than beaver, a No. 220 or or your Extension office. ally causes levees to collapse. No. 110 Conibear® is preferred, especially Application Methods The most effective tools for controlling for muskrat. and Calibration beavers are body gripping traps and For more information on state trapping laws and nuisance wildlife control Proper calibration and spray equipment snares. Body gripping traps such as a No. are musts for effective weed management 330 Conibear® quickly dispatch animals. laws, contact the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks (MDWFP). using herbicides. Commonly used spray You can buy these at farm supply stores or equipment may include pump-up, hand- trapping supply companies. You can also The Mississippi Extension Service and USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection held, and backpack sprayers; ATV and trac- use foothold traps set as a live capture or a tor-mounted tank and boom systems; and drowning set. Snares are generally hand- Service (APHIS) Wildlife Services can provide help and information on use of traps, airplane- and helicopter-mounted spray made, lightweight, and can be set in vari- systems. The last tools are typically used ous wetland sites. When using any trap or snares, and other options to control aquatic rodents. by professional applicators for large-scale snare, be aware of nontarget animals such treatments. as cats and dogs. To avoid most nontarget Weed Management in Water- One of the most important aspects of animals, put traps underwater. fowl Management Areas using herbicides is proper calibration of Night shooting is another effective way Managing weeds in waterfowl manage- spray equipment. Improper calibration to control beavers. Before trying this, ment areas requires an integrated ap- can cause serious problems, such as killing check with your local conservation officer proach for success. Relying on one nontarget vegetation and increasing cost or county sheriff to make sure this method technique does not work well enough. of application by applying too much chem- is legal. Be aware of safety, since many Techniques may include burning vegeta- ical. Calibration is equipment-specific, so types of ammunition can ricochet off the tion, disking, mowing, and using herbi- do it before applying herbicides. Formulas water surface. A 12-guage shotgun with a cides. Herbicides can offer a cost-effective are available to make calibration easier. It slug or buckshot is probably all you need alternative for management of problem- is also important to be able to change val- when night-shooting beaver in a pond set- atic plants. When using herbicides, ues from one unit of measure to another ting. Again, be aware of nontarget species, always read labels and apply only (as in changing acres to square feet). such as otter. Check with your state con- prescribed label rates. Another impor-

COMMON FORMULAS USED IN CALIBRATING SPRAY EQUIPMENT

Description Formula

Determining how many gallons per minute GPM = (GPA)(MPH)(NSI) (GPM) your spray apparatus puts out (5940)

Determining how many gallons per acre GPA = (GPM)(5940) (GPA) your spray apparatus puts out (MPH)(NSI)

Determining the correct speed (MPH) MPH = (GPM)(5940) of your spray apparatus (GPA)( NSI) Determining the proper width of your (GPM)(5940) NSI = nozzle spacing in inches (NSI) (GPA)(MPH) *5940 is a constant used to eliminate units within the above equations. **Review Extension Publication 1532 for more information about calibrating spray equipment.

18 COMMON CONVERSION FACTORS FOR CALIBRATION AND HERBICIDE USE Area Acre to square feet Acre to hectare Hectare to square meter Hectare to acre 1 ac = 43,560 ft2 1 ac = 0.405 ha 1 ha = 10,000 m2 1 ha = 2.47 ac Distance Inches to centimeters Meter to feet Meter to inches Miles to feet 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 m = 3.28 ft 1 m = 39.37 in 1 mi = 5280 ft Speed MPH to feet/minute 1 MPH = 88 ft/min Volume Gallon to fluid ounce Gallon to pint Gallon to quart Gallon to liter 1 gal = 128 fl oz 1 gal = 8 pt 1 gal = 4 qt 1 gal = 3.785 L Gallon to milliliter Pint to fluid ounce Pint to fluid ounce Fluid ounce to milliliter 1 gal = 3785 mL 1 pt = 16 fl oz 1 qt = 32 fl oz 1 fl oz = 29.57 mL Weight Pounds to grams Pounds to ounce Pounds to kilograms Kilograms to pounds 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 lb = 16 oz 1 lb = 0.45 kg 1 kg = 2.2 lbs Herbicide Recommendations agency or organization (such as, NRCS, tion regarding each herbicide, consult the Herbicide recommendations for prob- MSU Extension, or Ducks Unlimited). Fol- label and/or your Extension agent. Read lem plants are provided below. If you have lowing are recommendations to maximize each label carefully, and follow questions regarding plant identification, effectiveness of common herbicides and re- instructions explicitly. contact your local resource management strictions for their use. For more informa-

HERBICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMON PROBLEMATIC PLANTS IN WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREAS IN THE MISSISSIPPI ALLUVIAL VALLEY Troublesome Weeds Herbicide Rate (fl oz/acre) Alligatorweed 2,4-D 64 (Alternanthera philoxeroides) Carfentrazone 6.7 - 16.5 Glyphosate 96 Imazapyr 16 - 64 Triclopyr 64 - 256 Beakrush Glyphosate 48 - 64 (Rhynchospora corniculata) Imazapyr 32 - 48 Buttonbrush Glyphosate 48 - 64 (Cephalanthus occidentalis) Imazapyr 32 - 48 Cattail Glyphosate 72 - 96 (Typha spp.) Imazapyr 32 - 64 Coffee Senna 2,4-D 32 - 128 (Cassia occidentalis) Dicamba 8 - 24 Glyphosate 16 - 32 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Common Cocklebur 2,4-D 32 - 128 (Xanthium strumarium) Aciflurofen 8 - 24 Bentazon 24 - 32 Bromoxynil 16 - 32 Carfentrazone 0.67 Dicamba 8 - 24 Glyphosate 11 - 32 Flumetsulam* 0.8 - 1.33 Imazapyr 48 - 64 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Duckweed Carfentrazone 6.7-13.5 (Lemna spp.) Diquat 128 Flouridone** 4 Imazapyr 32 - 48 Eurasian Watermilfoil 2,4-D 364 (Myriophyllum spicatum) Diquat 128 - 256 Endothall 256 - 320 Triclopyr 90 - 294 Hemp Sesbania 2,4-D 32 - 128 (Sesbania exaltata) Aciflurofen 16 Carfentrazone 6.7 - 13.5 Dicamba 8 - 24 Glyphosate 16 - 32 Triclopyr 42 - 192

19 HERBICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMON PROBLEMATIC PLANTS IN WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREAS IN THE MISSISSIPPI ALLUVIAL VALLEY Troublesome Weeds Herbicide Rate (fl oz/acre) Lotus, American Carfentrazone 6.7 - 13.5 (Nelumbo lutea) Glyphosate 64 Imazapyr 32 - 48 Triclopyr 64 - 256 Morningglories 2,4-D 32 - 128 (Ipomoea spp.) Aciflurofen 16 Bromoxynil 16 - 32 Carfentrazone 0.33 - 0.67 Dicamba 8 - 24 Glyphosate 16 - 32 Flumetsulam* 0.8 - 1.33 Imazapyr 48 - 64 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Prickly Sida “Teaweed” Glyphosate 32 (Sida spinosa) Purple Loosestrife 2,4-D 32 - 64 (Lythrum salicaria) Glyphosate 64 - 96 Imazapyr 16 Triclopyr 192 - 256 Redvine Aciflurofen 8 - 24 (Brunnichia ovata) Dicamba 16 - 64 Glyphosate 16 - 48 Imazapyr 48 - 64 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Sicklepod 2,4-D 64 - 128 (Cassia obtusifolius) Dicamba 8 - 24 Glyphosate 16 - 32 Flumetsulam* 0.8 - 1.33 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Smartweed 2,4-D 32 - 128 (Polygonum spp.) Aciflurofen 8 - 24 Bentazon 24 - 32 Bromoxynil 16 - 32 Carfentrazone 0.5 Dicamba 8 - 24 Glyphosate 72 - 120 Imazapyr 32 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Trumpet Creeper Aciflurofen 8 - 24 (Campsis radicans) Dicamba 16 - 64 Glyphosate 48 - 68 Imazapyr 64 - 96 Triclopyr 42 - 192 Waterhyacinth 2,4-D 64 - 128 (Eichhornia crassipes) Diquat 64 - 96 Glyphosate 80 - 96 Imazapyr 16 Triclopyr 64 - 256 Water Pod 2,4-D 32 - 64 (Hydrolea quadrivalvis) Glyphosate 72 - 96 Water Primrose 2,4-D 32 - 128 (Ludwigia uruguayensis) Carfentrazone 13.5 Glyphosate 72 Imazapyr 64 - 96 Triclopyr 32 - 256 Willow Dicamba 16 - 64 (Salix spp.) Glyphosate 72 Imazapyr 32 - 48 Triclopyr 32 - 256

* Rate expressed as dry weight (oz/acre) ** Rate expressed as fl oz/acre foot 20 Recommendations and product application. Thorough coverage 10 mph. Add 2 pints of nonionic surfactant of foliage is essential for best results. per 100 gallons of spray solution. Make Restrictions for Com- Apply when the potential for drift to adja- aquatic applications as subsurface or as a monly Used Herbicides cent sensitive areas (such as residential surface application with a suitable weight- areas, bodies of water, and known habitats ing agent (see label for recommended in Waterfowl Habitat for threatened or endangered species, non- weighting agents) to submerse the spray. Management target crops) is minimal (such as when Total concentration of carfentrazone-ethyl wind is blowing away from the sensitive must not exceed 200 ppb in the treated 2,4-D areas). Use a standard herbicide boom water area. Apply in spring or early sum- Complete coverage of foliage is essential sprayer that provides uniform and accu- mer when plants are actively growing. for maximum effectiveness. Apply when rate application. Sprayer should be When using in water, do not treat more plants are small and actively growing be- equipped with screens no finer than #50 than one half the area at one time to avoid fore the bud and rosette stages and before mesh in the nozzle tips and in-line strain- oxygen depletion and fish kill. flower stalks appear. Do not spray in ers. Select a spray volume and delivery sys- winds higher than 10 mph. Do not apply Dicamba tem that will ensure thorough and This product is not currently labeled for during a low temperature inversion*, be- uniform spray coverage. For optimum cause drift potential is very high. Increase aquatic use. Apply when air temperatures spray distribution and thorough coverage, are between 50 and 77 °F. Do not apply droplet size in low humidity periods to re- use flat fan nozzles (maximum tip size duce the chance of drift. Adding 1 qt of when there is a risk of severe drop in tem- nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of peratures. Do not contaminate domestic spray solution may increase herbicide ef- or irrigation water. Thoroughly clean ap- fectiveness. You can apply in water by Carefully read and plication equipment. Do not treat areas spraying on exposed vegetation or subsur- where movement of the chemical into the face injections. Carefully read and follow follow aquatic and soil or surface washing may bring dicamba aquatic application recommendations into contact with roots of desirable plants. from herbicide label. When using in water, terrestrial application Treat when wind is less than 9 MPH. Do do not treat more than one half of the area not apply when weather conditions may at time of application to avoid oxygen de- cause drift from target areas to adjacent pletion and fish kill. recommendations sensitive crops. Leave an adequate buffer zone between treatment areas and sensi- Aciflurofen from herbicide label. tive plants. Use coarse sprays, because they This product is not currently labeled for are less likely to drift than fine sprays. Do aquatic use. Do not apply more than a not spray when the temperatures are total of 3 pints per acre per season. Allow 8008) with a spray pressure of 40 to 60 psi. higher than 86 °F. Avoid spraying in high at least of 15 days between sequential humidity or fog. treatments with aciflurofen. Do not use Other nozzle types and lower spray pressures treated plants for feed or forage. Allow 4 that produce coarse spray droplets may not Diquat hours or more to ensure rain fastness. provide adequate coverage. In general, a Apply as a subsurface injection to non- spray volume of 10 to 20 gallons per acre flowing water. Apply evenly over plant- Bentazon (GPA) is recommended. Applications using infested area and may apply directly to This product is not currently labeled for less than 10 gallons per acre may result in re- emergent or floating leaves. Do not apply aquatic use. Uptake into the plant is pri- duced weed control. When weed infestations in muddy/turbid water. Do not treat more marily through the leaves. Thorough cover- are heavy, you may age of foliage is important for control. have to use more Failure to penetrate crop or weed leaf spray volumes and canopies with the spray will result in in- spray pressure. complete control of small weeds growing When using in underneath. Cool weather conditions water, do not apply (such as < 50 °F) or drought will delay her- when winds are bicidal activity and if prolonged, may re- gusty, to minimize sult in poor weed control. Apply when off-target spray broadleaf weeds are small and actively movement. growing and before the weeds reach maximum size. Carfentrazone Thorough coverage Bromoxynil of foliage is essen- This product is not currently labeled for tial for best results. aquatic use, so do not apply to vegetation Do not spray in in standing water or if you plan to flood winds greater than the sprayed area within one month after

21 than one half the area at one time to avoid Glyphosate Triclopyr oxygen depletion and fish kill. Thorough coverage of foliage is essential Complete coverage of foliage is essential Endothall for best results. Add 1 to 2 qt nonionic sur- for best results. Use higher rates within Spray or inject liquids under water. Apply factant per 100 gallons of spray solution. the labeled rate range when plants are ma- granules evenly with cyclone seeder. Apply Aquatic applications require aquatic-la- ture, when the weed mass is dense, or for as soon as possible after weeds begin to beled glyphosate as well as approved non- difficult-to-control species. Do not spray in grow and water temperature is above 65 °F. ionic surfactants. winds greater than 10 mph. Do not apply When treating in sections, treat on 5- to 7- Imazapyr during a low temperature inversion*, be- day interval. Use higher rates (as stated in Add 1 quart of an aquatic approved non- cause drift potential is great. Adjust label) when spot treating. Do not treat ionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray droplet size in low humidity periods to re- more than one half the area at one time to solution. Well established weed infesta- duce chance of drift. Adding 1 qt nonionic avoid oxygen depletion and fish kill. tions may require greater rates (see prod- surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solu- uct label for recommendations). Spray tion may increase herbicide efficacy on the Flumetsulam target plant(s). This product is not currently labeled for when wind speeds are between 3 and 10 MPH. Higher wind speeds increase chances aquatic use, so do not apply to vegetation *In a temperature inversion, the air at the in standing water or if you plan to flood for drift. Do not apply during temperature inversions (see footnote) because of high soil surface is cooler than the air above. the sprayed area within three months after The cool air mass stays at the soil surface product application. May not be mixed or risk for drift. Note: imazapyr is not recommended for tank mixing; tank mixing may and does not vertically mix with the air loaded within 50 feet of any wells (includ- above it. Small spray particles can be ing abandoned wells and drainage wells), reduce efficacy and require higher rates of imazapyr. Adsorption of imazapyr to soil trapped within the cool air and may travel sinkholes, perennial or intermittent horizontally at low elevations for several streams and rivers, and natural or im- increases with decreased pH (less than 6.5) and is influenced by soil moisture. It is im- miles, contacting off-target plants and pounded lakes and reservoirs. Do not crops. apply through any type of irrigation portant to check the soil pH and moisture system. before using imazapyr.

22 Selected References Gray, M. J., R. M. Kaminski, G. Weerakkody, B. D. Nelms, K.D., editor and compiler. 2007. Wet- Leopold, and K. C. Jensen. 1999. Aquatic in- land management for waterfowl handbook. Arner, D. H., J. Baker, and D. E. Wesley. 1966. The vertebrate and plant responses following me- USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Serv- management of beaver and beaver ponds in chanical manipulations of moist-soil habitat. ice, Greenwood, Mississippi. the southeastern United States. Water Re- Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:770-779. sources Research Institute, Mississippi State Pearse, A.T. 2007. Design, evaluation, and appli- University. 18 pp. Havens, J.H. 2007. Winter abundance of water- cation of an aerial survey to estimate abun- fowl, waterbirds, and waste rice in managed dance of wintering waterfowl. Dissertation, Arner, D. H., and G. R. Hepp. 1989. Beaver pond Arkansas rice fields. Thesis, Mississippi State Mississippi State University, Mississippi wetlands: a southern perspective. Pages 117- University, Mississippi State, Mississippi. State, Mississippi. 128 in L. M. Smith, R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski, editors. 1989. Habitat manage- Heitmeyer, M. E., R. J. Cooper, J. G. Dickson, and Powers, K. D., R. E. Noble, and R. H. Chabreck. ment for migrating and wintering waterfowl B. D. Leopold. 2005. Ecological relationships 1978. Seed distribution by waterfowl in in North America. Texas Tech University of warmblooded vertebrates in bottomland southwestern Louisiana. Journal of Wildlife Press, Lubbock. hardwood ecosystems. Pages 281-306 in L. H. Management 42:598-605. Fredrickson, S. L. King, and R. M. Kaminski, Reinecke, K. J., R. M. Kaminski, D. J. Moorhead, J. Bateman, D., R. M. Kaminski, and P. A. Magee. editors. Ecology and management of bottom- 2005. Wetland invertebrate communities D. Hodges, and J. R. Nassar. 1989. Mississippi land hardwood systems: the state of our un- Alluvial Valley. Pages 203-243 in L.M. Smith, and management of hardwood bottomlands derstanding. University of Missouri- in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Pages 173- R.L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski, editors. Columbia. Gaylord Memorial Laboratory Spe- Habitat management for migrating and win- 190 in L. H. Fredrickson, S. L. King, and R. M. cial Publication No. 10, Puxico, Missouri. Kaminski, editors. Ecology and management tering waterfowl in North America. Texas of bottomland hardwood systems: the state Kaminski, R. M., J. B. Davis, H. W. Essig, P. D. Ger- Tech University Press, Lubbock. of our understanding. University of Mis- ard, and K. J. Reinecke. 2003. True metaboliz- Shearer, L. A., B. J. Jahn, and L. Lenz. 1969. Dete- souri-Columbia. Gaylord Memorial Labora- able energy for wood ducks from acorns rioration of duck foods when flooded. Jour- tory Special Publication No. 10. Puxico, compared to other waterfowl foods. Journal nal of Wildlife Management 33:1012-1015. of Wildlife Management 67:542-550. Missouri. Smith, L. M., R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski, Checkett, J. M., R. D. Drobney, M. J. Petrie, and D. Kross, J. J., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, and A. editors. 1989. Habitat management for mi- A. Graber. 2002. True metabolizable energy T. Pearse. 2008. Conserving waste rice for grating and wintering waterfowl in North of moist-soil seeds. Wildlife Society Bulletin wintering waterfowl in the Mississippi Allu- America. Texas Tech University Press, Lub- 30:1113-1119. vial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management bock. 72:1383-1387. Cross, D. H. 1988. Waterfowl management Smith, L. M., D. A. Haukos, and R. M. Prather. handbook. U.S. Department of the Interior, Kross, J., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, E. J. 2004. Avian response to vegetative pattern Fish and Wildlife Service. Fish and Wildlife Penny, and A. T. Pearse. 2008. Moist-soil seed in playa wetlands during winter. Wildlife So- Leaflet 13. Washington, DC. abundance in managed wetlands in the Mis- ciety Bulletin 31:474-480. sissippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Stafford, J. D., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, and Davis, J.B., and R.M. Kaminski. 2002. Wood duck Management 72:983-994. broods in Dixie: striving to survive early life. S. W. Manley. 2006. Waste rice for waterfowl Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Research Manley, S. W., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, and in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Advances 7(2):1-4. P. D. Gerard. 2004. Waterbird foods in win- Wildlife Management 70:61-69. ter-managed rice fields in Mississippi. Jour- Davis, J.B., R.R. Cox, Jr., R.M. Kaminski, and B.D. nal of Wildlife Management 68:74-83. Leopold. 2007. Survival of wood duck ducklings and broods in Mississippi and Alabama. Manley, S. W., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, and Journal of Wildlife Management 71:507-517. P. D. Gerard. 2005. Agronomic implications of waterfowl management in Mississippi rice Fredrickson, L. H., and D. L. Bateman.1992. fields. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33:981-992. Greentree reservoir management handbook. University of Missouri, Gaylord Memorial Mitchell, W. H., and C. J. Newling. 1986. Green- Laboratory, Puxico, Missouri. tree reservoirs. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wildlife Resources Management Manual, Fredrickson, L. H., and T. S. Taylor. 1982. Manage- Technical Report EL-86-9, Section 5.5.3, U.S. ment of seasonally flooded impoundments Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experi- for wildlife. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Re- ment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi. source Publication 148. Neely, W.W. 1956. How long do duck foods last Fredrickson, L. H., S. L. King, and R. M. Kamin- under water? Transactions of the North ski, editors. Ecology and management of bot- American Wildlife Conference 21:191-198. tomland hardwood systems: the state of our understanding. University of Missouri-Co- Nelms, C. O., and D. J. Twedt. 1996. Seed deterio- lumbia. Gaylord Memorial Laboratory Spe- ration in flooded agriculture fields during cial Publication No. 10. Puxico, Missouri. winter. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24:85-88.

23 Appendix Desirable Plants

Beggarticks (Bidens spp.) Broadleaf signalgrass Chufa, Yellow nutsedge Enhancement: (Urochloa platyphylla) (Cyperaus esculentus) Late-season drawdowns. Enhancement: Shallow disk Enhancement: Shallow disk and late-season drawdown. and mid-season drawdown.

Crabgrass (Digitaria spp.) Docks (Rumex spp.) Duck potatoes (Sagittaria spp.) Enhancement: Late-season Enhancement: Early-season Enhancement: Maintain shallow flood drawdowns. drawdowns. and expose mudflats in August through September.

Duckweeds (Lemna spp.) Flatsedges (Cyperus spp.) Foxtails (Setaria spp.) No enhancement recommendation. Enhancement: Shallow disk and Enhancement: Shallow disk mid- to late-season drawdown. with slow drawdowns.

24 Millets, Wild (Echinochloa spp.) Panic grasses (Panicum spp.) Rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides) Enhancement: Shallow disk Enhancement: Shallow disk and Enhancement: Slow and slow drawdowns. mid- to late-season drawdown. late-season drawdown.

Sedges (Carex spp.) Smartweeds, Annual Spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.) No enhancement recommendation. (Polygonum spp.) Enhancement: Maintain Enhancement: Slow shallow flood. early-season drawdowns.

Sprangletops (Leptochloa spp.) Teal Lovegrass Toothcup (Ammania coccinea) Enhancement: Shallow disk and (Eragrostis hypnoides) Enhancement: Shallow disk and mid- to late-season drawdowns. No enhancement recommendation. late-season drawdowns.

25 Undesirable Plants

Water plantain (Alisma subcordatum) No enhancement recommendation. Alligatorweed Lotus, American (Alteranthera philoxeroides) (Nelumbo lutea) Control: See Herbicide Table Control: See Herbicide Table on pages 19-20. on pages 19-20.

Balloon vine Cattails (Typha spp.) Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) (Cardiospermum halicacabum) Control: See Herbicide Table Control: See Herbicide Table Control: Late-season disking. on pages 19-20. on pages 19-20.

Coffeeweed (Sesbania spp.) Eurasian watermilfoil Redvine (Brunnichia ovata) Control: See Herbicide Table (Myriophyllum spicatum) Control: Control: See Herbicide Table on pages 19-20. Control: See Herbicide Table on pages 19-20. on pages 19-20.

26 Rose mallow (Hibiscus spp.) Sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolius) Teaweed (Sida spinosa) Control: Late-season disking. Control: See Herbicide Table Control: Late-season disking on pages 19-20. followed by slow drawdown.

Trumpet creeper Waterpod (Hydrolea quadrivalvis) (Campsis radicans) Control: See Herbicide Table Control: See Herbicide Table on pages 19-20. on pages 19-20.

Marginal Value Plants These plants provide some waterfowl food and/or cover but may need control depending on management objectives. Consider control when these plants have 20 percent or greater coverage of impoundment.

Asters (Symphyotrichum spp.) Beakrush, Horned Broomsedge Control: Late-season disking followed (Rhynchospora corniculata) (Andropogon virginicus) by slow drawdown. Control: See Herbicide Table Control: Late-season disking on pages 19-20. followed by slow drawdown.

27 Marginal Value Plants These plants provide some waterfowl food and/or cover but may need control, depending on management objectives. Consider control when these plants have 20 percent or greater coverage of impoundment.

Burreed (Sparganium spp.) Buttercups (Ranunculus spp.) Buttonbush Control: Late-season disking Enhancement: early-season (Cephalanthus occidentalis) followed by slow drawdown drawdowns Control: See Herbicide Table on pages 19-20

Goldenrod (Solidago spp.) Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) Morning glories (Ipomoea spp.) Control: Late-season disking Control: Strip disking to Control: Late-season disking followed by slow drawdown discourage monoculture followed by slow drawdown

Pigweeds (Amaranthus spp.) Ragweeds (Ambrosia spp.) Rushes (Juncus spp.) Control: Late-season disking Control: Late-season disking Control: Late-season disking followed by slow drawdown followed by slow drawdown followed by slow drawdown

28 Marginal Value Plants These plants provide some waterfowl food and/or cover but may need control, depending on management objectives. Consider control when these plants have 20 percent or greater coverage of impoundment.

Smartweeds, Perennial Sumpweed (Iva annua) Swamp milkweed (Polygonum spp.) Control: Late-season disking (Asclepias incarnata) Control: See Herbicide Table followed by slow drawdown. Control: Late-season disking on pages 19-20. followed by slow drawdown.

Water primrose (Ludwigia spp.) Willows (Salix spp.) Control: See Herbicide Table Control: See Herbicide Table on pages 19-20. on pages 19-20.

Food-producing Trees Acorn/nut-producing Trees – Mast from these trees are used by wood ducks and mallards as rich sources of energy and fatty acids.

Bitter Pecan (Carya lecontei) Cherrybark Oak (Quercus pagoda) Overcup Oak (Quercus lyrata)

29 Food-producing Trees Acorn/nut-producing Trees – Mast from these trees is a rich source of energy and fatty acids for wood ducks and mallards.

Pin/Nuttall Oak Shumard Oak (Quercus shumardii) Water Oak (Quercus nigra) (Quercus palustris/nuttallii)

Willow Oak (Quercus phellos)

Samara-producing Trees Samaras from these trees are a highly digestible source of carbohydrates in spring for wood ducks.

Red Maple (Acer rubra) Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica)

30 Natural Cavity-producing Trees

American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) American Elm (Ulmus americana) Bald Cypress (Taxodium distichum)

Black Willow (Salix nigra) Red Maple (Acer rubra) Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum)

Sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) Tupelogum (Nyssa aquatica)

31 Contributors Dr. Andrew W. Ezell Billy Hill Department of Forestry Engineer Mississippi State University Ducks Unlimited

Kris Casscles Godwin Joshua C. Chesier and Dr. John D. Madsen State Director – Mississippi Georesources Institute USDA APHIS Wildlife Services Mississippi State University

Photo Credits: Alison Fox, University of Florida, Bugwood.org Charles T. Bryson, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bugwood.org Dave Menke, DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge Ducks Unlimited Joshua D. Stafford, Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org Mississippi Trees by Hodges, J.D., et al 2008, Mississippi Forestry Commission Troy Evans, Eastern Kentucky University, Bugwood.org USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service USDA NRCS PLANTS database

We thank the following for funding support:

Publication 1864 (rep-09-18) Compiled and edited by Bronson K. Strickland, PhD, Extension Professor, Wildlife, Fisheries, & Aquaculture; Richard M. Kaminski, PhD, Professor Emeritus, Wildlife Ecol- ogy and Management; Kevin Nelms, Wildlife Biologist, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; and Adam Tullos, Extension Instructor, Center for Resolving Human- Wildlife Conflict, from an earlier version by James R. Nassar, Will E. Cohen, Curtis R. Hopkins, Harvey Huffstatler, and Dean Stewart. Mississippi State University is an equal opportunity institution. Discrimination in university employment, programs, or activities based on race, color, ethnicity, sex, preg- nancy, religion, national origin, disability, age, sexual orientation, genetic information, status as a U.S. veteran, or any other status protected by applicable law is prohib- ited. Questions about equal opportunity programs or compliance should be directed to the Office of Compliance and Integrity, 56 Morgan Avenue, P.O. 6044, Mississippi State, MS 39762, (662) 325-5839. Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. GARY B. JACKSON, Director