THE , , 1964: EFFECTS ON TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND UTILITIES

Effects of the Earthquake Of March 27,1964, on Air and Water Transport, Communications, and Utilities Systems In South-Central Alaska

By EDWIN B. ECKEL

A description of the disruption and damage that all systems sustained from seismic wibrations and tectonic changes and from the slides, waves, and fires caused by the earthquake

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 545-B DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR STEWART L. UDALL, Secretarg

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY William T. Pecora, Director

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1967

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 35 cents (paper cover) THE ALASKA EARTHQUAKE SERIES

Tho U.S. Geological Survey is publishing the results of its investigations of the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964-, in a series of six professional papers. Professional Paper 545 describes the effects of the earthquake on trans- portation, communications, and utilities. Other professional papers describe the effects on communities, regions, and the hydrologic regimen; and one gives the history of the field investigations and reconstruction effort.

CONTENTS

Communications and utilities- Continued Page Power systems in Anchorage and the Matanuska Valley Anchorage------and on the Kenai Penin- Cordova ------sula------Kodiak Naval Station------Petroleum and natural gas fa- Kenai Peninsula ------_--- cilities ------Seward------Seldovia------Anchorage------Whittier------Kodiak and Kodiak Naval Sta- Cordova ------Other. . airports------tion------Kodiak------Shipping ------Seward ------Valdez------Effect on economic pattern - - - Valdez------Navigation aids ------Communications and utilities - - Whittier------Anchorage------Communications systems- - - - - References cited ------

ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES- Page 1. Map of south-central Alaska, showing where principal ports, airports, and utility systems were damaged by the earthquake- _ _-_------2-16. Photographs: 2. Control tower at Anchorage International Airport, collapsed by the earthquake- 3. New control tower at Anchorage International Airport ---_----___------4. Airstrip at Seldovia, under repair -----____ ...... ------5. Anchorage municipal wharf and part of the port of Anchorage- ---__------6. Cordova Harbor as it appeared in ...... 7. New small-boat basin on Homer Spit------__-_------8. New small-boat basin and railroad dock at Seward ...... 9. Rebuilt Seldovia port at low tide in - ...... 10. Valdez, old and new sites------...... ---- 11. Partly completed port facilities at new town of Valdez- ......

12. Tipped power poles, Turnagain Arm-- _ _ _ _ _ - - _ - _ - _ _ _ _------13. Wrecked power poles, Turnagain Arm- - - - - ______- - - _------14. Gas pipes, ruptured in tension and compression------15. Gas main broken by landslide in Anchorage------___------16. Sewardls new standby generating plant------_------..------1.-South-central Alaska, showing main power (short-dashed) and gas-transmission (solid) lines and principal communities whose ports, airports, or utility systems were damaged by the earthquake. Land to left of zero land level change line was generally lowered; land to right of line was raised. VI THE ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964: EFFECTS ON TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND UTILITIES

EFFECTS OF THE EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 27, 1964, ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS, AND UTILITIES SYSTEMS

By Edwin B. Eckel

ABSTRACT

The earthquake of March 27, 1964, fully 90 percent of its requirements- remarkably short times. Communica- wrecked or severely hampered all forms mostly by water-and whose largest tions systems were silenced almost ev- of transportation, all utilities, and all single industry is fishing. Except for erywhere by loss of power or by downed communications systems over a very those of Anchorage, all port facilities lines; their place was quickly taken by large part of south-central Alaska. Ef- in the earthquake-affected area were de- a patchwork of self-powered radio trans- fects on air transportation were minor stroyed or made inoperable by subma- mitters. A complex power-generating as compared to those on the water, rine slides, waves, tectonic uplift, and system that served much of the stricken highway, and railroad transport sys- fire. No large vessels were lost, but area from steam, diesel, and hydro- tems. A few planes were damaged or more than 200 smaller ones (mostly generating plants was disrupted in many wrecked by seismic vibration or by crab or salmon boats) were lost or se- places by vibration damage to equip- flooding. Numerous airport facilities verely damaged. Navigation aids were ment and by broken transmission lines. were damaged by vibration or by sec- dedtroyed, and hitherto well-known wa Landslides in Anchorage broke gas-dis- ondary effects of the earthquake, nota- terways were greatly altered by uplift tribution lines in many places, but the bly seismic sea and landslide-generated or subsidence. All these effects wrought main transmission line from the Kenai waves, tectonic subsidence, and com- far-reaching changes in the shipping Peninsula was virtually undamaged. paction. Nearly all air facilities were economy of Alaska, many of them to Petroleum supplies were disrupted, prin- partly or wholly operational within a it betterment. cipally by breakage or loss of storage few hours after the earthquake. Virtually all utilities and communi- tanks caused by seismic vibration, The earthquake inflicted enormous cations in south-central Alaska were slides, waves, and fire. Water-supply damage on the shipping industry, which damaged or wrecked by the earthquake, and sewer lines were also broken in is indispensable to a State that imports but temporary repairs were effected in many towns.

INTRODUCTION

The earthquake of March 27, scribed in detail by Waller (1966a, ized here. The principal places 1964, wrecked or severely ham- b). The earthquake damage to affected are shown on figure 1. pered all forms of transportation, one of the chief sources of electric The report is necessarily a syn- all utilities, and all communica- power in the Anchorage area- thesis of information collected and tions systems over a very large the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation's reported by others in the course part of south-central Alaska. Eklutna Hydroelectric Project- of investigating various regional The relationship of geology to is described by Logan (1967), and or topical phases of the earth- the earthquake's effects on the a novel method of tracing breaks quake story; most of these sources highway and railroad systems in underground utility lines by are listed in the bibliography. was studied in detail by Reuben means of a portable television In addition, several of the writ- Kachadoorian and by D. S. Mc- camera is described by Burton er's colleagues, particularly Reu- Culloch and M. G. Bonilla, re- (in Logan, 1967). spectively, and their findings will In order to complete the pic- ben Kachadoorian and George be reported separately in this ture of the earthquake's effects Plafker, have contributed many series. Similarly, effects on wa- on the works of man, its effects pieces of information; this com- ter supplies, from both surface on air and water transport and pilation would have been far less and underground sources, are de- on utilities are briefly summar- complete without their help. B1 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 AIR TRANSPORT

The earthquake's effects on air commercial air capability, Alaska fixed objects; at least one plane transportation were minor as com- has one aircraft for each 156 was badly damaged by water pared to those on the water, people; one person in every 55 immersion on a ramp at the highway, and railroad transport is a licensed pilot. Kodiak Naval Station, one mas systems. This minor damage was The few planes that were air- destroyed at Kodiak, and several doubly fortunate, for the earth- borne at the moment the earth- small planes were wrecked by quake catastrophe itself made quake struck were of course not waves at Seward. immediate massive airlifts essen- damaged, though some had com- Damages to airport facilities tial. Moreover, air transport of munications difficulties and some mere caused in part bx earthquake people and goods is much more were diverted to other airports. vibrations, in part by secondary important in Alaska than else- Planes on the ground or in hangars effects, notably waves, and in where in the United States. In were damaged by being battered part by tectonic subsidence and addition to the great military and against each other or against compaction. Numerous buildings

2.-Control tom-er at Anchorage International Airport, collapsed by earthquake shaking. Photograph by Federa1,Aviation Agency. EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B3 were damaged and their utilities disrupted by seismic shaking. The wrecked control tower at Anchorage International Airport was one of the greatest single losses, caused by vibration, that directly affected the aviation system (figs. 2, 3). Some sub- sidiary buildings, however, such as the military hospital at Elmen- dorf Air Base, sustained greater damages in terms of total repair costs. Many runways, aprons, and taxiways were cracked and made uneven by shaking and the resultant differential consoli- dation of alluvial materials or artifical fill. Hangars, seaplane ramps, and parts of the runways at Kodiak Naval Station were flooded by a series of seismic sea waves, and a few smaller airstrips were either destroyed by waves or were subjected to partial flooding by high tides due to regional subsidence. Despite all these difficulties, total damage to Alaska's air facilities amounted to only a few million dollars, as compared with more than $100 million worth of damages to the water, rail, and highway systems. More significant than the rel- atively small dollar losses, perhaps, is the fact that nearly all air facilities were partly or wholly operational within a few 3.-New control tower for Anchorage International Airport, built by Federal hours after the earthquake. This Aviation Agency at a cost of $850,000. One of the first of the new 0-type towers in the nation, it was operational by February, 1965. Photograph by Federal made possible the enormous air Aviation Agency. transport of people, food, and supplies that were required at once. Civil Air Patrol and by private mendorf moraine (Miller and planes, was back in full operation Dobrovolny, 1959). Except for a ANCHORAGE within an hour of the quake, and few minor slipouts along the north All three major airfields at served as a control center for all bluff of , there were no landslides of the kind that Anchorage-Elmendorf Air Force air traffic in the Anchorage area Base. Anchorage International while control facilities at Elmen- devastated nearby Government dorf and Anchorage International Hill and other parts of Anchorage Airport, and Merrill Field-es- were being repaired. (Hansen, 1965), and there were caped the huge landslides that The two chief military installa- but few ground cracks. Many wrought so much havoc in parts tions at Anchorage-Fort Rich- large and small buildings on both of Anchorage (Hansen, 1965), but ardson and Elmendorf Air Force military reservations, however, all sustained some degree of dam- Baseare on a broad plain north sustained structural damage from age by earthquake vibration. of the city. They are founded on shaking by the earthquake. Merrill Field, heavily used by the thick outwash gravels of the El- Those directly connected with air 244-767 0-47-2 B4 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, 7, 1964

transportation were two of the Among other facilities, the fic, were moderately damaged by hangars at Elmendorf and the Weather Bureau station in the flooding, tectonic subsidence, and control tower at that base. Dis- terminal building was demolished. vibration. Damage to the naval rupted power and communications port facilities is described on facilities, of course, added to the CORDOVA page B15. difficulties of maintaining the mil- At Cordova airport the main The earthquake vibrations itary air capability. Despite cracked water mains and caused these difficulties, the Elmendorf 150-foot-wide surfaced runway was virtually unaffected by the other minor damage. A series of airfield remained operational; even seismic sea waves that began during the initial shaking, and earthquake, but the bordering runway aprons, which are each about 45 minutes after the earth- despite violent swaying, the con- quake inundated many buildings, trol tower maintained radio con- 150 feet wide, and the nearby F.A.A. (Federal Aviation Agency) including the three main hangars tacts. Soon after the shaking and the central power station. subsided, however, air-traffic con- facilities sustained moderate dam- age from ground cracking; the The inundating waters damaged trol was transferred to facilities runway lights, the Operations installed in a parked aircraft, and violent ground motion caused powerlines to snap. The airport Control generator, the Tactical 2 days after the earthquake the Air Command and Navigation aircraft was replaced by a mobile and appurtenant facilities are on thick alluvial deposits of the flat generator, and the Rawin Aero- control tower that was used until poorly drained Copper River delta logical Building. These struc- the damaged tower was rebuilt. tures are essential in controlling Anchorage International Air- 13 miles east of Cordova. Drain- age ditches 10-12 feet deep and the smooth flow of air traffic in port is southwest of the city. and out of the naval station. It is built on a thin layer of silt about 75 feet wide parallel the airstrip on either side. Seismic Debris and ice were dumped on that overlies older glacial de- aprons in the hangar area. The posits. These, in turn, probably shaking caused the aprons to spread laterally toward the bor- seaplane ramps on Wo~nensBay overlie the Bootlegger Cove dering ditches with resultant were partly submerged at high Clay, whose weakness under cracking of the apron surfaces. tides, owing to the tectonic sub- earthquake stresses led to the Most of the cracks thus formed sidence of more than 5 feet. disastrous landslides at Turn- were extension cracks, as much The main runways were only again Heights 2 miles north of as 8 inches wide, that were par- damaged near the seaward ends, the airfield. Anchorage Air- allel to the edge of the airstrip. but asphalt taxiways were port is too far inland to have had cracked, either by the vibration similar landslides, but it sus- A single ground crack split the reinforced-concrete slab floor of itself or as a result of consolidation tained significant damage from the F.A.A. office building and of underlying materials (Tudor, the earthquake shocks. The control tower at the airport, but 1964; Stroh, 1964; Kachadoorian runways and taxiways cracked and Plafker, 1967). The seaward did not interrupt operation of in a few places, but were easily end of the main runway was sub- the facility. The fact that the resurfaced. The greatest sin- jected to erosion by high tides as a crack was parallel to, and about gle loss was the new 50-foot re- result of regional subsidence; this 20-50 feet from, a small creek inforced-concrete control tower, erosion will be a continuing which toppled to the ground, suggests that it resulted from lat- problem. carrying one operator to his eral movement of the surficial A sheet-pile bulkhead between death. The tower was later re- deposits toward the creek chan- two seaplane ramps on Womens placed (figs. 2, 3). After the nel. Underground water and Bay failed and moved outward disaster, traffic controllers first steam lines at the F.A.A. facil- at a point where the piles had been used a parked small plane to ity were broken in so many places driven into soft sediments in an talk wit,h Merrill Field, which by ground cracking that most old channel (Stroh, 1964). was still operational. Later, the of the system had to be replaced. Hangars and apron slabs at tower of the nearby Lake Hood the naval station were built on seaplane facility was used by KODIAK NAVAL STATION artifical fill approximately 17 feet Anchorage air control. A hang- thick; heavier structures were ar and part of the 3-story steel- Air facilities at Kodiak Naval supported by piles. Differential frame terminal building also Station, which serves both mili- consolidation of the fill, plus collapsed during the earthquake. tary and scheduled civilian traf- scour by receding seismic sea EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B5

I I 4.-Tectonic subsidence required raising of airstrip at Seldovia. U.S. Army photograph.

waves, led to settlement at one downtown Kodiak, were totally be built up as much as 4-5 feet, corner of a hangar. More impor- destroyed. Seaplane ramps, at all estimated cost of $600,000, tant, settlement of aprons in hangars, offices, and one aircraft to raise the strip above tide level front of hangar doors caused were swept away by seismic sea (fig. 4). Runways at Ninilchik, formation of "lips" from 1 to 6 waves. For more than a year Kenai, Soldatna, and Hope sus- inches high that made it dif- after the earthquake, aircraft op- tained minor cracks. The airport ficult to move planes in and out erated out of the city airport at Homer was undamaged, but of the hangars. These conditions while waterfront facilities were new construction work there was were repaired by constructing being rebuilt. delayed, and made more costly, wooden ramps and later by raising when the once-ample source of the apron slabs by injection of KENAI PENINSULA gravel on Homer Spit became grout beneath them (Stroh, difficult to obtain because of tec- 1964). Most of the airstrips on the tonic subsidence and consolida- The Kodiak city airstrip was Kenai Peninsula were damaged tion of the spit materials. The undamaged. However, all instal- by vibration, surficial settlement, only undamaged airstrip on the lations of Kodiak Airways, which and tectonic subsidence. Parts Kenai Peninsula was the one at were along the waterfront in of the Seldovia airstrip had to Lawing. B6 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

SEWARD generated waves severely damaged flooding by the tectonic subsidence Some ground cracks formed on the part of the fill section that did and compaction of the sediments the gravel-surfaced runway at not slide into Passage Canal. (Federal Aviation Agency, 1965). Seward, and the runway drainage The loss of 500 feet of airstrip Air-navigation aids at nearby system required repair. Several was great enough to prevent use Portage and at Hinchinbrook planes on the field were smashed of the strip by other than small Island in Prince William Sound by waves. Regional subsidence, single-engine aircraft (Kacha- required restoration. At Valdez, aided by compaction of deltaic. doorian, 1965). the runway and parking areas were cracked and required grading, but sediments at the head of Resur- OTHER AIRPORTS rection Bay, led to partial sub- remained in usable condition. mergence of the Seward airstrip Small airstrips at Chitina, Por- The Federal Aviation Agency's by high tides. The control tower, tage, Palmer, and Thompson Pass dock at Woody Island, n e a r which had been put out of com- and the South Campbell strip at Kodiak, was so damaged by mission by waves and the general Anchorage had minor cracks in seismic sea waves that it had to power failure, was reestablished the runways. Airstrips, at Tal- be replaced. The airstrip at Afog- by noon of , 1964, oper- keetna, Gakona, Gulkana, Taz- nak in the Kodiak Island group ating on batteries. It was des- lina, and Wasilla were not was inundated repeatedly by perately needed, for aircraft pro- damaged. waves, and several hundred feet vided the only means of Yakutat airport, situated on of it was permanently flooded as movement in and out of Seward a glacial-outwash plain some 280 a result of tectonic subsidence and for some days (Fay, 1964; miles east of the earthquake epi- surficial compaction. A new air- Lemke, 1967). center, sustained minor damage strip was built at the new town of to the concrete runways and Port Lions on Kodiak Island WHITTIER ramp as a result of differential where the former inhabitants of Afogna'k were relocated. Grav- movement of the slabs during The 2,200-foot northeast-trend- elled airstrips at Old Harbor and ing airstrip at Whittier was the shaking. Long-period ground Ouzinkie were partly submerged severely damaged and became waves also caused minor damage by tectonic subsidence and local unusable after the earthquake. to two huge sliding hangar doors differential compaction of the sed- The airstrip lies on deltaic deposits weighing several tons, each of iments. They were later repaired at the head of Passage Canal which rolled back and forth, and somewhat enlarged by filling nearly a mile west of Whittier. banging against the hangar sides. and resurfacing. The eastern 500 feet of the strip A few small cracks also were In all, the Federal Aviation was constructed on fill that ex- found in the gravel runway of the Agency inspected 64 airports tended into Passage Canal. During the earthquake, the end Yakataga airport about half way throughout the stricken area. Of of this 500-foot section slid into between Yakataga and the earth- these, 13 had sustained runway the canal. In addition, regional quake epicenter. and taxiway damage, including subsidence, differential compac- The strip at Girdwood, on Turn- broken underground cables tion of the fill, and landslide- again Arm, was subjected to tidal (Federal Aviation Agency, 1965).

SHIPPING

The shipping industry is in- all of it dependent on water trans- central Alaska, only the port at dispensable to Alaska, because port, from movement of catch and Anchorage remained operational, fully 90 percent of all civilian and supplies to canneries to final ex- and even it was temporarily inca- military requirements must be port of the product. pacitated and was restricted in imported, nearly all by water. The earthquake inflicted enor- its operations for some time. Fisheries, moreover, constitute the mous damage on the water-trans- Damage to port facilities at, State's largest single industry- portation industry. In all south- Anchorage, Seward, Valdez, EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B7

Homer, Kodiak, Cordova, Whit- Emergency Planning, 1964). Of jor changes that could only lead tier, and Seldovia amounted to these, more than 200 vessels, most to its betterment over the long about $30 million. This figure of them crab or salmon boats, term. Immediately after the includes private and public dock- were lost or severely damaged. earthquake, salmon and crab ing facilities only, and not such Many seafood-processing plants catches at Kodiak and elsewhere waterside facilities as canneries. were washed away or flooded. were curtailed, not so much by Damage to these facilities was loss of boats as by lack of process- due to submarine land- EFFECT ON ECONOMIC ing capacity. Most seafood-proc- slides and waves generated by PATTERN essing plants were rebuilt promptly, however, and equipped them, seismic sea waves, compac- One of the most far-reaching tion of sediments, and regional with more modern machinery than and long-lasting effects of the they had had before. Floating subsidence. earthquake was the change that it Whittier, Seward, and Valdez canneries were introduced. Un- wrought in the economic pattern like property owners on land, few are the only all-weather ice-free of water and rail transport. De- ports in Alaska that have access of whom had earthquake insur- spite the fact that Anchorage ance, nearly all owners of vessels to the interior of the State. is Alaska's largest city, its port Whittier and Seward are terminals were covered by marine insurance; business had always been rela- claims were paid promptly. The for The and Val- tively small as compared to that dez for the . U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fish- of several smaller cities. The eries and the Small Business Anchorage is not an ice-free port municipally owned port facilities, and until the earthquake was Administration lent money on in fact, had operated at a loss ever easy terms for replacements of only used during the summer since they were built in 1961. months. The destruction of the boats and processing plants. The The earthquake resulted in an Congress also authorized direct Whittier, Seward and Valdez ports enormous increase in Anchorage therefore created a serious prob- subsidies of as much as 55 percent port facilities and commerce, and for new fishing vessels. The net lem in the movement of supplies, resultant decreases in traffic at the food, and material to the interior results were that the seafood ports of Seward and Whitter and industry obtained modern boats of the State. Sitka, on Baranof a parallel decrease in revenues for Island, was the only port in and better equipment and that The Alaska Railroad. Weekly debts were refunded at lower southeast Alaska that reported van-ship service was initiated from significant damage. Docks and interest rates (U.S. Bureau of Seattle to Anchorage within a few Land Management, 1964). other harbor structures there were months after the earthquake, and struck by seismic sea waves, and later experience showed that these NAVIGATION AIDS about $1 million in damage larger vessels could surmount the was done. ice problems that had previously Many lights, buoys, tide gages, No large vessels were destroyed kept Anchorage from being con- and other navigation aids were though some had narrow escapes. sidered an all-weather port (An- wrecked or displaced by waves, In general, vessels at sea were un- chorage Daily Times, , not only in the devastated harbors damaged, but a few experienced 1965). but along virtually all of the bumps that felt to the crews as if Major changes in the economy coastline of south-central Alaska. thkir ships had run aground. A of the region were also effected These aids were replaced quickly few free-floating small boats were when petroleum-produc t terminals by the Coast Guard, the Navy, capsized and sunk. Most of the at Whittier and Seward were the Coast and Geodetic Survey, boats that were lost, however, moved permanently to Anchorage. and other responsible agencies. were tied up at docks, were in The Alaska Steamship line, one of The Cape Hinchinbrook Light small-boat harbors where they Station, on the southwest tip of the major cargo carriers between were engulfed by giant waves, or Hinchinbrook Island in Prince were involved in the submarine Seattle and Alaska, stopped calling William Sound, was severely shak- slides that destroyed several ports. at Seward and moved its opera- en and two landslides were ac- When the earthquake struck, 820 tions to Whittier. tivated along the bluff on which vessels of more than 5 tons and Devastated as it was by loss of the light is built, but the station 2,850 smaller boats were operating boats, gear, and canneries, the sea- remained in operation. The slides in south-central Alaska (Office of food industry also underwent ma- were but two more episodes in B8 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 2 7, 19 64 a long history of cliff erosion on taken place along shorelines and ground fractures and mnsolidation Cape Hinchinbrook, and one of on land. and settlement of sediments. the few directly beneficial effects The Coast and Geodetic The municipally owned Anchor- of the earthquake of 1964 was to Survey's rapid revision of nauti- age wharf is the largest port struc- raise the base of the cliff some 8 cal charts was accomplished by ture (fig. 5). It consists of two feet and thereby retard the erosion ship reconnaissance, tidal sur- adjacent reinforced-concrete docks process. (Reuben Kachadoorian veys, and aerial photogrammetry. on concrete-filled tubular piles. and George Plafker, written The resulting chart revisions, The joint between the two docks commun., 1965.) showing significant changes in was opened 4-12 inches; all four The tectonic uplift that af- channels, shoal areas, shorelines, cranes were shaken off their fected most of the Prince William and navigation aids were issued tracks, and their undercarriages Sound area resulted in shoaling as "chartlets," designed to be and counterweight arms IV e r e of waters that had been navigable pasted over parts of existing damaged. The steel-frame tran- before the earthquake (fig. 1); charts. These chartlets were up- sit shed was cracked and twisted during the first weeks after the graded as new information from but only to a minor degree. Some quake some small craft were more precise surveys became a- steel piles broke at their caps; bat- grounded or damaged by hidden vailable. The firs t preliminary tered H -piles were sprung out of\ rocks or were stranded by low chartlets that were issued to navi- line when the main dock structure tides. At least one cannery in gators less then a month after the shifted its position (Berg and the area of uplift-the Crystal earthquake showed the harbors of Stratta, 1964; Alaska Construc- Falls cannery at Mountain Crescent City, Calif., and of tion Consultant Committee, 1964). Slough, not far from Cordova- Valdez, Whittier, Seward, Kodiak, The so-called old Army Dock became inaccessible to fishermen and Womens Bay on Kodiak (fig. 5), a timber structure that and was declared a total loss Island; chartlets of Fire Island was already much deteriorated, (Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, shoal in and the was made unusable for offloading 1965). harbors at Anchorage and Homer of private and military petroleum Tectonic subsidence in the west- soon followed. By the end of supplies; a temporary petroleum erly part of the earthquake-affect- 1964, revised editions of seven dock was built to replace the old ed zone, especially around Kodiak nautical charts had been issued Army Dock, but it was severely Island and along Cook Inlet and and many others, covering most damaged by ice and did not last the Kenai Peninsula, of course of the earthquake-affected area, through the following winter. Pe- resulted in deeper water (fig. 1). were made available during the troleum pipelines and approach This deeper water in itself would next 2 years (Wood, 1966). roads and rail lines were broken not have affected navigation ad- or twisted by settlement and vi- versely, but the subsidence also ANCHORAGE bration. A cement bin, 30 feet drowned old and familiar shore- The Anchorage harbor is on high and 30 feet in diameter, col- lines and at least locally, as in Cook Inlet, just north of the lapsed on its pedestal. The walls Turnagain Arm, led to increased mouth of Ship Creek. Port facil- of several petroleum storage tanks sedimentation. The net result ities, though incapacitated for a developed bulges at ground level. of subsidence, therefore, was a short time, were almost undam- Berg and Stratta (1964) suggested relatively large area of new and aged in contrast to all other ports that the bulges may have been uncharted water. in the earthquake-affected area. caused by an earthquake-induced Within hours after the earth- Tectonic subsidence was too small swirling of the tank contents, quake, the U.S. Coast and to do much damage, there were no which in turn induced large verti- Geodetic Survey began the dif- waves or fires, and the bluffs cal forces acting over a small zone ficult but essential job of rechart- above the port were not affected at the base of the cylinder. ing all navigable waterways in The port was able to handle the area affected by the earth- by the disastrous translatory land- quake and replacing tide gages slides that wrecked several other its first ship only 3 days after that had been destroyed. It also parts of Anchorage (Hansen, 1965). the earthquake. Within 2 years, began a long-term geodetic re- Virtually all the damage to port both facilities and commerce were survey of permanent horizontal structures was caused by earth- greatly increased over preearth- and vertical changes that had quake vibrations and by related quake times. EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B9

5.-Anchorage municipal wharf area shortly dter the earthquake, at low tide. The main dock was only slightly damaged, but the lolder Army dock (upper left), was ruined. Vibration and ground fractures damaged some structures in the port area, including the petroleum tank (lower right). U.S. Army photograph. B10 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

6.-Cordova harbor as it appeared in February 1965. Tectonic uplift left docks inaccessible to ships except at very high tides Reconstruction involved dredging of harbor and rebuilding of docks and small-boat basin. U. S. Army photograph.

CORDOVA as compared to the effect of improvement of existing facilities regional uplift. The Cordova area was raised rather than replacement of dam- The city dock, ferry slip, and about 6 feet by tectonic uplift, aged facilities (Alaskan Cons truc- breakwater were rebuilt and the and the docks were thereby made tion Consultant Committee, 1964; small-boat basin and other parts inaccessible to ships except at Anchorage Daily Times, March of the harbor were dredged 10 very high tides. The deck of 26, 1965). The Cordova canner- feet deeper by the U.S. Army the main city dock mas lifted ies had to extend their docks an Corps of Engineers (fig. 6). average of 110 feet to reach water and displaced by seismic sea waves Under an urban renewal plan, depths equal to those which pre- and was battered by ships tied the entire waterfront was rebuilt vailed before the earthquake. up to it. The ferry terminal dock with material dredged from the Because of the uplift, Orca was also damaged by waves, but harbor for fill. Much of this Inlet, which is the most direct these damages were insignificant work involved enlargement and waterway from Cordova to the EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, OOMMUNICATI(3NS AND UTILITIES B11 open sea and the important Cop- the Whittier port facilities were Violent local waves that accom- per River Delta salmon-fishing back in operation in a remark- panied the earthquake in Sawmill and clamming areas, is too shal- ably short time, ready to aid in Bay drowned one man, destroyed low for all but the smallest ves- supplying the massive recon- the dock of the inoperative can- sels at most stages of tide. The struction effort elsewhere. The nery, partially damaged the fuel alternative route via Orca Bay first train reached Whittier on dock and several smaller docks, and Hinchinbrook Entrance is April 20, was loaded at the par- and wrecked two barges. Tec- much longer and considerably tially repaired car slip, and re- tonic uplift of about 8 feet left fish- more hazardous. turned to Anchorage. Regular ing boats that had been stored on weekly train-ship service, char- grids for the winter high above the WHITTIER acterized by a 3-day trip between reach of tides. The grid skidways Whittier and New Westminster, had to be extended and some mod- The port of Whittier is at the B.C., began in June, less than 3 ifications to dock facilities were re- head of Passage Canal, a western months after the disaster. Not quired before the canneries could arm of Prince William Sound a little of the speed with which be put back into operation. (fig. 1). The town was originally Whittier was brought back to Similar waves wiped out the en- constructed as a military rail- life was due to close cooperation tire native village of Chenega ex- road terminal, having been built between The Alaska Railroad cept for the school and one home during World War I1 to serve as and several military entities. and swept away 25 of its 76 inhab- a backup for Seward as a second Thus, while the car slip was still itants. All the minimal water- all-weather railroad port. Town under repair, the Army lent a front facilities and all but three of and port are owned by The Alas- floating crane, with maximum the boats belonging to the villagers ka Railroad and the Department lift of 200,000 pounds, to lift cars were destroyed. The remaining of Defense, but some land is and vans from barges. The Navy population of Chenega has been re- privately leased. lent a 3,000-horsepower tug to located at Tatitlek; no repkirs were Though many of Whittier's move the crane from Beaver, made to the village site. buildings, particularly those on Oreg.; it sailed April 3 and arrived Other similar, but much lower, bedrock, sustained but slight in Whittier April 13. The Na- waves were experienced almost damage from seismic shock, the tional Guard sent a tug from sirnultaneously at the inoperative port facilities, which are on un- Seattle to service the crane (Fitch, canneries at Port Nellie Juan and consolidated sediments, were so 1964). Port Oceanic in nearby parts of the extensively damaged by the Sound. The dock of the Port earthquake as to make them in- SMALLER PRINCE WILLIAM Nellie Juan cannery was washed operable. In addition to seis- SOUND COMMUNITIES away and the cannery watchman mic shock, other causes of dam- and his family of two are missing age were tectonic subsidence, Several smaller comnlunities and presumably drowned. A can- ground fractures, differential and canneries in Prince William nery barge 25 feet wide by 60 feet subsidence due to compaction, Sound sustained varying degrees long that was tied up at the mouth landslides, great waves generated of damage from tectonic uplift and of a small creek near the cannery by submarine slides, and fire. from the local violent waves of un- was lifted by violent local waves, known origin that accompanied Of these, the landslidegenerated turned over end for end, moved and immediately followed the waves caused all loss of life and 200 feet up the creek valley, and by far the greatest damage to earthquake. Damage resulting deposited upside down in the trees, port facilities. All docks were from seismic shaking or from the damaged or destroyed, a pri- long-period seismic sea waves that 15 feet above high-water level. vately owned lumber mill was came later mas negligible (Plafker Waves at Port Oceanic destroyed totally destroyed, and all the and Mayo, 1965). the dock and washed away founda- petroleum storage tanks along Sawmill Bay on Evans Island in tion piling from beneath the can- the waterfront were burned-but western Prince William Sound is nery; one 27-foot fishing boat that only after being severely damaged the site of two operative canneries, was in the bay was sunk. by seismic vibration and by waves one inoperative cannery in a poor At the native village of Tatitlek (Kachadoorian, 1965). state of repair, a fuel depot, and and the nearby inoperative Despite the extensive damage, several permanent residences. Ellamar cannery, the waterfront B12 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

7.--New small-boat basin, excavated in end of Horner Spit. Former basin, on left side of the spit, was destroyed by a small offshore slidc. The fact that the entire end of the spit is submerged by high tides because of tectonic subsidence and compaction necessitates dikes around new basin. U.8. Army photograph. facilities were impaired by about 4 of sediments on Homer Spit, and SEWARD feet of tectonic uplift; dredging an off shore landslide. and other improvements to the The almost new small-boat Seward, at the head of Res- harbor area at Tatitlek by the basin was completely destroyed, urrection Bay on the east side Corps of Engineers have resulted the timber city dock was usable of Kenai Peninsula (fig. I), is a in a harbor that is at least as good, but had subsided 6 feet, and oil fisheries center, but its main if not better, than the preearth- tanks and warehouses required importance in the economy is quake one. raising to place them above water as the chief year-round port for that flooded the spit at high tides. The Alaska Railroad to Anchor- HOMER A new and larger small-boat basin age and Fairbanks. All Seward's (fig. 7) was constructed by the port facilities were destroyed by At Homer, at the mouth of Corps of Engineers by exca.vation submarine slides, giant waves, Kachemak Bay on Cook Inlet of a part of the spit (Alaskan and fire. Because both highway (fig. I), virtually all port facilities Construction Consultant Cow- and rail routes were disrupted were put out of commission by mittee, 1964; Waller, 1966c; between Anchorage and Seward, tectonic subsidence, consolidation George and Lyle, 1966). the port was cut off for some EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B13 days from all means of commu- the port elsewhere and to use town (fig. 8). The new site for nication and transportation ex- the original waterfront area, un- the port required much dredging, cept radio and air travel. der an urban renewal plan, only but the chances of major sub- Extensive geologic and soil for parks and light industrial marine slides and the resultant studies of the fan delta on which building. A new small-boat basin waves are minimal (Lemke, 1967; Seward is built led to the con- was built, and the main harbor George and Lyle, 1966). clusion that the new waterfront facilities, dominated by The Alas- is unstable and subject to further ka Railroad port terminal, were SELDOVIA submarine sliding in the event of constructed on deltaic deposits Seldovia, a small fishing port future . The decision at the mouth of Resurrection near the southern end of the was therefore made to rebuild River, just north of the main Kenai Peninsula, is the only

8.-Part of new small-boat basin and nearly completed railroad dock at Seward, . All former Seward waterfront facilities (to left of picture) were destroyed by submarine slides, xvaves, and fire. U.S. Army photograph. B 14 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

9.-Seldoviaat low tide in March 1965, n ith raised br~akwaterand small-boat baein in use. Tectonic subsidence submerged board- walk (curving structure at shore entl of docks in foreground) at high tide. The boardv-nlk has been replaced on new fill. Urban renex a1 project will alter buildings and utilities to conform with higher water levels. U.S. Army photograph. protected harbor between Seward boat harbor which had under- KODIAK AND KODIAK NAVAL and Anchorage that can accom- gone subsidence and piling STATION modate ocean vessels (fig. I). damage (fig. 9). An urban re- Kodiak, near the northeast tip Tectonic subsidence lowered the newal plan ~vasfinally adopted area about 3.5 feet so that most of Kodiak Island (fig. I), is the to move the main town to higher harbor facilities, including the headquarters of one of the largest mile-long boardwalk on which ground, some of it to be made of fishing fleets in Alaska. It is the business section of the ton-n fill as much as s2 feet thick best known as t,he center of the is built, were awash at high (Alaskan Construction Consul- king crab industry, but also pro- tides. The Corps of Engineers tant Committee, 1964; Anclior- duces large catches of salmon, built a new breakwater, raised age Daily Times, March 26, halibut, shrimp, and scallop. The docks, and restored the small- 1965). nearby Kodiak Naval Station is EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES BL5

the largest U.S. Navy installation seismic sea waves, some of them Docks and buildings at four other in Alaska for both surface vessels non-breaking, that began about 45 operative canneries within the and aircraft. The naval station minutes after the earthquake and zone of tectonic subsidence had was moderately damaged by the continued far into the night. to be raised above the new higher earthquake and its aftereffects, These waves destroyed or inca- extreme high-tide level (Plafker but the port of Kodiak and much pacitated all waterfront structures and Kachadoorian, 1966). of the fishing fleet were devas- at Kodiak and inundated all of Docks at two small lumber tated-almost entirely by seismic the lower part of the town. mills near Afognak and Ouzinkie sea waves. Neither the town nor Scores of vessels were smashed were also damaged by the seismic the naval station received more or overturned and many were sea waves. than minor damage from washed inland among flooded A Navy seaplane tender was vibration. buildings as much as half a mile sent from Oak Harbor, Wash. At the naval station, several from the harbor (Plafker and Arriving on , 1964, it buildings that were set on piles Kachadoorian, 1966). immediately hooked its generators without adequate ties were floated The timber city dock and its to naval station lines and sup- away. Flooding of the power warehouse subsided and sus- plied a part of the station's power station cut off power and central tained wave damage, but was needs for some days. The Navy steam heat for the entire facility partly usable. Privately owned also brought a dock landing ship, for some days. Seismic sea waves petroleum storage tanks were with a 160-foot pontoon dock destroyed the Navy's cargo dock, undamaged, but their related from San Diego. It was lent to already old and deteriorated, and piers and buildings were heavily the city of Kodiak to help in severely damaged the fuel pier damaged or destroyed (Alaska rehabilitation of the fishing fleet and three structures at the crash Construction Consultant Com- (Kachadoorian and Plafker, 1967; boat harbor. Waves caused mittee, 1964). The U.S. Fish Stroh, 1964; Tudor, 1964). moored ships to raise the bollards and Wildlife pier and warehouse and to damage fendering. Sec- were swept away by receding VALDEZ tions of the decking were lifted waves. The decking of the pier and displaced by waves, and some was lifted from the piles and the Valdez is the northernmost all- piles, placed in holes augered to approach decking floated away. weather port in Alaska. Unlike the rocky bottom, were uprooted. Bulkheads and about 25 piles Seward and Whittier, which are Regional subsidence added to the beneath the pier were destroyed. also all-weather ports, it is not toll by causing tidal inundation The harbormaster's building was a railhead but is connected of the dock's remains. The mar- destroyed when a large fishing with Fairbanks and the interior ginal pier, on the peninsula side vessel collided with it. Numer- by highway. The town is on of Womens Bay, sustained only ous small privately owned docks Port Valdez, the northeasternmost minor damage from a moored on Near Channel, Potatopatch extension of Prince William barge (Stroh, 1964; Tudor, 1964). Lake, Mission Lake, and Inner Sound (fig. 1). Tectonic subsidence left the Anchorage were swept away by All port facilities were destroyed Kodiak waterfront and the small- the waves. by the earthquake (fig. 10). A boat basin permanently subject to Of the four major seafood-proc- gigantic sabmarine slide off the flooding by high tides. A tem- essing plants, two were severely face of the delta on which Valdez porary small-boat basin was estab- damaged and two were destroyed. is built was the single most dis- lished in Gibson Cove, between Canneries at Shearwater Bay, astrous event-it completely de- Kodiak and the naval station. south of Kodiak, and at Ouzinkie, stroyed dl docks and superstruc- It was used until the original north of the port, were also de- tures. Waves, ground cracks, basin had been rebuilt by the stroyed; the Shearwater cannery shaking, and fire left all other Corps of Engineers and its two carried with it 30 salmon boats port facilities and the seaward submerged breakwaters had been that had been in storage. Most part of the town in ruins. raised 6 feet. canneries were rebuilt shortly Shortly after the earthquake, Greatest damage to the naval after the earthquake, and floating the Corps of Engineers built station and to the port of Kodiak canneries were brought in to add a temporary dock on the newly was caused by a series of gigantic to the industry's capabilities. formed waterfront, primarily for B16 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 2 7, 1964

10.-Old and new Valdez. All waterfront structures and utilities in old Valdez were destroyed (lower center). The new townL site (upper left) is protected from slides by chain of bedrock hills. U.S. Army photograph.

I offloading of supplies needed in glacier stream that built the delta, than the old to be damaged by rehabilitation of the town but led geologists to advise complete future earthquakes, and the ,1 also to permit the small commer- abandonment of Valdez. This modern docks and ferry slip 1 cial and sport-fishing industries to advice was follo~ved by town that will allow Valdez to re- resume work. JIeanwhile, the officials who decided to build sume its place among Alaskan likelihood of further submarine a new town at Mineral Point, ports are founded on bedrock slides and continued settlement about 4 miles by road west that is not susceptible to under- along the waterfront, and the of the devastated commnnity. water slides (figs. 10, 11; danger of flooding by the Valdez The new site is far less likely Co~dterand Migliaccio, 1936). EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B17

I I 11.-Harbor facilities at new town of Valdez, winter 1966. To~nsiteis just to left of picture, behind protective bedrock hills. I U.S. Army photograph. B18 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 COMMUNICATIONS AND UTnITIES

To an extent that is seldom Complete repairs and replace- tral stations were severely shaken realized except when they are ments required many months of or were wrecked by waves and disrupted, modern man depends effort, but essential services that other aftereffects of the earth- on public utilities and communi- sufficed to alleviate panic and quake shocks. cations. All are necessary for his suffering and to prevent disease Overhead lines, both power comfort and survival within his that commonly follows on disrup- and telephone, sustained much own community and for ties with tion of utilities were restored in a damage from the shaking. other communities-water, sew- short time. This fast restoration Tautened wires broke in tension. age disposal, power and heat, and was due to the prodigious coopera- Utility poles were subject to radio, telephone, and television tive efforts of the utility suppliers, the same whipping action as communication. In Alaska's sub- both private and public, working trees, but because they were less arctic climate, reliable sources of in conjunction with the military resilient a greater proportion of heat and power we even more and civilian apthorities (U. S. them were broken. Other poles important than they are elsewhere. Army Alaskan Command, 1964). survived the shaking itself but Communications facilities, too, Because they tend to be wide- were brought down by avalanches are more vital in Alaska than spread geographically, rather than or landslides. Still others, as in elsewhere, for much of the popula- confined to single towns, the Turnagain Arm, were wrecked tion is thinly scattered and in communications system, the oil- when the silt in which they were poorly accessible places and also and gas-distribution facilities, and placed shifted on the sea bottom because Alaska itself is far re- the power systems are described (figs. 12, 13). moved from the rest of the separately. These generalizations Despite the widespread dam- United States. are followed by descriptions of the ages and a great variety of prob- Virtually all utilities and com- effects on all utility systems in lems, most telephone systems munications in south-central certain towns. were fully or partially restored Alaska were damaged or wrecked COMMUNICATIONS to service within a few hours of by the great earthquake. The SYSTEMS the earthquake. total cost of damages to utility Nearly all commercial and systems was initially estimated to South-central Alaska has a military radio and television be about $25 million (Alaska well-developed communications communications went off the Construction Consultant Commit- system-telephone, radio and tele- air immediately as a result of tee, 1964). This figure is small vision. Because of the great land power failures. While power in comparison to the total cost of and water distances and the was being restored, they were the earthquake, and fails to give mountainous terrain, greater de- replaced temporarily by a fan- a true picture of the emotional pendence is placed on radio and tastic patchwork of amateur and physical effects wrought by radiotelephone facilities than else- radios in Alaska and the con- disrupted utilities and communi- where in the United States. terminous United States, mobile cations during the recovery and Most telephone lines are above broadcast units, and short-wave rehabilitation periods. Predict- ground, though in parts of transmitters in ships, taxis, ably, utilities at Anchorage and Anchorage and in some of the parked planes, police cars, and its neighboring military establish- rugged mountains both military many other vehicles and places. ments represented at least two- and civilian lines are in buried These means served well in re- thirds of the total losses. This cables. Nearly all telephone establishing contacts with iso- high proportion was only because communications were disrupted lated communities and with the Anchorage is the largest commu- by loss of power soon after the outside world, in getting relief nity, with consequently greater onset of the earthquake. In a few and reconstruction underway, development of utilities. Several places, services were restored and in preventing panic. other towns lost greater propor- almost immediately by use of Pirefighting organizations and tions of their utility systems than batteries or other auxiliary power their equipment remained intact did Anchorage. units. Elsewhere, however, cen- in all the earthquake-affected EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B19

towns, but disruption of water supplies made them virtually use- less in Seward, Valdez, and Whit- tier, where large waterfront fires developed; they would also have been helpless in Anchorage had there been fires. The readiness of all fire departments was also hampered by difficulties in com- I I I munications (National Board of Fire Underwriters, 1964). POWER SYSTEMS IN AN- CHORAGE, THE MATANU- SKA VALLEY, AND ON THE KENAI PENINSULA

In the general vicinity of An- chorage, electric power'is provided from four sources-(1) a city- owned steam generating system, 12.-Power and telephone poles along Turnagain Arm were tipped when the silt in which they were embedded was liquefied by earthquake vibrations. Photo- t2) militar~-o~eratedsteamplants graph by Chugach Electric Association, Inc. that serve Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Air Base, (3) the Bureau of Reclamation's Eklutna hydroelectric project, serving Pal- l mer, the Matanuska Valley, parts of Anchorage, and (4) the Chl~gach i Electric Association's hydro- and 1 steam-power generation system serving part of Anchorage and most communities on the Kenai I Peninsula (fig. 1). All these systems were damaged, some severely, by the earthquake i of March 27, 1964. Though dis- astrous and expensive, the power- system failures were fortunate in some ways. The fact that power I was shut off immediately in An- chorage, for example, is widely i credited for the almost complete lack of fires there. Virtually all of the damage to transmission 1 lines was of the kind ordinarily expected during Alaskan winters? 1 but damage was more widely scattered geographically and far more concentrated in time than usual. These conditions made re- 1 pair work much more difficult and I 13.-Some power-transmission poles on Turnagain Arm were destroyed by lique- costly than normal, even though faction of silt foundation and by floating ice. Photograph by Chugach Electric most of the maintenance problems Association, Inc. were familiar ones. BaO ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 27, 1964

Earthquake damages to the local distribution in addition to Anchorage, power outage lasted Eklutna hydroelectric system, electricity. Bernice Lake supplies for 18 hours. The distribution caused almost entirely by ground power to several communities on system itself was undamaged, but vibration and related cracks and the Kenai Peninsula, including the transmission line from the subsidence, are described by Homer, which also has a diesel- Eklutna plant was downed by Logan (1967). electric generating plant. Seward an avalanche near the Knik The military powerplants at is served power from Cooper Lake. River (Logan, 1967). Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Except 'Tor vibration damage to Automatic vibration controls Air Base use coal-fired steam tur- turbine blades at Bernice Lake, reacted to the first earthquake bines. Both systems sustained neither this nor the Cooper Lake shocks to shut down the much structural damage from seis- plant was seriously injured. Fail- Anchorage municipal gas-turbine mic vibration. Tanks, piping, ure of the power system in plant. The plant itself survived and other equipment were dis- the Anchorage area overloaded in good condition, but breaks torted or broken by twisting, over- the entire transmission network in the gasline cut off the fuel turning, or failure of supports. and caused automatic overload supply. Six standby diesel gen- Despite the widespread damages, switches to trip at the other gener- erators were also inoperative be- central heating for the military ating plants. Because Anchorage cause water-main breaks stopped bases was maintained with almost was closer to the epicentral region the supply of cooling water. no interruption, and power was in northern Prince William Sound, Some intermittent power was restored to large parts of both failures there occurred an estimated restored to the city within bases within 24 hours (Powers, 15-20 seconds before the tremors 2% hours after the earthquake, 1965; U.S. Army Alaskan Com- were first felt at the Bernice Lake when the turbine plant was started mand, 1964; Stephenson, 1964). plant; this time lapse was enough with bottled gas and then con- Parts of Anchorage, including to allow the plant operator to shut verted to oil for fuel. Rupture the heavily damaged Turnagain off the power before the poten- of oil tanks, with consequent loss Heights section, and most of the tially damaging vibrations reached of fuel, caused further delays in Kenai Peninsula are served power the plant. The Hnik Arm plant, delivery of firm power, but an by the Chugach Electric Associ- however, was severely shaken, and emergency supply of oil from ation, a cooperative financed by coal bunkers, ash handling system, Elmendorf Air Base was used the Rural Electrification Admin- and other structural elements were until the gaslines were repaired. istration. Much of the rather either weakened or destroyed. As a result, power was restored complex integrated system was The most serious damage was not to nearly all of Anchorage by heavily damaged by the earth- noticed until 2 weeks after the midnight Sunday, . quake, but ties with other power earthquake when high tides made The municipal power-distribution sources and close cooperation of apparent the fact that tectonic system, both aerial and under- all suppliers, military and civil- subsidence and local compaction ground, was almost undamaged ian, resulted -in restoration of had lowered the mouth of Ship except in the slide areas. Two power to most of the affected areas Creek. Sea water flooded the substations were wrecked by within a very few days. cooling pond and the ash aisle in slides and had to be relocated Principal units of the Chugach the basement of the plant. (Stephenson, 1964). system are the Knik Arm coal- Damages to the Chugach dis- Most substations sustained fired steamplant near the mouth of tribution system were less severe light to moderate damage from Ship Creek in Anchorage, the than to the generating plants but vibration. Transmission and dis- Bernice Lake gas turbine plant were nevertheless substantial. tribution lines were disrupted just north of Kenai (fig. I), and the About 50 poles broke and 25 in many places. In the Turn- Cooper Lake hydroelectric plant. transformers were dropped to again section and elsewhere in The Cooper Lake generating plant the ground. Underground lines Anchorage, lines were broken by is actually on the south shore of and several substations in the gigantic translatory landslides Kenai Lake, but it drops water downtown Anchorage were de- that were the \principal geologic from nearby Cooper Lake through stroyed by landslides (Chugach effects of the earthquake there a mile long tunnel and a penstock. Electric Assoc., 1964). (Hansen, 1965). The trans- The Knik Arm and Bernice Lake In Palmer and the surrounding miksion line along the north side plants produce some steam for Matanuska Valley, northeast of of Turnagain Arm, particularly EFFECTS ON AIR AXD WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B21 between Girdwood and Portage, A few leaks also developed in A 12-inch pipeline, 93 miles was very severely damaged-13 storage tanks at a small refinery long, brings gas to Anchorage tower struc.tures were destroyed near Nikishka but they were easily (fig. 1). Much of the line is and 60 others required extensive repaired (Office of Emergency in rugged country that is acces- repairs. Most of the structures planning, 1964). sible only by tracked vehicles or tipped or broke when the silt in A military multiproduct pipe- by air. There are three airstrips in which they were embedded line, much of it above ground, along the right-of-way, which is was liquefied by vibration, but extends 686 miles from Haines itself cleared to permit use of later the tidal action and increased in southeastern Alaska, to Fair- helicopters. The &mile-long seg- ice shove that resulted from tec- banks. Roughly parallel to the ment across Turnagain Arm, 30 tonic subsidence of the area did Alcan Highway, it handles more miles south of Anchorage, has further damage (figs. 12, 13). military petroleum products than parallel pipelines that are embed- In the mountains, earthquake- does the port of Anchorage. Far ded in the silt of the Arm. The triggered avalanches destroyed from the area of disturbance, the earthquake caused little damage several towers on the line pipeline was not damaged by the to the underwater line, but tec- between Portage and Cooper earthquake and service was not tonic subsidence in the area ne- Lake and between Cooper Lake interrupted. Water wells at a cessitated raising the automatic and Seward (Chugach Electric few of the booster stations, how- control valves above the new Assoc., 1964). ever, were slightly damaged. high-tide levels. Only one small Many storage tanks, notably but potentially serious break oc- PETROLEUM AND NATURAL in Anchorage, Seward, Valdez, curred in the entire pipeline. GAS FACILITIES and Kodiak, developed leaks from This one, doubtless caused by earthquake vibration or were to- ground vibration, was at milepost Alaska depends as heavily as tally destroyed by waves or fire. 55 and consisted of a circumfer- any other modern society on Quick repairs to tank farms, and ential crack next to a weld in petroleum products and on natural early resumption of water trans- the pipe. Access was difficult gas for heat, power, and trans- port for fuel supplies, prevented but, once reached, the break was portation. Most of the petro- development of critical shortages easily and quickly repaired. leum products used in Alaska are of petroleum products. Damages to the 120-mile-long brought in by water from West Many homes and businesses gas-distribution system within Coast refineries or from fields in throughout the stricken area de- Anchorage amounted to nearly Cook Inlet and along its shores pend on individual bottled-gas $1 million, a heavy blow to a (fig. 1). Like all other water- units for heating. Fortunately, company that was less than 3 transported goods, fuel supplies very few of these installations years old and was just beginning were disrupted and dislocated by were damaged outside the areas to reach financial stability. destruction of most of the ports of total destruction caused by Nevertheless, there was far less in south-central Alaska. In addi- waves, fires, and landslides. damage to this entirely new tion to water transport, however, Piped natural gas is available system whose components were three pipe lines play significant only in Anchorage and several all designed and constructed to parts in transmission of petroleum small towns near Kenai. The modern code specifications than and gas products; none of these damages to this system, and the there would have been to old or was appreciably damaged. A single leak developed in the methods used to restore service, poorly built equipment. As 93-mile line that transmits natural are well documented by Stump \vould be expected, most major gas from fields near Kenai to (1965), from whose paper most breaks in the distribution system Anchorage. An 18-mile pipeline of the following information is occurred at landslide grabens (not shown on fig. 1) transmits abstracted. where near-surface materials crude oil from wells on the Swan- The natural gas used by Anchor- moved both laterally and verti- son River and Soldatna Creek, age is produced from the Kenai cally (Hansen, 1965). Some of on the Kenai peninsula, to loading field near Kalifonsky Beach on the more than 200 breaks in facilities at Nikishka on Cook Cook Inlet. It is supplied by the gaslines, ho\vever, were caused Inlet. The line itself was un- privately owned Anchorage Nat- by ground cracks which had scathed but storage tanks at the ural Gas Corp. and its sister orga- little or no visible displacement. terminal were slightly damaged. nization, The Alaska Pipeline Co. Steel and copper pipes reacted B22 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

similarly to the earthquake forces. Some lines failed in compression , or tension; others failed by shear or by repeat,ed flexing (fig. 14).

by the laidslide at Third Avenue and Post Road, near the Alaska Native Hospital (fig. 15). A second break in the main was caused bv a slide near the Mu- nicipal Power and Light Plant on Ship Creek. This slide rup- tured fuel tanks and flooded the r- area with 300,000 gallons of diesel fuel. The making of repairs was greatly aided by the loan of experts from several nntural-gas companies in the Pacific Sorth- west; priorities were given to the city po\\.erplant, hospitnls, res- -.,-*"'" tairants, and laundries, in that order. Gas service was restored to the municipal powerplant within 30 hours after the 14.-Buricd gaslines ruptured by earthquake forces. Above, in tension; below, quake, a remarkable accom- in compression. Photographs by W. J. Stump. plishment considering that tem- porary lines had to be laid on steep slopes and on a surface that was covered by ice and by a thick layer of diesel oil. The ,city's two gas-fired turbines fur- nished most of the electric power for Anchorage for some weeks. Gas became available. in homes and businesses in Spenard and the southern part of Anchorage within 48 hours, and 90 percent

of the entire system was res- ' tored within 2 weeks after the *- earthquake. During the spring and summer of 1964, and after all known leaks had been repaired and service restored, the company made a novel use of geologic maps. The ground in Anchorage was frozen to depths of 6 feet or more at the time of the earthquake, and bur-

ied pipes not Or adjust 15.-Trclucinch pas main, supplyirlg fuel for municipal powerplant,, was rup to stresses at ground tllred by landslide at Third Avenue and Post Road, Anchorage. Photograph by breaks. The pipes therefore w. J. Stump. EFFECTS ON AIR A,ND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B23 required relief from stresses im- all public-utility systems in An- the first 5 days, and most of the posed by the earthquake, because chorage were affected similarly city had water within 2 weeks. these stresses, plus those that by the earthquake but in some- Much of the repair work was of would be imposed by future thaw- what varying degrees. All util- a temporary nature. Firehose ing and frost action, would un- ities that depended on under- and portable pumps and chlo- doubtedly cause additional failures ground transmission or distribu- rinators were used first, but these in the system. tion-telephone, water, sewer, were soon replaced in the Turn- All excavations where repairs power, and gas-were disrupted again and port areas, and to had been performed on gas, sewer, when lines were broken by land- a lesser extent elsewhere, by alumi- and water lines were mapped by slides and earth fissures. num irrigation pipe laid on the the gas company, and the assump- Anchorage and the nearby mil- surface and connected to dwell- tion was made that stresses had itary posts obtain water by diver- ings with garden hoses. Com- been relieved in these areas. sions from Ship Creek and from pletion of more permanent repairs Maps prepared by the Engineer- a few deep wells. There are also to the underground systems re- ing Geology Evaluation Group some shallow private wells, mainly quired many months, in part (1964) were then used in conjunc- in the suburbs. In order to take because of the havoc caused by tion with the company's accurate advantage of the extra heat avail- landslides in parts of the city as-built maps and records of its able in ground water, the wells and in part by the necessary distribution system. By study- are used more extensively in delays for exploration of the slide ing the two sets of maps, about 50 winter than in summer. areas and for planning how they places were identified where earth- The earthquake caused mod- should be treated. (Alaska quake-caused ground fractures erate damage to the city treatment Depart. Health and Welfare, meant that there must be resid- plant, and several of the wells 1964; Waller, 1966b; Stephenson, ual stresses in the gaslines. At were destroyed by ground move- 1964).. the center of each such area the ments. Ground-water levels Except for the Spenard area, line was exposed and cut. Some dropped temporarily and water which has a treatment plant, pipes were under such tension that from many wells was muddy. the Anchorage and nearby mili- the cuts opened as much as 2 The Ship Creek supply was cut tary sewage systems discharge inches; elsewhere compressive off for a short time when an untreated wastes directly to Knik forces shortened the pipes. Suc- avalanche blocked the stream Arm. Outfalls were damaged by cessive exposures and cuts in the above the diversion points, but earthquake vibration and required lines were then made at 50-foot water was restored to the system replacement. The underground intervals away from the origins when the temporary dam was systems, built primarily with con- until points were reached where overtopped and cut through by crete pipe, were broken by land- cuts resulted in no movement of natural streamflow (Waller, slides, earth cracks, and vibration the pipes. The same method was 1966b). in a manner and in places similar used for the transmission line. By far the greatest damage to to the breaks in the water-supply The entire line was examined by the Anchorage water system was systems (Stephenson, 1964; Alas- helicopter traverse. Wherever in the distribution system, where ka Depart. Health and Welfare, ground cracks were observed to ground fractures and landslides 1964). A portable television cam- cross the line, excavations were broke pipes in nearly 100 places. era was used effectively to find made to allow the pipe to move All types of pipe were affected breaks in the sewer lines (Burton, and thus relieve residual stresses. by these ground movements. in Logan, 1967). Immediately after the earthquake ANCHORAGE The central telephone office the delivery rate nearly quad- in downtown Anchorage was se- Much of the following informa- rupled because of the numerous verely shaken and fuses were tion on Anchorage public utilities breaks in the lines. It was nec- blown. In the Alaska Commu- essary to shut off the supply is taken from Stephenson's report -- . nications System toll building (1964). completely and to repair it on Government Hill, two lbton Except for radio and television, section by section. battery plants collapsed by which were interrupted only be- Service was restored to more shaking and caught fie, but the cause of lack of electric power, than half of Anchorage within fire was quickly controlled. B24 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

The aerial wire system, which turing of pipes in the waterfront Kodiak at 5 :39 f p.m. This fail- serves most of Anchorage, sus- area and at the airport. ure was during the early phase of tained only minor damage the seismic shaking. Automatic except where poles were broken KODIAK equipment in the Kodiak Electric or dislodged by landslides. In Association generating plant made contrast to underground power- Communications facilities at four unsuccessful attempts in 3 lines, however, which were Kodiak Naval Station were hard seconds to reclose the circuits. only slightly damaged, almost hit. Except for Fleet Weather Flashes were emanating from the all of the 25-mile underground Central, which required less than plant, and the power failure re- telephone-cable system in down- 5 minutes to convert to standby sulted apparently from a short town Anchorage was put out power sources, naval station com- circuit at the generating plant of commission. Tension, caused munications were without power rather than in the feeder or dis- by stretching of the ground inci- for some hours. Not only was tribution line. Had the power dent to ground cracks and land- the central powerplant inoperative, failure not occurred before the slides, pulled the cables away but 2%miles of line between the first seismic sea wave struck the from manhole connections. station and the radio transmitter city of Kodiak, the inundating had been washed out by waves. waves would undoubtedly have CORDOVA Generators for Operations Control caused failure. and for the Tactical Air Command Kodiak's water and sewage lines Utilities in the main residential and Navigation centers were also were cracked in a few places by area and business district of Cor- damaged. earthquake vibration, but they dova-a town built almost en- In the town of Kodiak, the tirely on indurated bedrock- central telephone office was flood- sustained very little damage ex- were unaffected by the tremors. ed, and the line to a long-distance cept in the lower part of town that Slight damage was sustained by radio-telephone transmitter atop was destroyed by seismic sea utilities in the waterfront area, Pillar Mountain was downed by waves. Kodiak is served by two mainly as a result of shifting of earthquake shocks. Long-dis- water reservoirs north of town. the docks and piers on which t,he tance communications with thc One of these was very slightly utilities were located and of inun- mainland were reestablished the damaged by shaking and both dation of low-lying areas. All morning after the quake, but for reservoirs were closed for a few utilities functioned continuously 3 weeks the only local communi- hours after the earthquake to con- throughout the earthquake. cations were supplied by a few Minimal damage resulted from serve water for fighting fires that portable field telephones and by were expected but fortunately did tectonic uplift that left sewage short-wave radios in taxicabs and not materialize. Service of un- outfalls above high tides (Office police vehicles. Within a month of Emergency Planning, 1964). after the earthquake about 100 treated water was restored the day Utilities at the Cordova airport telephone circuits had been re- after the quake, and chlorination which is on thick alluvial deposits stored (Tudor, 1964; National of water was restored on March 29 13 miles from the town, were dis- Board of Fire Underwriters, 1964; (F. R. B. Norton and J. E. Haas, rupted by vibration and ground Kachadoorian and Plafker, 1967). written commun., 1966; Alaska fractures. Overhead powerlines The powerplant at Kodiak Depart. Health and Welfare, were snapped by violent motions Naval Station was repeatedly 1964). of their poles, and underground flooded by waves and electricity The Kodiak sewage system was steam, water, and sewer pipes and steam heat for the entire affected similarly to the water dis- were broken and made inoperative installation was cut off. Emer- tribution system; that is, it sus- by innumerable ground cracks. gency generators on land and on tained only minor damage except Cordova depends largely on a seaplane tender that was rushed near the waterfront where it was diverted surface water for its from Whidby Sound, Wash. (Kas- severely damaged. Tectonic sub- water supply; but also has two perick, 1964), supplied partial mergence of the shoreline (Kach- deep standby wells. Earth- needs for power to the station for adoorian and Plafker, 1967) low- quake damage to the distribution 2 weeks while the main plant was ered the sewage pumping station system and to the sewer system being repaired. A massive power to such an extent that it had to be was minimal except for the frac- failure occurred in the town of replaced. EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUMCATIONS AND UTILITIES I325

SEWARD

Submarine slides and giant waves destroyed Seward's port facilities, including utility systems near the waterfront. In addition, vibration and ground fractures disrupted water and sewer lines in many other parts of town and in suburban Forest Acres (Lemke, 1967). Seward is served power by the Chugach Electric Association from its Cooper Lake hydroelectric plant; transmission-line damages disrupted the service. Tempo- rary restoration of part of the power was effected in by the installation of small portable gen- erators. The distribution system was repaired by November of the same year, and a new standby city powerplant (fig. 16) was completed in 1965 (Lemke, 1967; office of Emergency Planning, 1964 ; 16.-Emergency standby generators at Seward, . Seward normally re- Chugach Electric Assoc., Inc., ceives power from Cooper Lake hydroelectric plant, but all power was cut off by thc earthquake. U.S. Army photograph. 1964). The Seward telephone system was completely disrupted ~letelydestroyed by submarine 1966). Local telephones re- for a few hours, and service was slides and waves (Lemke, 1967; mained in service, except for spasmodic for some weeks after Alaska Dept. Health and Welfare, the strip along the waterfront. the earthquake. Batteries were 1964). An emergency salt-water The powerplant, also, was un- used early in the emergency pe- system that might have helped in damaged. A few distribution riod, but portable generators were controlling the subsequent fires lines fell, but the power supply installed later (National Board of was inoperable because its water- was continuous to most parts Fire Underwriters, 1964). front pump station was wrecked of town except the waterfront Seward obtains most of its (National Board of Fire Under- (National Board of Fire Under- water by diversion from Jap and writers, 1964). writers, 1964). Because of the Marathon Creeks, and it also decision to abandon the townsite had four deep wells. Three of VALDEZ and to rebuild Valdez elsewhere, the wells were put out of oper- only temporary repairs were made ation by earthquake shaking, but Before the earthquake, Val- to the systems. the surface supplies survived dez was served water from two Design and construction of with only minor damage. Both deep wells close to the town. modern underground utilities at water and sewer lines sustained Neither the wells nor the ele- the new townsite were based breaks in many places through- vated storage tank adjacent to in part on knowledge of earth- out Seward and the suburban them were damaged, but water quake response of various ma- areas, and water service was cut and sewage lines throughout the terials gained by study of dam- off for periods ranging from 12 town were broken by ground ages at Anchorage, old Valdez, hours to more than a week after fractures in many places. Total and elsewhere. The principles of the earthquake. These damages, destruction of the waterfront by utilities design in an earthquake- however, were minor as compared a gigantic submarine slide of prone region that is also subject to those in the port area, where course wrecked waterlines and to heavy snow cover and deep all facilities, including water mains sewer outfalls completely in that frost penetration are described by and sewage outfalls, were com- area (Coulter and Migliaccio, Poiro t (1965). B26 ALASKA EARTHQUAn, MARCH 2 7, 1964

WHITTIER Health and Welfare, 1964). A for a period of 6 hours, until the deep well at the head of Passage main plant was put back into Most of Whittier's water is Canal was ruined by extrusion operation with water pumped obtained by impoundment of Cove of the casing and well head as a through a firehose from Passage Creek, backed up by two drilled result of differential compaction standby wells. These sources were Canal. The powerplant it.self, and by flooding of the site at high which is on a foundation of solid not materially damaged by the tides. rock, was virtually undamaged by earthquake, but the distribution The powerplant was shut down system and the outfall sewer sys- during the earthquake when two the earthquake. However, some tem were damaged extensively- 10-inch waterlines from the Cove of the feeder lines that were de- especially in the port area-by Creek impoundment were broken. stroyed along the inundated wa- shaking, ground fractures, and The plant was instantly switched terfront area had to be either landslide-generated waves (Kach- to standby auxiliary generators repaired or cut off the circuit adoorian, 1965; Alaska Depart. which supplied emergency power before full power could be restored.

REFERENCES CITED

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fay, G. T., 1964, The big breakup: Lemke, R. W., 1967, Effects of the 1965, Post-earthquake fisheries FAA [Federal Aviation Agency] earthquake of March 27, 1964, evaluation; an interim report on the Horizons, May 1964, p. 4-7. at Seward, Alaska: U.S. Geol. March 1964 earthquake effects of Federal Aviation Agency, 1965, Alaska Survey Prof. Paper 542-E. Alaska's fishery resources: Juneau, takes on new look: FAA Hori- (In press.) Alaeka, 72 p. zons, March 1965, p. 14-15. Logan, M. H., 1967, Effects of the Alaska Department of Health and Wel- Fitch, E. M., 1964, The Alaska Rail- earthquake of March 27, 1964, fare, 1964, Preliminary report of road meets its greatest challenge: on the Eklutna hydroelectric proj- earthquake damage to environ- Our Public Lands, v. 14, no. 1, ect, Anchorage, Alaska, with a mental health facilities and services p. 12-15. section on Television examination in Alaska: Juneau, Alaska Dept. George, Warren, and Lyle, R. E., 1966, of earthquake damage to under- Health and Welfare Environmental Reconstruction by the Corps of ground communication and elec- Health Br., 45 p. Engineers-methods and accom- trical systems in Anchorage, by Alaskan Construction Consultant Com- plishments, in Hansen, W. R., Lynn R. Burton: U.S. Geol. mittee [1964], Reconstruction and and others, The Alaska earthquake, Survey Prof. Paper 545-A. development survey of earthquake March 27, 1964-Field investiga- Miller, R. D., and Dobrovolny, Ernest, damages in Alaska: Prepared for tions and reconstruction effort: 1959, Surficial geology of Anchor- Federal Reconstruction and Devel. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper age and vicinity, Alaska: U.S. Plan. Comm. for Alaska, 98 p. 541 [1967]. Geol. Survey Bull. 1093, 128 p. Berg, G. V., and Stratta, J. L., 1964, Hansen, W. R., 1965, Effects of the National Board of Fire Underwriters Anchorage and the Alaska earth- earthquake of March 27, 1964, and Pacific Fire Rating Bureau, quake of March 27, 1964: New Anchorage, Alaska: U.S. Geol. 1964, The Alaska earthquake, York, Am. Iron and Steel Inst., 83p. Survey Prof. Paper 542-A, p. March 27, 1964: , Chugach Electric Association, Inc., A1-A68. Calif., distributed by Am. In- 1964, Survey of damage caused by Kachadoorian, Reuben, 1965, Effects surance Assoc., 35 p. the great Alaska earthquake: An- of the earthquake of March 27, Office of Emergency Planning, 1964, chorage, Alaska, 35 p., illus. and 1964, at Whittier, Alaska: U.S. Impact of earthquake of March 27, map. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 542-B, 1964, upon the economy of Alaska: Coulter, H. W., and Migliaccio, R. R., p. B1-B21. Prepared for Federal Reconstruc- 1966, Effects of the earthquake of Kachadoorian, Reuben, and Plafker, tion and Devel. Plan. Comm. for March 27, 1964, at Valdez, Alaska: George, 1967, Effects of the earth- Alaska, 27 p. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper quake of March 27, 1964, on the Plafker, George, 1965, Tectonic defor- 542-C, p. Cl-C36. communities of Kodiak and nearby mation associated with the 1964 Engineering Geology Evaluation Group, islands: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Alaska earthquake: Science, v. 1964, Geologic report-27 March Paper 542-F. (In press.) 148, no. 3678, p. 1675-1687. 1964 earthquake in Greater An- Plafker, George, and Kachadoorian, chorage area: Prepared for Alaska Kasperick, Dan, 1964, In the wake of State Housing Authority and the Alaska's earthquake: All Hands Reuben, 1966, Geologic effects of city of Anchorage, Anchorage, [Bur. Naval Personnel Career Pub.], the March 27, 1964, earthquake Alaska, 34 p., 12 figs., pls. 1-17. , p. 10-14. and associated seismic sea waves EFFECTS ON AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATIONS AND UTILITIES B27

on Kodiak and nearby islands, at Kodiak: Military Engineer, the hydrology of south-central Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. v. 56, no. 372, p. 254-255. Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 543-Dl 46 p. Stump, W. J., 1965, Restoration of gas Paper 544-A, p. Al-A28. Plafker, George, and Mayo, L. R., service after an earthquake: Pacific Waller, R. M., 1966b, Effects of the March 1965, Tectonic deformation, sub- Coast Gas Assoc. Proc., v. 56, p. on the hy- aqueous slides, and destructive 123-126. drology of the Anchorage area: U.S. waves associated with the Alaskan Tudor, W. J., 1964, Tsunami damage at Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 544-B, March 27, 1964, earthquake-an Kodiak, Alaska, and Crescent City, p. Bl-B18. interim geologic evaluation: U.S. California, from Alaska earthquake 1966c, Effects of the earth- Geol. Survey open-file report, 21 p. of 27 March 1964: Port Hueneme, quake of March 27, 1964, in Poirot, J. W., 1965, Utilities for a Calif., U.S. Naval Civil Eng. Lab. the Homer area, Alaska, with a relocated town in Alaska: Civil Tech. Note N-622, 124 p. section on Beach changes on Homer Eng., v. 35, no. 3, p. 50-53. U.S. Army Alaskan Command, 1964, Spit by Kirk W. Stanley: U.S. Powers, J. R., 1965, An engineering Operation Helping Hand-The Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 542-D, glimpse of the Alaskan earthquake: Armed Forces react to earthquake 28 p. [U.S.] Air Force Civil Engineer, disaster: Seattle, Wash., Alaskan Wood, F. J., ed., 1966, Operational v. 6, February 1965, p. 2-5. Command Headquarters, 83 p. phases of the Coast and Geodetic Stephenson, J. M., 1964, Earthquake U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Survey program in Alaska for the damage to Anchorage area util- 1964, Four-point program aims to period March 27 to December 31, ities-March 1964: Port Hueneme, rebuild fishing industry: Our Public 1964, V. 1 of The Prince William Calif., U.S. Naval Civil Eng. Lab. Lands, v. 14, no. 1, p, 16-17. Sound, Alaska, earthquake of 1964 Tech. Note N-607, 17 p., 41 figs. Waller, R. M., 1966a, Effects of the and aftershocks: U.S. Coast and Stroh, Alfred, Jr., 1964, Navy operations March 1964 Alaska earthquake on Geodetic Survey Pub. 10-3, 263 p.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1967-0-244-767