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The Historiographical Development of the Concept “Mfecane” and the Writing of Early Southern African History, from the 1820S to 1920S

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The Historiographical Development of the Concept “Mfecane” and the Writing of Early Southern African History, from the 1820S to 1920S The Historiographical Development of the Concept “mfecane” and the Writing of Early Southern African History, from the 1820s to 1920s Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts of Rhodes University by Jürg Emil Richner March 2005 i Table of Contents Abstract iv Dedications and Acknowledgements vi Abbreviations x List of Maps xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Methodology 5 The European “Image of Africa” 7 The Problem of Periodization 10 Terminology and Spelling 11 Inclusions and Exclusions 12 Difaqane and Mfecane 13 The Treatment of Oral Traditions 15 Mfecane Historiography after 1928 19 Chapter 2: The Foundation Period: 1820s to 1838 30 The Primary Publications, 1823 to 1828 35 Books and their Authors, 1827 – 1838 42 Chapter 3: The Colonising Period: 1839 to 1876 70 The 1840s – The Later Eyewitness Accounts 75 1850s and 1860s - The Missionary Years 84 1870 to 1876 – The Shepstone Factor 95 Chapter 4: The Imperial Period: 1877 to 1904 106 Late Victorian Authors 114 Theal – ‘Historiographer of South Africa’ 126 Chapter 5: The South African Period: 1905 to 1920’s 143 Natal and Zululand 150 The greater Caledon Valley area 153 The Fingo from Natal to the Transkei 164 The Ndebele and the chiefdoms of the Transvaal 166 ii General Histories 172 Chapter 6: Conclusion 180 The Unfolding of the mfecane Narrative 181 More Detailed Issues 183 Results 195 Bibliography 201 iii Abstract The mfecane was for most of the twentieth century regarded as a historical certainty for the South African public and the Apartheid government, as well as for historians here and world-wide. The mfecane had achieved the permanence of a paradigm and a dominant discourse, as it was accepted equally by settler, liberal, Afrikaner, Africanist and Neo-Marxist historians. This certainty was shaken when Cobbing’s mfecane critique appeared in 1988, with which I concur. This study examines how mfecane history was written from the first published articles in mid-1823 until Walker coined the concept mfecane in 1928. This thesis undertakes a journey through a host of published works, books, pamphlets and articles in journals, magazines and newspapers, from which a number of conclusions emerge. The mfecane narrative was developed over a period of a hundred years in the English language by almost exclusively white, English-speaking male amateur historians and ethnographers. Their occupations, age, ideology and level of education differed markedly, but they shared one European ideological value, the discourse of the European “Image of Africa”, which regarded Africans as the negative Other of their own positively perceived society. This was a culturally- shared view of Africans, which formed the baggage in the mind of all writers examined, and accounts for the mfecane narrative’s negative attitude towards Africans. Furthermore, mfecane history was influenced by racism and the use of literary devices such as the gothic novel and the romance. Authors writing in the 1823 to 1846 period on events which had taken place in the “blank space” beyond the Cape Colony, which most of them had never visited, laid the basis for the mfecane narrative. It constituted a set of geographical or ethnically focused, separate accounts. These separate accounts focused on the themes of Shaka’s creation of the Zulu state, including iv his expulsion of several chiefdoms; his depopulation of Natal and the flight of the Fingo to the Transkei; the path of destruction of the Hlubi and Ngwane during their flight from Natal via the greater Caledon Valley area to the Transkei; the incorporation of the Kololo and other Sotho chiefdoms into the Mantatees - due to pressure from the invaders from Natal - who subsequently laid waste the Free State and Transvaal as far as Dithakong, where they were defeated; the further depopulation of the Transvaal by the Ndebele during their escape from Shaka; the flight of Moshoeshoe and his people to Thaba Bosiu where he built up the Sotho state, with Moshoeshoe being the only positive figure in this history. This multi-narrative was thereafter repeated without any critical thought by all authors examined until in 1885 Theal created a Zulu-centric, geographically- integrated mfecane narrative whereby he integrated the previously separate accounts into one coherent whole - a whole which was so much more than the sum of its parts, but so far without a defining name. That was provided by Walker in 1928 when he coined the Xhosa neologism, mfecane. The Theal, Cory and Walker racist mfecane was thus bequeathed as the mfecane to the rest of the twentieth century. v Dedications and Acknowledgements I want to dedicate this thesis to my Lord Jesus, the Christ, who has kept and sustained me through my life and the production of this thesis. Furthermore I dedicate this thesis to Sharon, my love, best friend and wife. In her unwavering love, support, in her belief in my abilities to write and complete this thesis, she has been my inspiration throughout. Her input into this text with regards to English grammar and style has become an important part of the project. My thanks to Professor Julian Cobbing of the Rhodes University History Department, whose work inspired me to do research in the context of the anti- mfecane approach to early nineteenth century history. His support was vital during the research phase of this thesis. I extend my gratitude to Prof. Paul Maylam, head of the History Department, for his competent handling and compassionate guidance of the writing process of this thesis. The financial assistance from the HSRC Scholarship towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and are not necessarily be attributed to the HSRC. I gladly acknowledge and say thank you to the following people and institutions whose help, patience and professional approach to history have been absolutely indispensable to the research and completion of this thesis: Rhodes University Prof. Julian Cobbing, History Department. Prof. Paul Maylam, head of History Department. Library Staff, especially S. van der Riet and E. Shepherd. Cory Library Staff, especially S. Rowoldt, Z. Vena and M. Berning. The staff of the Education Department library. vi The Graphics Services Unit, S. Abraham and D. Brody, for the excellent historical maps. G. Mcgregor, for the GIS map underlying the historical maps. Dr. Dan Wylie, English Department. Prof. M. Van Wyk Smith, English Department. Grahamstown The late Mrs. Jacot-Guillarmod, who made her ex-husband’s library available. The Makana Municipal Library. F. Way-Jones of the Albany Museum, for making the Bowker Collection available. C. Gorham, fellow historian. J. Bradfield, for typing. Eastern Cape A. Webster, East London. M. Karp, Port Elizabeth. J. Melville, Port Elizabeth. Western Cape Dr. K. Schoeman of the South African Library. Drs. N. Worden, P. Harries, and M. Jury, at UCT. E. Maloka, at UCT in the late 1980’s. A. Linder, expert on the Swiss in southern Africa. Natal Prof. J Wright, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. Prof. A.E. Voss, formerly of the University of Natal, Durban. vii Gauteng Dr. O. Norwich, Map Collector. Sotheby’s of South Africa. Dr. R. Cope & Prof. P. Delius, Wits. Prof. C. Hamilton, Wits. Dr. Gebhard, Vista, Mamelodi. B. Lambourne, fellow historian. SADC Region Rev. A. Brütsch, ex-Archivist, Lesotho Evangelical Church, Morija, Lesotho. Dr. S.J. Gill, Archivist, Lesotho Evangelical Church, Morija, Lesotho. Dr. D.P. Ambrose, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho. Rest of the World Dr. C. Marx, Freiburg i.B., Germany. Lloyd’s Register, London, UK. B. Salmon, New Zealand. C.C. Crais, Kenyon College, Ohio, USA. The staff at the following Libraries The Makana Municipal Library, Grahamstown The Port Elizabeth Public Library, Port Elizabeth The UCT Library, Cape Town The African Studies Library, UCT, Cape Town The Law Library at UCT, Cape Town The Library of Parliament, Cape Town The South African Library, Cape Town The Library of the University of Stellenbosch The Africana Library, Wits, Johannesburg The Africana Museum, Public Library, Johannesburg viii The Library of the Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg The Archives and Special Collections Section, UNISA, Pretoria The State-Library, Pretoria The Don Africana Library, Durban The Killie Campbell Library, Durban The Library of the Local History Museum, Durban The Library of University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, The Library of the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein The staff at the following Archives The Natal Archives Depot, Pietermaritzburg The Cape Archives Depot, Cape Town Rare Books & Special Collections, UCT University Library, Cape Town Die Transvaalse Argiefbewaarplek, Pretoria As the research of this thesis spanned many years, the names and spelling of institutions as well as places of employment of the people mentioned may have changed. ix List of Abbreviations Capt. Captain, military rank Col. Colonel, military rank Dr. Doctor J.M.E. Journal des Missions Ėvangéliques, Journal of the S.M.E. L.M.S. London Missionary Society, active in South Africa since 1799. Lt. Lieutenant Rev. Reverend SANAC South African Native Affairs Commission S.M.E. Societé des Missions Ėvangéliques de Paris. French protestant missionary society. In South Africa active in the Western Transvaal and Lesotho. Its missionary magazine was the J.M.E. UCT University of Cape Town, formerly the University College of the Cape of Good Hope. VOC Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie, the Dutch East India Company which owned the Cape Colony from 1652 to 1795. Z.A.R. Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek. The Transvaal boer republic. Wits University of the Witwatersrand x List of Maps Map 1 - Geographical Regions 1 Map 2 – mfecane in the 1823 to 1838 Period – Chapter 2 30 Map 3 – Thompson’s Map, 1827 44 Map 4 - mfecane in the 1839 to 1876 Period – Chapter 3 70 Map 5 – Harris’s Map, 1839 76 Map 6 - mfecane in the 1877 to 1904 Period – Chapter 4 106 Map 7 – Theal’s Map, 1891 127 Map 8 - mfecane in the 1905 to 1928 Period – Chapter 5 143 Maps 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 have been created by: The Graphics Services Unit of Rhodes University.
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