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By the time you leave on Tuesday at 1:30, we will... • Share with you examples of innovative eBook design (the magic). • Clearly illustrate what not to do when designing narrative based interactive products for children (the dust). • Give you a theoretical tool kit for literacy, applied to children’s interactive media. • Contribute to your personal definition of “dust” and “magic.” • Introduce known theories of child development, applied directly to interactive media. • Introduce you to a community of others who are passionate about the potential of technology for children. • Provide a professional, comfortable, relaxed setting that will promote the most learning in the least time.
No swiping required! Printed on 100% non-interactive, paper, with retinal display ink. Dust or Magic eBook Retreat 2 Tips for finding magic
Illustration: Peter Reynolds
In order to get the most out of this institute, we ask that each participant consider the following during the small and large In demonstration settings — group discussions. WHEN GIVING CRITICISM: Ground feedback in real examples and provide opportunities for differing opinions. 1. Represent: take a lot of notes and make sketches. Remember “modifiable” vs. “unmodifiable” issues, from the Learn from others, listen, and leave the institute as better perspective of the person getting the feedback. reviewers, critics, researchers, teachers, designers, and pub- lishers. Remember that it’s OK to sit quietly and reflect. WHEN GETTING CRITICISM: Make sure you are comfortable There is no pressure to participate. with the process. If not, ask for more feedback in a confidential setting. To this end -- 2. Keep a child’s-eye view. This is the key to understanding • Grouping and seating is flexible. If you end up in a group the magic. Try to look at each product through the eyes of a and you are not comfortable with the membership, it is per- child who will have little regard for public relations budgets, fectly OK to get up and change. cost, packaging, political context or size of publisher. • Participation in discussions is optional. You should not feel Remember .... a child can’t spell the word “hypocrite,” but obligated to express opinions at any time. they know what one is. • If you record any information or take pictures (other than note form), make sure that all people know that a recording 3. Manage your bias. It is natural to have cultural, commer- or photographic device is active. Not all participants want to cial and theoretical bias. This bias can help you, but it can be “on the record” all the time. also blind you. You can’t get rid of it, but you can understand and manage it. It helps to honestly disclose this bias when evaluating products or talking to others about a particular General Definitions product. Children— children from birth to 15 years. We must think broadly about this, however, as children use and benefit from 4. Keep an open mind. Interactive media is changing rapid- products designed for adults. ly, due to Moore’s Law. So think broadly and with an open mind. Try to avoid negative thinking at the start of a thought Interactive Media — the broadly defined category of "new" or stream. Phrases to avoid include “I can’t work with that plat- interactive media, or software that runs on hardware in any form” or “we don’t use that hardware in our office.” This is a form, such as a tablet, computer, game console (Nintendo Wii time to think outside the box. U, DS, Xbox, PlayStation, Wii, iPhone/iPod Touch), Internet site, a smart toy with embedded software. The key word is 5. Support the group process. Give and take, don’t domi- "interactive media" rather than “linear media.” nate the discussion, and don’t be afraid of healthy controver- sy or disagreement. Materials in the Room 6. Don’t sell (or if you do, at least do it honestly). Please avoid Please take care of all items as if they belonged to you. If you PR fluff, hype or promoting your own materials. Participants notice a tablet with low batteries, find the charger and plug it are free to put materials on the handout table for anyone to in. If you use one of the game consoles, return the software and take. This event is about evaluating, designing and creating, controllers for the next person. and not about marketing and selling. If you take some software or a book from one of the collections, 7. You may end up on YouTube. Many of the discussions please make sure you put it back when you’re finished, with all and presentations are being recorded; please keep this in the internal materials intact. We cannot be responsible for any mind. Participation in any conversation or staged photo- lost items, but we’ll try our best to keep your items safe. graph is optional. We can’t control informal photographs being taken by other participants, however. If you plan on recording the sessions, please let us, and the speak- er, know. The phone number for the barn: Jo Lloyd 570-729-7903.
3 Dust or Magic eBook Retreat The Story of Dust or Magic nce upon a time (1996), the world’s oldest and largest children’s book fair wanted to start a Oprize initiative for “new media.” They asked Children’s Software Revue if we’d create it for them. We accepted on the condition that they would host a juried competition that included a face-to-face meet- ing of editors, in a setting where each juror could demonstrate a variety of products.
Early in the spring of 1997, a group of reviewers were flown from around parts of Europe, Asia and the USA to participate in three days of debate and product demonstrations.
Participants included some of the top minds in the The first Dust or Magic Institute. Speakers include Aleen interactive space -- people like Judy Salpeter from Stein, Mark Schlichting and Bernadette Gonzalez. You’ll see a young Daren Carstens and Kelli Winters, too. Technology & Learning, Dr’s. Ann Orr and Ellen Wolock from CSR, James Oppenheim, Peter Scisco (former editor of Compute!), Dr. Kyung Woo Lee from Korea, Thomas Feibel from Germany and Caterina Cangià and Gigi Tagliapietra from Italy. From France, repeat jurors were Georgia Leguem and Claude Combet; and from the UK came Pam Turnbull and Jon Smith (Editor of CD-ROM Today, and today a producer for Travelers Tales, aka LEGO Star Wars).
In 2001, when the market for the software slowed, the Bologna New Media Prize ended. In an effort to keep the spirited conversation growing, we decided to start an annual meeting to be financed by participant tuition. We also wanted to consider the expanding range of children’s tech- nology products, and to personally get to know others who where working in this space. Rather than coming up with a prize, we decided to review the year.
The title “Dust or Magic” came with the blessing of Bob Hughes, author of the book Dust or Magic: Secrets of Successful Multimedia Design. In the forward of his book, Bob referenced the poem “An idea can turn from dust to magic, depending on the talent that rubs against it.” (Matsuo Basho, 1644-1694). The first Dust or Magic was planned for September 23, 2001, and the event sold out. Unfortunately, the disaster of September 11 forced us to change our plans. So the first Dust or Magic event actually was held in January of ‘02. Right away, it was clear that we had not only captured the essence of those early juror’s meetings, but we’d improved upon it.
We, the media, could learn much more about the thinking behind each product without feeling bribed or manipulated. The spirited debates have continued each fall and the quest for the magic has become a celebration. We are thankful to everyone who has helped make this event possible, and hope it continues to influence the quality of children’s interactive media products for many more years to come.
Warren Buckleitner, Editor Children’s Technology Review
Dust or Magic eBook Retreat 4 Agenda We’ve created an agenda that mixes good food, future friends and fun with theories of literacy. It is thick with demonstrations, talks, and time to informally “assimilate” the new ideas you’ll need to understand this emerging space. Don’t worry — we always ground theory in app reality. Sunday Afternoon, April 21, 2013 3:00 pm – 5:00 pm Arrive: The Barn at Highlights Foundation
Meet in our intellectual home for the next three days to pick up your conference materi- als, check into your room, get a snack or informally share a project. Then check into your room. Park in the designated areas; note that cars are not permitted in the lodge area where grass is being grown.
5:00 Appetizers, Beer and Wine
5:30 Dinner
Welcome. Overview of the agenda by facilitators Warren Buckleitner, (Editor of Children’s Technology Review), Mark Schlichting (Creator of the Living Books) and ,Daren Carstens (Carstens Studios).
• Preview of the agenda. • Introductions.
8:00 Panel: What is an eBook? Four points of view. A panel moderated by Lori Collins Editor-in-Chief, Early Childhood Publications, for the National Wildlife Federation. Some publishers tell their stories. Panalists include:
* Barry O’Neill, StoryToys (Publisher view) * Chris Rettstatt, Highlights for Children (Developer view) * Bill Doyle, Crabhill Press (Author view) * Mark Schlichting, Noodleworks (Historical view) Monday Morning, April 22, 2013 8:00 AM Breakfast in the Barn
9:00 Pushing the Boundaries of Digital Storytelling by Warren Buckleitner with help from the BolognaRagazzi Digital Jurors (via Skype). (3 PM Bologna Time) an attempt at a Google Hangout; with Skype as a backup.
10:00 Child Development 101 for the Designers of Children’s eBooks • Literacy defined. • Adams: How the development of humans is like the development of a child • Whole language vs. phonics • Scaffolding techniques: Decoding in the multi-touch age • Encoding (writing) in the multi-touch age • Influential theories
11:00 This Little eBook Goes to Market with Mark, Daren and Barry • Submitting an app to iTunes and working with Apple • Android • Other platforms (Kindle Fire HD, Microsoft, Nook, Game Console and PC)
12:00 Lunch
Have a question you’re afraid to ask in front of the group? Text it to Warren! Or whisper it to Daren. Warren Buckleitner 908-797-3580 (cell)
5 Dust or Magic eBook Retreat Monday Afternoon, April 22 Notes
1:00 Master class with Mark Schlichting.
The Art and the Science of the clickable (sometimes called the animated hot spot) by Mark Schlichting
Exploiting the power of music and sounds The importance and use of clickable items, characters, how to keep kids atten- tion (especially on text) with animation, and other lessons learned from Living Books and Noodle Words.
3:00 Report from Playscience: The ABCs of Kids & Ebooks Understanding the E-Reading Habits of Children Aged 2-13. A Skyped-in conversation with author Carly Shuler.
3:30 Report from the International Reading Association (IRA) by Junko Yokoto. What’s new from the research front.
4:00 Demos Monday Evening 5:00 Appetizers, Beer and Wine 5:30 Dinner 6:30 Child watching Freetime for a fire/demos Tuesday Morning, April 23, 2013 Note that you should check out of your room by 10:00 AM if you are leaving on Tuesday.
8:00 AM Breakfast in the Barn
9:00 This Little eBook Went to School with Jeremy Brueck An overview on the latest research on children, technology and literacy along with some stories on implementation at the Akron Ready Steps Program
10:00 Demos
11:00 Nice Touches Page transitions Scaffolding Navigation Representational strategies Ways to pull in children’s ideas Games Surprises & Easter Eggs
11:30 Review 12:00 Lunch 1:30 End of structured time
Begin decompression period. Note that if you are staying Tuesday night, you’ll need to reserve your room on Sunday ($135 extra). Participants are welcome to linger as long as they like to informally share projects or walk in the woods. Wednesday Morning, April 24, 2013 Free time Check out of room by 10:00 AM. Departure after lunch
Dust or Magic eBook Retreat 6 Participant List by Last Name
Guillaume Aniorte Cofounder and Co-CEO , Tribal Nova Guillaume Aniorté has almost 15 years of experience in the new media industry. Over these years, he has produced and marketed more than 50 websites and PC games. Guillaume Aniorté started his career in 1995 with Communications Voir. Then he joined PTM Kids and Inpix Media. In 2002, he decided to become an independent producer and 3 years later, he cofounded Tribal Nova with his long-time friend Pierre Le Lann. He is also a cofounder and shareholder of Woozworld inc, a spinoff from Tribal Nova that operates a virtual world for tweens . An expert in producing and marketing interactive content, Guillaume Aniorté is regularly asked to speak at international conferences on new media. Guillaume also sits on the board of directors of the Multimedia Producers Group (secretary) and of the Alliance for Children and Television. Jeremy Brueck eBook Researcher , The University of Akron Jeremy Brueck serves as the director of the Digital Text Initiative at the University of Akron’s Center for Literacy where he provides strategic direction and coordination of services in the design of professional development for pre-K-12 teachers across Ohio. Prior to that, he spent 5 years as a curriculum & technology specialist in Green Local Schools with a focus on designing standards- based integrated lessons for grades K-3. He has also worked as a 3rd grade classroom teacher in Columbus Public Schools. Mr. Brueck is a licensed teacher for grades 1-8 and also holds a Masters degree in Educational Leadership with a focus on the Principalship. Jeremy is a doctoral candidate who is researching the use of eBook and mobile devices in literacy learning. Jeremy provides ongoing support to school districts and teachers to assist them in meeting their goals and for long-term success and efficacy. He has presented on a wide variety of education and technology topics to audiences both nationally and internationally. Past conference presentations include the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA), Society for the Scientific Study of Reading (SSSR), National Educational Computing Conference (ISTE), Early Education and Technology for Children Conference(EETC), National Association for the Education of Young Children Conference & Expo (NAEYC), eTech Ohio Educational Technology Conference and other regional educational conferences. His blog, Raised Digital, can be found at http://brueckei.org. Warren Buckleitner Editor, Children's Technology Review Warren's expertise is the relationship between children (aged 0-to 15-years) and interactive media; a topic he's studied since 1984. He is Editor of Children's Technology Review and has taught at Rutgers, MSU and NYU. Warren also taught preschool, 2nd, 4th, and 6th grades. His work with software began in 1984 at the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation. He has been an advisor to Consumer Reports WebWatch, Kids@Play and provides reviews to media outlets, including the New York Times GadgetWise blog and Scholastic Parent & Child. His publication coordinates two awards: The Bologna Ragazzi Digital Prize and the annual KAPi Awards. Warren holds a BS in Elementary Education (cum laude), an MS in Human Development from Pacific Oaks College, and a Doctorate in Educational Psychology from Michigan State University. He has two daughters. Warren started the Dust or Magic Institute in 2001, and is one of the Facilitators. Katherine Burdick CEO, Mobile Learning Services LLC Katherine Burdick
7 Participant List by Last Name
Melania Chwyl PhD Student, Melania Chwyl is a PhD student at the University of Toronto (Ontario Institute for the Studies of Education), Canada, in the department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning. Melania is focused on the role of parents in e-reading - how parents are interacting with their children while their children are using ebooks in a variety of settings (at home, ‘on the go’, in children’s museums). She is particularly interested in the interaction of multilingual families. Melania lives in New York City with her husband and two daughters. Lori Collins Editor-in-Chief, Early Childhood Publications , National Wildlife Federation Lori Collins is the Editor-in-Chief, Early Childhood Publications, for the National Wildlife Federation. Under her direction, NWF recently launched Ranger Rick Jr. print magazine, an iPad app series, Ranger Rick Jr. Appventures, as well as a simple, shape- recognition game featuring a vomiting snake. Over the course of her career, Lori has developed award-winning products for children using a variety of media, including filmstrips, CD-ROMs, laserdiscs, educational software, books, magazines, and apps. She lives in Maryland with her husband, two sons, and a yellow Labrador named Chance. Bill Doyle Co-Founder , Crab Hill Press Bill Doyle is cofounder of Crab Hill Press, developer of three interactive storybooks (so far): “Don’t Open Before Christmas,” “My Dad Drives a Roller Coaster Car,” and the award-winning “Nash Smasher!” Bill has been writing for decades: MFA in Dramatic Writing from NYU’s Film School; editor of Kid City (aka Electric Co.) at Sesame Workshop; editor at TIME For Kids; and producer at LeapFrog. He’s author of the Scream Team series (Scholastic), Behind Enemy Lines series (Scholastic), Henry & Keats series, including “Attack of the Shark-Headed Zombie” and “Stampede of the Supermarket Slugs” (Random House), and “The Worst Case Scenario Ultimate Adventure: Everest” (Chronicle). While his Crab Hill Press business partner, the designer Rachel Ericson, lives in Amsterdam, Bill lives in New York City…visit him online at BillDoyle.net and at CrabHillPress.com. Twitter: @bdwrites and @crabhillpress. Email: [email protected]. Damien Giard VP Product Manager , Tribal Nova Bart Hawkinberry Manager, Design/Production, Zaner-Bloser Bart Hawkinberry graduated from The Ohio State University with a degree in fine art. For the past 25 years, he has applied his creativity and project management skills to developing educational products for students and teachers. He currently works for Zaner- Bloser, managing a group of design/production specialists in the Columbus, Ohio area. His team creates print and digital products for kindergarten through grade eight, with a focus on reading and language arts. One recent program, Voices 3C eLessons, is comprised of customizable teacher lesson plans for over 600 leveled ebooks. Bart is continually expanding his knowledge of interactive ebooks and gaming platforms for future products. Bart resides in Westerville, Ohio, with his wife, Julie, who is an elementary art teacher. Bart enjoys traveling with his family, painting, photography, and vintage cars. Connect with Bart through LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/hawkinberry/
Carolyn Jaynes Learning Designer , LeapFrog Enterprises, Inc. Carolyn Jaynes is a Learning Designer for LeapFrog Enterprises, specializing in language and literacy development. Before coming to LeapFrog, Dr. Jaynes was an assistant professor of literacy in the teacher education department at Sacramento State University, a literacy curriculum developer for the Lawrence Hall of Science in Berkeley, and a classroom teacher in the San Francisco bay area. She earned her doctorate in educational psychology at Michigan State University where she was a researcher and professional development consultant for the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA).
Anjelika Kosanic Producer, Digital Content , Highlights for Children
8 Participant List by Last Name
Mary-Alice Moore VP, Editorial Director for Book Publishing , Highlights for Children Mary-Alice Moore is VP, Editorial Director for Book Publishing at Highlights for Children. She oversees both the trade book publishing program (under the Boyds Mills Press and the newly-launched Highlights Press imprints), as well as the company's five book clubs. She recently directed the re-launch (re-imagining) of Which Way USA, a multi-format, puzzle-based exploration of each of the 50 U.S. States, which also includes a dynamic web experience (created by colleague and fellow conferee Chris Rettstatt). Mary-Alice has spent her entire career in children's book publishing, with positions at Scholastic, HarperCollins, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, and North-South books. Oh, and one lovely, three-year interlude managing a children's bookstore in Virginia. She is the author of a picture book, The Wheels on the School Bus (HarperCollins), now sadly OP. She lives in Connecticut with her husband and three boys, and commutes weekly to this beautiful barn. Barry ONeill , StoryToys Barry O’Neill is the CEO of StoryToys, a developer and publisher of award winning interactive books for children. The company’s products combine a unique blend of storytelling, learning and game components and are presented in a unique pop-up book format. Prior to StoryToys Barry headed up Namco Bandai’s European mobile business and co-founded mobile games pioneer Upstart Games in 2002, which he sold in 2006.
Erin Reilly Research Director, New Media Literacies , USC Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism Erin Reilly is a recognized expert in the design and development of hybrid learning and transmedia applications, such as Zoey’s Room
Mark Schlichting President , NoodleWorks Interactive Mark is an advocate for play. He is also a pioneer of the multimedia industry, an expert in children’s interactive design, is probably best known as the creator of Broderbund's Living Books CD-ROM series. In 2000 Mark founded NoodleWorks Interactive, a creative design and production company specializing in innovative design for children. In November 2011, NoodleWorks released its’ first iPad app, a word toy called Noodle Words. In March 2012 Mark also joined Wanderful interactive storybooks as their Chief Creative Officer to help with the redesign, update, and release of many of the original Living Books for the iOS and Android platforms. His own (multilingual) storybook, Harry and The Haunted House was just released in October.
9 Participant List by Last Name
Jennifer Wells , PBS KIDS Mobile Jennifer Wells manages game development for mobile platforms at PBS KIDS.
Jessica Wollman VP, Editorial Products & Digital Programming , Scholastic, Inc. In her role as Vice President, Editorial Products & Digital Programming for Scholastic Media, Jessica Wollman manages cross- platform content development for Scholastic Media’s core brands and digital initiatives. Since joining Scholastic in 1997, Jessica has played a key role in the production and development of numerous high quality multi-media properties for children of all ages such as Clifford the Big Red Dog, Clifford’s Puppy Days, WordGirl and Goosebumps. She has had the opportunity to design, implement and research curriculum for a large number of Scholastic Media’s products, from television to web to interactive eBooks. She currently serves as the editorial lead for enriched eBooks for Storia, Scholastic's new eReading application, and continues to shape content efforts for Television and other digital initiatives. During her sixteen year tenure at Scholastic, Jessica has assembled countless advisory boards and served on numerous committees and task-forces such as Scholastic's Early Childhood board, The Common Core State Standards Committee, The PBS Kid's Health Advisory Council and the NGA's Industry Round Table Discussion for Online Protections for Children. Jessica began her career as a preschool and first grade teacher in the New York City public and private schools. She graduated from Columbia University and received a Master’s Degree in Early Childhood Education from New York University for which she was awarded a grant from The Department of Education.
Stephanie Yost Exec VP Content , Age of Learning, Inc. Stephanie Yost is the Executive Vice President for Content at Age of Learning, Inc., the creator of the educational website for young children ABCmouse.com, which was created by the same management team that founded and operated the top rated youth entertainment website Neopets.com from 2000 until its sale to Viacom, Inc. in 2005. Launched just eighteen months ago, ABCmouse. com is already the proud recipient of the Editor’s Choice Award from Children’s Technology Review, the Parents Choice Gold Award, and the Teachers Choice Gold Award, among others. Ms. Yost supervises the design, curriculum planning and development for the 3,000+ educational activities on ABCmouse.com, including hands-on production of its music library and participation on its new apps development team. An active member of SAG, AFTRA, and NARAS, Ms. Yost has more than twenty-five years’ professional experience as a content producer, director, and performer. Additionally, she happens to be an entertainment attorney and the company’s General Counsel.
10 Child Development 101 for the Developers of Interactive Media
An Overview of Influential Theories of Child Development, Applied to Practice
his is a handout packet for the designers of children’s interactive media (IM). It is designed to accompany the talks and lectures that are part of the Dust or Magic Institute. Designing IM that works with children depends on a variety of factors, including a solid knowledge of the capabilities and learning patterns of the intended audience, in this case children from 0 to 15 years-of-age. There are three parts:
Part 1 covers basic child development theory, especially motivation and Piaget’s stage theory. Part 2 provides an developmental, year by year overview. Part 3 includes essays on various aspects of design.
“An idea can turn from dust to magic, depending upon the talent that rubs against it.” 松尾 芭蕉 Matsuo Bashō ( ), from the forward of the book by Bob Hughes
First edition, 1996. Revised April 2013 Parts by Ellen Wolock, Ed.D, Ann Orr, Ed.D. and Warren Buckleitner, Ph.D. © Active Learning Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction in part or in whole without written permission is strictly prohibited. Printed in the United States of America.
Children’s Technology Review is a trademark of Active Learning Associates, Inc. 120 Main Street, Flemington, NJ 08822
Internet image references: 16mm projector -- (www.xs4all.nl/~wichm/ cinimage.html, flashlight (cartalk.cars.com/Store/ Car-Kit/list.html), slide projector (www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~ecoway/ equipinfo.htm, Jean Piaget (www.piaget.org). Other images from Studio 1 Photography in Ann Arbor, MI.
1 Contents Part 1. How Children Learn ...... 3
Intrinsic Motivation Factors: I WANT to play! ...... 3 Piaget: Constructivism, and his Theory of Cognitive Development ...... 4 Other Influential Theories ...... 6 Behaviorism ...... 6 Constructivism...... 6 Social Learning Theory ...... 6 Social Constructivism ...... 6 Enhancing Feelings of Control ...... 6 Information Processing Theory...... 7 Bloom’s Taxonomy...... 7 Definitions ...... 7 Howard Gardner’s Theories of Mind...... 8 The Marshmallow Study ...... 8 Literacy Theory at a Glance ...... 9 An Amazing History (of Literacy and Technology) ...... 10 The BolognaRagazzi 2013 Winners ...... 12 Maria Montessori ...... 14
Part 2. Developmental Stages ...... 16
Birth to 18 Months ...... 16 18 Months to 2 1/2 Years ...... 16 2 1/2 to 3 Years ...... 16 3 to 4 Years ...... 17 4 to 5 Years ...... 17 5 to 6 Years ...... 18 Taxonomy of Touch ...... 19 Child as a Tree ...... 20 Part 3. Application ...... 21
Capturing the Magic of Interactive Media ...... 21 Contributors to Magic; Contributors to Dust ...... 22 Engagement as a Variable ...... 23 Eight Lessons for Structured Activities ...... 25 Instructions on Giving Instructions...... 26 The Five Ingredients of Active Learning ...... 27 Digital Play-Doh ...... 27 The Waterline Principle ...... 28 How to Build Feelings of Ownership...... 28 Pondering Pokémagic...... 29 Seven Rules for Making Solid Web/Toy Connections ...... 30 A Code of Ethics for Children’s IM Publishers ...... 31 Why Tap Zoo is a Morality Fail ...... 32 A Generic Evaluation Form ...... 23 To Help You Remember...... 24 Sketch pads ...... 35
2 Part 1: How Children Learn Four Ingredients of Intrinsic Motivation The efficiency of children’s learning is increased when they have a stake in the task. It is commonly believed that intrinsic motivation plays a critical role in the degree to which a child will become engaged with an activity. But what is “intrinsic motivation?” Several factors have been identified by motivation theorists (Weiner, 1986, White, 1959; Maehr, 1983; Stipek, 1986; Lepper, 1973 to name a few) as being central to the development of intrinsic motivation attributes in a learner's behav- ior. These factors can be used as a framework for understanding a child's actions when he or she is using IM or for assessing the overall quality of the IM experience. 1. Enjoyment 3. Interest Children choose activities that they like to do, and avoid Children are more likely to engage in an activity when their activities that are frustrating, static or boring. interest has been sparked. Implications for interactive media design: Implications for interactive media design: When designing an activity, make sure the child finds initial Children love surprises so remember that “variety is the success within the first 5 to 20 seconds. Sign-in screens spice of life.” Make sure that each play offers a surprise, or should be intuitive; the first activities easy and fun. Nothing has some sort of open-ended element. Get to know as many kills enjoyment faster than failure, in any form. Also, don’t real live kids as you can. What are they interested in? Fads underestimate kids. Some designers think that children come and go, but kids always want interactive media with don’t pay attention to fine details because they are too characters they can relate to, good story lines, quality music, young (“don’t worry ... these are just little kids”). Put your- humor, and familiar items and themes. Mix in a surprise, self in the child’s shoes— would you want to play the activity and you have increase the chance that you’ll support intrin- you are designing? Walt Disney understood that the process sic motivation. of creating a successful children’s film is just as difficult as that of creating a film for adults. Disney’s films appeal to all 4. Feelings of Success ages, stand the test of time and are watched over and over again. Similarly, the early success of titles like The Living Children develop feelings of competence if they think they Books or Toca Tea Party can be tied in part to their clever have a reasonable chance of success. Implications for interactive media design: use of animation and humor. When interactive media is easy It is the developer’s responsibility to provide children with to use and respectful of children, kids are more likely to use materials and activities that are at or near their develop- it, and enjoy it. mental level. This, of course, refers to program content, but also to its design as well. There are several components of this. “Minimum User Competency” or MUC means that the challenge should be in the activity itself, not in the physical operation of the program (non-intuitive icons, reading required when the target audience is preschool, etc.) “Motivation Inertia” means that you make sure your interac- 2. Control tive media includes elements that build on previous success, allowing greater challenge that is tailored to the child’s abili- Children avoid activities in which they feel they have little ties. Pacing and leveling is also critical— too fast, and the or no control. Good interactive media increases children’s child builds a failure history rather than competence history. feelings of control by providing an environment where their Too slow, and the interest decreases. Teachers have learned actions have impact. Implications for interactive media design: that one of the most effective punishments is “time out”, Make it crisp. Send instant, snappy control messages (such because children hate to wait, yet that’s exactly what some as an action or audio cue) with each touch or mouse click. A interactive media design does. If extrinsic reinforcers are responsive interface, measured in microseconds, used such as “nice job” or “try again,” make sure they increases feelings of control. You don’t grab the don’t slow the pace of the activity, especially when Memorize there is a timed element. child's attention with music, video or animation, if it these 4 factors is at the cost of the responsivity. Good interactive media allows many opportunities for child input. Why ADDITIONAL RESOURCES are apps like Wheels on the Bus (by Duck Duck Carolyn Handler Miller’s “Seven Kisses of Death” has Moose) such favorites? Because every action the a lot of overlap with these four factors. child makes results in something happening on screen. The child is leads the way, not the See also High/Scope’s Five Ingredients of Active Learning. interactive media. Finally, good interactive media also always leaves an intuitive “back Annie Murphy Paul’s “Brilliant Report,” door” or “go back” icon that is in a consistent http://anniemurphypaul.com/blog/ explores motivation place on every screen. Once a child under- and children. stands that he or she can reverse a choice or decision, they are more likely to explore further or try a harder challenge.
3 Jean Piaget Constructivism The research and writings of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), have had an enormous impact on the field of cognitive development and chil- dren’s interactive media design. Piaget’s ideas can help you under- stand the way children think and learn. I like to think of Piaget’s the- ories in two general clusters: Stage Theory (his description of a set of discreet stages through which children proceed over time), and Processes (his explanation of a set of processes that help move a Learn more about Piaget, his life child from one stage to the next). A basic understanding of Piaget’s and his work at www.piaget.org. A good book on Piaget for novice theories can help the interactive media designer create more devel- readers is The Piaget Primer: Thinking, opmentally appropriate interactive media, aka “Magic.” Make sure Learning, Teaching by Ed Labinowicz (Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley you search on “Jean Piaget” in both Wikipedia and YouTube for Publishing Co., 1980). some great resources. See also “What if Jean Piaget Visited the Jersey Shore at http://youtu.be/22APMOH6cik
Sensorimotor Preoperational Birth to 2 1/2 years. Ages 2 1/2 to 7 years (a period of sensory input and physi- A period of representational, prelogical cal actions) thought Piaget described the ages of 0 From approximately age 2 to to 2 years as the Sensorimotor Sensorimotor children think age 7, Piaget described the child as Stage. All learning is done via like a flashlight—where the being in the Preoperational Stage. beam shines is where they physical exploration of the envi- Language acquisition is a major goal, Preoperational children think. The rest of the world think like a slide projector. ronment. As the child interacts doesn’t exist. as is “object permanence” or the idea They can typically hold dis- with people and things, pleasing that objects continue to exist even tinct thoughts in mind, but reactions are eventually noted, making the action when they are out of sight. This is have trouble mixing them, or more likely to be repeated. In the later por- the first building block of memory understanding that they can affect one another. tion of this period, the child begins to and higher order thinking skills. actively experiment, trying out various Piaget also believed that children at actions and reactions in a more purpose- this age fail to understand that the ful manner. By the end of this period, mass of an object is unchanged even when something is done the child has acquired an initial set of to it. For example, if you take a short glass of milk and pour concepts dealing with space, objects and it into a taller, narrower glass, children in the Preoperational causality. Stage will think that the taller glass contains more milk. ✓ Babies initially think that objects out ✓ Children begin to represent experiences through play and of sight aren’t there, but later communications. understand that the object doesn’t ✓ Children are generally egocentric, less able to take anoth- really disappear (like in peek-a-boo). er’s perspective. ✓ Children learn through the direct manip- ✓ Children consider the current con- ulation of objects, using all senses (touch, dition of what they see. For taste, sound) instance, a small banana ✓ Children learn through the repetition of actions and imi- cut into lots of little tation. pieces is “more” than ✓ Children understand simple cause and effect. a big banana cut into just a few pieces. ✓ In the early period of this stage, expressions may be taken literally, e.g. keep an eye on the ball.
4 Concrete-Operations Formal-Operational Ages 7-12 (a period of focused logical Ages 12-17 thought) (a period of unlimited, logical thought) From about 7 to 12 years, the Formal-Operational thinking is child is described as being in the said to begin around age 12. Here, Concrete-Operational Stage, a peri- the adolescent begins to use od characterized by a more mature abstract logic, and no longer relies understanding of the world and on concrete objects to form his objects around them. They under- thinking. Learning can occur Like a computer controlled DVD player, formal operational thinking Concrete operational kids stand that you can do things that through verbal reasoning, and by children can quickly skip from one think like a motion picture change appearance of an object, taking the perspective of others. idea to another, hold multiple con- projector; a step up from trasting ideas in memory, and eval- without changing the essence of the distinct “slide by slide” pro- Pre-teens/teens in this period for- uate the relevance of different ideas. object. For instance, children at cessing. But they still have mulate their own hypotheses this age understand that a certain trouble jumping, or mentally about causes and solutions. They juggling different ideas. This amount of liquid has the same vol- is why they rely on concrete are now able rely on abstract symbols to learn. ume regardless of how it looks, or a materials. ✓ Preteens/teens can rely on symbols to understand and ball of clay has the same mass even learn. after you smash it into a patty. This ✓ Preteens/teens understand complex concepts like densi- kind of thinking forms the basis for scientific Can ty. exploration and thought (kids at this age love sci- you name the ✓ Egocentrism may disappear completely with the ence), but they still rely upon concrete objects two stages on dis- capacity to think and reason beyond own beliefs. and experiments to form their ideas. play in “Charley Bit My Finger?” ✓ A sense of fairness and equality supersedes adult ✓ Children are tied to their direct experiences, authority. but can consider and coordinate more than one dimension. ✓ Children understand time, space and number. Children can conserve, understanding that objects are the same if their original state was equal, e.g. a small banana is smaller than a large banana, no matter how it is sliced. ✓ Children can take another’s perspective. ✓ Children in this period still learn best through con- crete experiences.
The Art of Confusion: Equilibration vs. Disequilibration Your job as an IM designer is to confuse children. But in the right way, and not in a way that has unintended conse- quences.
How do children move from one stage to the next? Piaget argued that children “build” knowledge via a cycle of repeated and expanded interactions with their environment. Piaget described this process as having two mechanisms. One, he referred to as assimila- tion. When encountering something new in our environment (which is the prerequisite to learning), humans first try to incorporate that new thing into our existing mental frame- work. Accommodation is the complement to assimilation. Accommodation occurs when we have to adjust our existing mental framework in order to make room for that new “thing”. Piaget said that these two processes are occurring all the time, back and forth as we experience (learn) new things in our environment. When children encounter some- thing new, they are slightly off balance, experiencing what Piaget called disequilibration. The child naturally seeks equilibration, or a balance between interacting factors inside and outside the child.
Real world examples are easy to find. Learning a difficult sport, such as golf (trying to sink a putt, or hit a drive down a fairway), water skiing or snow boarding all have definable moments of assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.
Interactive media developers gently nudging the child from equilibration to disequilibration to equilibration, and so on.
5 Social Learning Theory Other Influential Theories The work of Albert Bandura (b. 1925) gave rise to the social Behaviorism learning theory. Bandura emphasized the social aspects of Behavior can be explained in terms of observable responses learning, for instance, the importance of observing and mod- to environmental stimuli. Influenced by the conditioned- eling the behaviors, attitudes and reactions of others. In reflex experiments of Pavlov, behaviorism was introduced in other words, Bandura claims that much of what we learn is 1913 by J.B. Watson who emphasized stimulus-response lab- attained by watching other people. Bandura sees learning as oratory techniques. B.F. Skinner took things up a notch by a continual, reciprocal interaction between cognition, behav- documenting responses to stimuli and rewards in both chil- ior and environmental influences. The learner’s attention, dren and animals; one outcome was the concept of mastery memory and motivation are seen as key determinants of learning, which was applied in the 1950’s as “teaching learning. Interactive media that models desired machines.” Edward Thorndike was another important propo- responses or that provides children with opportuni- nent of behaviorism; his work looked at the role of rewards ties to see other kids learning and doing can be said and consequences and the technique of breaking tasks into to draw from social learning theory. small parts to be learned. Interactive media that is lin- ear and scripted or that relies heavily upon external Social Constructivism rewards draws from the behaviorist perspective. Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the Slot machines and gambling apply reinforcement 1930's, is most often associated with the social constructivist theory very effectively. theory. He emphasized the influences of cultural and social contexts in learning and supported a discovery model of Constructivism learning. Vygotsky believed that learning and development is This school of psychology asserts that children actively con- a social and collaborative activity that cannot be "taught" to struct their own knowledge from prior experiences — a anyone. It is up to the student to construct his or her own process of fitting together new experiences with old to create understanding in his or her own mind, while the teacher acts a new reality. The theories of Jean Piaget (1896-1980) have as a facilitator. Vygotsky maintained that learning should been used to support constructivist curricula which include take place in meaningful cultural contexts. Simulation pro- the open classroom movement, whole language, and others. grams like SimCity are perfect examples of social construc- The idea that the child is an active, not passive, learner is key tivism, as are online games which facilitate the communica- to this theory. Interactive media that is child-led using tion between two or more players. Vygotsky’s concept of the open-ended components or virtual manipulatives “zone of proximal development” is a useful idea for interac- draws from the constructivist theory. tive media developers. This “zone” has been defined as the distance between a child’s independent problem solving and
Enhancing Feelings of Control Both clippers have the same function, but the one on the right seems easier to use because of the exaggerated rub- bery handles. So it gets used more than the one on the left. Here are some dos and don’ts when it comes to children’s app design.
Do • Use rollovers and other “tangible” techniques to foster feelings of empowerment. Things like eyeballs that fol- low the cursor (ask Moshi Monster’s Michael Acton Smith about that one). • Make the stuff on the screen that catches your eye have a function. The biggest resource you have is a child’s immediate attention (or the first slide, using the preop- Don’t erational metaphor). • Clutter the screen with nonfunctional, “dead” art. Save • Provide pointers to the hot spot. the frosting for the movie. • Use crisp audio to amplify a child’s smallest action. • Underestimate the role of sound in the design. • Use “hot spice” that is related to the task at hand. • Let your narrator go for more than a sentence or two. • Provide status indicator metaphors that have meaning to • Parrot back instructions. a child (e.g., climbing a set of stairs, getting higher in a • Let decisions about licensed characters get in the way, or tree to get to the treehouse, helping a dog get to a bone). diminish child control. • Make it clear when it is “your turn.” • Use reinforcements that have no relation to the task. • Let a child interrupt the narration or animation. With IM design for children, it is easy to kill two birds with • Make sure a child can get out of whatever the get into. one stone.
6 his capabilities of problem solving while under adult guidance or the guidance of more capable peers. The “zone” is where you want Definitions to be when teaching a child— just slightly beyond what he can intermittent reinforce- already do by himself. The same goes for interactive media activi- a type of rein- ties, you want them to be challenging, but not overwhelming, and ment— you want to give the child enough support while doing the task that forcement schedule in he succeeds at learning something new. Programs that track a which the praise or reward child’s past performance and automatically offer slightly is given only once in a more challenging activities are using the concept of “zone Lev Semyonovitch Vygotsky was born in while (like a slot machine). of proximal development”. 1896 in Byelorussia (Soviet Union). He began Of all the reinforcers, this his career as a psycholo- gist in 1917 and only pur- one is the most powerful Information Processing Theory sued this when used in software. Based on the work of George Miller and others, the Information career for 17 years before his death from tubercu- Processing theory of learning maintains that children are actively losis in 1934. processing, storing and retrieving information (much like a com- minimum user competen- puter) and that teaching involves helping learners to develop information processing cy— the lowest level (entry skills and apply them systematically to mastering the curriculum. Two major princi- level) skill a child must ples of this theory are that short term memory (or attention span) is limited to seven possess in order to be suc- chunks of information and that processing information in sequential steps is a funda- mental cognitive process. CAI (computer assisted instruction) interactive media uses cessful with an activity. A these principles. Tasks are broken into sequential steps, connections between new menu that requires reading and old information are highlighted, retention strategies are suggested and there is raises the MUC, for exam- ample opportunity for repetition and review of information. Developers of inter- ple. active media designed to teach memorization of facts, reading, etc. should explore this theory further as its concepts can be easily integrated into learning games and activities. responsivity— one of the variables considered to be Bloom’s Taxonomy most related to engage- In 1956, a group of educational psychologists led by ment. An example of Benjamin Bloom found that over 95% of the test Evaluation responsivity in software is questions students encounter require them to think Synthesis an immediate response to a only at the lowest possible level...the recall of infor- mation. Bloom identified six levels within the cogni- Analysis mouse click or key stroke. tive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of Application facts, at the lowest level, through increasingly more Understanding zone of proximal devel- complex and abstract mental levels, to the high- or “ ” is an espe- est order which is classified as evaluation. Knowledge (facts) opment— 1. Knowledge: define, list, match, order, name, cially useful idea for soft- repeat, memorize, recall. ware developers. This 2. Comprehension: describe, sort, classify, report, review, identify, review, translate. “zone” has been defined as 3. Application: demonstrate, illustrate, solve, employ, use. 4. Analysis: categorize, appraise, calculate, compare, contrast, distinguish, examine, ques- the distance between a tion, test. child’s independent prob- 5. Synthesis: compare, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up. lem solving and his capa- 6. Evaluation: assess, defend,estimate, judge, predict, support, value, test. Interactive media has much to contribute to “higher order” thinking, bilities of problem solving through simulations such as Sim City or Oregon Trail, where children while under adult guidance must continually evaluate and synthesize information related to a long or the guidance of more term task. Other activities such as programming in HTML or creating capable peers. The “zone” with a database or spreadsheet are also examples of these skills. is where you want to be — * Adapted from: Bloom, B.S. (Ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of educational objectives: The when teaching a child— classification of educational goals: Handbook I, cognitive domain. New York ; just slightly beyond what Toronto: Longmans, Green. he can already do by him- self. A “smart” character that suggests a new activity based on previous perform- ance is one example.
7 Howard Gardner’s Theories of the Mind Howard Gardner was a student of a student of Jean Piaget. His mentor was the Cognitive Scientist Jerome Bruner; who was a student of Piaget’s. His greatest contri- bution is his 1983 theory of multiple intelligences, which he wrote about in Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. His idea provides a framework for helping curriculum designers expand the definition of intelligence. Gardner on April 15, 2013 at MIT The Seven, and later, Nine Intelligences When it Comes to Apps, There are Three Types of Originally there were these seven. Learners 1. Logical-mathematical Gardner has largely remained quite on technology, attribut- 2. Spatial ing most tech-related behaviors to logical/mathematical. 3. Linguistic However, he is collaborating on a book called “The App 4. Bodily-kinesthetic Generation” in which he identified three types of learners: 5. Musical 1. App dependence = You do what the app lets you do. 6. Interpersonal 2. App enablement = The app lets you do things that you 7. Intrapersonal couldn’t do otherwise, like make a puppet show or song. 3. App transcendent = I’m not going to be limited by any These two were added later app. I’m going to make my own app. 8. Naturalistic 9. Existential See Howard Gardner’s Sandbox Summit talk at http://youtu.be/g4i4RifZzWk (recorded by Scott Traylor). Exercise: Think up a profession associated with each intelle- gence. Two tweetable quotes from this talk: “I think all Amercian Education Thinking is a footnote to Five Minds for The Future John Dewey,” and “In the struggle between Dewey and In 2006, Gardner described the “minds” that children will Thorndike, Thorndike won.” need to “thrive in the world during the eras to come.” The book, called Five Minds For The Future provided these examples: 1. The disciplined mind 2. The synthesizing mind 3. The creating mind 4. The respectful mind 5. The ethical mind
The Marshmallow Study The famous and much quoted Marshmallow study (e.g., see Galinski, 2011) was conducted by Stanford’s Walter Mischel at the Bing Preschool in 1988. It attempted to measure a child’s ability to exhibit behaviors associated with delayed gratifica- tion. The idea was that if you could had the ability to delay gratification as a young child, it could have big implications as you grow into an adult.
Procedure: Preschoolers were led into an empty room and offered a treat of choice (Oreo cookie, marshmallow, or pretzel stick). They were told that they could eat the treat, but if they could wait fifteen minutes they would get a second treat. Children responded very differently. Some just ate the marshmallow, while others waited, making up games to help them resist temptation. The video was often very humerous.
Preschool children who delayed gratification were described more than 10 years later by their parents as adolescents who were significantly more competent. A second follow-up study, in 1990, showed that the ability to delay gratification also cor- related with higher SAT scores.
8 LiteracyLearning your letters is hardTheory stuff. An “A” and Atan “N” lookA slightlyGlance different, but they also carry hundreds subtle attributes which become appearant when combined with a “T” to make a word like ANT. Mix them up and the same letters turn into TAN. In one of the first comprehensive reviews of literacy research Edmund Burke Huey (1908) wrote one of my favorite quotes:
".. to completely analize what we do when we read would almost be the acme of a Watch: Technology, Literacy and the Mind psychologist's dream for it would be to describe very many of the most intricate by Marilyn Adams at EETC http://youtu.be/3WJgzuwIIm4 working of the human mind, as well as to unravel the tangled story of the most remarkable specific performance that civilization has learned in all its history." See Read: Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press SOME ADVICE Take a developmental view. A child’s capacity with reading and writing varies incredibly, day by day or year by year, which is why Piaget’s stage theory applies. Remember that any theory can find a champion in technology. Constructivists have whole language and apps like Doodlecast; behaviorists have phonics apps like the Bob books. Neither are right, neither are wrong. You should be fluent in both bodies of discourse.
Silent reading: RESEARCH on the effects of the iPad KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS on reading pedagogy is as slippery as Marilyn Adams defines literacy as “the Oral reading: the iPad’s screen, in part because apps process and product of gaining con- can vary so widely. Look for studies of cious, reflective awareness of our Emergent literacy: specific apps and the activities within knowledge, thought and language.” In apps. Also of use: ethnographic studies her 2011 talk at EETC she reminds us Fluency: that watch how children use technology that humans have have been “visually in general. These can greatly inform representing” for 30,000 years, but it is Phonetic Awareness: your work. It is safe to say that “the only within the past 6,000 years that iPad effect” opens new opportunities “pictograms” were used to tell stories. Scaffolding: for reading, writing and literacy in gen- The tablet is only 3 years old. eral that are largely unstudied; other Sounding out: than: LITERACY TERMS TO KNOW a) Children seem to like iPads, and Here are some terms from reading the- Phoneme identity: b) There’s a LOT of story-related con- ory discourse. Define each and be ready tent being created. to share: Print Awareness:
MY FAVORITE LITERACY EXPERTS Representation: Contextual clues: include my former teacher at MSU, Taffy Raphael, now at the University Encoding: Labeling/labels: of Illinois at Chicago (see http://tig- ger.uic.edu/~taffy/) who helped me Writing: Invented spelling: greatly. Here’s a paper that I wrote for this class: Zaner-Bloser: Reciprical reading: http://childrenstech.com/?p=11691 D’Nealion: Text to speech: Also good to watch: William Teale at the University of Illinois and his wife, HWT: Speech to text: Junko Yokata. They’ve been explor- ing eBooks recently and have a deep Print awareness: Recording: history in traditional history theory. See Junko speak: A “print rich” environment: ______http://youtu.be/5FGbG2Vq6T4. Also Nell Duke at University of Word awareness: ______Michigan and Nonie Lesaux at Harvard; plus Marilyn Adams. Whole language vs. Phonics ______
9 LIT REVIEW Tseng, K. H., Liu, C. C., & Liu, B. J. (2012, March) found that tablet-based e-book readers can facilitate child-parent collaboration and afford variety forms of interactions. In particular, the storytelling activity on such tablets helped the par- ents provide different guidance including dialogic reading strategies and those related to story structure, helping the chil- dren to reflect on the book read. The result of this study also suggests that a persistent platform that can record and demon- strate the reading experience is a critical element to facilitate participatory reading among children Educators may find it useful to apply such approach in other reading context.
Stewart, S. M. (2012) did a doctoral dissertation called Reading in a Technological World: Comparing the iPad to Print at Bowling Green State University and used a control/experimental group and found that “children who read the e-book exhib- ited progress in the meaning and reading of the words supported directly by the computer compared to the control group. No such progress was observed for words without direct support. No differences appeared in the progress between the two age groups and no interaction was found between age and type of word support.”
Korat, O., & Shamir, A. (2012) found that as readers encounter children's literature in new formats and modes of deliv- ery, the basic processes of reading, sharing, discussing and analyzing texts will change. Because of these changes, new instructional approaches and resources will be required.” They have created a pedagogical approach called Reading Workshop 2.0. They calle it Direct and Indirect Teaching: Using E-Books for Supporting Vocabulary, Word Reading, and Story Comprehension for Young Children.
10 The Art and the Science of the Children’s eBook Let’s take a closer look at the 2013 BolognaRagazzi Digital Award judging notes by Warren Buckleitner Throughout the ages, children’s storytellers have tapped into the state-of-the-art to practice their craft. Whether it was achieved with charcoal drawings and shadows from a torch, or color ink in the case of Beatrix Potter, the goal is always the same: to educate and delight a child. Today’s state-of-the-art technology comes in the form of a slim glass tablet with day-long batteries, multi-touch screens and the ability to access the Internet. Gone are keyboards, wires and complexity. A 21st century child has two kinds of bookshelves: one with traditional printed books, plus a virtual bookshelf that is in the cloud. These titles are stored in a virtual closet managed by iTunes, Google Play or Amazon, or perhaps in one of many content manage- ment services that are popping up. These stores reach across borders, permitting a storyteller’s ideas to flow around the world at the speed of light, often in your choice of language. These are exciting times.
The BolognaRagazzi Digital Award was established in 2012 to identify best practice in this emerging category of commercial prod- ucts, on a global scale. The six winners serve as guideposts for others. But the prize initiative digs up a lot more than just a list of winners. As we made our journey through this year’s entries, we made some notes on what worked or didn’t work. If you’re in the digital storytelling business you can learn from someone else’s mistakes. We also made a video (at http://youtu.be/Ea0VL0- Jiw4) in which we discussed the entries.
eBook, Defined: “Narrative Driven Interactive Media” How many winners? There were two winners (one fiction, one nonfiction), four mentions (two fiction, two nonfiction) and We understand that an “eBook” can be many things to differ- ten finalists (five fiction, five nonfiction). The winners and men- ent people. For the purposes of this prize, we define an ebook tions were included in the ten finalists. as “narrative driven interactive media” or an interactive work based around some sort of story. We didn’t consider products Why a Product Didn’t Win with no story involved. We also didn’t consider non-interactive products, such as digitized printed books presented as PDFs or In many contests, it is common to end by issuing a press on e-readers. This year, we broke the entries into fiction and release and some trophies, and then start thinking about next nonfiction. year. Not with this one. We are equally interested in under- standing these fascinating products from an objective vantage FAQs about the Prize point. We want to know -- and share -- what’s working and what’s not. So we want to be just as clear about what counts as Who can enter? This is a free, public, annual contest sponsored dust as well as what gets the prize. In that spirit, here are some and paid for by the Bologna Children’s Book Fair and organ- common attributes of the many non-winning products we ized by Children’s Technology Review. Any author or publisher encountered. can enter, and there is no entry fee. Only recent products are considered (within the past year). • Sprinkled with hot spots, as in “it’s been sprinkled” with Who picks the winners? Four jurors, myself included, each animated hot spots that may not support to the story. Said have one vote: Warren Buckleitner, USA; André Letria, Chris Meade “there were a lot of things being trotted out that Portugal; Chris Meade, UK and Cristina Mussinelli, Italy. were nothing more than some illustrations for you to jab.” THE How many products were considered? For the 2013 edition, LESSON: Make sure the interactivity “does work” for the nar- there were 234 entries from 32 countries. All entries ran on rative. either Android, Kindle or iOS. • Static graphics. Worse from a child’s point of view, are items on the screen that look like they should do something, inviting a child’s curious touch, but responding with stillness. THE LESSON: If you put a balloon in an illustration, make sure you can pop it.
• Page flippers is a term that came up more than once in the juror meeting, as in “it’s just another page flipper.” It came to stand for old thinking in a new age. Page flippers were very common in this year’s entries. Sometimes they even had their own paper rustling sound. Such a navigation choice is an instant flag that says “not very innovative.” THE LESSON: http://youtu.be/Ea0VL0-Jiw4 Think outside the page.
• Free. Free products were treated with a healthy dose of sus- picion. We’d ask “what’s the catch?” Some free products act like a spring-loaded snake, reading to jump at you with an offer or a distracting web page. THE LESSON: If you have a Comments from the “free trial” version, keep the in-app purchases away from young children. Judging Form. • Noisy. Achieving a psychological balance between screen and child initiation is an art that is instantly violated when sound can’t be controlled. Jurors noted many apps that start like a Here were some of the notes I jot- three-ring circus, throwing music, sound effects and moving graphics, and removing a ted down as I reviewed the child’s ability to control the experience. THE LESSON: Make sure you have a mute button. entries. Not all were deal break- • Anonymous. Sometimes it was hard to find out who made the app. THE LESSON: Make ers, but they were marks against the answer to the question “who made this app” easy to answer. making to the winner’s list. • Nothing new. Many ebooks blend together into a collective mush of medium quality sto- ries with limited features and perhaps a jigsaw puzzle, a coloring page or a game of concen- • Clumsy design: e.g., pages tration. There’s so much more the medium can do. THE LESSON: try to stay a step ahead flip in the wrong direction. on the innovation wave. It’s far easier to get noticed. • Not responsive. • No help for the emerging reader. How does the ebook help a child who can’t read? We • I’ve seen this before. This were impressed by labeling strategies, closed captioning options, and touch and hear tech- design was clearly influ- niques to help a child build a bridge (or a scaffold) toward becoming a reader. THE LES- enced by Toca Tea Party SON: create hooks for success for all developmental levels. with no attribution. • Good story, amazing Attributes of Winners graphics, but it is hard to Each other juror might have his or her own list of winning attributes; these are mine. operate the catapult. • Innovative. Thinks outside the page; ideas haven’t been done before. Said André • Instructions are confusing “Imagination and authenticity count for a lot.” and unnecessary. • Narrative. The value of a good story can’t be understated. • Loads too slow. • Pulls the child into the story. There are many ways to pull a child’s ideas into the experi- • Background music loops, ence, using the camera, for example. over and over and over • Beautiful. Today’s tablets have clear, bright screens that are good vehicles for delivering again. high quality experiences. • Crashed. • Technically sound. No bugs, snags, crashes or delivery worries. • Starts with a wordy intro- • Social. There are opportunities for more than one player to participate, simultaneously. duction. • Made by a real person. Good apps make it possible to learn more about the people behind • Contains ethnic stereo- the work. See, for example Identikat. types. • Well crafted. The animation and sounds dance perfectly with the story. • Evil. This is a “free” catalog • Text scaffolding. Helping readers of all levels participate with the language by decoding designed to tease children, the print. See We are Alaska. and trick them into an in- • Work on various screen sizes. We saw some titles like the Nutcracker that were designed app sale. with small or large screens in mind. • Contains links to web con- • Ethical. Priced reasonably, with commercial links and/or prompts for additional content tent in the main menu. kept behind a firewall to protect children from frustration and wasted playtime. • Feels like a template, with • Scary. See iPoe. sprinkled hotspots • Not reversible. • Asks you to rate this app The Winners before you play it. • Pages get turned accident- So, at the end of the contest, the jurors were required to identify the products that they ly. thought deserved the honor of the 2013 BolognaRagazzi Digital Prize. Per the Bolognafiere’s • Lots of beautiful looking requirement, we were allowed two winners (one fiction, one nonfiction), four mentions (two art that just sits there. fiction, two nonfiction) and four additional titles, to make up the list of ten finalists (five fic- • Yet another page-flipper. tion, five nonfiction). Here are the results with the juror’s comments. • Clunky mechanics get in the way of the narrative. Fiction • Horrible narration. WINNER: Four Little Corners by Dada Company, Spain • Ending makes no sense. This delightful story is about helping a square peg as it tries desperately to fit through a • Who made this? The round hole, in order to be with friends. This book-inspired app demonstrates that the trans- author/illustrator/publish- lation from print to digital needn’t be sophisticated, as long as a good story is involved. The er are not clearly identified. underlying message -- that childhood can be a time when fitting in is difficult -- struck a chord with the jurors, who noted “ “Geometric forms have never been so moving or funny.” http://bit.ly/VrPSPk (Android) https://itunes.apple.com/app/four-little-corners/id598573155 (Apple)
MENTION: Monster’s Socks by Martin Hughes, UK Wonderful, whimsical illustrations meet a good story, and an especially clever scroll-like navigation technique. The story, about a child-like monster in search of his socks – is expert- ly delivered on the touch screen, where pages are replaced by two simple arrows, letting you 12 move with fluid ease forward or backward through the adven- named Franklin, who swims, hops and hibernates his way ture. You help by making a bridge, sailing a boat or flying through a complete life cycle, in a way that ends with a begin- home from the moon. ning. It gently introduces some profound ideas that can ignite https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=air.monster- the curiosity of a future scientist. socks&hl=en (Android) Link: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/rounds-franklin- http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/monsters- frog/id547240957?mt=8 socks/id521546698?mt=8 (Apple) Four Additional Finalists MENTION: Rita the Lizard by Irene Blasco Studio, Spain The judges made a top ten list: In addition to the two winners This ancient tale of friendship and identity is delivered with and four mentions, there were four additional finalists: luscious illustrations and state-of-the-art interactive elements that extend the ideas of the story beyond the traditional page. Bats! Furry Fliers of the Night, $2.99, by Bookerella, USA You can swipe your way up the neck of a giraffe, or explore the http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/bats!-furry-fliers- rich foliage of a jungle scene. Responsive and playful, the night/id494297887?mt=8 jurors liked the ability to toggle between four languages or This well crafted non-fiction app is an interactive exploration of record the narration. Link: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/rita-la- lagartija/id568650448?l=es&mt=8 Non-Fiction WINNER: War Horse by Touch Press, UK This towering achievement in the interactive non-fiction cate- gory is based on the historical interpretation of WWI, as told by the Michael Morpurgo novel. The app expertly mixes tradition- al text, musical performance and 360 degree photography tech- niques with a live author reading. Jurors appreciated the multi- ple ways to explore a complicated social topic, from either the Allied or German point of view. a mammal that catches the attention of every child. For ages 5- 12.
IdentiKat, $0.99, by Lastrego & Testa Multimedia S.r.l., Italy http://j.mp/YoJlao Even a dog lover will like this richly illustrated cat collage toolkit, complete with an endless supply of exotic materials from "Grandma's scrap box." For ages 3-up.
Voyage of Ulysses, The, $3.99, by Elastico Srl, Italy http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/the-voyage-of ulysses/id538571921?l=it&ls=1&mt=8 A set of ancient stories come to life on tablet technology, by way of 26 surprise-filled screens. For ages 7-14.
Where Do Balloons Go?, $5.99, by Auryn, Inc. https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/where-do-balloons-go- uplifting/id522189097?mt=8 This app explores a simple question with beautiful art and https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/war-horse-interactive-edi- clever interactive techniques. There’s even a balloon theatre, for tion/id557865146?mt=8 answering the question your way. For ages 3-8. MENTION: Endless Alphabet by Callaway Digital Arts, USA Interactive alphabet books abound, both in print and on touch screens. Few, however, are this playful and so informally edu- cationally. Children discover an own ensemble of singing let- ters who work together to link word bits to words, to build meaning. Jurors appreciated the social play opportunities of this app. Link: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/endless- alphabet/id591626572?mt=8
MENTION: Rounds: Franklin the Frog by Nosy Crow, UK Nosy Crow’s “rounds” firmly demonstrates how a digital work can masterfully help children think outside the all-too-typical beginning, middle and end format. They first meet a frog 13 Maria Montessori Maria Montessori once said: “Never give more to the mind then you give to the hand.” So how does the iPad fit into this thinking?
In the fall of 1913 an important visitor from Italy came to the stage at Carnegie hall. But it wasn't to star in an opera. It was to lecture about education, at the invitation of two of her big fans: Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell. After an introduction by none other than John Dewey (can you imagine that pressure?) Dr. Maria Montessori, the 43-year- old doctor-turned-teacher described her new teaching meth- ods for working with the “idiot” children in the Roman slums. She apparently struck a chord. According to the New York Times coverage of her visit, 1,000 people had to be turned away at the door (http://bit.ly/92w6w2) all eager to hear her plans for "the eventual perfection of the human race." Maria Montessori died in 1952, but if she were alive today, she would probably be astonished by how her meth- ods have grown and multiplied.
FAMOUS MONTESSORIANS. Graduates of programs bear- ing the Montessori name include some of the most famous pioneers of the information age: Jeff Bezos of Amazon.com, Sergey Brin and Larry Page of Google, Jimmy Wales of Wikipedia and Will Wright of The Sims. (For a good discus- sion of Will Wright’s Montessori education, see Brian Crecente’s article on Kotaku, at http://bit.ly/8uiER). All attended Montessori schools, and have mentioned the value of the experience. But she'd be shocked by the number of times her name shows up on schools -- and more recently apps, that vary widely in quality.
The Google/Montessori connection is particularly interest- garten"), years before Montessori opened her school. ing, in part because of Genia Brin, Sergey Brin's mother. Since coming to the United States, Mrs. Brin has helped cre- A HOT BUTTON ISSUE. Among Montessori groups, the use ate a Montessori school -- the Alef Bet Montessori school in of technology-based materials like the iPad is debated. One Rockville MD. So it’s only fitting that you can find a tribute important Montessorian who doesn’t seem afraid of the iPad to her service on her son’s video sharing service: YouTube is Virginia McHugh Goodwin, the Executive Director of the http://bit.ly/dspD2z. Today, when Sergey Brin gives a talk, Association Montessori International/USA he seems fond of mentioning his and Larry’s Montessori (www.amiusa.org). She told me in a phone interview that past, at http://bit.ly/d4DeFA. One can’t help but notice the "Montessori would appreciate the deep, intuitive connection similarities between a Montessori learning environment and the iPad fosters between content and user, taking working Google's campus, where employees are encouraged to pursue with knowledge to another level.” personal interests like tending bees or planting gardens, and are served a nutritious carrot smoothie during the morning Other clues can be derived from Montessori’s book, "The break. Montessori Method" which you can read at (http://bit.ly/MNO4D). You’ll find plenty of evidence that During a visit I made there last fall, I spotted a life-sized Montessori was a bit of a geek. She wrote about the promise replica of a T-Rex skeleton, and was inspired by the of Roentgen Rays (later renamed X-rays) in 1912, and accu- replica of SpaceShipOne: the first manned aircraft rately predicted "wonderful things to leave orbit and land safely, hanging in the lobby. from the Marconi Telegraph" (aka While these cool toys may seem unrelated to the radio). search engines, they are very much related to play, and how people learn. She was also a consummate game maker, constantly fiddling with Tapping into the power of play was part of innovative materials like sand Montessori’s magic, but she was hardly unique paper to perfect a new self-teaching with the idea. It was central to the theories of gadget. Because she’d always put a Johann Pestalozzi and his student Friedrich child’s interests ahead of any formal Fröbel (the guy who coined the word "kinder- curriculum, it’s a safe bet that she would’ve encouraged young Sergey
14 The power of a theory: Montessori on Italy’s 100 lire note, and a KLM jet bears her name. Images from WikiMedia Commons Brin's play with a Commodore 64. Said Goodwin, "Maria the senses through exposure to real wood, sand and water. Montessori would view the iPad— and devices like it— as a Technology-based experiences can supplement this mix. tool for tomorrow’s mind." For example, the camera on the new iPod Touch is an ideal tool for capturing observations on a field trip. So when Montessori wrote that education was "seeking the • Screens are abstract. Said Goodwin “She'd (Montessori) release of human potentialities," it is easy to imagine her remind us that any screen is an abstract, two-dimensional including an iPad in her modern arsenal of materials. Let me object that is removed from reality." In other words, the recap the “pro iPad” reasons: movements of a virtual fish in the Koi Pond HD app ($1.99 The Blimp Pilots, LLC, www.theblimppilots.com) might • Montessori was a scientist who was future-centric. She fool your cat, but one sniff tells you they're not real. What understood that she was living in a changing time, and app could replace the smells and sounds of a real pond? that children needed to be exposed to modern materials. • Technology tends to be expensive and quickly becomes She was in the business of preparing children for their obsolete. You can buy a lot of chromatic silk frames and future, to live to their full human potential, so she sandpaper letters for $500, and anyone knows that iPad would’ve wanted them to embrace, and feel empowered, 2.0 will be “newer, better, faster and cheaper.” by every element of their environment, including technolo- • Don’t sugar coat the learning. She'd like apps that are sim- gy. ple and stripped "of all that is not absolute truth," sans • She would be discriminating about the types of apps she licensed characters, long musical introductions, or links loaded on her iPads. She’d look for non-commercial apps that steer a child toward the iTunes store. Because she that promote active learning, are self-correcting, are multi- frowned on the notion of shaping a child’s behavior with leveling, don’t talk too much and empower children. external prizes and punishments, she'd recommend apps Another word Montessori used frequently was “didactic” where the process, in itself, is rewarding. She might ask as in “didactic materials,” or working toward one right “What type of society exposes its young to manipulative answer; a feature found in many better designed apps. tricks with commercial motives?” Montessori would prob- • In designing apps, she’d compensate for the iPad's sensory ably insist that every children’s app should have a “no limitation of just sight and sound, using apps in concert candy lane” mode, that perhaps costs a few lire/EU more. with real, concrete experiences. She would use the iPad to supplement and extend traditional experiences rather than It's been 97 years since Maria Montessori gave her famous to replace them. After the trip to the Apple orchard, she’d Carnegie Hall address on how to teach hard-to-teach chil- give each child their own apple, to hold, smell and taste. dren. We have no shortage of hard to teach kids today, but Only then would she read a story about the apples, or let it's nice to hope that we have better materials. them “pick” the abstract apples on a multi-touch screen. Keep learning. Watch Sergey Brin talk about his Montessori education. http://youtu.be/3OCAdXjlLBA SOME WORDS OF CAUTION Before you rush out and purchase every child an iPad, con- sider Goodwin’s (and my) words of caution. Mine are based on a close reading of Montessori’s book and a review of hundreds of apps. Goodwin’s have been printed in the essay following this article: • Keep an open mind about this issue. iPads are like chameleons— they take the form of the app they are run- ning. Some apps match a child and your learning philoso- phy; others don’t. Like anything new, it must be observed and studied to maximize the strengths and minimize downsides. As a scientist, Montessori was trained to sys- tematically study various techniques, use what works, and discard the rest. • Keep things in balance. She'd urge modern parents not to upset the balance of diet, exercise and the development of
15 Part 2:
Developmentalhe following pages offer descriptions Stages of children’s “ages and stages”, and what children can do on the computer at what age. Also presented are some general developmental mile- stones that children display during their early years. These age estimates and developmental attainments are based on several instruments used to track young children’s growth. While this compila- tion will help you get a sense of what children can do at each age level, keep in mind that individual children acquire skills at different rates.
Knowledge of children’s developmental abilities is particularly important when designing interactive media for younger chil- dren (below age 6). Many aspects of interactive media will be affected, such as menu design, content, reinforcement mes- sages and so on.
Birth to 18 Months ✓ Can name 1 to 2 colors. ✓ Is able to answer simple questions. Enjoys copying activities of parents Usually speaks in short but complete To babies, a computer or an iPad is lit- ✓ ✓ and siblings. sentences. tle more than a busy box. They love to Generally plays along side of peers Understands the concept of “now”. look at the colors on the screen, hear ✓ ✓ rather than cooperatively with peers. the sounds from the speakers, mouth the screen or mouse cord and wap at 3 to 5 Years the keyboard. Don't expect young 2 1/2 to 3 Years These preschool years are the first real babies to make the connection between Age 2 1/2 for many children is a real years of independent computer or their movements of the mouse or key- turning point when it comes to technol- tablet use. Children can now start and board and events on the screen. ogy. Children can sit for a bit longer exit from apps, or manipulate the (we've seen kids who can sit for as long mouse expertly, providing they've had 18 Months to 2 1/2 Years as 60 minutes), but many have the fine plenty of time to practice. Kids at this motor control to use a mouse inde- age typically want to share the fun with While the computer is still viewed as an pendently. Now they can easily negoti- a friend. Ebooks work well at this electronic busy box, at about 18 ate well designed menus and they know stage, as do simple adventure programs months, children begin noticing that how to swipe and use the home button. with strong lead characters. they can have an effect on the They especially love singing along with Age 3 to 4 milestones include: screen. They can’t use a mouse, but the music, while watching events on Recognizes most colors. they can use a touch screen. This is an ✓ the screen. Can identify simple shapes (e.g. age where they start understanding ✓ square, circle, triangle). that they can drive the actions. Keep in mind that the fine motor skills Understands the concepts of “same” Attributes of this developmental period ✓ needed to use a touch screen or a and “different”. include: mouse develop at different rates. Also ✓ Can play independently for extended remember that technology use is a periods (approximately 20 minutes). Can recognize pictures of objects. ✓ often a very social activity for young Begins to play cooperatively with Can identify body parts on self or on ✓ ✓ children .... they love sitting in a par- peers. a doll. ent’s lap to experience the activities Enjoys and remembers a favorite Can place individual shapes on ✓ ✓ together, for example. Attributes of song. “form board” type puzzles. this developmental period include: Can follow two simple directions in Can use a pencil to imitate a vertical ✓ ✓ the correct sequence. line. Can describe the functions of objects Can complete a 4 piece puzzle. Can match objects by color. ✓ ✓ ✓ (e.g. “What do you sleep on?”). Can copy a cross (+). Can match objects by simple shapes. ✓ ✓ Asks “why” and “how” questions. Can draw a circle. Can understand the concept of ✓ ✓ ✓ Can anticipate consequences and Build towers of 10 or more blocks, “here”. ✓ ✓ understand the impact his or her and can build simple bridges. Can remember a missing object if it ✓ own actions can have (e.g. under- Can recognize many letters. is presented and then taken away. ✓ stand the relationship between clicks Counts to ten. Begins to categorize objects accord- ✓ ✓ of mouse and actions on the screen). Shows some understanding of one- ing to function (e.g. places all of the ✓ Can recognize several colors. to-one correspondence (when count- spoons together). ✓ Knows the sounds that animals ing, each number represents an Enjoys and remembers nursery ✓ ✓ make. object being counted). rhymes. Can count to 2. By age 4, can use a pair of child-size Enjoys taking things apart and put- ✓ ✓ ✓ Engages in simple fantasy play (dri- scissors to cut on straight, thick ting them together again. ✓ ving vehicles, cooking meals, feeding lines. ✓ Has limited attention span. baby, etc.)
16 I agree. My best stuff came from watching my own two kids.
Can complete puzzles with 8-12 Can color pictures within the These guide- Age 4 to 5 ✓ ✓ pieces. lines. lines are no substi- Understands the concept tute for time on a ✓ Can copy a square. Can write numer- of “today”. ✓ ✓ playground. Can cut on curved lines. als from 1 to 10. Makes fine size discrimina- ✓ ✓ By age 5 can write own name. Completes 10 tions (e.g. can order objects ✓ ✓ Can recognize numerals from 1 to to 15 piece puz- according to size, can match ✓ 10. zles. objects according to Can choose objects that have a simi- Can solve sim- length). ✓ ✓ lar characteristic, and express why ple addition and Makes broad clas- ✓ they are similar. subtraction exer- sifications according cises (If I had 4 apples to type (e.g. animals, and added 1 apple, how many would foods, clothing). 5 to 6 Years I have?). ✓ Understands the Kindergartners and 1st graders can use sequencing of events pull-down menus to launch programs (e.g. First we go to the themselves (some will even install them 7-12 years store to buy a cake mix, then we will for you!). They can also use the com- Upper Elementary age children have bake it, and after dinner we will eat puter for simulations, creativity and the ability to read and write, and they it). even for reference. With some help, are ready to start exploring their world. ✓ Begins to comprehend simple logic they can go onto the Internet to Socializing with friends can be very puzzles (e.g. If I cut an apple in half, research a topic of interest, such as important during this time. Technology how many pieces would I have?) dogs, cats or that special pet lizard. skills -- such as the ability to search or ✓ Independent play is longer (45 min- This is a time when solid computer create and post videos can vary from utes or more). activities can play a valuable role in child to child. ✓ Plays cooperatively with peers for supporting and building school skills. ✓ Can use and benefit from and use a extended periods. By this age, children know where the smart phone. ✓ Abstract thinking is becoming more keys are on the keyboard, and can hunt ✓ Virtual worlds like Club Penguin, advanced. For example, children this and peck their own names. But don't and Virtual Pets like Webkinz can age can often comprehend the con- expect them to be able to type yet... for- be appealing. cept of “opposite”. They can also mal typing skills will come much ✓ Like to collect with games like complete simple analogies (e.g. Birds later. Skylanders or Pokémon. like to fly, fish like to ______). ✓ Understands the concepts of tomor- ✓ Services like YouTube, Google and ✓ Uses some irregular past tense of row and yesterday. Facebook become very interesting. verbs (e.g. ran instead of runned, left ✓ Understands the concepts of morn- instead of leaved, fell instead of fall), ing and night. 12-up but still over generalizes rules of Knows his or her birthday month. ✓ Middle and high school children use grammar. Can tell time (on hour) around age 6. ✓ technology in many forms, in home Can play simple organized games, Associates most letters with their ✓ ✓ and at school. while remembering the rules (e.g. sounds. Can understand variables, function musical chairs). Begins to recognize simple words. ✓ ✓ keys and multi-step processes. Enjoys pretend play with themes Knows both upper and lower case ✓ ✓ Technology can greatly enhance or familiar to child (going to work, tak- letters. ✓ amplify a specific interest (such as ing care of pets or babies, etc.). Can match simple words with each ✓ music). Can build relatively complex struc- other. ✓ While they may not choose to, a tures with blocks or LEGOs (houses, Can answer “why” questions appro- ✓ ✓ child can learn to use a wide variety etc.). priately. of devices. Fine motor skills are increasing. For Waits for turn while playing or while ✓ ✓ A smart phone is a highly desired example, by age 5 many children can waiting for adult attention. ✓ object, although many families can’t operate difficult wind-up toys, or use Can follow the rules and directions ✓ afford the data plan. a key. of a classroom. Texting and social media can be Can follow 3 simple directions in the Continues to engage in pretend play ✓ ✓ ✓ very important to communicating appropriate sequence. with themes familiar to child. with friends and members of the Can answer questions about a short Can adeptly use tools such as scis- ✓ ✓ opposite gender. story. sors, hammers, screwdrivers, etc. ✓ Can draw a person with 5 parts (e.g. ✓ Can use scissors to cut out magazine head, hair, legs, arms, eyes). pictures. ✓ Can recognize letters and associate ✓ Can use visual details to determine if some letters with their sounds. two pictures are the same or differ- ✓ Demonstrates understanding of one ent. to- one correspondence. ✓ Can copy a triangle.
17 A Taxonomy of Touch "Nothing lowers the age bar or makes interface invisible like touch capability. Hopefully the iPad will represent the best from both our old Touch Window and the Koala Pad, and go forward from there. Remember what was new and amazing about both of those?) Donna Stanger, Former CEO, Edmark, Corp.; March 2010, two months before the release of the iPad.
A perfectly flat, glassy surface is magical all lay your palm over it and pretend to be a by itself. It doesn’t exist in nature… and baby. Now, layer 786,432 responsive pixels when it's covered with fog or a slippery oleo- just a few millimeters below the surface, and Penelope (7-months) likes the free phobic coating, it gets even more interesting you have a puddle of control unequaled in Pianooohh! app on her mom’s iPad. to your fingers. If you have an iPad nearby, any previous computing experience. As a result, all of the thousands Table 1: A Taxonomy of Multi-Touch Interaction Styles, by Stage of ways you could fail with a mouse and qwerty keyboard Age and Intentional Touch-Related Motion/Voice Examples have dissolved into just a few Stage Behaviors Behaviors dozen with the iPad, and a new pipeline of interactivity has arrived. Birth - • Mouth • Jolt Look for apps that deliver high The Minimum User • Bump/Swat • Shake cause/effect ratios. These are 24 Competency (MUC) has months • Kick • Feel the vibration also called “busy box” apps, • Jab/poke from the iPad’s “interactive play doh” or rat- dropped from around 2 1/2 • Smear speaker tles. These experiences can years (for the mouse) to around • Grasp • Rock empower a child, letting them 12 months (for the iPad). Don’t • Swipe, dig or scoop • Blabber bang on a keyboard take my word for it. Simply go • Swipe directionally (up, down, left • Lean (whole http://bit.ly/bMgr2l, pop bub- to YouTube or right), e.g., to turn pages or body) bles, or make waves in a pond. (www.youtube.com) and search change photos. • Sit Show children where the on “baby” and “iPad.” You’ll • Single tap/ single touch with coin- • Throw “change app” button is, so they Sensorimotor find the work of hundreds of sized icons • Single word com- can get out of what they get mands into. proud parents who understand that their baby is doing some- thing rather remarkable. Back 2 to 5 • Scribble http://bit.ly/aXqFur or fin- • Tilt to steer (like This is the age when a child’s ger paint. a steering motor abilities start to catch up in the good ‘ol days, you video- • Touch and use BB-sized icons wheel) with his or her cognitive abili- taped your child’s first steps. • Slide objects (with thumb or finger) • Align camera ties. They can find and touch Today it seems it’s your child’s • Flick and throw (skeet ball, a shoot- viewfinder smaller icons, do dot-to-dot first app. ing gallery) puzzles and control things by I’ve sorted through hundreds of • Trace shaking or tilting the screen. videos and tried to put them all • Cut or slice They start to employ their in a single playlist at • Alternate hands (e.g., on a piano emerging temporal and spatial http://bit.ly/9vM6Ui. They Preoperational keyboard) thinking abilities in their iPad • Press and hold (e.g., as a timer fills) interactions. were captured in October of • Double tap 2010. This presents new opportuni- ties for children's interactive 5 to 12 • Spread out (with thumb and index • Balance (tilt) like By the time they are reading, finger, going in different directions) a plate children are ready to fully media developers; nothing • Pinch in (with thumb and index fin- • Jump to hop, explore the iPad’s multitouch short of a new era in comput- ger) while throwing a screen, working in concert with ing, as the user interface • Press soft, press hard ball (with a tap). the microphone and becomes increasingly invisible. • Rotate accelerometers. The implications for design are • Hit the target profound, however it requires • Push a magnet (like herding cats) Prior experience will increase some understanding of how it Concrete Operational • Two or more combination move- confidence. ments, like tilt and shoot. works. One way to do this is to watch the app-happy kids play, through Piaget’s developmental 12 - up • Isometric rotation (both fingers • Children can start move the same distance, in the to use the com- filter. Using this method, I cre- ated a draft taxonomy (Table 1) same or opposite direction). pass, and con- If your goal is to develop • Simultaneous rotation, such as with ceptualize the of touch-related behaviors. a compass (hold thumb in one accelerometer. a proficient iPad user, Besides watching the videos space, and rotate other finger). provide plenty of (Table 2), I also tested approxi- • Augmented reality camera based exposure to a variety of mately 200 children’s iPad applications such as a virtual plane- apps. apps, noting the required inter- tarium http://bit.ly/17w96B active behaviors. Formal Operational
18 Table 2: YouTube Multi-Touch Examples, by Age A (Rough) Developmental Listing of Multi-Touch Interaction Styles During the First Two Years of Life MONOTOUCH VS. MULTI-TOUCH. Touch http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=26B41EECB4B6D86F screens have been around for many years and have been implemented well in the Leapster and 1 month Nintendo DS. Multi-touch is a very different psy- chology, however. While both require fine-motor dexterity of the variety that has been well-docu- 2 months mented by penmanship researchers, there is a dif- ferent set of rules at play with the iPad screen. 3 months The iPad’s uncanny ability to tell the difference between a child’s palm, mouth or each finger, working in concert with the microphone and the 4 months motion detection accelerometer make it well suit- ed for a detecting a range of otherwise unde- 5 months tectable behaviors.
UNDERSTANDING THE IPAD’S LIMITATIONS 6 months While the iPad is amazing, it isn’t the perfect chil- dren’s computer. Here are some problems we’ve noted: 7 months • Young children move— a lot— and can become confused by features like automatic screen 8 months rotation. It helps to turn the lock button on. • If you have more than a dozen apps, finding a specific one can be frustrating for a child 9 months because the icons look similar. The anticipated folder feature (in the next iOS) can help. It 10 months would also be nice if the default size of the thumbnail could be changed in size. • It is possible for children to get into complex 11 months apps or features such as the keyboard (when searching). There’s also your email, the app 12 months store, YouTube or your browser. You can hide and lock these features in the Settings. Go to 1 year Settings/General/Restrictions and make a pin. 13 months • The iPad can be heavy and slippery. It helps to use a silicon shell (reviews at http://bit.ly/bNcqGt) that fit snuggly around 14 months the iPad, increasing the grip and serving as a cushion, just in case. 15 months • Plugging in the cable for charging could be much easier. It has to be facing up, and find- ing the port (“which end?”) is confusing. 16 months • The volume is hard for children (and adults) to find and understand. 17 months WHAT’S IT ALL MEAN? The key to unlocking the power of the iPad for children is to watch how 18 months they use it. Stay tuned for some pretty amazing children’s apps in the upcoming year as more chil- 19 months dren’s developers figure out how to better tame the full potential of multi-touch screens. These will undoubtedly expand beyond the iPad to the 20 months iPod Touch, Microsoft Surface and Android-based devices. Besides being good for children’s interac- tivity, the iPad effect is important for adults and 21 months busy teachers who don’t have time to fuss around with a mouse and keyboard. All they have to do is 22 months reach out and touch.
23 months
24 months 2 years 19 Raising a Child With Technology: The Tree Metaphor
SUN symbolizes unconditional love. Every child needs to feel like they are the center of the universe at some point— that their ideas are valued and that there is a place for them in this world. Without sun, everything dies.
WATER symbolizes interesting materials to explore. For a young sapling, water is essential for the roots to grow. Boredom, or not enough water, leads to withering roots. Increasingly, developmentally appropriate technology options can get and hold a child’s interest; and resources like YouTube and Google provide an answer to any question.
TRUNK symbolizes a solid founda- tion for the challenging times that lie ahead. In this model, there are three parts to the trunk: spiritual, mental and physical, and each needs plenty of water, sun and time.
TRUNK symbolizes a solid founda- tion for the challenging times that lie ahead. In this model, there are three parts to the trunk: spiritual, mental and physical, and each needs plenty of water, sun and time.
BRANCHES symbolize the knowl- edge domains, of the variety that you can find in Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences or on any school curriculum chart. Branch growth is stimulated by exposure to interesting things over time. The older a child gets, the more devel- oped the branch structure. The wonderful thing about raising a young child is that you have no idea how they will turn out. Some chil- dren may have a strong musical ability while another might have physical or mathematical aptitude. Many parents want a child that is well rounded, with a variety of skills and competencies, while others seem most interested raising a mas- ter athlete or a virtuoso musician.
BUDS symbolize accomplishments, large and small. Each accomplishment, from “I can walk” to “I can play guitar” grows into a LEAF, which gives back to the tree, making a thicker trunk and a more diverse branch system. Leaves need a continual sup- ply of sun (love), and water (new challenges) in order to return each season.
FRUIT symbolizes life accomplishments, large and small. For psychologist Abraham Maslow (Maslow’s hierarchy) the “fruit” might mean reaching a state of self actualization; when an individual accomplishes their life dreams. Fruit is commonly cele- brated, on shows like American Idol (musical fruit), or the NCAA Finals (athletic fruit). Less obvious fruit might include mak- ing a friend, paying taxes or helping a neighbor in need—the small things that can hold a society together.
Where did this come from? I started using a tree metaphor for human development when I was a consultant at the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation; like Stone Soup; many people have contributed ideas to the tree parts. This model has limitations. For example, because it considers a single individual, it doesn’t help us think about the influence of culture (see Vygostky) — that a “tree” is part of a forest. But for a single child, I’ve found it to be useful. I’ve since added Maslow (in the trunk) and Gardner (in the branches). By Warren Buckleitner.
20 Imagine your app as a “dinner date.” Some PartCapturing 3. Applicationthe Magic of dates talk way too much, can’t be interrupt- Interactive Media ed, or don’t remember things you’d already If you want to design great interactive prod- discussed. Other dates tune in. ucts for kids, it pays to have a kid. elpoppin.com/kidpix/index.html). Thanks to Ben, Hickman went on to design Kid Pix, a rich, open-ended draw and Many amazing products can be attributed paint program rating high in child control. Since to parenthood. This was the case with Brøderbund’s first publishing of the of the interactive media Shelley Day. Shelley, a new mom, wanted in 1991, Kid Pix has been translated into dozens of languages to find new ways for her son to play with his and used by over ten million children around the globe. By favorite homemade bedtime stories about a playing with and observing children— programmers, product little car named “Putt Putt.” Putt-Putt became the “vehicle” managers, CEOs and even reviewers can learn some power- that helped Humongous Entertainment become a $60 mil- ful lessons. To borrow from Bob Hughes’ book on interactive lion dollar company. media, Dust or Magic, (Addison Wesley) some of the stuff is pure magic, while some is nothing but dust. Here are some It’s all about knowing and understanding kids. For Craig of the ingredients of “magic” interactive products. Hickman, who single handedly programmed the first version of Kid Pix, design success was born out of wanting to A “Magic” Product... improve current products for their own children. Is easy to set up. Complex installation and registration routines on Windows computers have damaged the industry. Mark Schlichting, the head designer of the Living Books Anything more than “Put the CD in the drive” should be out- shared this story of how he became captivated by interactive lawed. Hit Clips (by Tiger) exemplifies “ease of use”. Even technology. “I’m a parent of three boys and I’d bring home the batteries are pre-installed. Just open the package, push what I thought was good educational software title. Then my the button, and it works. sons would play with it once, maybe twice and that was it. Around the same time, one of my older boys and his friends Lets kids “accidentally” succeed. Children, like grown- rented a Nintendo game console. In the course of three ups, want control! Early success in a program is like that hours they were up to the 52nd level of play. I thought to great golf shot— it keeps you coming back for more. The pro- myself ‘Look how motivated these kids are to figure this out. gram must provide the most direct path to what Hickman There’s an incredible amount of critical thinking going on, calls “the prime directive.” Take the typical racing game. You but in an environment with no content. Wouldn’t it be great want to race cars, right? But some racing programs put road- to use this natural draw to technology to deliver real learning blocks in between you and the racetrack, in the form of lay- through play and exploration?’” Schlichting’s Living Books ers of customization menus. Let me race the car. Give me the went on to become a standard-bearer of quality, loved by preferences if I want them. children, parents and teachers alike for their emphasis on good stories and entertaining exploration. (From: A Overdelivers and undersells. Few products build cus- Conversation with Mark Schlichting, CSR March 1999). tomer loyalty faster than interactive media. Parents and teachers can see the difference a well designed program Kid Pix, the classic children’s drawing program, was born out makes for a child, and this builds an emotional bond to the of frustration when programmer/photographer Craig product. Hickman saw his three-year-old son Ben struggling to use MacPaint. “I was surprised at how quickly he got the knack Wants to please. Each program takes a child into its own of using the mouse and how easily he was able to select tools. little world, with its own set of rules, and a distinct emotion- The problem was that he didn't have total control of the al climate. We tell designers to imagine their program as a mouse and would occasionally (like every five minutes or so) “dinner date.” Some “dates” talk way too much, can’t be pull down a menu and bring up a dialog box that he couldn't interrupted, or don’t remember things you’d already dis- dismiss without being able to read. Everything was fine as cussed. long as I was in the room, but if I stepped out for a few min- utes I would come back and find Ben kicking on the floor in Responsive. Author Bob Hughes offers another way to look frustration. This was not what I at an interface, using a good dog as an analogy. Most com- had in mind for his introduction puter interfaces are like “stuffed dogs”-- static, they don’t do to the computer.” (http://pix- anything. Other programs or toys are like hyperactive pup- pies—with so many wriggling, flashing icons, they look like the Las Vegas strip. A “good dog” interface is alert, alive and “ready to help,” but it doesn’t detract from your attention. Developers forget that children are very tuned into subtle messages that they get from the program. Tiny delays in the action, non-intuitive icons, or sluggish reactions to a click can convert feelings of control into irritation.
21 Capturing the Magic, continued.
Consistent. Any experienced teacher can tell you… when children know the rules, they settle down and child management issues Contributors to Dust decrease. A good interface establishes the “rules” early on, and keeps them the same throughout. Want to make a child stop playing? It’s not accurate to classify children’s interactive Make an icon that works only after the narration has stopped. media products into either “dust” or “magic.” It’s just Worse, make the same icon do different things, or put two “exit” not that simple. Few apps, toys or games are actually icons on the same screen. Hughes calls programs that change them- 1 to 2 stars; most actually fall into the 3.5 to 4.2 star selves around “Gestapo Interfaces” and compares the experience of range (per CTR’s scale). Only a dozen or so per year trying to use a poorly designed app or web site (of which there are really stand out as 4.7 to 5 star, “pure magic.” Here no shortage) with talking to a paranoid schizophrenic, where the are some factors commonly related to dust. rules can change at any time. “Do I click, or don’t I click? How do I get back to that screen I was playing a few minutes ago? Where’s the ___ Frustration in the first five seconds. Hard to undo? ARGGGH!” start, download or install. ___ Offers “faux control” mechanisms (things that Helps kids know where they are. Most interactive media uses look like hot spots or triggers don’t do any- some kind of “space” and that space needs to make sense to a child. thing). Sometimes called “phantom icons.” One of the simplest approaches is to keep everything on one screen, ___ Sluggish; less than crisp. like the classic video game Space Invaders. Other tried-and true- ___ Mixes selling with editorial. techniques include an hub and spoke structure, with different activi- ___ No sound control. ties radiating out from a consistent menu screen. Getting back to the ___ Talks too much. Narration “pushes.” hub is as simple as hitting a “home” button. Many think this is the ___ Not personally meaningful. Contains symbols magic of the iPad. Maps are another useful navigational tool. or abstractions are not part of a child’s experi- Programs like School Zone’s On Track series keep a constant naviga- ences. tion strip on the bottom of the screen. In this case, the strip is made ___ Sacrifices ease of use for “cool” design — puts of footprints, each one representing a screen of progress. The longer the frosting over the cake. a child plays, they more footprints are filled in. Once they get to the ___ Talks down to kids (e.g., sugary narration). edge of the screen, they’ve completed the book. They define the ___ Too hard, or too easy. space, define the goal, and have a visible reminder of progress. ___ Lacks interactivity. ___ Poor navigation — not easy to get out of what Doesn’t talk down to kids. A wise Mississippi preschool teacher you got into. once told me that “a young child can’t spell hypocrite, but they know ___ Laggy. what one is.” The same goes for interactive media interfaces. Even ___ Compares poorly with the current state-of-the very young children can sniffing out play value. Media pioneers such art; or comparably priced products. as the late Walt Disney understood that children can be the harshest critics. Contributors to Magic ___ Clear picture menus that with print labels that Looks and sounds good. Kids respond to (and deserve) good art are easy to find and touch. and music and original full-strength storylines. ___ Multiple ways to do the same thing. ___ One layer menus that provide direct access to Follows play patterns. We call it “riding the horse in the direc- activities. tion it’s going.” Why are RPG (role playing games) so successful? ___ Limited wait times Because children love to pretend. RPG games are natural extensions ___ Quick, clear response to keystrokes of what kids are already doing. Programmers and designers should ___ Interruptible routines (e.g., opening sequences) spend some time at the playground. Things you notice there can end ___ The ability to handle “machine-gun” inputs up as important elements in your products. Hickman writes “When without buffer problems. Ben built something out of blocks, he enjoyed knocking his structure ___ Online help via clear speech in the context of down almost as much as he did building it. Getting rid of the picture the problem. should be fun.” Hence Kid Pix’ exploding firecracker eraser, one of ___ Icons that are large, understandable to children the greatest (and most controversial) menu tools ever created. (meaningful) and easy to select. ___ Picture-driven printing and saving routines (not Breaks the rules. A good interactive designer lets a child interact text-driven). with a product in surprising or unexpected ways; another another ___ Parents or teachers should have options for dis- hallmark of good play. Let a child solve a pattern puzzle backwards, abling the printing routines or links to social or pile up thousands of stickers to create some on-screen chaos. media services. These tell children that they have control of this world. ___ Feedback/help that goes beyond simple rein- forcement messages such as “nice job” or “try Offers social experiences. Kids like games they can play together again.” (ask Traveler’s Tales or Nintendo). They also like activities where ___ The program may narrow the options (to they can share their progress on leaderboards or by saving a picture increase the chance of success on a second try) (see Toca Hair Salon). Club Penguin’s success is based on making it or provide a hint to coach the child along. easy for children to type simple constructed messages, or play games with strangers.
22 Engagement as a Variable: AKA “Warren’s Dissertation” A Study on the Effects of Praise and Reinforcements on Engagement www.childrenssoftware.com/dis/dis.menu.htm here is an established body of research that has examined the Question: Are there observable differences in child behaviors in two interaction style between humans versions of the same software sorting activity, one with a high level of Tand children. Some studies measured instruction and reinforcement (high computer control), the other with behavioral outcomes, such as various relatively few instructions and reinforcements (high child control)? aspects of the educational effectiveness of the interaction. In the famous "wait- Answer: Designers and evaluators of interactive media prod- time" study, Mary Budd Rowe (1974) ucts for children should pay careful attention to the degree observed that the average time teachers to which the implementation of control mechanisms such as waited between asking a question and taking further action to elicit a reinforcements can have substantial effects on children's response is about one second. When a interaction with the software. student responds to the question, teachers wait, on the average, less than the experience. As a result, the child ting, there were more clicks per task one second before reacting to the had less control over the flow of events, (mean = 4.07 vs. 2.09; p < .05), and response. Rowe called these two time making the experience less responsive. children had a higher accuracy level periods-- the period between asking the The second style, called "high child (mean = 85% vs. 68% respectively). question and acting further, and the control" presented the identical sorting period between the student's response experience with the instructions, praise MORE CORRECT ANSWERS Children and the teacher's reaction-- wait time. and encouragement turned off. As a attempted over three times more prob- By asking teachers to increase their result, a child experienced more control lems (64 vs. 20) and more than twice wait time to between three and five sec- over the events, resulting in a more as many correct answers (41 vs. 16) in onds, she observed a 300% increase in responsive overall experience. Control the high child control condition. While the length of students' explanations was varied by changing the quantity of no significant differences were found (Rowe, 1974). Teacher/child interac- instructions and reinforcements. The by gender or session administration, tions have been documented in intrin- engagement of the child was measured the age of the children did matter in sic motivation literature (see Ames, by counting observable child behaviors. terms of the amount of time spent with 1990; Brophy, 1981; Lepper, 1985; These included 1) the number of tasks the task. Smilanski, 1968; Stipek, 1988 to name completed, 2) the number of clicks, or a few). Directly related to the study attempts to influence the instruction MORE CLICKS: Children clicked more described in this dissertation is the lit- flow, and 3) the length of time the child in the HICHILD setting, but had fewer erature that considers the quality and chose to spend with each condition. wasted clicks than in the HICOMP set- quantity of a child's engagement with a The study population was 38 pre- ting. For the purposes of this study, a given task, as influenced by an school-aged children. The Results in click is defined as the two part motion adult/child interaction style. This rela- Brief The measures revealed some (and up and down stroke) when chil- tionship has been documented by interesting, statistically significant (p < dren choose to interact with the inter- Gerald Mahoney and James .05) relationships. active media interface. The click was MacDonald (2003) with a population easily counted due to the distinctive of young children with and/or at-risk MORE ACTIVITY: Children in the high sound associated with stroke, as well as for developmental problems. When child control treatment were more the visual clues provided by screen children and parents or caregivers par- active, completing more tasks (mean = events. In the high child control set- ticipated in two types of interactions 64 vs. 20; p < .05), clicking the mouse ting, children clicked more (mean = (didactic and responsive), a positive more times (mean = 129 vs. 73; p < 129.08 vs. 73.68 respectively; p < .05) relationship was identified between a .05), and getting more tasks correct over the same amount of time as the responsive interaction style and chil- (mean = 41 vs. 16; p < .05). Children high computer control setting. This dren's social and linguistic develop- rated both experiences highly, and outcome has more meaning when ment (Mahoney & MacDonald, 2003; spent about the same amount of time interpreted in the context of the num- Wolock, 1990; McWilliam et al., 2003). with each condition. Children in the ber of problems completed in each set- I was interested in looking at these high child control setting performed ting. In the HICHILD setting, children relationships in an interactive media more mouse clicks (129 vs. 73) and had attempted more than three times context. A computer classification lower accuracy rate for problems (68% (320%) the number of tasks (63.8 vs. activity was created that was modified vs. 85%), in about the same amount of 20.4; p < .05), resulting in a click per to simulate two contrasting teaching time. In the high computer control set- task ratio nearly two times (194%) that styles, similar to the Mahoney & of the HICOMP setting (4.07 vs. 2.095; MacDonald technique. The first style, HCI Bibliography : Human- p < .05). To conclude, when responsivi- called "high computer control" Computer Interaction Resources ty was increased, children were much attempted to simulate a teaching style http://www.hcibib.org/kids more active, clicking more frequently; where the teacher carefully introduced The HCI Bibliography is for designers, producers, researchers, and practitioners of interactive media for and more of those clicks were related in each problem, and provided frequent children and adolescents. some way to an intended outcome praise and encouragement throughout
23 Engagement as a variable, continued. (from the perspective of the interactive structured and controlled interface with whereas the HICOMP setting was 573 media designer). In the HICOMP treat- a high level of narration and direction, vs. 567 seconds). 5. Children rated both ment, the added narration and rein- they showed a decrease in activity, as experiences highly, but anecdotal forcement statements seemed to create measured by number of problems observations seemed to indicate that a barrier to child's activity and problem attempted. Anecdotal observations sup- children generally preferred the solving effort. ported this observation, with more fidg- HICHILD treatment over the HICOMP eting, yawning, and placing head on the treatment. A formal measure of the YOUNGER CHILDREN STAYED table during the HICHILD situation. child's feelings about each treatment THAN THE STRUCTURED ACTIVITY Another observation relevant to this was attempted using a Likert-type LONGER THAN THE OLDER CHIL- topic was that the HICOMP treatment scale. There were no significant differ- DREN work was more accurate, with a higher ences between the two groups (4.65 for The ANOVA revealed some notable percentage of correct answers (84.95% HICHILD, 4.58 for HICOMP; p > .05). findings when the entire group of chil- vs. 67.97% respectively; p < .05). When When children were asked "how did dren was divided by younger and older there was increased activity, there was you like it?" immediately after a treat- age groups. The 14 younger children, a decrease in accuracy. When the sum ment, they would say either nothing or aged < 50 months on average chose to of correct answers, however, was com- that they liked it, by touching one of the stay with the experience longer than pared between the two conditions, dur- smiles faces. It was hypothesized that the 22 older children (p < .05) regard- ing the HICHILD condition children children would rate the HICOMP expe less of the experimental condition. An ended up with 393% more correct rience lower than the HICHILD setting. explanation for this may be the chal- answers -- 41.0 vs. 16.1 (p < .05). This was not supported by the survey lenge level, which started with three Interpreting the significance of this ratings. Additional information was objects to sort, based on one attribute, finding is dependent upon the theoreti- gathered less systematically, by observ- and increased to five objects and three cal framework and associated instruc- ing children's reactions when their turn attributes. Because most of the prob- tional objectives of the interactive came up to play the second trial. In lems were geared toward the middle of media designer. If the end goal is for general, they would respond enthusias- the age group (46 to 52 months), the the learner to solve a higher number of tically to the idea of coming back to the older, more competent children more correct answers and increase the room to play the game some more, quickly exhausted the novelty and chal- amount of experimentation, the regardless of the first condition they lenge available in the experience than HICHILD setting is the preferable experienced; high or high computer the younger group, resulting in a loss of design. If higher accuracy regardless of control. Nine of the children, generally interest, and less time on task. For the number of problems is the only older, were able to verbally compare designers, this helps illustrate the goal, the HICOMP setting is the prefer- the HICHILD and HICOMP treatments importance of having a fluid challenge able option. 4. The older group of chil- after the second session. From these level that either automatically adapts to dren chose to spend less time in the videotaped conversations, it was possi- the child's ability level, or that lets the HICHILD setting than the younger ble to determine that these children child have some control over the chal- group of children. When the population had more positive things to say about lenge setting. was grouped into two parts by age (over the HICHILD experience. In order to 50 months and under 50 months), more accurately understand children's CHILDREN TRIED MORE PROBLEMS there was a significant and interesting reactions to each treatment, additional IN ONE CONDITION. In the HICHILD difference in the amount of time the exposures to both the HICHILD and condition, the children were 317% two groups choose to stay with the HICOMP treatments would be neces- busier, attempting 63 problems in activity. Regardless of the experimental sary, over a longer period of time. It is approximately the same amount of time condition, the younger group stayed likely that children would have a more spent in the HICOMP condition with longer than the older children (p < .05) discriminating attitude toward between only 20 problems solved (p < .05). although the HICHILD setting held the two treatments after the novelty of When children experienced a more them longer. (610 vs. 442 seconds, the experience is reduced.
CONCLUSION This study helps con- nect the established principles of human/child interaction to computer/child interaction, including the role of external reinforcements and the level of responsivity of the interac- tion. The results of this study suggest that designers and evaluators of inter- active media products for children should pay careful attention to the degree to which the implementation of control mechanisms such as reinforce- ments can have substantial effects on children's interaction with the interac- tive media.
24 Eight Lessons for Structured (Didactive) Activities
he following elements of the to take the next transaction in the 4. Use humor carefully and intermittently. Cookie Critters experience interaction played a key role in a child's Children seemed to respond well to appeared to make a difference in initial reaction to the Cookie Critters events such as when the critter burped Tthe quality of the child’s time with the activity. In both the HICHILD or after eating a correct match, and Cookie Critter’s activity. These non-sys- HICOMP treatment, a short, one sen- "bonk" sounds when cookie did not tematic observations were taken as tence phrase such as "click a cookie" match. These small events worked very notes during the each administration that is spoken as the clickable cookie is well to support children's engagement. session and while coding the tapes. highlighted on the screen, advertised what was needed to do in order to get 5. Opt for context sensitive "roadside assis- 1. Include a brief, ten second "launching started. When the launching instruc- tance" in place of lengthy segments of spo- experience." The importance of provid- tions were toggled off, or when they ken instructions. Ideally, interactive ing a launching event, or an "anticipa- were set on the maximum setting, the media products designed for young tory set" (Hunter, 1982) that could get younger children seemed more likely to children could be able to sense outlier a child's attention (Gagné, 1977) and become lost or distracted. behaviors, such as series of errors, and then provide a clear path for the child respond appropriately. This assistance 2. Insure quick success for every child, cannot disrupt the current activity; for Classification of Mouse regardless of developmental level. example, by launching a new path with Clicks Listed by Frequency Approximately five of the 41 children a help sequence. It needs to happen out During the Cookie Critters were resistant to participation. This of the way, while respecting the child's Activity may have been due to some past unsuc- current problem solving space. cessful experience with a computer This is an attempt to classify the types of mouse use observed in this study. activity, but it is important to note that 6. Put children in the role of being in control. approximately 12% of this particular In this case, it was being able to be in 1. Double Stroke, Intentional Clicks. This click consist- sample seemed to feel strongly that charge of feeding the cookies, deter- ed of one complete down and up stroke while on the intended target. For example, the child sees a computer activities were not something mining which cookie was able to eat, cookie, moves the cursor to it, and clicks. This for them. When the first few screens and which wasn’t. type of click was more common in the older group and the introductory sequence were of children (>50 months) who were more likely to have prior mouse experience. This type of click short, clear and easily bypassed, chil- 7. Capitalize on a children's initial motiva- was common in both HICOMP and HICHILD set- dren seemed more likely to experience tion. Each child started both HICHILD tings. some degree of "accidental success." and HICOMP experiences with some 2. Single Stroke, Intentional Clicks. Approximately 1 There was one flaw that was identified level of motivation. It is up to the in 5 children used "drag and drop" or "hold and in the Cookie Critter’s activity that designer to determine how this motiva- go" (Strommen) single stroke clicks in both the affected ease of use for several children. tion will be spent. This study illustrated HICHILD and HICOMP settings, even though the activity used a "sticky mouse" making this tech- The first screen starts with an inch- that this motivation can be either used nique unnecessary. A child using this type of click wide round target with the printed for more accurate responses and less would first position the cursor over the target word "start" on it (Figure 10). In order activity, or more activity with more cor- cookie, and then make one downstroke, holding down the mouse button, and not letting it come to unlock the activity screen, children rect answers and more mistakes, back up until it was over the target critter. This are required to hit this target, which depending on quantity of the reinforce- type of click requires the coordination of both fine implies that they will know that the ments and instructions. In the case of motor and gross motor movements simultaneous- ly. It was interesting that some children switched button means start. While this is logical an activity like Cookie Critters, it is a to this strategy in the HICOMP setting, from to an adult who can read, a preschool question of the instructional design pri- intentional clicks, after they learned that they child can’t, so there is no indication orities. could not speed the events along. Perhaps this was out of frustration. what to do. One way around this bottle- neck would be to make the screen so 8. Provide a meaningful context, from the 3. "Hurry Up!" Unintentional Clicks. This click resulted that any click, regardless of where the perspective of the child, not an adult. The when a child attempts to influence the temporal sequence of events on the screen by clicking the cursor is, advances the program to the first administration session used a ver- mouse. Commercial early childhood software next screen. sion of Cookie Critters with a visual activities that allow children to "click through" progress tracking feature turned on. introductions or screen events may reinforce this 3. Incorporate dynamic, or "living" features behavior. This clicking behavior was observed This made it possible for children to see only in the HICOMP setting. that are driven by, or respond directly to the how many problems they had solved, child’s actions. In the starting screen in and how many more they had to do 4. "Rapid Fire" or "Machine Gun" Unintentional Clicks. This technique refers to when child sends a con- Figure 10, for example, children would before the next challenge level. This tinuous stream of clicks, sometimes in a short be more likely to become engaged early technique has been used successfully in burst and other times for longer sequences. The on if the eyes in word "Cookie" followed apps like Math Park and Tap Zoo. child's thinking seems to be along the line of "I’ll just keep clicking until the computer hears me." It the cursor around the screen. Dynamic was also a way to keep busy, perhaps creating a animation properties such as these, simulated feeling of control in the HICOMP set- that follow the initiation of the child, ting. This was rare in HICHILD settings, much more common in the HICOMP setting when chil- seem to be effective for increasing ini- dren did not have as much control. tial engagement.
25 Select Articles on Design by Warren Buckleitner Here are some articles on design that appeared as columns in KidScreen or Children’s Technology Review.
Instructions on Giving Instructions When it comes to designing children's interactive media, for- mer US President Harry Truman might have been on to something when he said, "I have found the best way to give advice to your children is to find out what they want and then advise them to do it." Unfortunately, too many of the prod- ucts I review were designed by people who've forgotten this free advice. • Don't incorporate directions. In countless kids apps, the first few screens are filled with • If you do, keep them Twitter-sized, and remember that chil- introductions, non-descript login icons, or other control-sap- dren have limited buffers. "Click to start" is better than a ping hoops. Instructions aren't inherently bad things. On the mini- lecture on the QWERTY keyboard. contrary, when it comes to assembling a bicycle or baking a • Do embed the instructions in the activity, but get children cake, they can be lifesavers. But when it comes to interactive busy doing something like popping balloons or spinning a products for young children, excessive instructions can just steering wheel first. If nothing is happening, then provide gunk up the works. an "over the shoulder" instruction, such as "Try the arrow keys to move." If you front-load kids, they just tune out. In fact, interactive product designers should take their cues • Don't parrot. In a sorting game, it's okay to state "Sort the from decidedly non-digital but skilled instruction givers - the shapes" the first few times. But after the third prompt, people who design children's rides for amusement parks. The disable the feature. Big Rigs ride, found at the Waldameer Amusement Park in • Don't assume ignorance as the default condition of the end Erie, Pennsylvania, is a good example. While standing in line user. The world's most successful interface, Google, has at a nearby roller coaster, I noticed a chorus of goose-like no instructions, yet it is used successfully by millions of honks pealing through the park at five-minute intervals. children every day, including preschoolers who aren't sup- Curious about the noise, I wandered over and watched a posed to know how to type or read. Google replaces batch of eager kids climbing into a train of double-decker prompts with white space. truck cabs. • Make every first level a tutorial, but don't call it a tutorial. • Support the traditional "I read the instructions" type of per- Each truck was equipped with two steering wheels and two son by including a complete set of text-based instructions horns with rubber squeeze bulbs. (e.g., the user's manual) in the help icon on the first There were no instructions or helpful early childhood educa- screen - it's fine to lecture here. tors waiting with a mini-orientation. However, instantly, the • Kid test. The younger the children, the more they differ children started busily exploring the controls with wide eyes from one another. If your interface works consistently for and busy hands. Most tested the steering wheel first. Kids 20 kids, you're likely to get similar outcomes with over age four seemed to know it wasn't functional, but quick- 200,000. ly learned the air horn was no fake. A squeeze made the sharp goose-like honk. Better yet, if you squeezed harder, you got a Finally, remember that all of us, no matter how old we are, louder sound. And if you squeezed it several times, several want to honk the horn. honks followed. And nobody said stop! Soon, another chorus of honks filled the air, as each child signified their under- By Warren Buckleitner, from the Jul 27, 2009 issue of KidScreen Magazine. standing of the task: "I'm an active learner, I'm alive, this is my space, and I'm in control." Contrast this with the WordGirl maze game (http://pbskids.org/wordgirl/index.html#/games/game_4/). The activity would be better if it just showed a maze and did- n't assume children need to be told to use the arrow keys - something they probably picked up from Webkinz long ago. Besides, if they can read that much text, they probably don't need practice matching words, right? To make matters worse, the same instructions are parroted at each level.
The dos and don'ts There are many types of interactive media, so there's no one way to give instructions. That said, here are some general dos and don'ts for incorporating directions into a children's inter- active media product:
26 makes a big honking noise, and the wipers seem glued to Five Ingredients of Active Learning your fingertip when you slide over them. The first approach assumes toddlers are too young to understand these rela- Julia Child understood the magic of butter - a substance that tionships, but nothing could be further from the truth. can pull together diverse ingredients to create a delightful culinary sensation. And if there's a butter-like equivalent in • Choice In approach #1, children are given no choice in the the creation of children's interactive media, it's active learn- pace or version of the song or the ability to stop and start ing. While active learning may be harder to taste than but- over. In the second game, children get to choose the song ter, it can have an equally transformative effect on multi- version or language, and complete silence is also an option. media ingredients. And if you have an iPhone, it's possible to record personal vocals in the dialect of your choosing. Years ago, early childhood curriculum designers at the High Scope Educational Research Foundation, where I trained • Words As recognized by cognitive scientists like Robert teachers, distilled active learning into five components - Gangé and Jerome Bruner, for a young developing child, materials, manipulation, choice, language and support. language facilitates cognition. In other words, if you want to While we had teachers in mind, these key points work nicely get a child thinking, get them talking. The Sesame app talks with kid's interactive experiences. To illustrate, let's examine at children, while the Duck Duck Moose one gives children two similar, but differently designed activities. One is made the option to talk as they listen to different forms of lan- with active learning in mind, the other without. Can can tell guage. which is which? (Warning: this will require some active learning on your part.) • Support Both activities make it impossible to fail. However, the second one does a better job of supporting a First, watch this three-minute video child's natural instinct to poke, slide and touch - minus the (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0wcBcPc4xE) OK. lecture. As such, a child is better-supported from a develop- Now we're ready. mental perspective. Approach #1: Wheels on the Bus from Sesame The lesson here? In the quest to craft the perfect interactive Workshop (available at Sesamestreet.org/game). beef bourguignon, good ingredients like popular licensed The activity opens with Elmo saying, "Let's play silly songs. characters, funny writers and famous narrators certainly Elmo the bus driver is ready to play. This song is, `The can't hurt. But when they're bathed in active learning, a Wheels on the Bus.' When you hear the music, press the child is much more likely to come back for seconds. key." But which key? And if Elmo is ready to play, you're Buckleitner, Five Ingredients of Active Learning, The probably asking why can't I just push the keys? Did you KidScreen, Oct 1, 2009 notice how you can't control the pace of the song, and how the actions on the bus are pre-scripted? It makes this a fla- vorless experience. Digital Play-Doh and the Principle of This activity suffers from "TV writer's disease," according to veteran digital designer Erik Strommen. "The dialogue was Accidental Success written as if for TV, not for interactive media, so it's long- Can you recall peeling the lid off a fresh container of Play- winded and not very focused or directive," he says. Doh? Remember that distinct smell and feel of the fresh stuff squeezing through your fingers? Once you started, it Approach #2: Wheels on the Bus from Duck Duck Moose was hard to stop - it's even rumored that some kids may Design (available in the US at the iTunes app store). The have had a taste or two. only instructions for this iPod Touch/iPhone app involve a silent finger, suggesting where you might touch the screen to If ever there was a material that delivers on the promise of open the doors or move the wipers. This activity exemplifies an immediate no-fail experience, Play-Doh is it. You can roll the ingredients of active learning much better than the first. it, squish it and poke it full of holes. Mistakes are easily reversed by rolling it back into a ball, and your ideas can be Now let's examine both games through the active-learning can be saved forever when you put your project on a shelf to lens. It'll help to run each experience through the following dry overnight. It is the ultimate interactive play substance, checklist to find out just how tasty it is. and failure is not an option. • Materials How much content is there to explore? In the Now consider the first screen kids encounter on their first experience, there is just one version of the song and few favorite website, toy or app. Besides Play-Doh's strange salty surprises from page to page. The bus always does the exact flavor, do they have similar attributes? Do they have what's same thing. Contrast that with the second approach, where, become known around our office as the "accidental success" along with a variety of versions of the song, there are multi- factor that mirrors that of the famous molding compound? ple things to click on each page - there's just much more to It's what we look for in every interactive children's product actively manipulate. we review. Here's our checklist. • Manipulation You have the content, but what can you do with it? Manipulation encompasses both little things, like Accidental success defined rolling over an icon to see what's highlighted, and big things, A good product has to meet many requirements, but few are like the ability to change the background graphic, record as essential as accidental success - especially when it comes your own song, or start a giant bus rolling. The slightest tap to interactive devices and software designed for kids. 27 • Is it responsive? If you jab it, do you get something? sustain and pitch mapping. If you're looking for an excuse to • Can you operate it with your elbow? Try this. Close your purchase an iPad, Magic Piano just might bend your arm. eyes and start touching things. Can you do something (Available at www.smule.com, US$0.99.) right, or more accurately, non-wrong? • Is it smart? Can it tell if you are simply guessing and pro- To be fair, it is not entirely accurate to compare such differ- vide help as needed? ently designed experiences, especially when one has the • Does it require reading? Could a non-reader succeed with- advantage of featuring a popular licensed character. in the first few screens? However, it is fun to think about how to redesign Go, Diego, • Is it reversible? Can you get out of anything you get into? Go Musical Missions, mixing in a dash of accidental success. • Does the first level ensure success for even the youngest And if you need reminding what I'm talking about, go out child? and pick up a fresh eight pack - of Play-Doh, peel back the • Could your cat make it work? lid and enjoy a sniff. Buckleitner, From the Oct 2010 issue of Kidscreen With checklist in hand, it's now time to look at two exam- ples. Both apps are designed to give children a musical expe- rience. One exceeds the criteria for accidental success, while The Waterline Principle: What it the other is cluttered with Means for Children's Interactive instructions. Design When I was doing teacher training for ECE classrooms, I Go, Diego, came up with the "waterline principle" to help teachers visu- Go Musical alize material access. This means that you set up an environ- Missions ment for children where everything they can reach is "on The music and limits" rather than “off limits.” You create an imaginary line the main menu that represents the tallest child's reach. All toys and are certainly materials that are above that line should be out of site, and nice, but the out of mind, as to not tease a child with choices they can't activities are have. Everything below the line should be fair game for use. frustratingly didactic in this What does this mean for children's interactive designers? iPhone/iPad app designed for Nickelodeon by Chewy Software. There are First, designers need to take a global look at their experi- six songs, including "Jingle Bells" and "Mary Had a Little ence, starting with the packaging and installation and end- Lamb" each set in a different environment (i.e. the Savannah ing with the exit routines. Most trouble happens when start- or the Arctic). The instructions are excessive and Diego talks ing or ending an interactive experience. too much. Also, the notes on the flute don't line up with the notes on the musical staff, which is confusing. One child in Typing in a registration code or reading an acceptable use our review group even noticed that you can get through a policy is above the complexity waterline. Preferences such as level faster by randomly pressing notes instead of acting on network settings or your computer's clock are the equivalent Diego's clues. (Available at www.nick.com, US$1.99.) of your classroom's supply closet. You don't want children to be playing in there. So they need to be out of site, and Magic Piano beyond a child's line of site. If you have preferences, say for Ideal for children, adults or cats (according to YouTube), changing players or for adjusting the sound, you need to Magic Piano turns the iPad's multi-touch screen into a make sure they are usable by the intended audience. twistable, turnable, resizable piano keyboard. In default Otherwise, you open the possibility for frustration. mode, it starts with the press of a key and emits a clear note. At any time, you can switch to a different keyboard layout, Instead of the tallest child, think about the most bored and or squeeze stretch the keyboard to add or subtract keys. You curious child. They're the ones that are likely to test the lim- can also play chords, just like on a real piano. An interesting its of your interface. and somewhat spooky feature of the program is the duet mode. If your iPad is online, you can play a tune with some- one else who is How to Build Feelings of Ownership also connected in an Interactive Space to the net. In Everyone wants to attract kids to a website, or keep them the "world" interested in a new video game. The secret? You just need to mode, you can employ the FOO factor. Instilling FOO (a.k.a. Feelings of see where the Ownership) in children within their first few minutes of songs are being using a game, website or interactive application may be one played on a of the most important keys to digital success. It works like map of the magic. Just ask game designers Shigeru Miyamoto of globe. A control Nintendo or Will Wright from Emeryville, California-based panel lets you Maxis. Neither are strangers to the concept of FOO - or control such money. Not sure where to start? Keep the following in mind. things as auto-
28 • Can you turn up, or turn down the music or sounds, or is there an obvious "mute" button? Pondering Pokémagic OK class, it's time to learn about effective interactive design. • Can you pause the game at any point? Today's case study? Pokémon. • Does the program ask for your name upfront, and then use it at various points in the game (e.g., on a bill board in a I was reminded of the power of the Pokémon brand recently racing game, or hidden in an I SPY puzzle?) when I spotted three style-conscious high school boys, each • Let kids choose the gender and ethnicity of their individual with a red-and-white Pokéwalker pedometer hanging off digital characters. their belts. These guys are supposed to be too old for • Give the child a variety of "skins" or customizable elements Pokémon, but apparently they didn't get the memo. to choose from. For example, if the game or environment The gadgets, which are included with the recently released provides users with a room, give the kids the ability to Pokémon SoulSilver and Pokémon HeartGold video game click on the walls and toggle between different wallpaper titles (US$40 apiece for Nintendo DS and DSi), are part of designs. Also, make sure one is white, in case they don't the property's interesting recipe for creating interactive feel like having any designs pushed at them. design that works. • On-the-fly control. If there's music playing in the back- And adhering to the recipe is ground provide a radio icon so kids can choose the chan- what's helped the Pokémon fran- nel, just like Grand Theft Auto does in the adult digital chise hold up so well against the space. continual ebb and flow of video • A space of one's own. One of the most compelling things game technology. It also helps us about Club Penguin is that it lets kids have their own understand why there's a igloo, where they can store their stuff. Kids come to Pokémon store in Rockefeller depend on having a place to sock away meaningful items, Center in New York City. so it's worth building that into an application, even if it isn't the focus. Note that if you let them collect stuff, make Of course, the best way to under- sure you don't use it as blackmail to get their parent's to stand why Pokémon works so well subscribe. See the Code of Ethics. is to cough up 40 bucks and play it yourself. But if you don't have the Kids aren't always good at articulating what they need to time or money, start by watching adults, so let me try to translate for them. TVs, books and the first 12 minutes of one of the movies are your (the producers) space. Interactive media, on new Pokémon demo spots filmed the other hand, is as much MY space as YOUR space. Please in real time give me some. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJ2YWmdHzQ8). Miyamoto's Mii avatars populate the millions of Wiis Now consider these eight ingredients. installed in houses across the globe and represent the under- lying philosophy of the revolutionary console-every player is 1. Success, right up front: All DS Pokémon games start the instilled right off the bat with FOO on every game. Instead of same familiar way. The MUC (Minimum User filling the grandstands with animated characters in Mario Competency), in this case reading, is well-matched with Kart, for example, kids get to see their best friend's Mii the task at hand. All introductory videos can be skipped, avatar cheering them on. They feel part of the game. and it is possible to experience success in the first few seconds of the game. Wright has famously applied FOO to SimCity and the best- 2. Hooks to a child's life (a.k.a. meaningfulness): Pokémon selling social game The Sims, which includes a powerful set games let players explore towns, talk to mentors, have of face and body editors. And Maxis is looking for lighting to friends and take care of pets, which start out weak and strike again with Spore. This month, the company started become stronger with the player's help. And the fight giving people a sneak-peek with the Spore Creature Creator, against bad guys could be pulled right out of Carl Jung's a 300MB mini-application available as a free download from archetypal playbook. www.spore.com. 3. Free exploration: Pokémon takes place in maze-like sets of connected villages, and players can go where they Maxis is also giving would-be users some free server space to please, using a map for help. So Pokémon provides share their creatures with others. Wright has ensured that structure, within which players can exercise creativity - people will fall in love with Spore by entrusting them with they can always get out of whatever they get into and the tools they need to create a creature at the very start of there's no single way to play the game. the relationship. But the best part of FOO is it's royalty-free. 4. Feelings of ownership: The Pokémon players I inter- No one entity owns the concept. And it's not new. Remember viewed while reviewing this title described their Mr. Potato Head, Play-Doh, Lego and sandboxes? All are Pokémon experience as "mine." This sensibility is high in FOO. engendered right at the outset. Children enter their names at the start and they're then embedded into the Buckleitner, W., FOO fighters instilling feelings of owner- game's dialogue. This tried-and-true technique is ship yields big returns. KidsScreen Magazine, August 2008, applied with mastery here. Kids can also customize their p. 28) persona, play as a male or female and give their Pokémon creatures silly (or serious) nicknames.
29 5. Surprises: You never know what is going to spring out of al penguins are noisy, social creatures - just like the real the grass, or when it will happen. This element of sur- animals and kids themselves, for that matter. SeaPals prise is enhanced by the knowledge that there's a special World (www.seapalsworld.com) is based on a line of Pokémon creature waiting for the player at the end of plush sea creatures who come to life in a virtual fish the game. tank that can be decorated in a multitude of ways. And 6. Collectibility: A big part of the Pokémon experience is they never die! accumulating items that represent the game experiences. Rule 3 - Load quickly. At 3 p.m. on a Tuesday afternoon, I Critics might call it consumerism (see a child's collection launched Club Penguin in four seconds. Webkinz loaded of Pokémon swag at http://bit.ly/94m89Q) or digital in five. Compare that with the 25 seconds I waited for trick-or-treating, but the idea of collecting pulls kids in - BarbieGirls.com to get up and running. Kids simply like magic. don't have that kind of patience. 7. Emotional attachment: As players progress, they bond Rule 4 - Make it social. What's the point of going online if with their little critters, which travel from screen-to- you can't toss a snowball at a friend? Future collabora- screen and continually get stronger. They also get mes- tive options could include pair vs. pair or teams vs. team sages like "You're really good" and "You treat your play, cooperative modes, and webcam or microphone Pokémon with such kindness." There's a lot of positive connections à la Nintendo's Animal Crossing for the energy in Pokémon. It makes players feel like family. Wii. Also smart are virtual versions of existing games 8. Real-world skills: Any teacher knows a child becomes a with perceived educational value, like checkers, hang- better reader by reading, and Pokémon's game script is man and story-creation templates. presented via myriad bite-sized sentences that must be Rule 5 - Make a great first impression. Getting started on read in sequence to participate fully in the game. There the right foot doesn't include posting a "coming soon" are also graphs to read and interpret, plus numerical sign. Our kid testers were disappointed with Russ quantities - up into the thousands - to compare and con- Berrie's Shining Stars (www.shiningstars.com), for trast. Spatial memory is exercised while reading the example, because they were expecting a Webkinz experi- maze-like maps. Socially, Pokémon competence can earn ence. Instead, there was little to do other than register a bus-stop credibility and give children an excuse to trade, star. While the US$15 plush toys are well-made, my negotiate and gossip. Finally, the Pokéwalker counters research found the web companion isn't. criticisms that video games can't promote the pursuit of Rule 6 - Don't paint yourself into a hardware corner. fresh air and sunshine. Remember the Barbie Girl device? It was a Barbie- shaped MP3 player that Mattel hoped would sell like Webkinz since it similarly doubled as a key to premium Seven Rules for Making a Solid features at www.barbiegirls.com. It didn't work. Today Web/Toy Connection the site has fallen back to the tried-and-true velvet rope The meteoric rise of Webkinz and its related virtual world subscription model. Anyone knows that plugging a USB should remove any doubt that younger children spend a lot device into a Windows computer can be like spinning a of time online and that parents are willing to pay for their roulette wheel - it might work, or it might require a 40- kids to have these experiences. A bumper crop of Flash- minute call to tech support. based virtual playgrounds have come to market in the 18 Rule 7 - Get them busy right away. When I was a preschool months since Webkinz started attracting attention, but the teacher, I'd start a group activity by giving every child an novelty window has closed on those looking to enter the impossible-to-fail activity like squeezing a ball of clay. space. The electronic equivalent might be finding hidden items on the first screen, or turning the cursor movement into Kids have become much more discriminating when it comes a micro-game. At Moshi Monsters (www.moshimon- to online content, especially when it involves a cash transac- sters.com) the monsters' eyes follow your cursor. A bit tion. After all, there's always a free option just a click away. If creepy for us grown-ups, sure. But it's a very effective you're looking to build a virtual world and attract loyal pay- way to tell a young child "you're in charge." ing visitors, it helps to understand the rules of this game and From Kidscreen, October 1, 2008 avoid others' mistakes. It just so happens that I've dipped into my reviewer's notebook and pulled out seven rules to follow that can make for a solid toy/web marriage.
Rule 1 - Think outside the box. Does the world really need another version of Bejeweled or a frustratingly safety- conscious chat system? What's in demand today are sites that let kids explore and do things they could only dream of doing, like owning a horse (www.bellasara.com), steering a pirate ship (www.piratesonline.com) or building amazing structures Rule 2 - Make a bridge to the online world that makes sense. Online play spaces are symbolic representations of the toys. Children must make the object/symbol connection in a flash. Club Penguin works for me because the virtu-
30 A Code of Ethics for the Publishers of Children's A Code of Ethics for the Publishers of Interactive Interactive Media Media for Children Make interactive products that you’d want your own children or grandchildren to use. • I will not sell development, If you care about young children, a look at the ten random hours of young children (ages e.g., “smarter, brainy kids,” without specific references to 3-8) using online content would make you livid. Some sites behave like a manipulative valid studies. salesman working an angle. Of course not all sites children’s sites are like this. But the • I won’t hold a child’s past reality is that in the unregulated wild west environment of online content, hits = money, work or experience hostage, as an incentive to renew a and webstats don’t care about age. When this thinking drifts into preoperational and con- subscription or purchase an crete operational thinking, trouble can begin. additional product. • I’ll understand the difference When we started collecting video footage for the report the Consumer Reports WebWatch between informing and selling, especially when embedding study “Like Taking Candy From a Baby: How Young Children Interact with Online brand names and/or including Environments” (Buckleitner, 2008) we didn’t have a title, and we didn’t know what we’d in-app sales techniques. find. Once we watched the footage, collected by parents in ten homes, the hard-edged title • I won’t exploit a tired, flus- tered parent for my own prof- was necessary and accurate. The study confirmed that the digital world offers a wealth of it. opportunity for young children to play and learn. But even in this small sample of 10 fam- • I will identify (with name and ilies there were repeated examples of attempts to manipulate children for the sake of com- affiliation) the authors, writers merce. Some sites such as Millsberry.com, EverythingGirl.com, M&Ms.com and Hasbro and developers who created my product. MonkeyBar TV, for instance, appear to exist solely to extend a brand name, or to influence • I will disclose costs in clear the purchasing decisions of busy parents. language at the start of the consumer/publisher relation- ship. Publishers of children’s Internet content need to be reminded they are deal- • I’ll read and abide by the ing with an audience that “thinks different.” Consumer Reports WebWatch guidelines. Considering how easily millions of adults are regularly fooled by offers of “free credit • If I sponsor a contest that will involve the public school sys- reports,” deceptive advertising, and “order before midnight” commercials, it is unreason- tem (e.g., students, teachers, able and irresponsible to subject children to the same hardsell tactics. Publishers of chil- classroom time that is funded dren’s Web sites need to understand there’s more at stake than simply making money. by public money) I will not use products with indirect costs (a) require an additional sub- Publishers of interactive media need to better consider the developmental level of their scription or (b) tease or tempt audience. In addition, they should disclose the publisher, author and studio information. children with add-on content It’s hard to imagine buying a children’s book without being able to find out who’s the pub- that costs money after the school year ends. I will also lisher, author or illustrator. Yet many children’s Web sites bury this information or don’t make sure that every child has list it. Prices for services should be displayed at the start of a transaction, not the end. equal access to the same set The time remaining in a game should be displayed on all main screens in a way that of tools and content. • I will not confuse marketing makes sense to a young child. In addition: with educating. · Keep free trials free. Publishers shouldn’t require a credit card for a free trial. If there • My product or service will are “hidden” fees, don’t hide them. Disclose them clearly. treat every child the way I’d · Don’t use free trials to entice children into buying subscriptions. Club Penguin regularly treat my own child or grand- child. displays subscription only items to children playing on free accounts. Our observations demonstrated an instance in which a child clicked on a common object in the game Technology changes quickly. If environment which led to the following message: “Oops, you’re not a member, but we’d you want to add a suggestion, send me an email or edit the love to have you become one.” Sites should only display “free” options in free trials. page directly, and please identify · Don’t try to cover up or play sleight of hand with junk food ads. Our observations noted your contributions. pictures or graphics proclaiming healthy themes like “get exercise,” or “eat healthy foods,” juxtaposed with junk food ads. This tactic, probably designed to neutralize con- Citation: Buckleitner, W. (2011), A Code of Ethics for the cerns of parents, is confusing and misleading. Child obesity is a serious health concern Publishers of Interactive Media in the United States and other countries. Be open about these kinds of ads, avoid for Children, online at manipulation and disclose nutritional value of advertised foods. Don’t dress them up http://bit.ly/eo9cui with pictures of broccoli stalks. See the complete study at: http://www.consumerwebwatch.org/dynamic/families-reports-kidsonline.cfm
See the Moms With Apps Banner Program, at http://momswithapps.com/privacy-icon/as one way to clearly mark apps with
31 Why Tap Zoo is a A pretend* letter from Daniel Terry and Harlan Crystal, who published Tap Zoo, currently one of Morality Fail the top Grossing Apps.
Psssst. Hey you. Wanna make some ca$h? A LOT of cash (like $mil- lions?). Here’s what you do, and we promise, no laws or bones will be broken. First, find yourself an innocent slightly bored 5 to 7 year old kid with an iPad or iPod touch. Now come up with an item that kids can’t resist. We’ve had good luck with cute looking animals— stuff that makes a kid say “awwww!” Now make a free app with an icon that has kid appeal. That’s your lure; design it carefully. It needs to shout “come play with me!” You can copy a game (we used the Zoo Tycoon and FarmVille) and offer up a pair of free gorillas. Make it a snap to download and get started. You need to get the little kids invested and feeling like they own the zoo at the beginning. This is very important. If you want ideas for roping in a child, visit a casino and watch some compulsive gamblers. You can learn how to trick a little kid into wanting to keep playing. For example, every four minutes or so, we deliver a little bit of pretend money, making them think they can buy more animals if they stay with their zoo. It’s like a digital M&M, and those little suckers fall for it! After they are lovey dovey with their gorillas, it’s time for the big tease. Show them other peoples zoos, teaming with tigers, penguins, sea turtles, monkeys -- or perhaps even “the Big Castle!” It’s mean but it works. You can’t have supply unless you have demand, right? Associate the cool stuff with an order form, so those penguin-loving kids start getting on their parents. You see, a six or seven year old kid is too young to understand abstract things like passwords and credit cards. To them, its just part of the “get mom to give me stuff” game that every child is born with. And stop thinking of this kid as a person. She’s your mule to get to mommy’s bank account. The best part of this whole robbery is that you’re going to have Apple driving your getaway car! They keep a cut, but they also cut the checks. Apple is like is your Swiss bank account. Make sure you use a currency system that sounds fake and harmless. Don’t call it “dollars” because that could tip off mom or dad. We use “stars” and one of our competitors, CapCom’s The Smurfs’ Village, uses “Smurfberries.” Another thing you don’t want to do is to tell the parents that a simple, functional zoo might cost well over $400, about the cost of a dish washer. Keep these dirty little secrets as hidden and cryptic as possible. Also, sell a lot of starter items for just $.99, to numb them up, so a parent will think, “well, that isn’t much, OK, squirt, here’s my iTunes password, now keep quiet.” Believe me, kids are great at getting that password. We’ve seen four year olds do it. The buying part needs to be really thought out carefully. Make it so that when the kid touches the “Buy Stars” you tease ‘em with a model zoo, teaming with animals and then deliver them to iTunes as quickly and as frequently as possible. Sure, they’ll see the “Do you want to buy one Vial of Stars for $0.99?”warning, and they might hit “cancel” but non-readers have fair chance of hitting “OK.” Here’s another great trick. Sell stars by the barrel for $99.99! To a kid, a barrel sounds like more fun. Finally, make sure all sales are final. No refunds. How much money can you make? We’re over a $million bucks A MONTH! Dude, it’s so easy, it’s like stealing candy from a baby!
Sincerely, Daniel Terry and Harlan Crystal, Co-Founders of Pocket Gems (www.pocketgems.com)
*Note: This is a pretend letter (by Warren Buckleitner) based on existing practices. The photos of Daniel and Harlan are from http://pocketgems.com/about/the-team.php. We appreciate the fact that they didn’t attempt to hide their identity, and welcome their response to this letter.
32 A Generic Evaluation Form Title ______Price ______Publisher ______Platform ______Copyright Date ______Ages ______Publisher’s Phone/URL______Teaches ______Instructions: Spend a few hours testing all aspects of the interactive product, preferably with a child, making note of key strengths and weaknesses. Then use this instrument, and calculate your rating.
I. Ease of Use (Can my child use it with minimal help?) V. Design Features (How smart is this program?) Always SE Never NA Always SE Never NA 1. ______Skills needed to operate the program are in range of the 1.______The program has speech capacity child 2.______Has printing capacity 2. ______Children can use the program independently after the first 3.______Keeps records of child’s work use 4.______"Branches" automatically: challenge level is fluid 3. ______Accessing key menus is straightforward 5.______A child’s ideas can be incorporated into the program 4. ______Reading ability is not prerequisite to using the program 6.______Sound can be toggled or adjusted 5. ______Graphics make sense to the intended user 7.______Feedback is customized in some way to the individual child 6.______Printing routines are simple 8.______Program keeps a history of the child’s use over a period of 7.______It is easy to get in or out of any activity at any point time 8.______Getting to the first menu is quick and easy 9.______Teacher/parent options are easy to find and use 9.______Controls are responsive to the touch ______TOTAL DESIGN FEATURES 10.______Written materials are helpful 11.______Instructions can be reviewed on the screen, if necessary 12.______Children know if they make a mistake VI. Value (How much does it cost vs. what it does? Is it 13.______Icons are large and easy to select with a moving cursor worth it?) 14.______Installation procedure is straightforward and easy to do Considering the factors rated above, and the average retail price of ______TOTAL EASE OF USE software, rate this program’s relative value.
Poor...... Good II. Childproof (Is it designed with child-reality in mind?) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Always SE Never NA ___ TOTAL VALUE 1.______Survives the "pound on the keyboard" test 2.______Offers quick, clear, obvious response to a child’s action 3.______The child has control over the rate of display 4.______The child has control over exiting at any time 5.______The child has control over the order of the display 6.______Title screen sequence is brief or can be bypassed 7.______When a child holds a key down, only one input is sent to the computer 8.______Files not intended for children are safe Adding Up the Scores 9.______Children know when they’ve made a mistake Step 1: Count the totals under each column. 10.______This program would operate smoothly in a home or class- Step 2: Assign point values, as follows: room setting Always = 1 point each ______TOTAL CHILDPROOF Some Extent = 1/2 point each Never = 0 points each NA = Not counted III. Educational (What can my child learn from this pro- gram?) You can use this formula Always SE Never NA (X + (Y/2)) x 100 = S 1.______Offers a good presentation of one or more content areas n - Z 2.______Graphics do not detract from the program’s educational intentions Where 3.______Feedback employs meaningful graphic and sound capabili- X = Total of checks in the “always” column ties Y = Total of checks in the “some extent” column 4.______Speech is used Z = Total of checks in the “NA” column 5.______The presentation is novel with each use n = Number of items in a category (such as Childproof) 6.______Good challenge range (this program will grow with the S = Score for a component of the program (as a percent) child) 7.______Feedback reinforces content (embedded reinforcements are Step 3: Get each Component Score, or S, add them up, and use the formula used) below to calculate the overall star rating. 8.______Program elements match direct experiences ______Ease of Use 9.______Content is free from gender bias ______Childproof 10.______Content is free from ethnic bias ______Educational Value 11.______A child’s ideas can be incorporated into the program ______Entertainment Value 12______The program comes with strategies to extend the learning ______Design Features 13______There is a sufficient amount of content ______Overall Value ______TOTAL EDUCATIONAL VALUE ______÷ 6 = (______x 5) ÷ 100 = ______stars
IV. Entertaining (Is this program fun to use?) Comments: Always SE Never NA 1.______The program is enjoyable to use 2.______Graphics are meaningful and enjoyed by children 3.______This program is appealing to a wide audience 4.______Children return to this program time after time 5.______Random generation techniques are employed in the design 6.______Speech and sounds are meaningful to children 7.______Challenge is fluid, or a child can select own level Please note. Permission is granted to use this instrument for educational use, e.g., 8.______The program is responsive to a child’s actions teacher training. All other uses or adaptations must be done with permission only. 9.______The theme of the program is meaningful to children Please contact CSR at 908-284-0404. © 2002 Children’s Technology Review ______TOTAL ENTERTAINMENT VALUE 33 To Help You Remember
Five Elements of a 5 Star Product Easy to use
Educational
Entertaining
Features
Overall Value
34 iPad Mini
Kindle Fire HD iPad 1
36 iPod Touch 5, iPhone 5
37
Evaluation Form
You can fill out this form with our without identifying yourself, so please tell us what you really think. You can use the back if you need more space.
OVERALL no...... yes m m m m m 1. Met my expectations m m m m m 2. Was worth my time and money m m m m m 3. Relevent to my job
SUNDAY poor.....great poor.....great This toolbar is from a 1998 Mac version of Adobe PhotoShop This toolbar is from a 1998 Mac version of LOGISTICS m m m m m m m m m m Panel Housing m m m m m Highlights Facility m m m m m MONDAY CTR Communications m m m m m m m m m m Buckleitner/Boundaries CTR Staff m m m m m Child Dev 101 m m m m m Going to Market OVERALL COMMENTS m m m m m Schlichting 1. Best Part m m m m m PlayScience (Shuler) m m m m m IRA (Yokoto) m m m m m Kid Watching m m m m m Evening Free Time
TUESDAY 2. Worst Part m m m m m Jeremy m m m m m Nice Touches
3. Suggestions?
Would you come to another Dust or Magic? ___ Yes ___No
Comments?
OPTIONAL If it is OK for us to consider your comments with your name/title for future marketing, please provide your name ______and title ______. Fold this form in half and turn it in. Thank you; and we hope to see you next year.