Norfolk Coast AONB Climate Change Adaptation Strategy

March 2017

Salthouse, December 2013

CONTENTS

1. Executive summary 3

2. Introduction 2.1 Purpose of the strategy……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 2.2 Climate change in the Norfolk Coast………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4 2.3 How the strategy has been developed and what it does……………………………………………………………………………………………. 5 2.4 Constraints on adaptation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

3. Summary of key climate change effects, vulnerabilities and adaptation options 3.1 Section guide…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8 3.2 Summary of vulnerabilities / map……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9 3.3 General actions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12 3.4 Sea level rise……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12 3.5 Local climate changes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15 3.6 Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19

4. Appendices

Appendix 1 ‐ Tables derived from workshops Sea level rise………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21 Local climate changes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24 Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30

Appendix 2 ‐ Information sources used in study………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31

2 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this strategy is to provide a framework for action in adapting to the effects of climate change in the Norfolk Coast AONB for organisations within the Norfolk Coast Partnership, implementing an agreed action in the AONB Action Plan 2014‐19 as part of the 2014‐19 AONB Management Strategy.

The strategy recognises that it will not be possible over the longer term to maintain the area in its current state, but aims to identify ways in which the broad characteristics of its natural beauty can be maintained.

 understand what effects we should expect locally on the Norfolk Coast from global climate change  predict broadly how these might affect the area’s natural beauty, including its economy and communities, and  identify adaptation measures and constraints – both those in progress and potential future actions, on various timescales

The output from the workshops is presented in an Appendix 1 and key actions identified to adapt to the impacts of climate change on the area are summarised in section 3, which also includes a summary spatial picture of vulnerabilities to the effects of climate change and a consideration of constraints to adaptation.

Key adaptation options identified include:

 Promoting understanding and acceptance of the local effects of climate change and the need for adaptation  Measures to improve resilience and adaptation for coastal and inland habitats and species, including opportunities for new species  Development of planning policy to enable effective roll‐back of assets and communities  Transforming understanding and use of the water resource  Better management of soils  Contingency planning for extreme weather events  Being aware of and exploiting new opportunities

3 2. INTRODUCTION

2.1 Purpose of the strategy The purpose of this strategy is to provide a framework for action in adapting to the effects of climate change in the Norfolk Coast AONB for organisations within the Norfolk Coast Partnership.

Scientific evidence indicates that greenhouse gas emissions are the prime driver in current global climate change, but this strategy focuses on adaptation to the impacts of climate change rather than local reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Although very significant global reduction in emissions is crucial to keeping global climate change to a manageable level, and all local initiatives to achieve this globally are important, effective reduction on the Norfolk Coast alone would not make a significant contribution to global reduction. Even in the most optimistic scenarios, it is evident that adaptation measures will also be required, and these are potentially within the powers of local organisations, partnerships and communities to achieve.

The strategy aims to be proactive in planning and implementing climate change adaptation measures in advance of their immediate need, rather than reactive adaptation such as emergency closure of roads and car parks or reaction to impacts from coastal flooding on coastal nature reserves, heritage assets and properties ‐ which are forms of adaptation but not the planned response this strategy aims to promote. Ideally, such planned measures will be ‘no regret’ actions i.e. they will provide benefits in themselves and not constrain future adaptation that may be necessary.

2.2 Climate change in the Norfolk Coast Climate change is not aw ne driver of change for the Norfolk Coast. Geological evidence shows that very profound climate changes have affected the area in the recent geological past, culminating in the end of the last Ice Age around 13,000 years ago, followed by subsequent warming of our climate and very significant rises in sea level as the ice melted. Combined with the actions of humans in a period of relative climate stability, this has given us the area as we know it today.

The global climate (i.e. longer‐term climate trends over decades, rather than short term weather variability over a period of a few years) is currently changing more rapidly than at any time during the Ice Ages, so our local climate is also inevitably changing. There are clear indications that this is happening, both in terms of scientific records and in everyday experience ‐ such as changes in the distribution of animal and plant species and events in the natural world such as the length of the growing season.

4 [return to contents page] Climate change is identified in the AONB Management Strategy as one of the key drivers of change, particularly in the future, with potential impacts on the area’s special qualities of natural beauty and its communities (see section 3.3 of the AONB Management Strategy 2014‐19, which contains summary information on projected climate change effects for the area, not repeated here).

The need to produce a climate change adaptation strategy is recognised through an agreed action in the AONB Action Plan 2014‐19; this strategy is therefore a subsidiary strategy to the AONB Management Strategy.

This strategy accepts that climate change is real and that we can expect it to have significant impacts on the Norfolk Coast. It also recognises that despite the level of scientific research in this field, because of the sheer complexity of the challenge, including the great range of variables and poorly understood interactions, both the magnitude and timescales, in some cases even the actual nature of the effects, are subject to considerable uncertainty.

Amongst the uncertainties is whether we will be able to limit global temperature increase to 2oC, which is the agreed global political target, or indeed the more recent aspiration of 1.5 oC, which depends strongly on greenhouse gas emission scenarios, as well as other factors less well understood. Even a 2oC rise would have very significant effects, but on current trajectories for global emissions a global rise of 4oC or more is likely by 2100, with impacts that are difficult to imagine – although global efforts agreed at the 21st annual Conference of the Parties (COP21) agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change are being made to limit the increase.

Climate change is by no means the only driver of change in the Norfolk Coast (see ‘managing change’ on the NCP web site) and in most cases impacts of climate change on a particular feature of the AONB is likely to interact with other pressures. For example, birds that are struggling to cope with climate change driven impacts, such as a shortage of food, are likely to be more adversely affected by disturbance from recreational activities.

2.3 How the strategy has been developed and what it does

The strategy has been developed with reference to a number of sources of scientific information on climate change and its potential impacts, combined with two workshops involving representatives on the Norfolk Coast Partnership Forum, which included a presentation from Prof Andrew Watkinson from the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia. The workshops aimed to combine the information available on projections of climate change effects as locally as possible with local knowledge and insight into various aspects of the character of the AONB. This drew on and adapted the methodology developed by the RSPB for the Brecks Biodiversity Delivery Group as part of a LIFE project.

The workshops were structured to try to:

[return to contents page] 5  identify adaptation measures and constraints – both those in progress and potential future actions, on various timescales

The output of these workshops is presented in tables contained in Appendix 1, which aim to identify the key generic effects of climate change in the AONB, their potential impact(s) on valued features of the area, and things that are being done, or could be done, to adapt to climate change. This output, including key vulnerabilities and potential adaptation actions, has been summarised in section 3 together with an annotated map of the AONB to provide a spatial dimension to the strategy. Potential constraints on the development of adaptation measures are also identified, and a number of ‘no regret’ adaptation actions (i.e. actions that are likely to provide benefits in themselves whatever the future holds) that it is thought are feasible in the short term are highlighted.

It is intended that identified actions that are not currently being undertaken are considered for future inclusion within the AONB Action Plan, maintaining the connection between this strategy and the full AONB Management Strategy and Action Plan. This will need to include steps that need to be taken in the short term to prepare for and enable longer term actions.

Sources of information used to inform the workshops are contained or referenced in appendices, including the presentation given to the first workshop by Prof Andrew Watkinson.

2.4 Constraints on adaptation

Consideration of likely constraints on potential adaptation measures was included within the workshops. Overwhelmingly these fell into two categories; resources and acceptance by the public, landowners and organisations.

Resources

Although limited public funding is available for some adaptation measures e.g. improvements to coastal flood defence, very little is available in general for development and implementation of longer term measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Funding that may be available is often in the form of grants for fixed‐term projects, which might include development and piloting of innovative adaptation measures but does not provide secure, long‐term funding.

The Climate Change Act, through the associated UK Climate Change Risk Assessment and National Adaptation Programme, provides a statutory imperative for adaptation action by Government and other organisations in addition to legal targets for greenhouse gas emissions. Organisations within the Norfolk Coast Partnership have access to both limited funds and staff resources which might be used to take forward adaptation measures, but the resources available are likely to be limited and deployed on areas owned by those organisations rather than involving larger‐scale, coordinated measures.

[return to contents page] 6 Public acceptance

There is still considerable scepticism and lack of knowledge and understanding about climate change and its impacts, which makes it difficult to achieve acceptance of the need to develop and implement adaptation measures before these are forced upon us by events – by which time it may be too late, or at least much more difficult and expensive, to undertake adaptation effectively. Political and economic timescales also make it difficult for us to be proactive in climate change action.

[return to contents page] 7 3. SUMMARY OF KEY CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS, VULNERABILITIES AND ADAPTATION OPTIONS

3.1 Section guide

A summary of the outputs from the workshops ‐ broad descriptions of the potential impacts of climate change on the Norfolk Coast and potential adaptation measures – are presented in this section.

The potential impacts are summarised on a map to provide a spatial dimension. (section 3.2)

The outputs from the workshop were most conveniently grouped into some general actions, applicable across all impacts (section 3.3) and three broad categories of effects from global climate change, although these inevitably interact. These are:

• Local expression of global sea level rise (section 3.4) • Changes in the local climate regime – seasonal temperatures and rainfall changes; extreme weather events such as storms, floods and droughts (section 3.5) • Increased concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (section 3.6) A summary of trends and projections, vulnerabilities and impacts and adaptation options is presented for each of these three categories.

Adaptation options developed through the workshops have been collated under the three headings and considered in relation to the constraints identified (see section 2.4) to separate them into currently viable options (those it is thought will be possible to take forward in the short term, using resources that are currently available) and future options (longer term options including those that may require development of resources). Priorities expressed through consultation have been taken into account in the order in which options are presented.

Detailed outputs from the workshops are contained in the tables in Appendix 1.

[return to contents page] 8 3.2 Summary of vulnerabilities to climate change

(see following pages 9‐10 for a summary of vulnerabilities for different parts of the area)

[return to contents page] 9 NOTE: Interactions are complex and the following summary is necessarily over-simplistic. For example, although new species may replace some that are lost, these may not provide the same attraction for visitors. It is also uncertain whether an overall loss of biodiversity richness might result in a reduction of visitors and whether this might balance an increase in visitors attracted by warmer, drier summer conditions.

A - Marine and intertidal area  Increased frequency and severity of storms may impact on marine habitats and fauna, also local fishing industry and offshore development  Offshore sandbanks providing protection to coast from wave action likely to change as sea level rises  Significant but difficult to predict changes to marine ecosystems and dependent species from rising sea temperatures, increasing acidity and invasive species – also impacts on local fishing industry  Higher temperatures, possibly combined with higher nutrient levels, may increase the prevalence of harmful algal blooms, resulting in potential impacts on the tourism industry if beaches are closed and on the local fishing industry if shellfish accumulate algal toxins

B ‐ North Norfolk Heritage Coast (Old Hunstanton to Weybourne) (very dynamic coastline subject to continuous change, both erosion and accretion varying over time and in rate along the coast)  Sea level rise causing increasing frequency and severity of flooding for habitats, farmland, homes, businesses, historic environment assets and infrastructure protected by sea defences  Characteristic habitats and species likely to be affected by local climate changes (mean and extreme temperatures, seasonal rainfall etc) e.g. changes in wintering and nesting coastal bird species, although extent and timescale of change still uncertain  Potentially more favourable spring and summer climate for tourism could bring more visitors, with economic benefits but additional pressures on sensitive habitats and species  Increased frequency and severity of storms, coupled with sea level rise, may impact on beaches and other facilities important for local and visitor economy such as coastal infrastructure e.g. car parks, coast road, harbours

C ‐ Eastern Wash coast (low-lying reclaimed hinterland protected by sea bank)  Sea level rise causing increasing frequency and severity of flooding for habitats, farmland, homes, businesses, historic environment assets and infrastructure protected by sea defences  Characteristic habitats and species likely to be affected by local climate changes (mean and extreme temperatures, seasonal rainfall etc) e.g. changes in wintering and nesting coastal bird species, although extent and timescale of change still uncertain

10 D - Weybourne to Bacton coast (soft cliffs)  Sea level rise causing increased rates of erosion and increasing difficulty in maintaining sea defences; impacts on farmland, homes, businesses, historic environment assets and infrastructure (e.g. roads) near cliff-top  Settlements and infrastructure may be able to ‘roll back’ in response to coastal erosion but requires careful planning and resources  Characteristic soft cliff habitats and species may benefit from increased erosion but also likely to be affected by local climate changes (mean and extreme temperatures, seasonal rainfall etc)  Increased frequency and severity of storms may impact on beaches and other facilities important for visitor economy, as well as coastal infrastructure e.g. car parks and coast road

E ‐ Sea Palling to Winterton coast  Sea level rise causing increasing frequency and severity of floodingfor habitats, farmland, homes, businesses, historic environment assets and infrastructure protected by sea defences. Saline intrusion may also have impacts on some of these assets.  Characteristic habitats and species likely to be affected by climate change e.g. changes in wintering and nesting coastal bird species, although extent and timescale of change still uncertain  Potentially more favourable spring and summer climate for tourism could bring more visitors, with economic benefits but additional pressures on sensitive habitats and species  Increased frequency and severity of storms, coupled with sea level rise, may impact on beaches and other facilities important for visitor economy such as coastal infrastructure e.g. car parks and roads

F - Coastal hinterland (terrestrial and aquatic)  Characteristic semi-natural terrestrial and aquatic habitats and species (e.g. heathland, woodland, grassland, river, pond and wetland) likely to be affected by local climate changes (mean and extreme temperatures, seasonal rainfall etc) and changing interactions between species but difficult to predict with any certainty  Changing agricultural crops and forestry species, and cultivation techniques in response to changing climate; additional pressures for change on habitats and species associated with agriculture  Potential impacts on historic buildings and archaeology from flooding, drought, temperature changes etc

 More frequent and severe extreme weather events (e.g. droughts, floods, storms) may have direct impacts on people and communities, agriculture, wildlife and landscape features  Potentially new disease organisms affecting people, agriculture and forestry from local climate changes  Increased potential for soil loss and river sedimentation from run-off on carstone / chalk scarp in heavy rain events

11 3.3 General actions (applicable across all vulnerabilities and impacts)

 Engage with local communities to promote understanding and acceptance of sea level rise and local climate change, their potential impacts and adaptation options, the need to accommodate change through planned adaptation and its benefits  Monitor change and relate to climate change if possible / appropriate; regularly review the strategy and potential adaptation actions  Refine the strategy with reference to additional information where available and appropriate (for example, more detailed assessment for key habitats, vulnerability and impacts is available through Natural England)  Incorporate viable actions into the AONB Action Plan as part of the AONB Management Plan, and into plans for sites within the AONB

3.4 Sea level rise

Trends and projections Globally ‐ sea levels have risen by 1.7 ±0.2 mm per year from 1901 to 2010, and by 3.2 ±0.4 mm per year from 1993 to 2010. Locally ‐ sea levels will continue to rise, with maximum estimates relative to 1980‐99 varying from 68cm (UKCP09) to more than 80cm by the end of the current century.

Vulnerabilities and impacts Sea level rise is driven by increased temperatures due to climate change (e.g. ocean expansion, melting of glaciers and the Antarctic ice sheet). In general, in developing this strategy it has proved easier to understand potential changes from projected sea level rise than for other effects of climate change. It is also correspondingly easier to plan what adaptation measures may be required, but not necessarily easy to deliver these.

In the medium to long term, sea level rise is likely to drive a very significant change in current coastal habitats and species, with impacts on coastal infrastructure, possibly landscape character and coastal geomorphology (if coastal marshes / intertidal habitats and features are lost), communities and coastal facilities, and historic and archaeological heritage, particularly for the low‐lying coasts of the eastern Wash outlier, the North Norfolk Heritage Coast and the Sea Palling to Winterton outlier, but also for some aspects at eleast for th cliffed coast between Weybourne and Bacton.

The coastal marshes currently protected by sea defences, both natural (such as dune systems) and man‐made, will become increasingly vulnerable to flooding and this will be exacerbated by increasing frequency and severity of storms. This will not only change the overall mosaic of characteristic habitats and species in these areas of coast, but will also increase the vulnerability of coastal communities to flooding, have an impact on harbours, and may also affect beaches used for recreation.

[return to contents page] 12 Although the soft cliffs from Weybourne to Bacton have been eroding for centuries, sea level rise is expected to increase rates of erosion and make it increasingly difficult to maintain defences in many places. Because the cliffs rely on slippage and erosion to maintain their ‘natural beauty’ characteristics, these qualities are likely to be conserved through adaptive management ‐ but erosion is likely to make adaptation options to maintain coastal communities and infrastructure, rather than continued protection, necessary in the future.

However, this does not necessarily mean the Norfolk Coast cannot continue to be a coastal area with outstanding landscape, wildlife and recreational opportunities as well as vibrant local communities and economy – but we should expect it to be significantly different in future.

Potential adaptation options Options identified through the workshops for sea level rise include:

Currently viable options:

 Improve resilience to more frequent coastal flooding in extreme storm events – for coastal defences to allow overtopping but avoid breaching and enable rapid draining of saline water from freshwater habitats (as for Blakeney Freshes); liaison with Environment Agency over roll‐out on other defences (dependent on funding and public acceptance) ‐ for coastal nature reserves (resilience and adaptation planning and infrastructure modifications) (funding‐dependent for modifications) e.g. National Trust coastal adaptation strategy (3 year project) – may provide model for others to follow  Planning policy development to allow rollback of housing to be lost on cliff coasts (and possibly low coasts in longer term) while respecting landscape and settlement character (already in progress to some extent; could be further developed in local plans review)  Review SMPs at regular intervals and maintain involvement of coastal communities and interests in ongoing reporting on SMP implementation and review (staff resource‐dependent to some extent)  Development of coordinated management of north Norfolk coast reserves to maintain suite of coastal habitats overall (initiated by RSPB / NCP)  Continue and if possible increase recording and monitoring of heritage assets etc in vulnerable coastal zone, including new finds (funding and resources dependent to some extent but may be able to develop role of volunteers)

Future options

 Facilitate development of a positive vision and pathways to its achievement, for a different but still environmentally outstanding, economically prosperous and socially inclusivek Norfol Coast

[return to contents page] 13  Improve resilience to more frequent coastal flooding in extreme storm events ‐ for coastal properties (individual flood resilience modifications) (some modifications funded following 2013 storm surge but unclear if any now available) ‐ for coastal infrastructure  Increasingly allow the coast to adapt to rising sea level through response to natural coastal processes as far as possible i.e. realignment, removal of hard defences – within constraints of maintaining infrastructure, communities habitats and farmland pending full adaptation (part of SMP policy in some respects but difficulties of local acceptance, especially without viable adaptation options and funding for these).  Where it is deemed necessary to provide new / renewed defence, use ‘soft’ defences and harness natural processes where possible / appropriate e.g. sand engines (funding‐dependent – may require some local funding development med term (funding?)  Investigate beneficial use of dredged material to increase level of former intertidal areas (e.g. used as farmland) before realigning as intertidal, to improve effectiveness of realignment and natural defence function  Understand and maximise use of natural sea defences e.g. salt marshes, sand dunes etc. (funding‐dependent to at least some extent; e.g. current bid in development by NCC for EU funded project ‘Endure’ to improve dune integrity and resilience as natural sea defence)  Consider development of saline tolerant crops for farmland likely to be affected by saline intrusion or occasional flooding (research funding‐ dependent)  Investigate possible replacement of vulnerable resident / visitor accommodation with less vulnerable / more resilient structures (dependent on funding and local acceptance)  Locally promoted coastal realignment schemes (depending on funding and local acceptance; Wallasea/Crossrail scheme is example of new ways of achieving coastal realignment)  Undertake further replacement of coastal freshwater habitats that will be lost through future realignment (possibly combined with species translocation?); look for habitat re‐creation opportunities close to coast if possible e.g. in freshwater valleys adjacent to coast (dependent on funding and landowners)  Investigate options for adaptation to impact of sea level rise on harbours including potential opportunities for new harbours or reopening of historic harbours and managing transition of use (dependent of funding, local acceptance and landowners)  Plan and implement successive phases of reconfiguration of coastal roads and other infrastructure to provide a sustainable network e.g. A149 coast road replaced by A148 with spur roads (dependent of funding, acceptance by communities, landowners)

[return to contents page] 14 3.5 Local climate changes

In considering local climate changes it is important to be aware of the difference between variations in weather and changes in climate. Our weather has always been variable, so that for example one year may see a warm, dry summer and the next a relatively cool, wet summer. Short term weather variations are expected to continue (and variations are likely to become more marked) but climate is an expression of ‘average’ weather ‐ long‐term means of measurement of the weather such as mean summer and winter temperatures and extremes, seasonal rainfall and magnitude and frequency of extreme events such as storms, floods and drought.

Trends and projections Mean summer temperatures in East Anglia could rise by up to 5°C within the 21st Century, with the region’s climate becoming more seasonally variable. Winter rainfall could increase by up to 30% and summer rainfall decrease by up to 50%, leading to an overall decrease in annual precipitation. Extreme weather events (floods, droughts, storms & heat waves) are likely to become more frequent. Coastal sea surface temperatures could be over 4°C warmer.

Vulnerabilities and impacts Changing local climate characteristics – seasonal temperature (including sea temperature) and precipitation patterns, increased variability and extremity – will interact with sea level rise and carbon dioxide impacts and with each other, and the impacts have proved in many ways more complex and difficult to understand and predict than for sea level rise, and identifying effective adaptation options is correspondingly more difficult.

Despite the difficulty of prediction, it is clear that habitats, natural and semi‐natural landscape elements and the species that they support will inevitably change to a lesser or greater extent. This includes the marine environment and freshwater habitats,e wher impacts may well be more marked than in the terrestrial environment.

Some habitats and species that we currently regard as characteristic and important may be lost from the area, particularly where they are relatively marginal or subject to other pressures as well. The species associated with characteristic habitats such as lowland heath, ancient woodland and semi‐ natural grassland may change significantly. However, we know that at least some of our ‘characteristic’ species can thrive in a warmer climate further south, for example marsh harriers in the Camargue in southern France so there are grounds for some optimism if suitable nesting habitat and food are available, although we cannot predict that our future climate will be precisely similar to any area’s current climate.

[return to contents page] 15 There are also likely to be opportunities for new (mobile) species, for example birds and flying insects, for which the challenge is to anticipate which species, or groups of species, may arrive and find a suitable ecological niche, and to provide suitable habitat opportunities, as accommodating ecological change will need to be a key element of our response to climate change. Little egrets and spoonbills are an example of this happening in the recent past.

We know that species diversity tends to be highest in habitats that have long term stability, such as tropical rainforests, where species with very exacting requirements are able to flourish. In an unstable environment where conditions are rapidly changing, such as we should expect in the future, the more opportunist, adaptable species are likely to thrive at the expense of the more specialist species so overall we should expect a decrease in diversity, although not necessarily a decrease in abundance of all species.

We will need to maintain vigilance for new, non‐native invasive species, although it may become difficult both to define what we mean by this and to control what we may see as undesirable species because of their impacts on other species, on agriculture or on people.

Changes to patterns of freshwater hydrology – ground water levels and water availability, including seasonality ‐ are likely to have an impact on terrestrial biodiversity and landscape directly, and on agricultural land use (and hence indirectly on biodiversity and landscape). Hydrological changes (in addition to sea level rise) are also likely to affect the freshwater‐saline interface.

The agricultural landscape may change, with new crops more suitable for a changing climate, more irrigation reservoirs, and impacts on other landscape features and habitats such as hedgerows and hedgerow trees. As well as more frequent drought conditions we may also see more frequent floods, with impacts of soil loss and siltation of water courses. There may be pressure for more intensive agriculture because of other food‐producing regions being adversely affected by climate change.

A warmer climate may encourage new pests and diseases, not only affecting agriculture but also human health. Communities, infrastructure and the historic environment are also likely to be affected by more frequent and severe heatwaves and water shortages ‐ and conversely flooding. There may be increased occurrence of harmful algal blooms affecting coastal waters

A warmer and drier spring to autumn climate may encourage higher visitor numbers, boosting the local economy but increasing the pressures on sensitive habits and species, as well as other features such as historic assets and landscape character. Conversely, a reduction in biodiversity and loss of key species and coastal historic heritage assets, as well as landscape change, may make the area less attractive to some visitors.

Adaptation options Options identified through the workshops for local climate changes include:

[return to contents page] 16 Currently viable options:

 Increasing the resilience of habitats, and the species depending on them, by following the principles of the ‘Making Space for Nature’ (Lawton) report i.e. creating more, bigger, better quality, better connected habitats which are more buffered from the surrounding environment where nature conservation is not a key objective (including the marine environment) (dependent on funding and landowners)  Transforming the understanding of water as a precious resource. Promote and implement ways of using water more efficiently: ‐ for agriculture (more efficient irrigation techniques minimising evaporation and run‐off losses allowing for reduced summer abstraction, improved rainfall and winter abstraction storage with landscape and biodiversity considerations,) ‐ for domestic and industrial use (more efficient use, greater recycling / re‐use) ‐ in drainage (reduce run‐off from land and hard surfaces to provide greater ground water replenishment) ‐ to make more water available to maintain freshwater habitats, especially at times of water shortage, including water storage (reservoirs) and and water level management plans  Design and manage habitats in order to maximise opportunities for both existing and new species, including for suitability to support more numerous and diverse invertebrate populations to support ‘higher’ species such as insectivorous birds. Managing for microhabitat variation can encourage new species and improve resilience for existing species by providing a range of microclimates. (e.g. butterflies that like short grass at the moment might be tolerant of longer grass in a warmer climate) (In progress to at least some extent, but may also require additional resources). NB May also increase pest or disease‐carrying species of invertebrate, or see new species arrive for which we may need to consider carefully targeted biological control or management to avoid large‐scale impacts on invertebrates as a whole).  Promote conservation and improvement of soils through: ‐ Avoiding leaving bare soil for any length of time, to minimise the risk of loss through wind blow and run‐off in heavy rain ‐ Growing cover crops including ‘green manure’ to improve carbon and nitrogen fixation ‐ Practising no‐ or low‐cultivation techniques to conserve soil structure and ecology ‐ Avoiding soil compaction ton reduce ru ‐off and allow ground water replenishment (already happening through e.g. catchment‐sensitive farming initiatives; resource‐dependent)  Contingency planning for resilience in extreme events – storms, floods and droughts – for: ‐ agriculture ‐ forestry ‐ management of nature reserves ‐ historic assets (buildings and archaeology) ‐ communities (dependent on resourcesd an funding to at least some extent)

[return to contents page] 17 Future options

 Improving agri‐environment schemes to be more outcome‐focused and encompassing a wide range of ecosystem services (natural capital) (dependent on funding and landowners but may be an opportunity to influence and develop as part of post‐Brexit arrangements)  Review nature conservation designations to be more flexible in terms of key species, boundaries, favourable conservation status etc to take into account ecological changes arising from climate change. (will require change driven at national level)

[return to contents page] 18 3.6 Atmospheric carbon dioxide increase

Trends and projections Atmospheric carbon dioxide is currently at a level of about 400 ppm (parts per million) and increasing at around 2ppm per annum. The current level is higher than it has been for hundreds of thousands of years. There is good scientific evidence that the last time it was this high was 10 to 15 million years ago during the Miocene epoch, when sea levels were around 30m higher and global average surface temperature up to 6°C warmer than it is now.

Vulnerabilities and impacts Global atmospheric carbon dioxide increase, which is the main ‘greenhouse gas’ causing global climate change, is itself also likely to have very significant consequences for marine ecology because of its effect of increasing marine acidification, which is likely to have impacts on the marine food chain and bird species dependent on it ‐ particularly terns, but also wader and wildfowl species for which the intertidal zone is an important feeding area. It is also likely to affect the local fishing industry, especially since the mainstay of this is shellfish and crustaceans, in which shell formation will suffer because of increased acidity.

Atmospheric carbon dioxide increase may also affect freshwater ecology, depending to some extent on the source of water for a particular feature or habitat, and may also be a driver increasing yields for some agricultural crops and in changing species composition in semi‐natural habitats where some species may be able eto tak more advantage than others.

Carbon dioxide also acts as a fertiliser, increasing plant growth, but more aggressive species may be able to take greater advantage of this, affecting species composition and ecological dependencies in semi‐natural habitats. It therefore becomes even more important to reduce other sources of nutrients from atmospheric deposition, for example nitrogen dioxide, as well as other nutrient inputs, if appropriate nutrient conditions are to be maintained.

Adaptation options It is difficult to identify specific adaptation options in this case other than being aware of and taking opportunities for alternative, possibly new, species in the local fishing industry / longshore economy, and also in agriculture where increased production or increased carbon content of soils may be facilitated for some crops.

Birds and other animals dependent on the marine food chain i.e. those using marine or intertidal food sources, may be able to adapt, or may not ‐ with likely variability between species.

[return to contents page] 19 20 APPENDICES

Appendix 1 – Climate change adaptation tables (output from the workshops)

KEY:

Landscape and geodiversity Historic environment Recreation / tourism Biodiversity Agriculture and forestry Infrastructure and communities Key ecosystem service not covered elsewhere Fishing

SEA LEVEL RISE

Local effects Potential impacts (direct / indirect) Current adaptation initiatives Viable (additional) local adaptation options, timescales and constraints Increasing saline infiltration of GENERAL Extend coastal defence modifications for better resilience coastal freshwater / terrestrial Managed realignment guided by Shoreline (as for Blakeney Freshes) – at least for short‐medium habitats Management Plans (but limited realignment so term (funding?) far) Coastal salt marshes ‘squeezed’ (but will still have potential impacts on existing Revisit SMP's ‐ include access and coast road and car against sea defences or rising land habitats and species, heritage assets, parks causing erosion / loss (may be lost agricultural land, fishing and recreation/tourism) LANDSCAPE AND GEODIVERSITY even with realignment because of Increasingly allow coast to adapt to rising sea level Change in coastal landscape ‐ but possibly not major changing sedimentation / wave (Coastal flooding resilience / recovery plans– but through response to natural coastal processes as far as character change, at least in medium term, if focus and if accretion rates not currently tend to be emergency reaction rather possible i.e. realignment, removal of hard defences – saltmarshes etc maintained in front of rising land of N sufficient to keep pace with sea than long term planning and adaptation within constraints of maintaining infrastructure, Norfolk coast; more dynamic coastal landscape but level rise) planning) communities and habitats pending full adaptation. overall character and geomorphological features Short‐long term (local acceptance?) maintained on larger scale? Combined withe mor frequent and More resilient coastal defences allowing for extreme storm events: some over‐topping in extreme events eg Locally promoted realignment? (Wallasea/Crossrail Blakeney Freshes scheme example for new ways of achieving) Changes in patterns of sediment movement and erosion / accretion Use ‘soft’ defences and harness natural processes where patterns. Coast may become even necessary / appropriate e.g. sand engines med term more dynamic ‐ possibly both (funding?) positive and negative effects Nat Trust ‐ coastal adaptation strategy (3 year project) Natural coastal defence features short term – may provide model for others to follow BIODIVERSITY e.g. dunes, Cley‐Salthouse shingle Significant changes in current coastal habitats and bank more frequently breached or Further freshwater habitat re‐creation schemes species, potentially loss in some cases, although may (combined with species translocation?) ‐ look for habitat

[return to contents page] 21 Local effects Potential impacts (direct / indirect) Current adaptation initiatives Viable (additional) local adaptation options, timescales and constraints over‐topped; may also move be local and overall situation may be more constant on Improved sluices for faster drainage when sea re‐creation opportunities in freshwater valleys adjacent laterally or inland larger scale (e.g. whole of N Norfolk coast)? water floods fresh water marsh ‐ for better and to coast med term (landowners, funding?) Loss of beaches and other coastal habitats in some quicker recovery of flora / ecosystem Coordinated management of north Norfolk coast Man‐made coastal defences more places may impact on beach‐nesting birds reserves to maintain suite of coastal habitats overall frequently breached or over‐ Freshwater habitat re‐creation in suitable short term – (initiated by RSPB / NCP) topped locations (e.g. Hilgay?) OTHER ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Understand and maximise use of natural sea defences Overall, increased, possibly loss of storm energy mitigation; loss of stored carbon e.g. salt marshes, sand dunes etc. eventually permanent coastal from coastal salt/fresh marshes ('ResiDune' ‐ EU project to improve dune integrity and flooding on low‐lying coast resilience as natural sea defence ‐ if bid successful) short term Increased erosion of cliffs and HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT beaches Damage to / loss of heritage assets (archaeological Continue / increase recording and monitoring of heritage sites/remains, historic buildings); e.g. Blakeney Chapel assets etc ‐ incl new finds short –long term (resources – inundated develop volunteers?) (immediate and permanent loss if affected by erosion) Recording and monitoring of heritage assets in but may facilitate discovery of previously hidden the inter‐tidal zone. (Rapid Coastal Survey, archaeological sites / finds Holme Survey, Norfolk Coastal Heritage Project, CITIZAN) AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY Impacts on productivity and abstraction for The Deep History Coast 'brand' is being developed for NE Norfolk by a number of Saline tolerant crops? agricultural irrigation of coastal agricultural land from Desalination systems? (likely to be prohibitively partners including Norfolk Museums Service, saline infiltration and more frequent flooding expensive) (immediate and permanent loss if affected by erosion) NCC, NNDC and Visit Norfolk

FISHING Changes in harbours / siltation affecting fisheries (mussels, cockles, shrimp, samphire)

RECREATION / TOURISM Changes in harbours / siltation –affecting visitors (e.g. sailing) harbour desilting projects? (is this adaptation?) Loss of beaches in some places may impact on visitors Potential opportunities for new / reopening historic Damage to / loss of: harbours to accommodate sea level rise med‐long term Public access (coastal path in current position e.g. (local acceptance, managing transition of use / breached banks with coast path on top) ‐ may impact ownership; funding) on tourism businesses Other recreational facilities damaged or lost e.g. golf courses beaches attractive to visitors (immediate and permanent loss if affected by erosion)

22 Local effects Potential impacts (direct / indirect) Current adaptation initiatives Viable (additional) local adaptation options, timescales and constraints Increased erosion may facilitate discovery of previously hidden archaeological sites / finds ‐ possible Roll‐back provisions for England Coast Path opportunities for tourism / local economy

INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITIES Damage to / loss of coastal roads (A149), public transport links, coastal car parks, Coastal flood defences ‐ increasing cost / decreasing feasibility of maintaining sea defences property e.g. public buildings, homes, businesses; also Reconfigure roads networks e.g. A149 coast road public services e.g. libraries replaced by A148 with spur roads long term (funding?) (may impact coastal businesses, although e‐businesses may thrive); vulnerable resident / visitor accommodation e.g. Plannning policy development to allow rollback of caravans or mobile homes Adaptations for flooding resilience within housing to be lost on cliff coasts (and possibly low coasts) harbours ‐ possible increased pressure on those existing buildings potentially vulnerable to while respecting landscape and settlement character remaining open for water based activities (immediate coastal flooding; Short term and permanent loss if affected by erosion) adaptive design in new build ‐ increased range and variety of engineering solutions proposed in possible replacement of vulnerable resident / visitor Larger / more flood risk zones ‐ affecting new planning applications to enable building in flood accommodation with less vulnerable / more resilient development, leading to increased insurance on zones. structures med‐long term (local acceptance, funding properties (possibly ineligibility) Planning policy (national and local) ‐ sets support) (Low income households most affected, also older sequential approach and conditions for population) developing in flood zones; specific policies in Change in market demand for housing in vulnerable Local Plans to limit new development and locations, particularly where SMP's indicate defences restrict occupancy in vulnerable areas (e.g. will not be maintained ‐ may affect viability and caravans and park homes on the coast) character of communities Use of Strategic Flood Risk Maps (climate change scenario) as opposed to actual current flood zones to assess potential housing allocations in Local Plans Use of 'soft' defences (beach feeding) (but potential impacts on submerged heritage assets e.g. 'Doggerland' from offshore dredging) + beneficial use of dredged materials to raise levels of intertidal habitats (RSPB)

23 LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGES – TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, EXTREME EVENTS

Local effects Potential impacts (direct / indirect) Current adaptation initiatives Viable (additional) local adaptation options, timescales and constraints Increasing mean and extreme Increased stress on aquatic ecosystems – impacts on water temperatures (marine and species distribution and habitats freshwater) MARINE: BIODIVERSITY Possible changes in large‐scale Changes in abundance and diversity of marine Encourage organisations to achieve ‘Good Environmental ocean currents affecting the North species ‐ extremely sensitive to temp changes (see Status’ under Marine Framework Directive short‐medium Sea as a results of global ocean also ocean acidification, below) term (how much control do partners have over marine temperature changes Potential increase in marine non‐native invasive SEFINS (Safeguarding the Environment from Non‐ environmental quality?) species with predation / competition impacts on native Invasive Species) project submitted to marine and intertidal species / habitats. Interreg by NCC with focus on NNIS on estuarine Future projects focusing on INS e.g. SEFINS 3 ‐ looking at Possible impacts on species depending on marine habitats. INS economic impacts and early detection / eradication / food‐chain e.g. terns mitigation short‐medium term (funding bids success) Storms maye cause mor turbid coastal waters, damage to chalk reef

FISHING Impacts on local fishing industry might be both positive and negative, depending on species (but see also ocean acidification, below) Possible exploitation of new species? May also see increase in marine non‐native invasive species ‐ potential to affect fishing industry

Key ecosystem services impacts?

FRESHWATER: BIODIVERSITY Species less mobile than marine; changes in species, Planting riversides / woody debris to provide more possible positive or negative impacts depending on shading of rivers to protect water temperature Warmer, drier summers species Change to breeding cycles of aquatic species Low flow levels leading to anoxic conditions in freshwater habitats Watermill sluices may run dry, affecting fish passage Milder, wetter winters ‐ potentially Increased winter / storm flow and erosion in rivers? higher winter water table / levels, Potential risks to native species from non‐native increased flooding invasives through predation / competition

24 Increased siltation and nutrient enrichment of rivers Catchment Partnership Actions (to prevent run‐ Site level ‐ specific alternative e.g. driving routes or from soil erosion and run‐off in wet winters / flood off); soil management advice / good practice building up gateways mshort ter (resources – needs Increased frequency and severity of events information / influencing with farmers) ‘extreme events’ (storms, drought, floods) Algal blooms in lakes and ponds, possibly also rivers, use of straw on water to limit UV light and warming? potentially with damaging effects on ecology Flooding of water vole etc burrows from wet winters More active issue in Broads ‐ landscape partnership? / flood events?

Key ecosystem services impacts?

TERRESTRIAL: LANDSCAPE & GEODIVERSITY Geodiversity impacts probably minor or positive e.g. increased geological exposures through erosion and more dynamic river courses in high flows

Semi‐natural habitats and features all likely to be affected (see Biodiversity below) with potential changes in landscape character (although not necessarily negative) Changes in agricultural crops and woodland / forestry species and practices also likely to affect landscape character (see Agriculture and forestry, below) Possible increased sunshine hours may create more (planning system) pressure for solar farms (landscape impact)

BIODIVERSITY Wetland habitats such as wet heathlands drying out as summer ground water levels decrease

Damage to semi‐natural habitats e.g. heathland, woodland through increased fire risk in dry summers / drought

Extreme rainfall events in spring‐summer may affect birds’ breeding success

Combination of events added together over a period (e.g. year or more) may prove too stressful for wildlife e.g. wet spring, followed by drought summer

25 with extreme event(s) on top may cause significant failure in wader breeding

Changes in tree & shrub species and woodlands will have impact on habitats and species supported

Some bird species may increase as climate envelope creating suitable habitats for species to move into Look at anticipated species ranges ‐ winners and losers; becomes more suitable e.g. Dartford Warblers manage new sites to be more suitable for new Changes in wintering bird populations as Arctic Work with global conservation bodies more to habitats become less suitable and migration patterns understand and manage changes change in response to suitable over‐wintering Manage nature reserves for species expected to arrive as conditions / locations well as those expected to remain (RSPB research) Mapping of projected future habitats (based on Norfolk More frequent winter flooding affecting terrestrial habitat map) current‐short term (most could be done as habitats, species e.g. river valley wetlands part of ongoing reserve management)

Potential risks to native species from non‐native invasives through predation / competition

Phenology impacts: mis‐match in cycles for different species causing problems e.g. insect emergence for breeding birds

Changes in farmland biodiversity from different crops / agricultural cycles and practices

Changing woodland habitats from changes in forestry practice in response to climate change (fire, storm etc risk) e.g. less open areas from clear felling?

Changes in agricultural management in response to winter soil waterlogging may have potential knock on impacts on wildlife e.g. Pink Footed Geese if less beet grown

Possible increased pressure on sensitive coastal Understand carrying capacity of sites and put in place habitats and species from increased visitor numbers improved infrastructure / measures to manage visitors in warmer springs‐summers current to short term (partly achieved by NBP N2k site visitors study, partly fundable by development levies Potential pressures on species / habitats from based on HRA for local plans) changes in recreational activities e.g. strong winds bad for sailing, good for kite surfing

26 Key ecosystem services impacts?

HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT Drying of ground may result in damage to buried 'Over‐engineered' repairs to historic structures ‐ archaeological remains, particularly wetland sites. some repairs more than currently necessary to Damage to historic buildings / structures from both prepare for future conditions flooding and increased risk of subsidence and decay in masonry in wet conditions, also storm events Flooding / erosion impacting on archaeology

Potential archaeological damage from changes in crops if deeper or more cultivation needed, e.g. increased planting of sugar beet and potatoes and loss of grassland and/or heathland Individual adaptation plans for historic assets Design guidance ‐ linked to building adaptation plans Potential for increased impacts on some heritage short‐medium term assets from increased summer visitor numbers in response to warmer, drier summers

Need to adapt historic buildings may put challenges on designation/historic integrity if carried out insensitively e.g. retro‐fitting window shutters, rainware, solar protection or renewable energy requirements, draught proofing / insulation, internal shutters, changes to heating systems

AGRICULTURE & FORESTRY Climate in more southerly areas becomes less suitable for agriculture, increasing pressure for agricultural production in northern latitudes, also possibly for new crops

Reduced summer availability of water for agriculture water storage reservoirs Improved irrigation reservoir design for biodiversity and landscape short term (use info developed elsewhere) eg irrigation for potatoes etc – but more winter Promote water use efficiency and innovation e.g. extraction available for storage? irrigation techniques; educating ‐ sharing what is known Greater variation in yields of some crops short‐medium term (funding? Use information developed elsewhere?) Drought‐resistant crops / crop changes ‐ e.g vines! Medium to long term

Different more hardy breeds? Flooding affecting agricultural crops and land usage Greater flexibility CSS and habitat manipulation to be Soil waterlogging impacting management e.g. innovative reduced winter grazing / increased cost of housing

27 livestock indoors; reduced field availability for winter Implementing new rural SUDS / SDS; reedbeds, soak crops and difficulties in harvesting late crops away, field bunds short‐medium term, influence development of agri‐environment schemes to replace EU‐based schemes Loss of soil from increased erosion – both heavy rain and drought / high winds (Need higher profile for preventing soil erosion, impact on rivers and estuaries etc) Produce and disseminate best practice guidance for mitigating soil loss (through both run‐off and wind blow) Windbreak replanting ‐ smaller fields, within reason, on higher land Research field and innovative solutions; optimising fields and customise to land rather than blanket approach Cover cropping short‐medium term (info available from elsewhere? Some resource required) Increased fire risk in drier summers / drought ‐ Firebreaks damage to agricultural and forestry assets e.g. woodlands, straw stacks, cereal crops

Increased stress on tree species and woodlands / New recommendations on species to plant Flexibility within new CSS / follow‐on schemes needed introduction of new species, change in forestry Forest Resilience Plans (Forestry Comm) short‐medium term – influence development of practice e.g. spacing and productivity replacement scheme(s) Damage to woodland, parkland and field trees from increased wind‐blow

Decreased natural control of agricultural and forestry Biological control. Encourage insectivorous species Improved application ‐ diverting funds for biological pest by frosts / new diseases / pest species e.g. e.g. Swifts control, educating farmers, innovative chemistry as Bluetongue, slugs, fungal above? Difficulty in meeting agri‐environment grant commitments

RECREATION / TOURISM (Combined with southern European holiday Visitor management to protect sensitive sites / Develop infrastructure to manage expected increase and destinations becoming too warm) increased habitats; promotion of inland attractions / areas minimise impact on sites short‐medium term (possible attractiveness for (summer) visitors on coast funding from development levies?)

Possible change in recreational activities from Code of Practice agreed between different groups Monitor new activity and share information current‐long changing conditions e.g. strong winds bad for sailing, for activities (e.g. as at Brancaster) term good for kite surfing

Possible recreation impacts from damage to footpath surfaces from heavy rain

INFRASTRUCTURE & COMMUNITIES

28 More frequent road and property flooding ‘Slow the flow’ initiatives Potential damage to buildings / structures from both River restoration projects (increasing availability of Designing and fitting improved flood resilience into new flooding / erosion and increased risk of subsidence flood plains to absorb excess water) (but can have and existing buildings short‐long term – through planning and decay in masonry in wet conditions impact on archaeological remains/heritage assets) policy / decisions? Increased difficulty securing building insurance Enhanced value of ecosystem services, flood storage Heavy rain may damage footpath surfaces opportunities and tidal exchange‐ promote schemes that absorb flood surges as well as provide other benefits e.g. biodiversity current‐long term Drier summers / drought may increase drying of river beds and ground, increasing risk of damage to foundations of buildings / structures causing subsidence and decay in masonry

Storm impacts on communications (masts, overhead phone lines) ‐ bad for e‐businesses (internet based) (General) regular appraisal and action from Government But may result in more local producers / businesses providing services / products ‐ enabling communities to continue to function in extreme events, services which are currently dominated by large / national companies

Melting road surfaces, warping of infrastructure e.g. Improved materials / engineering solutions medium‐long overhead wires term Less heating required for buildings (but possibly more for air‐conditioning) Reduced winter gritting required

Shortage of water in summer may affect water Water use efficiency supplies for households, for community allotments & Desalination systems? (likely to be prohibitively local industry expensive)

Increased summer visitors providing local economic benefit but also increased pressure on infrastructure (roads, car parks, coastal footpath surfaces etc)

High proportion of older people in area ‐ could cause increased health problems / death rates in extreme conditions e.g. summer heatwave Also potential risks to human health from new organisms e.g. anopheles mosquitoes (malaria)

29 INCREASED ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE

Local effects Potential impacts (direct / indirect) Current adaptation initiatives Viable (additional) local adaptation options, timescales and constraints Acidification of sea water Impacts on marine ecology overall, especially (Research at national and international level) (??) molluscs and crustaceans requiring calcium carbonate for shell growth.

Indirect impacts on wading birds and wildfowl feeding in intertidal zone, species such as terns feeding at sea

Impact on exposed chalk in Cromer chalk reef

Impacts on local fishing industry Mitigation and/or alternatives to shellfish? New farmed species e.g. algae, lugworms etc Key ecosystem services impacts?

(Combined with higher Increased yield of agricultural crops (if water Investigate options for alternative crops to increase temperatures) Higher potential available) photosynthesis rates of photosynthesis Changes in vegetation composition in semi‐natural (Improved habitat baseline data to monitor change) habitats – some species better at adapting to higher levels

May increase soil organic matter and improve carbon storage

[return to contents page] 30 APPENDIX 2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION USED TO INFORM THE WORKSHOP AND STRATEGY, and for further information

Presentation on impacts of climate change on the Norfolk Coast AONB (2015) – Prof. Andrew Watkinson, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia http://www.norfolkcoastaonb.org.uk/partnership/climate‐change/1110

Implications of climate change for the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (2013) – Harley http://www.norfolkcoastaonb.org.uk/partnership/climate‐change/1110

United Kingdom Climate projections 2009 (UKCP09) – Met Office http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/

Living with Environmental Change report cards (2013‐2015) – Natural Environment Research Council http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/partnerships/ride/lwec/report‐cards/

UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2017, Synthesis report: priorities for the next five years (2016) ‐ Committee on Climate Change https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp‐content/uploads/2016/07/UK‐CCRA‐2017‐Synthesis‐Report‐Committee‐on‐Climate‐Change.pdf

Managing and re‐creating wetlands in Britain for potential colonists (2014) – RSPB http://britishbirds.co.uk/article/managing‐re‐creating‐wetlands‐britain‐potential‐colonists/

Climate Change And Britain’s Birdlife: What Might We Expect? (2015) – RSPB cms‐family‐ors.unep ‐wcmc.org/answers/2513803/documents/1138

Marine climate change impacts Report Card 2013 – Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership http://www.mccip.org.uk/annual‐report‐card/

Seafood Strategic Outlook (2015) ‐ Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership / Seafish http://www.seafish.org/media/1476670/climate_change_annex_lr2.pdf

The changing Broads…? Broads Climate Adaptation Plan (2016) – Broads Authority http://www.broads‐authority.gov.uk/looking‐after/climate‐change

Forest of Bowland AONB Climate Change Adaptation Plan (2011) – Forest of Bowland AONB Partnership http://forestofbowland.com/files/uploads/pdfs/FOB_climate%20adap%20REPORT%20May%202011.pdf

31 Climate Change Strategy for the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (2012) – Cotswold Conservation Board http://www.cotswoldsaonb.org.uk/userfiles/file/climate‐change/climate‐change‐strategy‐adopted‐june‐2012.pdf

Working with a Changing Climate: A guide to adaptation in the Clwydian Range and Dee Valley AONB (date?) ‐ Clwydian Range and Dee Valley AONB Partnership http://www.clwydianrangeanddeevalleyaonb.org.uk/files/1996434094‐Working%20with%20Climate%20Change%20pdf%20Eng.pdf

Natural England’s National Character Area Profiles contain summaries of potential climate change impacts and adaptation actions (see 46 The Fens, 76 North West Norfolk, 77 North Norfolk Coast, 78 Central North Norfolk, 79 North East Norfolk and Flegg, 80 The Broads https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national‐character‐area‐profiles‐data‐for‐local‐decision‐making/national‐character‐area‐profiles#ncas‐in‐ the‐east‐of‐england

Produced by: Norfolk Coast Partnership Tel: 01328 850530 email: [email protected] www.norfolkcoastaonb.org.uk

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